0% found this document useful (0 votes)
200 views51 pages

Ethics To Print

This document discusses the key differences between ethics and morality. Ethics focuses on general principles of determining right and wrong, while morality deals with applying those principles to behavior and how people relate to each other. It also outlines several characteristics that moral principles should have, such as being prescriptive in guiding behavior, impartial, and independent from arbitrary authority. Finally, it examines the elements that define a human act, including knowledge, freedom, will/consent, and voluntariness, all of which determine the moral accountability for an act.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
200 views51 pages

Ethics To Print

This document discusses the key differences between ethics and morality. Ethics focuses on general principles of determining right and wrong, while morality deals with applying those principles to behavior and how people relate to each other. It also outlines several characteristics that moral principles should have, such as being prescriptive in guiding behavior, impartial, and independent from arbitrary authority. Finally, it examines the elements that define a human act, including knowledge, freedom, will/consent, and voluntariness, all of which determine the moral accountability for an act.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 51

INTRODUCTION 6. Practicability – rules are made for men to follow.

Hence, moral standards exist in which human


beings are capable of doing. Otherwise, if they are too heavy it will be impossible for individuals to obey
What is Ethics? What is morality? Ethics is from the Greek word "ethos” which means custom or in which it may result for men to do another act that is illicit in order to obey the norms set forth.
a manner of acting and behaving. Mores is the root word of morality that means custom or practice. This
might be the reason that ethics and morality are used interchangeably. However, there is a thin line that It is important to determine on what kind of act of which man is morally accountable and
makes the two terms different from one another. Ethics is focused on the general principles, rules and responsible. There are two acts: act of man and human act. The former refers to those acts of which man
theories on determining what is right on wrong. While morality is the praxis, the application of those has no control. Therefore, it is involuntary act. Like emotions, circulation of the blood, the pumping of the
principles (Fernandez, 2012). Human conduct or human act is the material object of Ethics. Whereas, the heart, grinding of the stomach and breathing. Those actions which are within the control of man like
morality of human act or human conduct is its formal object. walking, talking, thinking, eating and biting are examples of the latter. It is deliberate, hence, voluntary
act.
Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right behavior and wrong behavior (Rubin, 2015).
Morality deals with how a person relates with others and with the world to promote what is good There are three essential elements of act of man and human act: (1) Knowledge – where the doer
(Thiroux and Krasemann, 2009). In his book, Elements of Moral Philosophy, Dr. James Rachels asserted is aware of what he/she is doing: Obviously, one cannot hold a person fully responsible for something
that at the very least morality is the effort to guide one's conduct by reason to act based on the best that he or she is not aware of. But if he does an action with awareness, that is, doing the action knowingly,
reasons for doing while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one's decision then the issue of moral responsibility is inevitable. It is because the action has been acted upon within the
(Rachels, 2015). level of the person's awareness, thus, what he does is a human act which can either be moral or immoral.
Without the knowledge of the doer, the act is ordinarily taken as an act of man. (2) Freedom – in which
Ethics has two divisions, to wit: General Ethics and Applied or Special Ethics. The first deals the act is not done by force; It is a state of being unrestricted from the internal impulse and external
with morality of the human act that mainly focuses on the basic concepts On the other hand, the second pressure. A person is free when he can exercise control over himself and over his action, that is, he can
division refers to the application of the moral principles, Standards and norms in various specific areas of make a wide range of choices whether to do it or not.
human life and activity.
A human act is therefore a free act. Without freedom in the performance of the act, a person can
Ethics is then both a theory and a practice. One has to know the theories or ethical principles of never be held responsible for his action: In fact, it is the amount of freedom present in the act that
knowing what is right and wrong and good and bad actions. However, one has to translate these theories determines the amount of responsibility of the doer. Thus, without freedom, there can be no
into actions. Knowing what is right without changing the one's behave morally is a useless knowledge responsibility. (3) Will – of which the doer has given its consent to do the act. Consent can be seen as
(Fernandez. 2012) Moral principles must have the following characteristics: something emanating from freedom. They may be used interchangeably though they do have distinct
1. Prescriptivity – refers to the action guiding nature of morality. The principles should intend to function in the determination of the morality of the act. Unless the act is done with consent, no action can
guide and direct people what to do or should not do Like obey your parents" or "thou shall not kill. be considered a human act. The consent of the doer is critical to make a particular act a human act. So,
what then is consent and what role does it play in defining a human act? Consent, simply puts it, as
2. Impartiality – means that moral rule should be neutral. It should apply to anyone regardless of relating to the acquiescence or approval of the doer for his action. A person may be free to do it or not but
status or situation. if he does not allow his will to approve or disapprove an act, his moral responsibility is diminished, if not.
extirpated at all. The approval or the disapproval of the will can make an act a human act. Without the
3. Overridingness – should mean that moral principles should tower over all other norms or
consent, any act can be relegated simply to an act of man which is often characterized by an utter lack or
standards of evaluation. They must have hegemonic authority. Therefore, should be given primary and
absence of morality. In other words, for a man to be fully morally accountable of his/her act, it must be
ultimate importance.
done knowingly, freely and willfully. The absence of either one or two of the elements may lessen the
4. Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority – moral standards should be independent, hence be able accountability of the doer or no accountability at all.
to stand on its own. Regardless of what the majority says or decides, something is moral or immoral. An
Voluntariness is very much akin to consent. From the Latin word voluntas, voluntariness refers
act should be based on the ethical principles and not on what men say.
to the act of the will. Without the action of the will, an act is considered involuntary, hence, the doer in
5. Publicity – since moral standards guide people what to do, they should be made public. Reason this case cannot be held liable for his action. Only an act that proceeds from the command of the will is
dictates that rules are made and promulgated to advice as well as praise or blame certain actions. voluntary. Needless to say, only a voluntary act is a human act. Conversely, an involuntary act is obviously
considered an act of man.

There are four kinds of voluntariness:


1. Perfect voluntariness – where all the elements of human act are present. Man is fully Example is a student whose intention is to pass the final examinations in order to graduate but
accountable of the act committed. attaining such is through cheating, then it is still considered immoral.

2. Imperfect voluntariness – where knowledge is absent. A man who is not aware - of the act that d. Where – refers to the setting of the action. An act done in open places like in the market has
he has done may not be answerable of his act or no accountability at all. A boy giving a box of chocolates greater liability than in quite places like in the mountain. Shouting inside a church disturbing the people
to a lady not knowing it is poisoned is absolved from liability. inside who are praying has a greater responsibility.

3. Simple voluntariness – it is simply doing or not doing the act since one has cannot do anything e. When – refers to the time of the commission of the act. Time element is - important and in most
about it. It is either positive or negative. A male student whose house is 10 kilometers from the school cases vital to assess and judge morally the human act. Killing a person when he was sleeping connotes
will either ride a jeepney or not. In most cases he needs to ride otherwise he will be late. Or when he is greater accountability compared to when the person killed was conscious and still has time to defend
inside a hospital and wanted to smoke but cannot because of the No Smoking sign inside the premises or himself. Performing the act in a broad daylight has different liability while doing it during nighttime.
else he has to go out and smoke.
f. How – raping a woman in front of her husband is greater. Stabbing a person many times
4. Conditional voluntariness – this is when the person is forced to do an act in which in normal indicates an extreme hatred. Whereas, defaming the person through the use of media is more accountable
condition it should not be done. When a female employee was forced to give her cellphone to the robber than doing it in front of one's friends.
pointing a knife to her chest being afraid of her life.
Generally, circumstances could be aggravating, justifying, mitigating or exempting. The act of
Morality of an act can either be moral, immoral or amoral. Moral, of course if it's a good act. self-defense is justifying since the person doing the act has no intention of killing at all. It is mitigating
Immoral if it is bad. If it is indifferent or neither good nor bad, then it is amoral. An indifferent act may when a person is forced to slap the face of another because he was boxed. A wife, due to rush of emotions,
either become moral or immoral depending on the motive or intention of the doer. Playing volleyball is killed her husband and her paramour catching them of having sexual intercourse falls under exempting.
amoral. But when one plays volleyball knowing class is being skipped becomes immoral.
Man is an organism that does not act in a vacuum. He responds and reacts to stimulus. His
How do we know the morality of the act then? The following are the determinants of morality: personal background, education, social upbringing, political persuasion, religion, personal aims and
experiences contributed largely to his development and behavioral preferences (Agapay, 1991). Thus, the
1. The Object or Act itself – this refers to the deed done by the doer of the action. It is either good accountability of the commission of an act can be modified. The liability can be greater, great, less, lesser
or bad. The act of giving as to the act of killing are examples. or none at all. The following are the modifiers:
2. Motive or Intent – the purpose or reason of doing the act. Like a daughter gave a bouquet of 1. Ignorance is the absence of knowledge. Everyone should ought to possess and be responsible
flowers to her mother celebrating a birthday. Whereas, due to revenge, a certain boy stabbed his to have knowledge. There are two kinds of ignorance: (a) vincible ignorance is where the lack of
neighbor. knowledge can easily be rectified. There are some students who do not know the name of their teachers
3. Circumstances – this involves the situations that surrounds the commission of the act. They are This can easily be corrected by caring and asking the name of their instructors; and (b) invincible
basically practical answers to particular questions. The key questions that will help understand the ignorance is difficult to rectify. There is no way of knowing. A courier delivering an item with no
situation and context. knowledge that what is inside the box is a bomb which killed a lot of people inside a house. When a
person is vincibly ignorant and no effort on his/her part to repair the loss for the reason of escaping one's
a. Who – refers to the persons involved in the act committed, the doer and the receiver or responsibility has greater liability. The vincible ignorance becomes affected ignorance. The same with
recipient of the act. A child who accidentally pulled a trigger against his/her playmate thinking pretended ignorance, professing of not knowing when one really knows in order to flee from being
the gun is a toy may not be accountable compared to an adult doing same act. A man boxing a blamed.
woman is greatly answerable of his act. An educated person is more liable than an illiterate one.
2. Concupiscence or passion refers to emotions whether negative or positive desire. They are
b. Why – it the reason or motive of doing the act. Stealing food because of extreme hunger has neither moral nor immoral. But, man has to control or regulate his emotions and must be submitted to
lesser accountability as to someone who stole due to greediness and selfishness. the control of reason. Passions can either be antecedent or consequent. The former tend to weaken the
will power of the person and so interfere with the freedom of the will. Man tends to become irrational.
c. By What Means – though the intention is good but attaining the end is unlawful or illicit, then
These are so called "crimes of passion". Though, they are voluntary but diminish the accountability of
the act is still immoral. "The end does not justify the means."
man. Like a wife caught his husband on the act of having sexual intercourse with another woman and
immediately stabbed them due to extreme emotion felt is exempting from her act due to the
circumstances. The later are intentionally aroused and kept where the doer willfully plays his emotions. A thought is translated into action then it where human law comes in. Thus, not all immoral acts are
man intentionally aroused himself sexually by watching sex videos and reading pornographic magazines necessarily illegal vis-a vis. When a man commits immoral act, he feels guilty with a feeling of remorse
and eventually committed the crime of rape, or a woman besmirching the personality of her neighbor due but may not be imprisoned. However, violating a human law implies or physical punishment.
to cultivated resentment. In these scenarios, both are morally accountable.
Human reason is the second norm of morality. This is related to person's conscience which is
3. Fear is the disturbance of the mind when a person is confronted by danger or harm to oneself proximate norm of morality telling a person internally what to do and should not do. It is like a signpost
or loved ones. It is also a form of emotion. However, it is important to discuss this separately since it is that guides and directs a person to their destination. This norm is subjective since it is found in the
important to make a distinction between an act done with fear and act done out of or because of fear. Car subject itself. It has to require proper formation and education on our part to attain a level of true and
racing, sky diving, class reporting, or mountain climbing are activities performed with fear. These are fear correct conscience. Such should in accord with the objective standard or risk falling into the realm of
reactions and are therefore voluntary and further accountable of the act. However, fear is an instinct for immorality. According to the harmony or disharmony with the objective truth, conscience can either be
self-preservation. When a child runs upon seeing a mad dog and fell in a manhole because of fear, then correct or true, or erroneous or false. Having a correct conscience must be always obeyed, whatever it
that child is not accountable of his act. Or when a girl hurt herself by jumping from the window of her commands or forbids. An erroneous conscience can be (a) invincibly erroneous conscience – a kind of
boarding house due to fire is not liable. judgment where mistake cannot be avoid regardless of the effort or attempt exerted to correct such; (b)
vincibly erroneous conscience – person is moral accountable since the error could have been avoided with
4. Violence happens when physical force is exerted to a person by another for the purpose of ordinary diligence on his/her part; (c) perplexed conscience – this kind of judgment when a person has
compelling or forcing the person to act against his will. When a father was forced to kill somebody for two alternative options but fears that sin is present in both choices that either way he/she feels doomed,
being threaten that his children will be killed if he will perform the act is extinguished of his liability. the person must postpone any action in making a choice; and (d) pharisaical conscience – here the person
When an accused was compelled to be a witness against himself to stop the bodily torture done against magnifies small offenses as grave and serious sins as little.
him by the authority is not accountable of his act. Such confession is not admissible in court.
As to the firmness in its judgment of the morality of the act, conscience is either
5. Habits are frequently repeated acts. It may be bad or good. In most cases. habits are becoming
involuntary since they assume the role of a second nature. It is not easy to overcome or alter habits. It (a) certain conscience – the judgment is sure that the action is morally good or bad; (b) doubtful
takes a strong-willed person to correct a bad habit. Drug addicts, alcoholics or smokers are having conscience – the person hesitates in making a particular judgment since he/she is not certain or unsure
difficulty to reform. Nevertheless, the person is still accountable of one's habits since the first time the act whether something is good or bad, moral or immoral. If a person has this kind of conscience, he/she must
was done there is already awareness of the consequences or effects of the act. never act; (c) scrupulous conscience – this type of judgment is a described as very cautious or extremely
fearful that the person involved do not want to make any action in a given situation. As a result the
Norm is used to measure whether an act done is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. individual tends to judge something as right or wrong when in fact there is none; and (d) lax conscience –
It a rule or standard in gauging the goodness or badness of an act. They are two types. The first norm is is very different from the scrupulous conscience since the person takes sinful act very lightly and
the eternal divine law which is objective and is the ultimate and absolute norm of morality. It is governed considers it as good and okey. It always takes things for granted when it comes to grave moral
by Divine Reason that reveals the necessary relations between the creator and the creatures. It includes importance. The person is in most cases insensitive, lazy and negligent. A person who has lax conscience
beings in the physical and moral order. In its broadest sense, it governs nature and action of things must reform his/her state of mind.
(Montemayor, 1994). The eternal law is made known to man through his reason and conscience known
as the natural law (lex naturalis). By his rational nature, man is able to law what is right and wrong. Moral Norms are formal or material as derived from natural law. Formal norms refers to "what we
law is ordinance of reason promulgated by those who have the authority and care of the community for ought to be" like we should be sensitive, giving and obedient. "What ought to be done" is referring to
promotion of the common good. This necessitates obedience on the part of those who are expected to material norms. Examples are "do not lie, do good, and do not be selfish”.
follow it.
It is worthy to note that whenever there is a conflict between the civil authority and the divine
Human laws are those laws enacted by men. This includes rules not only in the government but law (moral natural law), the person has "to obey God rather than men" as base from the Word of God.
also in private agencies as well as in the churches. The churches help in promoting the eternal law and in
real sense should not come up with their own set of doctrines since everything about divine law is
already found in the Holy Scriptures. The role of the church is to implement what has been promulgated
by God. Further, the difference with the moral law and human law is that the former covers both the
external and internal actions of man. Whereas, the former only covers external actions of man. A married
man having a mere thought of having a sexual desire to a woman is not illegal but immoral. Once the
A moral experience is any encounter wherein a person understands that the values he or she
believes to be important are either realized or thwarted (Hunt and Carnevale, 2011). This concept of
moral experience, however, asserts that the encounter is not limited to situations fraught with ethical
questions, but that moral experience happens even in mundane everyday settings wherein you take
action based on your moral standards. For instance, when you decide to give a poor person some money
because you feel that it is the right thing to do, is a moral experience.

Now, what if you were in this situation:

You are a junior executive for a firm. As was your habit, you are still in the office working while
most of your officemates have gone home. Soon, you find yourself in need of a file for your presentation;
so you texted Michael, your fellow junior executive, to ask if he has a copy. Several minutes have passed,
but Michael did not reply. You called his mobile phone, but you only got the automated voice saying the
number can't be reached.

Then you remembered that a few days ago, you unintentionally saw Michael's password when he
logged into his office computer. Since you absolutely need the file now (or else your project presentation
will fail), you decided to log into Michael's computer without asking permission. As soon as you gained
access, you see that he left his email open. Something in the email caught your eye, so you read it. You see,
based on what you have read that Michael is making anomalous transactions in the company's name.

You thought about reporting him but you realize you will have to admit violating company
regulations on logging into someone else's computer. Even if you report him anonymously, the
investigation will ultimately lead back to you and the fact that you invaded Michael's privacy. If you
confront Michael about his illegal transactions, you will have to admit that you logged into his computer
without his permission. However, if you decide not to do cartoon strips created through
https://www.piston.com anything, you will have to carry the burden in your conscience and continue
working with Michael even though you know he is doing something illegal. You will have to live with the
knowledge that the company is losing money because of his dishonest transactions, and that you did not
do anything to stop him just because you knew about it by invading his privacy. What will you do?
(Adapted)
To keep patients from being addicted to certain pain medication like morphine, most doctors
would prescribe alternated dosage of morphine and plain normal saline solution. Both will create a
cessation of pain sensation, morphine exerting its pharmacotherapeutic effect and the normal saline THE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS
creating a psychological effect to the patient thinking that it was morphine being injected. The Commission on Higher Education states "ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in
In a surgical unit of a certain hospital, a nurse found a new application of the "Placebo Effect". modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
Nurse Lucky was a newly hired registered nurse in the surgical unit of the hospital. He was hired resources." (CMO 20 series 2013) Going back to our story above, assuming you decided on a course of
immediately because of his brother who is a nurse supervisor for five years of that hospital. He was being action to resolve your dilemma, what was your reason for choosing such action? Why did you do it?
oriented on the floor by his senior nurse. His senior nurse told him that some of the patients in their floor Understanding your moral compass in order to develop better judgment is the aim for studying
will ask for pain medications a lot but pain medications are not given liberally because of its addictive Ethics. Upon entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of preexisting beliefs and values.
properties. They sometimes administer Nss solutions as placebo for morphine. The senior nurse College students already have developed a set of moral standards by which they use to understand the
demonstrated how placebo is carried out and administered to their patients. He was instructed to do it world and a moral compass to navigate in it (Billett, 2006; Campbell, 2009). This reality makes it
under the prescription of a doctor. important for students to study, explore, understand, and critically reflect on their personal value
One of his duty days one night, Lucky decided to do an extra effort of cleaning the nurses' station systems. The end goal for studying Ethics is for the student to become a person who makes sound
in line with the 5s program of the hospital. As he began his task, he found vials of pain relievers and IV judgments, sensitive to the common good.
antibiotics under the sink. The medicines were not expired, so he wondered why it was kept under the Relevance of Studying Ethics in your Chosen Profession
sink. He also found out that these medicines cost P2,000 per vial. He decided to place it back under the
sink and decided to ask his senior nurse later about it. Ethics ensure a generally agreed standard of work-related behavior that empowers professionals
to foster moral values through their work. Ethics gives a sense of justification in one's judgment, and
One day, a patient's relative approached him and asked where he can find Lucky's brother. Lucky helps ensure that decisions at work are not made based on purely subjective factors. Without the study of
asked him why and introduced himself as his brother. The patient's relative then said "Good that he is ethics, the practice of one's profession will fall prey to vastly conflicting individual interpretations.
your brother. Will you kindly hand him over these three vials of medicines I bought from him at half a
price? My sister who is in the surgical unit would no longer use it because she died this morning. Kindly Importance of Rules to Social Beings
ask him if I could get a refund because I really need the money to arrange interment."
Humans, in general, do not live in isolation. Instead, an individual is a member of a community of
Lucky was shocked when he heard the patient's relative. He remembered the medicines he found people whose common goal is to survive and thrive. As human societies evolved, they found that human
the other night. He looked for it under the sink and it was no longer there. When he asked his senior communities have better chances to survive if they work together; and that working together is more
nurse about it he replied: "Just pretend you did not see it. Everybody is doing it anyway. Welcome to the effective when there is a system in place. One of the systems that humans developed are standards that
club." guide human activities, or simply, "rules".

Lucky could not quite comprehend what his senior nurse was talking about. He decided to In the simplest sense, rule is defined as "a statement that tells you what is or is not allowed in a
investigate. He found out that there are some nurses who do not administer these expensive medications particular, situation." (Merriam-Webster, ©2017) For example, traffic rules regulate how motorists
as ordered. They administer instead a placebo even if it was not ordered by the physician. They also should behave on the road. Sports rules not only determine the winner, these also ensure that players
charge the patient with the medicine even though they administer placebo. These extra vials are kept and play fair and safe. Most human societies have rules to ensure a safety level for its members. These rules
later sold to other patients who need it half the price. The money is then divided among those who are and its system of implementation allow people to productively function in the community despite the
involved. These occurrences are not recorded in the medication audit being conducted by nurse existence of conflict within its members. In a broad sense, rules are in place to manage harmful
supervisor for their floor is no other than his brother who is also involved in the case. behaviors; it hopes to prevent chaos; and it aims to encourage stability.

Lucky confronted his brother, he has this to say: "If it weren't for these activities that I am doing,
you wouldn't have gone to college and graduate as a nurse... so just keep your mouth shut because no one
else had benefited more from this than you." Lucky was dumbfounded. He does not know whether he
would just keep silent and join the group to protect his brother and earn more too or make noise and
make it known to the detriment of his brother to whom he owes a lot. (Adapted)
during the exam not because your teacher will fail you if you do, but because you personally believe
LESSON 2: MORAL VS. NONMORAL STANDARDS cheating is wrong and demeaning to you as a student.

4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus, when you truly believe an act is wrong
you also will not agree or consent when other people commit what you consider a wrongful act. On the
other hand, if you believe an action is morally right, then you will also support other people doing such
acts. For example, you believe lying is wrong therefore you will also not agree when. someone is not
telling the truth. On the other hand, you tend to trust the person whom you know as someone who is true
to his or her word.

5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. This means what you consider as right or wrong
does not depend on whether the action advances the interest of a particular person or group, but your
action depends on a universal standpoint where everyone's interest is counted as equal.

6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings. For
example, when you go against your moral standards you will say you feel guilty, remorseful, or ashamed.
You may describe your behavior as immoral or sinful. If you see other people going against your moral
standards you feel indignant or perhaps disgusted with that person.

Moral versus Non-moral Standards

Whether your computer can download a movie from the internet is a factual question. On the
Characteristics Of Moral Standards other hand, should you pirate movies from the internet is a moral question. When judgment is founded
on the rightness or wrongness of an action the criteria is based on one's moral standards.
One definition of moral standard is "a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific
behaviors or beliefs" (O'Connor, Lynn, 1997). It has been observed that this intrinsic code of honor is When you take a picture in the dark with no flash; when you wear a sleeveless shirt and shorts
already present in children, and it continually undergoes revisions as the child matures and influenced by on a very formal occasion; or you write a grammatically incorrect essay - you have violated certain
his or her surroundings. Moral standards deal with matters that the person thinks have serious standards. In the sample situations, you violated non-moral standards in: technique, fashion, and
consequence. However, these standards are not hinged on external authority or rules, but based on good grammar.
reason and impartial considerations overriding selfinterest. Feelings of guilt and shame are often
associated when the person goes against his or her moral standards (Mandal, 2010; Velasquez, 2012). What are non-moral standards? Nonmoral standards can be considered as relative by which
something or someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
Moral standards have six characteristics that set it apart from nonmoral standards (Velasquez, these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group.
2012). These are:
Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life
1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people's well-being. It can
either profoundly injure or benefit a person or persons. For example, lying, stealing, and killing are Although the six characteristics of moral standards distinguish it from other life rules, it is useful
actions that hurt people. While treating people with respect and kindness uplifts them. to discuss other standards with which moral standards are sometimes confused with.

2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment
self-interest. For example, because trust is important to you than revenge you refuse to expose your Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society (Taylor
friend's terrible secret even though she offended you. and Williams, 2017).). Table manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person are examples of etiquette. Meanwhile, a policy is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to
perceives the reasonableness of the action. For example, you will not copy your classmate's answers handle its services, actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision making (The
University of Sydney, © 2002-2017). When schools require their students to wear the proper school
uniform and school ID before being allowed inside the campus (or the No Uniform, No ID, No Entry rule
posted in your school's entrance) is an example of a policy. On the other hand, a law is a rule created and
enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect a person's
liberty and rights (Robertson, 2008; Brickley and Gottesman, 2017). Can you give an example of a law in Dilemma Defined
the Philippines? Finally, a commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be
set by a divine entity, such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009). By definition, dilemma is "a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or
more alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones" (Dictionary.com ©2017). Thus, when you find
What is the advantage of owning moral standards over merely abiding by moral standards? yourself facing a problem but the solutions available to you will only create another problem or worse
For most people, the fundamental moral question is, "What should I do?" or "How should I act?" create more problems, then you are in a dilemma.
Ethics are presumed as moral rules on how a person should act. For example, "every person is obligated A moral dilemma is a situation where:
to do the greatest good for the most number of people. There is also the philosophy that "everyone is
obligated to act in ways that upholds the human dignity for all people." Moral principles like these guide 1. There are two or more actions that you can possibly do.
the practice of various professions (professional ethics).
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions.
But is that all there is to ethics? Is ethics just about following rules of do's and don'ts? This
3. You cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.
obsession with rules somehow neglects the more important aspect of being a human person and that is
becoming what you should be. In other words, the more important question for ethics is not "What Since there is a moral reason(s) for doing each of the possible course of action that you can do, it
should I do?" but "What kind of person should I be?" follows that no matter what action you choose you will go against your sense of what is right or wrong.
That somehow, no matter what you do, you are doing. something morally wrong, but at the same time
you are also doing something right.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Personal moral dilemma is when your decision in a situation where there is moral conflict is
the cause of either your own; that of another person; or a group of people's potential harm. Our sample
situation of Jane versus Ana was an example of a personal dilemma.

An organizational dilemma is when a member or members of the organization is in a situation


where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either some members of the group or
LESSON 3: MORAL DILEMMA the entire organization (syn. company, cooperative. association) itself. For example, a garments factory is
not hitting its target profit. If the company keeps on missing its target, the factory will also not achieve its
1. A person whose choice will adversely affect very important people in your life (personal); five-year expansion plan which will severely affect the factory's future financial standing. One plan to
solve the factory's imminent financial crisis was to cut cost by laying-off some of its employees. The CEO
2. A business owner whose choice will adversely affect either the company or the employees and the members of the board now need to decide. Should they lay off the people who work for them to
(organizational); or save the factory? Or keep the people working and just find other means to hopefully increase profit and
3. A high-ranking government official who needs to choose between implementing or not prevent their financial crisis in the future?
implementing a policy not because it will affect the poor communities, but not implementing it will also Structural moral dilemma is when a person or group of persons who holds high level positions
impact the environment (structural). in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social system is affected. An example
of this level of dilemma would be the controversy in the Social Security System in 2016. The SSS members
have been asking for a two thousand pesos SSS pension increase. Several lawmakers supported the call
because they see that it will benefit the senior citizen members On the other hand, the SSS executives
opposed it saying the institution cannot sustain such amount in the long run. and the SSS will go bankrupt
in 2024. Being the President of the Philippines, the final decision was in the hands of then President
Benigno Aquino III. In the end. President Aquino vetoed the bill passed by Congress to hike the SSS
pension because he believed "the stability of the entire SSS benefit system will be seriously compromised
in favor of two million pensioners and their dependents" (CNN Philippines, ©2017).

LESSON 4: FREEDOM The Foundation of Morality

C.S. Lewis, a novelist, poet, academic, medievalist, literary critic, essayist, lay theologian,
broadcaster, lecturer, and Christian apologist used an interesting metaphor to explain morality. He
likened morality to a fleet of ships. According to Lewis, though each ship must sail well on its own, each
must also coordinate with the other ships at all times to stay in formation and avoid collisions. Finally the
fleet must have a destination or purpose for the journey (Lewis, 2012) because if the ship was just
aimlessly sailing then it has failed its ultimate purpose, – that of getting from one point to the next.

This is a very helpful way to think about morality in relation to self, to others, and your ultimate
end. However, there is one crucial difference between a ship and a person (aside, of course, from the
obvious) – a ship is under the command of a ship captain.

However, a person is someone who is free to decide his or her course.

Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral decisions?


Why Only Human Beings Can be Ethical The personal aspect of morality is about developing virtue so that thinking morally, performing
moral acts, and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
There has been some claim that morality is not unique to human beings. For example, Dame Jane
(2016) explained that virtue is your thought or behavior guided by, and displays, high moral standards.
Morris Goodall DBE, a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace
Virtues are habits developed through learning and practice. Once you have it, your virtues become your
reported that sometimes chimpanzees show a truly selfless concern for the well-being of others (Goodall,
characteristic. Moreover, a virtuous person characteristically acts in ways consistent with his or her
1990). However, other thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, Thomas Aquinas, Peter
moral principles. Thus, a virtuous person goes beyond moral behavior. A virtuous person not only does
Carruthers, and various religious theories believe that only human beings can be ethical (Wilson, 2017).
what is right but his or her behavior also becomes a standard for everyone to follow.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal ethics and human ethics is
that animals behave instinctively while human behavior is rational (BBC © 2014). An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous person: both have internalized the practices that make
them weather storms. However, a ship is under the control of a captain while a virtuous person is free to
Instinctive behavior is a hard-wired, inborn, characteristic response to specific environmental
cultivate his or her values. At the same time he or she is also free to abandon it. Hence, there is no virtue
stimuli; an example is the altruistic behavior of social animals (Spink, 2010). However, researchers found
in self-restraint if, in the first place, you are prohibited from indulging. And there is no virtue in giving if
that the animal's intent of self-sacrifice is more on ensuring reproductive success (kin selection) rather
someone is forcing you to give up your possessions. Although cultural traditions and social institutions
than out of true selfless motive (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009). An example of this would be the suicide
can guide virtues, it cannot be coerced. Freedom, then, is the foundation of moral acts. For a person to be
attacks of worker honeybees in defense of their colony against intruders. There is also reciprocal altruism
virtuous, he or she must also be free.
where the animal will provide for another animal's need because it expects the similar act in a similar
manner at a later time. Chimpanzees scratching each other's back are an example of reciprocal altruism Meanwhile, when talking about the interpersonal aspect of morality, the discussion turns to
(Trivers, 1971). following rules. We have previously discussed the importance of rules in human societies. It is important
to note that even in following rules freedom is essential. Rules help people live together in relative
Rational behavior is a decisionmaking process where the person acts in ways that best achieve
harmony. It makes a person recognize that apart from personal rights, other people's rights are equally
his or her needs in accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and principles (Information
important. If people are allowed to dominate others, then people become mere tools – a means to an end.
Resources Management Association, 2015). Rational behavior is tied to moral standards. Additionally, the
Not only does this fail to respect a person's dignity, it also stifles the development and progress of the
human person in his or her decision making process is free to decide what to do and free to act on his or
human potential. Only when a person is free to recognize that he or she has rights; that other people
her decisions. Thus, only human beings can be ethical because only humans have the capacity for free
equally have rights; and both need to be respected will the person be able to pursue projects, be creative,
moral judgment.
and reach his or her full potential for the benefit – not just of the self - but also of others.
Finally, there is the question of the ultimate end. Why are you here? What is your purpose? The sleep where they want. Animals are not tied down with responsibilities like humans." Yes, it is
human person's final end is always a debatable topic because it often goes hand in hand with specific true that animals are unless caged – free. In fact, animals also have a notion of freedom. When
religious views. However, the debate does not negate the fact that freedom remains essential with one's they are caged, animals will try to escape from their cages. This kind of freedom is called freedom
view of his or her ultimate purpose. To paraphrase Lord Acton- an English Catholic historian, politician, from restrictions. It is a primitive kind of freedom. It is freedom for mere survival.
and writer - the human person's freedom is so precious that God will not take over and take control of the
person's life, even when that person badly misuses his or her freedom (1967). Whatever influences the Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of freedom. The freedom of the human
person's view of his or her ultimate purpose, one aspect is clear - only a free person can understand his or person is beyond freedom from restrictions. In fact, a person in jail is still free. He is free to think,
her ultimate end. Enlightenment cannot be forced. to change, and to become a better person. A prisoner is free to redefine himself. As human
persons, we are free to make choices. We are free to decide. And we are free to use this freedom
The Human Person as a Free Being to attain goals higher than satisfying basic needs.

First, what does "human person" mean? In philosophy, a human being is more than its biological Freedom Demands Responsibility
components. The human being is a person endowed with characteristics that are material, spiritual,
rational, and free. A human person is a being (the Aristotelian idea of being connotes actuality; Jean-Paul Sartre said "You are free" because he believed a person always has a choice. Thus,
existence; an actual condition or circumstance) with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or according to Sartre, you must choose. His idea was that freedom is the capacity to choose, that even not
her own development toward self fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the human person is choosing is a choice (Gallinero, 2014). It is important to note however, that he also added the concept of
freedom. responsibility to freedom. According to Sartre, even though individuals must make their own choices
because they are free, these choices (though freely made) also have consequences to it. These
Philosophical Insights on Freedom consequences to freedom are something that the person must endure. Therefore, it can be said that in
Sartre's concept, responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014).
We have mentioned freedom numerous times. What is your understanding of freedom?
Philosophers talked about this concept extensively. Here are some philosophical insights on freedom. Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and responsibility. Lao Tzu advocated that
a person can and should choose to act, but his or her actions should be that which would result in
Freedom is a Gift harmony. Lao Tzu's idea was that in any society, the exercise of one's freedom is not absolute. The person
According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act significantly. Free acts are is free to do anything; but it is not without consequence of one's actions (Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility,
significant because they help to make us who we are as human beings. Freedom is not merely the as a moral quality serves as a voluntary check and balance of one's freedom. Without proper balance
ability to make arbitrary choices because we are not free if everything that we can choose to do is limitless freedom is as dangerous as an extremely controlling social group. Great social injustices have
insignificant in the first place. Freedom is the ability to make significant choices and, according to resulted from such radical mindsets.
Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God. (Hernandez, 2009)

Freedom is Complementary to Reason Queen Bee Alert!!!


One of Aristotle's ethical doctrines asserted that freedom and reason are Tell your classmates what you thin:
complementary. In Aristotle's view, the human person as a moral agent must exercise practical
rationality in order to determine how to pursue his or her ultimate end (telos). Self-direction, A suggested activity for this lesson is to watch the movie, "A Clockwork Orange". The movie was
rather than bare spontaneity, is the crucial characteristic of the free person. Aristotle considered based on a novel of the same title written by English author/composer Anthony Burgess, published in
freedom and reason as necessary faculties for consciously making sense of things (events, 1962. In this novel, Burgess examined the role of freedom in being human. The story revolved on Alex – a
occurrences, phenomena, situations). (Walsh, 1997). young man who lived in a futuristic, unpleasant, violent, and degraded English society.

Freedom is Absolute According to the author, "clockwork orange" was just street language he overheard among old
Londoners. Burgess used this expression to describe a person who is good looking and elegant but is
Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's concept of freedom is not the freedom to do actually just "a clockwork toy wound up by God or the Devil or (since it is increasingly replacing both) the
something or anything. In Sartre's view, the human person is "absolutely free". Freedom sets the Almighty State". (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008)
human person apart from other creatures. You might say "But what about animal freedom?
Animals – unless caged – are also free. Animals just roam around, eat when they need to, and After watching the film, discuss these in class:
1. What was the central theme of the story? In this scene, the prison chaplain warned Alex that by enrolling in the "Ludovico
Technique" he would not have the capacity to choose anymore because his desire to do evil will
2. Which of the two makes you human? (Defend your answer) be erased through the treatment. In a sense, Alex will not have any moral judgment.
a. Free to decide and do evil acts; or Quote 2. "You are passing now to a region where you will be beyond the reach of the
b. Forced to become a moral person and not hurt others. power of prayer. A terrible terrible thing to consider. And yet, in a sense, in choosing to be deprive of
the ability to make an ethical choice, you have in a sense really chosen the good. So I shall like to
Here is a synopsis of "A Clockwork Orange". think. So, God help us all..." (Part 2. Chapter 3. Paragraph 13)
Alex was someone who utterly lacked conscience. Along with his gang, he committed all Here the priest was sad that Alex could not make an ethical choice between good and
kinds of heinous crimes. What makes him truly evil was that Alex was actually fully aware his evil anymore; and because of this, he thought Alex was now a non-human.
actions were morally wrong; yet he did it anyway. He enjoyed doing crime and hurting other
people. His acceptance that his actions were immoral meant Alex freely chose to do evil acts. (Burgess, A. (2013). A Clockwork Orange: Restored Edition)

In one of their killing spree, Alex was captured. He was convicted for murder and
sentenced to fourteen years in prison. While serving out his sentence, Alex was recommended by
the prison officials to participate in the "Ludovico Technique". The author described the
Ludovico Technique as an "experimental treatment designed to eliminate criminal impulses."
The c "treatment" was about conditioning Alex's mind so that his desire to commit crime will
disappear. Prison doctors injected Alex with nausea-inducing drugs, strapped him in a chair, kept
his eyes open with metal clips (so that he can't even blink), and made to watch all kinds of violent
films. After several sessions, the conditioning was successful in Alex, that whenever he was
confronted with violence he suddenly became weak, nauseated, and totally unable to inflict pain
on others – even in self-defense.

Due to the supposed success, Alex was released from prison early. Once he returned to
society, he was pitifully helpless against those who did him harm. Alex was brutalized by his
former victims and was beaten half to death by two of his former gang members (who became
police officers while Alex was imprisoned). In utter despair. Alex attempted suicide. But, by some
twist of fate, he lived. While he was recuperating in the hospital, Alex realized the "treatment"
had worn off and he was back to his 'ultraviolent' self once again.

In the last chapter of the book, Alex (though still violent) was actually less and less
happy with his situation; unlike in his past where he enjoyed crime and violence. He then came
across Pete - the last member of his old gang. Pete had changed. He was living a happy,
productive, comfortable life with his wife. Alex realized he wanted to be like Pete. In the end, Alex
decided (on his own) to turn his life around and actually became a responsible, peace-loving
person.

Two of the famous quotes from the book are:

Quote 1: "Very hard ethical questions are involved," he went on. "You are to be made into
a good boy, 6655321. Never again will you have the desire to commit acts of violence or to offend in
any way whatsoever against the State's Peace. I hope you take all that in. I hope you are absolutely
clear in your own mind about that." (Part 2. Chapter 3. Paragraph 11)
Chapter 1

THE MORAL AGENT

What does "culture" mean? There are several definitions of "culture". The father of sociology,
Emile Durkheim asserted that culture has the power over individuals to create beliefs, such as belief in
God. Durkheim added that with more people holding the same beliefs, social order is also strengthened
(Little and McGivern, 2016). Meanwhile, the father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in
general, culture is the way of life of a group of people that "includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (Tylor,
1974, 1981).

This section addresses the following questions:

 How does culture shape moral behavior?


 Why should culture not be the ultimate determinants of values?
 Is there a Filipino understanding of right and wrong? What are its influences?

The basic concepts that will be discussed are:

A. Culture in moral behavior

1. Culture and its role in moral behavior

2. What is cultural relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?

3. Are there an Asian and a Filipino understanding of moral behavior: Strengths?


Weaknesses?

B. The moral agent: Developing virtue as a habit

1. How is moral character developed? The circular relation of acts that build character
and acts that emanate from character.

2. Moral development:

a) The stages of moral development


b) How do we get to the highest level, conscience-based moral decisions!

Diagnostic Exercises

Cite one Filipino culture then discuss how this particular culture formed a positine Filipino
behavior. On the other hand, discuss, too, how this particular Filipino culture produced a negative
Filipino attitude. For example, the Filipinos are known for our faith in God. From this faith sprung the
bahala na attitude. One positive effect of bahala na attitude is that Filipinos are very resilient. One
negative effect of bahala na attitude is that it is fatalistic. Make your discussion as insightful (adj. having
or showing an accurate and deep understanding; perceptive) as you possibly can.
LESSON 1: HOW CULTURE SHAPES HUMAN BEHAVIOR As a major contributor to conflict theory, Karl Marx

Pre-discussion: The keywords you need to know here are symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms. argued that culture served to justify inequality.
As a group, discuss among yourselves the meaning of the assigned keyword (for example, if you were
given "symbols", then discuss among your group your understanding of symbols). Come up with a The ruling class or the
scenario that will depict your keyword and then act it out in class. bourgeoisie produce a
What to expect: culture that promotes
This section will discuss what culture is, how culture shapes moral behavior, cultural relativism, and the their interests of the
Filipino moral identity. Again, watch out for the Queen Bee because she is everywhere. The Queen Bee
will help reinforce the knowledge you gained. proletariat.

What is Culture?

Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human experiences. Elements of Culture
How does culture affect human behavior? Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as
The five basic elements of culture are: symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms.
people, are also naturally drawn to participate in culture. People want to belong, to be accepted by peers.
We also need protection from danger. Being part of a social group not only feeds out need to be accepted, Symbols
it also increases the human being's chances to survive. Thus, because of the safety in numbers that being
part of a group provides, human beings learned to modify behaviors to match that which their cultural Symbols can be anything that a group of people find meaningful. For example, in
group deem acceptable. religious groups, the cross is a symbol for Christianity while the crescent is for Islam.

However, not all is well with culture's power and control over people. Plato worried about the Language
idols and ideologies of his day, and especially about the power of the public to corrupt a young person's
Language is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate either
mind.
verbally or through writing. Ilocano, Bisaya, Tagalog, and several other native languages were
In a memorable passage in The Republic, Plato warned already spoken in pre-colonial Philippines Their ancient script or writing called baybayin had
characters, and each character represented a complete syllable (Lewis, 2015).
"Whenever the populace crowds together at any puldic gathering, in the Assembly, the law-
courts, the theater, or the camp, and sits there clamoring its approval and disapproval, both alike Beliefs
excessive, of whatever is being said or done: booing and clapping till the rocks ring and the whole
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of
palace redoubles the noise of their applause and outcries. In such a scene, what do you suppose will
people. These assumptions/convictions could be about events, people, or things. For example,
be a young mar's state of mind? What sort of private instruction will have given him the strength to
ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods. This is what we now call as
hold out against the force of such a torrent, or will save him from being swept away down the
"superstitious beliefs". However, when people started to think critically and scientific research
stream, until he accepts all their notions of right and wrong, does as they do, and comes to be just
flourished, events are now explained differently. This also shows that beliefs change through
such a man as they are. And I have said nothing of the most powerful engines of persuasion which
time.
the masters in this school of wisdom bring to bear when words have no effect. As you know, they
punish the recalcitrant with disenfranchisement, fines, and death." Values
(Plato's Republic, trans. by E. M.Cornford, 1966) Values are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person considers
important or beneficial in life. For example, in pre-colonial Philippines there were evidences that
This power and control on people also did not sit well with German philosopher and father of
women were equally valued and held central roles in society just as did the men (Perez, 2013).
Communism Karl Marx. According to Marx, culture served to justify inequality because the ruling class
This was in stark contrast to the Spanish colonizers however, who valued women mainly as
determines what is right and wrong while the rest merely follow.
domestic caretakers.
Norm Why can't all cultural practices be always correct?

Norm is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what The world is wide and huge. Part of what makes the world interesting is that is home to different
is considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior. For instance, the Filipino norm in groups of people who have developed their own unique outlook on how to survive and thrive. These
relating to other people is to get along well with others, even with complete strangers. This differences led people to view life differently and live completely different lifestyles. German-American
Filipino trait is called pakikisama. anthropologist Franz Boaz fire articulated this in 1887, "civilization is not something absolute, but is
relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes." However, the first
How does culture define Moral Behavior? to use the term "cultural relativism" was philosopher and social theorist Alain Locke in 1924, Cultural
One of the revered founders of Western philosophy Plato in his famous philosophical work. The relativism explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a particular group of people,
Republic cited there critical elements that jointly influence the human person's moral development. while it is taboo in another. It refers to the idea that values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be
These elements are native traits for what we might call genetic characteristics), early childhood understood within its own cultural context, and not by the standards of other cultures. Hence, all moral
experience, and one's cultural surroundings (Pekarsky, 1998) and ethical standards (or the judgment of what is right or wrong) is valid and there is not "on" standard
that is "better" among all others.
Plato implied that if person's cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms it
would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct. He also expressed that the Philosopher and university professor Dr. James Rachels (1941-2003), in his book The Elements
power of culture over an individual is more potent in children because they do not have any pre-existing of Moral Philosophy, laid out five claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of
values. The child's cultural surroundings create these values and dispositions. Thus, Plato insisted that a cultural standards. These claims are
child’s cultural surrounding should "express the image of a noble character", that mile models should 1. Different societies have different moral codes.
display the conduct of a proper human being because the behavior of the adults serves as the child's
moral foundation as he or she grows and develops (Cornford, 1966 Pekarsky, 1998). 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is to objective standard
considered better than others.

3. There are no universal moral truths


Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one among many
a) How did your community Influence your behavior? Write one culture in your community and
reflect on a particular behavior you have. Discuss how this particular community culture 5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. There should be tolerance among
influenced the development of your particular behavior. cultures

b) In what way can culture negatively affect the development of a person's moral behavior? The Advantages and Dangers of Cultural Relativism

Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism.

LESSON 2: CULTURAL RELATIVISM 1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard.

Pre-discussion: As a group, talk about cultural similarities and differences between Filipinos and other 2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth.
nations. Then act out a scene that shows these cultural differences.
Many of our practices are relevant only to our particular community. This implies our moral
What to expect: In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this views are a reflection of our society's prejudices. Cultural relativism makes us understand that what we
unacceptable. Divorce is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men and women can legally think as truth may actually be just the result of cultural conditioning.
divorce their respective wife or husband. Why are there so many differences in societies on what is
acceptable or not? Is it true that different cultures han radically different moral codes? Are there any On the other hand, the dangers of cultural relativism are
values that all societies commonly have? This lesson will discuss the advantages of cultural relativism and 1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
the dangers of holding this viewpoint.
If cultural relativiam is true, then we should not condemn what Hitler and the Nazis did To quote a peace education literature in line with the Global Campaign for Peace Education,
against the Jews, Apartheid in South Africa, or any form of maltreatment, damage, injury, or "peace education seeks the abolition of war as an institution. Considering the death destruction and
destruction that one community inflicts upon anyone or anything suffering that result from war, the abolition of war gains practical relevance" (Navarro-Castro & Nario-
Galace, 2010).
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture's harmful practices.
Two types of peace:
This implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all you need to do is check
whether your action is in accordance with the standards of YOUR society. If your actions are in line with 1. Negative peace – Absence of direct/physical violence (both macro and micro)
your culture, then you have done nothing wrong even though your actions were harmful. After all, if it is Direct Violence – War Torture, child and woman abuse
true that you cannot criticize other cultures, then all the more can you not criticize your own culture since
people in your group accept it as a way of life. For example, if cultural relativism is to be followed then 2. Positive peace – Presence of conditions of well-being and just relationships
2016 Metro Manila Film Fest officials did not have the right to take back the Fernando Poe Jr. Memorial a) Economic, political, and ecological
Award granted to the film Oro where a dog was really slaughtered in the movie because dogs as "pulutan" b) Structural Violence – Poverty, hunger
is part of an issue. c) Socio-cultural Violence – Racism, sexism, religious intolerance
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful. Progress means replacing something old with d) Ecological Violence – Pollution, overconsumption
something better. However, if cultural relativism is to be followed, by what standards do we say that a Why is peace building difficult to achieve? Signing a peace accord may mark the end of a conflict
society has become better! The idea of social reform is now eradicated became we are prohibited from on paper, but the impact on the ground is often minimal. Transitioning from war to peace is not a
judging one society as better ever others. For example, Spanish colonial era was in effect a different technical exercise but a highly political process where different principles, priorities and approaches
society than modern Philippines Hence, we cannot say that Filipinos have made social progress from need to come together. There is no one-size-fits-all template or solution: what works in one place may not
being slaves to conquistadores into a freedom-loving society because slavery during the Spanish colonial work in another because every person, community or society deals with the aftermath of conflict
era was the norm, and it was a different time compared to modern Philippines. differently (Pantulliano, 2017)
Peace Education

Peace an defined in relation to culture according to UNESCO is a set of beliefs values, attitudes, Promoting a Culture of Peace
traditions and modes of behavior and ways of life based on:

1. Respect for life

2. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms

3. Rejection of all forms of violence

4. Adherence to the principles of justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, diversity,


dialogue and understanding in all levels of society

The three phases to accomplish peace:

1. Cognitive phase which is understanding and being aware to the happenings in the society.

2. Affective phase which is being concerned and responsible learning to value peace since
rational beings are species of social interaction.

3. Active phase which is taking practical action in which a course that will lead us to what is good
for the benefit of the majority.
Promoting a Culture of Peace and Development Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:

(Six Dimensions and Operative Value) Watch a special report from ABC News "White Supremacist Moves Into Town. This person's
actions are consistent with his cultural belief that white people are superior. Would a cultural relativist
be correct in maintaining that nobody has the moral basis to complain about the white supremacist's
Six Dimensions and Operative Values actions because he was just following what he believed was right?

by: Archbishop Antonio Ledesma

1. Personal & Family (Spiritual) Values formation starts in the family. These are taught to children LESSON 3: UNIVERSAL VALUES
by the parents. Family is the basic unit of the Society. Every individual learns to understand the Why there are Universal Values
concept of peaceful and non-violent by the Ideal Character traits shown by the parents.
2. Human Rights & Democracy (Justice) indicates that political respect is the key towards human The dangers that cultural relativism present led thinkers such as ethics expert Dr.James Rachels
viability and sustainability in achieving peace and mitigating conflict in the complex and dynamic to reject cultural relativism because it is implausible. The empirical basis of cultural relativism is that
society cultures are dramatically different in its views of what is right or wrong. However, when it comes to
3. Poverty Eradication (Compassion) – Poverty might be inevitable, however with the help of important moral issues, three are three are three values that are universal (Rachels, 2004).
lowering the poverty borderline, peace can somehow be attainable. This could be subjective in
sense that not all of us share the same perspective. But in order to achieve attainable peace, The three universal values shared by all cultures are:
Poverty Eradication might be the key for consideration. 1. Caring for the young
4. Intercultural Understanding & Solidarity (Dialogue) "What is right for you might be wrong for
me, what is wrong for me might be right for you" Dialogue is one of the important factors 2. Murder is wrong
towards attainable peace. It serves as the foundation for consideration towards respect.
3. Tell the truth
Moreover, the way we express ourselves and the way we communicate is also as Important as
Dialogue. The theoretical point here is that "there are some moral rules that all societies will have in
5. Disarmament & Cessation of Hostilities (Active/non-violence). In promoting the culture of peace, common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive" (Rachels, 2004). Imagine if human
we must share the same idea of cease fire towards active! non-violence. The absence of war is the beings do not care for their young. Homo sapiens will eventually be an extinct species. In the same
absence of conflict, the absence of conflict, is the presence towards a culture of peace. manner, we will eventually be wiped out. too if people were free to kill other people. Moreover, what kind
6. Environmental Protection (Stewardship) The concepts of stewardship must be universal to all of society will it be if the presumption of everyone's statement is that it is a lie? What reason do you have
regardless of the status, influence, and power. This connotes taking care of the environment and to pay attention to anyone? If lying is our way of life, how can you believe what your teacher is teaching?
nature, economics, health to mitigate conflict and eventually a culture of peace may follow. What is the use of having a teacher in the first place? What is the use of talking to each other at all?
Peace education is broadly defined as education that seeks the transformation of people's mindsets,
attitudes and behaviors toward peace, justice and environmental care. In a peacebuilding framework
developed for the Philippines, peace-constituency building is indicated as an important element. The Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
latter includes education aimed at promoting a peace culture and agenda. Philippines' E.O. 570 (Sept.
In the Phillippines, one moral argument against the RH Law is that it violates universal human
2006) – “Institutionalizing Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher Education"
rights and values such as the right to life and health of children. On the other hand, proponents of the Law
Peace education is important. It is an ethical imperative since it upholds core ethical principles such assert that family planning and sexual education consistent with one's own bellefs and moral convictions
as value of life, love and human dignity. It is a practical alternative. We need to build a critical mass of is exercising one's freedom to choose
people who will reject war (and the death and destruction in breeds) and will claim their right to true
If the basis of universal values is true and, taking into consideration our social problems due to
human dignity.
overpopulation, what is your moral stand on the debate about having a comprehensive reproductive
Adapted from 1st gen CHED GEC Training in Ethics, 2016 health program in the Philippines?
foreign soap operas/TV shows, and foreign songs/singers over Filipino movies, shows, and music is a
manifestation of our attachment to foreign elements.

Licaunan added that our colonial history is regarded as the culprit behind our colonial mentality.
LESSON 4: THE FILIPINO WAY Unfortunately, most Filipino elite are of no help in setting an example of overcoming colonial mentality
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity because they are even more westernized in their ways. Present day media on the other hand reinforced
these colonial influences (1994).
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs and traditions of
pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer, 2006). Then the Spanish The Philippine educational system is also instrumental in molding the strengths and
colonized the islands and the Hispanic culture influenced the natives. In turn, the Americans shaped the weaknesses of the Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian. Early on, children learn that well-
modern Filipino culture and this is primarily manifested by the wide use of the English language in the behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded. This teaches passivity and conformity. The
Philippines today. It was from these influences that formed the Filipino character. The brief occupation of Filipino is also religious. Religion taught us optimisen and resilience. However, it also instilled in us a
the British (1762-1764) and the Japanese (1942-1945) however had no cultural influence in the fatalistic attitude. Since religious communities are also highly authoritarian, this further reinforced our
Philippines at all. being passive and a conformist (Licuanan, 1994).

Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education Dr. Several Filipino traits are rooted in our economic environment. The hard life drove Filipinos to
Patricia B. Licuanan wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character are rooted in work hard and take risks, such as leaving our families to work abroad. This further developed our ability
factors such as: to survive. Unfortunately, our political environment and government structures and systems are fraught
with problems. For instance, the fact that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the
1. The home environment absence of a strong government presence enhanced the Filipino's already extreme family centeredness
(Licuanan, 1994). The economic and political environments are among the elements that developed the
2. The social environment
culture of corruption in the Philippines.
3. Culture and language
Meanwhile, how did mass media reinforce our colonial mentality? What did you notice with the
4. History ads, the music, movies, fashion, etc. shown on TV, aired over the radio, printed in the
newspapers/magazines, or went viral online? These were greatly based on American pop culture. The
5. The educational system emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product through mass media is, in fact, part of a
Filipino's daily life.
6. Religion
Filipinos highly respect authority, we lean on our leaders and role models. Any person with
7. The economic environment
authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law and when there is lack of accountability,
8. The political environment for leaders who break the law, the Filipino mindset is hugely affected in a negative way (Licuanan, 1994).

9. Mass media, and Strengths of the Filipino Character

10. Leadership and role models The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but these are what we have in common
the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are:
Licuanan said that in the home environment, Filipino children are taught to value family and give
it primary importance. The Filipino social environment is characterized by depending on one another to 1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao
survive. This dependence on relationships and the struggle for survival make Filipinos group oriented
2. Family Orientation
(1994).
3. Joy and Humor
Meanwhile, Filipino culture and language depict openness to foreign elements with no basic
consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994). The Filipino colonial mentality such as the 4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
importance of the English language in our educational system, the wider following of Hollywood movies,
5. Hard work and Industry
6. Faith and Religiosity 3. Lack of Discipline

7. Ability to Survive 4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative

Pakikipagkapwa-tao is demonstrated in the Filipino's openness, helpfulness, and generosity; in 5. Colonial Mentality
the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance; and the famous Filipino hospitality (Licuanan, 1994;
Guevara & Gripaldo [Ed.] 2005). Filipinos also possess a genuine love for family. This love is not just for 6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
one's spouse and children but also to parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins (even very distant 7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
ones), and even to ceremonial relatives. This love is shown through giving honor and respect to parents
and elders, care for the children, generosity towards kin, and the personal sacrifices that a Filipino Licuanan noted that Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to thing, events, and
endures for the welfare of the family (Manauat & Gripaldo (Ed.), 2005). This strong family orientation people. We find it difficult to separate objective tasks and emotional involveme This is where the
gave Filipinos a sense of belonging and security. palakasan system spring from. Filipinos want to get special treatmen and will always look for "inside
connections" in most (if not all) of his or her transactions For example, family and friends are given
Filipinos are also cheerful and fun loving. Our various fiestas and social gatherings demonstrate preference in hiring, in the delivery of services and even in voting (Licuanan, 1994). Since personal
the Filipino joy and humor. We can laugh at those we love and hate, and can make jokes about our good contacts are imolved, requests of this nature also become difficult to turn down. Extreme personalism is
or had fortune. Even in the most trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile or laugh. This another element that led to the prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life's challenges. Filipinos are also
tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances. We can improvise and make use of whatever The family may be a source of strength for Filipinos, but extreme family-centeredness is also
is at hand to create and produce. Our flexibility, adaptability, and creativity are reasons why many his/her flaw. Family is valued above anything and everyone else. Thus, concern for the rest of the
Filipinos thrive in various parts of the world (Licuanan, 1994). community and for the common good is less important. Extreme family-centeredness is manifested in our
political system where political dynasties lord over our elected government posts starting from the
Filipinos also value hard work and industry. This trait is most noticeable in our willingness to barangay level all the way up to the national positions (McCoy, 1994; Licuanan, 1994).
take risks and work in other countries. Filipinos also value faith and religiosity. This can be related to
our bahala na mindset. There is actually a positive side to this fatalistic trait. For Filipinos the bahala na The Filipino's lack of discipline is characterized by our idiomatic expression "ningas cogon".
attitude could serve as a "kickstarter" or a "pampalakas loob" to move him or her into action (Gripaldo, Projects start out with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner was it started that the enthusiasm and
2005). interest just as soon died down (Licuanan, 1994). Another related characteristic is "Filipino time".
Filipinos are known to be always late - we arrive late or we start late. Since global trends strictly follow
All these positive Filipino traits mentioned contribute to our ability to survive. The salawikain or schedules, this trait that disregard the importance of time is adversely affecting Filipino productivity
proverb "matutong mamaluktot habang maikli ang kumot" aptly depicts our survival instinct. We can (Tan, 2016).
endure, make do, and get by on so little while looking forward to the coming of better days. This trait is
the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh economic and social circumstances Filipinos have very high respect for authority. Unfortunately, this also led to general and lacking
(Tianco & Gripaldo (Ed.), 2005; Licuanan, 1994). initiative. For instance, there is strong reliance on leaders and government to solve the nation's
problems but ordinarily Filipinos also do not feel the need to initiate or contribute to the solution. This
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character trait is also related to our lack of discipline. Look at our traffic problem. We expect the government to
Aside from identifying the roots and strengths of the Filipino character, Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan solve the monstrous traffic jam, yet, traffic rules and regulations are also blatantly ignored every day.
also pointed out our weaknesses. This is important because this enables the Filipino to identify the areas Generally, Filipinos love anything foreign. Foreign elements are adapted and incorporated into
that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An informed and improved Filipino our image. In the process, we are also losing our cultural identity. Licuanan noted that this colonial
will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation. mentality is connected to our general feelings of inferiority, where we think foreigners - especially
Generally, these weaknesses are: Westerners, are superior (1994).

1. Extreme Personalism The kanya-kanya syndrome is related to the Filipino traits of extreme personalism and extreme
family-centeredness. Personal and in-group interests are supreme and the drive to fulfill these interests
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness is completely insensitive to the common good. The kanya-kanya syndrome dampened our sense of
community and cooperation - and we trample on each other's rights as a result. The expression crab What do the great ancient minds think about moral character? Let us look at the viewpoints of
mentality, where we tend to pull others down to climb up, exemplify the kanya-kanya syndrome. Eastern and Western thinkers.

Dr. Lacuanan further observed that the joyful and fun-loving Filipino also has the tendency to be
superficial and somewhat flighty. This means that in times of crisis, either personal or social, there is a
general lack of self-analysis and self-reflection is the expression that Filipinos are "madaling makalimot"
or have a short memory. This means, as a nation, we easily forget the mistakes we made, bence we make Confucian Traditions
the same mistakes again. This is one reason why traditional politicians or "trapos" are always re-elected
into office. The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian
traditions moral development was attributed to "four beginnings" of the human personality
The Filipino character is a contradiction. For example, our bayanihan culture coexists (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ©2017). These "four beginnings" were considered as seeds
comfortably with our kanya-kanya syndrome. Many of our strong points, in fact, are linked to our of human personality that will naturally unfold to become human activities. Take note though,
weaknesses. Despite these weakneues, however, there la still much good in the Filipino character. What is that contrary to Western understanding of personality as a given human condition; personality
important is that we know our values as a nation because these help us grow and develop. We need to in Confucian perception meant - “an achieved state of moral excellence" (Ammes, 1997; Klemme,
understand our character as a Filipino because this is the first step towards creating the future we want WEB).
as an individual and as a nation.
Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four beginnings. However, each of these
do not yet capture the concept of self. However, when the four beginnings are put together, it
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: may then be perceived in Western understanding as the "pre-self "or "potential self"(Klemme,
WEB).
a) What positive Filipino trait can you most relate to and how has the trait help you become a
better person? The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are:

b) Think about a personal negative experience. Analyze how this was rooted in Filipino qualities, 1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen.
and from hindsight, tell your classmates how you would have done things differently. 2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to YL

3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li


LESSON 5: HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED 4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
What is Moral Character Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity. Yl means righteousness
First let us take the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and moral character. and the respect of duty, that is, respect your position as guardian towards nature and humanity.
Moral is "concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness and badness of the Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette. customs, and rituals, Zhi means wisdom, and
human character" (Merriam-Webster 2017). Character is defined as "the mental and moral qualities this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Yi, and Li in one's life (Liu, 2002).
distinct to an individual" (Merriam-Webster 2017). But in Philosophy, the term character usually denotes Aristotle & Virtue Ethics
to the moral dimension of a person (Timpe, 2007). Moral character refers to the "existence (or lack of)
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honest, and loyalty". (Merriam-Webster ©2017) Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence, and particular
acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although action and consequence are
Moral Character as Disposition significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an action is right or wrong, nor on whether the
Moral characters are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a particular way for consequences are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous
which a person can be held morally responsible. Thus, moral character traits are rational, informed, person should act in the situation.
stable and reliable dispositions (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ©2017). Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle, an ancient Western philosophy. Aristotle's
Philosophical Views on Moral Character discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view on the topic. Aristotle
argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is focused on being a good Here is a moral dilemma. Read the story and then discuss it with your classmates. There are
person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things. questions provided to guide your discussions.

What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle believed that humans have an essence. He Joe is a fourteen-year-old boy who wanted to go to camp very much. His father promised him he
called this essence proper functioning where everything has a function and the thing that performs as could go if he saved up the money for it himself. So Joe worked hard at his paper route and saved up the
intended is called good when it is able to fulfill this function. Thus, a scissor is a good scissor if it can cut. forty dollars it cost to go to camp, and a little more besides. However, just before camp was going to start,
A car is good if it runs and takes you to your destination. A person is also good if he or she fulfills what his father changed his mind. Some of his friends decided to go on a special fishing trip, and Joe's father
nature expects of him or her. Hence, a person needs to sleep, be healthy, grow, and develop as nature was short of the money it would cost. Therefore, he told Joe to give him the money he had saved from the
intended. However, aside from its natural instincts, a person according to Aristotle is also a "rational paper route. Joe did not want to give up going to camp, so he thinks of refusing to give his father the
animal" and a "social animal. Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other people is also the money.
human person's function. A "good" person is one who fulfills all these functions.
1. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money? Why or why not?
So what does it mean to be virtuous? Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A man has
virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing the flute is the distinctive activity 2. Does the father have the right to tell Joe to give him the money? Why or why not?
of a flautist. A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The 3. Does giving the money have anything to do with being a good son? Why or why not?
principle of being virtuous is called the "Doctrine of the Golden Mean” - that moral behavior is the one
that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors for what he called vices). When he said "extreme 4. Is the fact that Joe earned the money himself Important in this situation? Justify your answer.
behavior", it meant the act was either excessive or deficient. For example, in Aristotelian view eating is a
5. The father promised Joe he could go to camp if he earned the money. Is the fact that the father
human function as demanded by nature. When a person overeats (gluttony), this behavior is excessive,
promised the most important thing in the situation? Why or why not?
while a person who diets too much (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is temperance
or to eat just the right amount at all times to keep your body nourished and healthy. Temperance is the 6. In general, why should a promise kept?
golden mean between gluttony and starvation. Aristotle understood virtue as a character that can be
developed, and that this can be developed by practicing the golden mean (the doctrine of the Mean). In 7. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you do not know well and probably will not see
time, good behavior will come naturally. again? Justify your answer.

It is important to note that Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean does not claim that you behave in 8. What do you think is the most important thing a father should be concerned ahout in his
moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should only ever be 'moderately angry. In relationship to his son?
Aristotle's philosophy, you should be as angry as the situation demands which can be very angry or only
9. In general, what should be the authority of a father over his son?
slightly irritated. He concluded that virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with the
right people, and that this choice is determined by rational principle and practical wisdom (Lacewing, 10. What do you think is the most important thing a son should be concerned about in his
2015) The virtuous man is the kind of man (note: the term 'man' in Aristotle's writing is equated with relationship to his father?
person and not just as opposed to woman) who is able to satisfy both inclinations and rational desires
because his or her inclinations and desires are aligned The virtuous man wants to do what is good and 11. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing for Joe
does it because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral. to do in this situation? Why?

But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, according to virtue ethics, is Eudaimonia,
Generally, eudaimonia can be tratslated as "happiness", "well-being" or the "good life" and that this is the LESSON 6: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
goal of human life. Aristotle believed that to achieve eudaimonia you need to practice the virtues in your
everyday activity all through your life. Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

More of Aristotle's Virtue Ethics is explained in the latter part of the course. adapted from General Psychology with Drug Education book by Virgie S. Otig, M.A. and Winston B.
Gallinera, M.A.
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: Lawrence Kohlberg was a 200 century developmental psychologist and moral philosopher. When he was
the director of Harvard's Center for Moral Education, Kohlberg's research focused on the moral
development of children particularly on how they develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as views and expectations. The focus on this level is the "significant others" or what is also called "Tyranny
justice. He observed the children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral development. of the They" (They say this.... They say that... They say I should....)

Kohlberg's Theory Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation

Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting (if controversial) technique. In his At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to their
research, Kahlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short stories and asked expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty. trust, and gratitude as well as
the participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasoning. The reason for this was that become interested in motives and intentions behind a particular decision or action. For example,
Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to the dilemmas he wanted to know how the children understand and live by the Golden Rule
person got to his or her answer.
Stage 4: Authority Orientation
His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, ha identifiable
developmental stages and each become more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as the person By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider society as a
progresses from one stage to the next. Kohlberg asserted that the process of moral development was whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining law
principally concerned with justice, and that the process goes on throughout the individual's lifetime. and order, doing one's duty, and respecting authority. For example, when someone violates the
law, it is morally wrong; culpability is *therefore a significant factor in this stage because it
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined three broad separates what is bad from what is good.
levels and six specific stages of moral development.
Level III: Post conventional
Level 1: Pre-conventional morality
This is also known as the principled level. It is marked by a growing realization that people are
Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral reasoning is unique and are an independent part of the society. Therefore, the individual's own perspective is more
common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior The child, significant over what the rest of the society thinks and that this would sometimes lead to disobeying the
having no concept about society's conventions on what is right or wrong. would base its law to follow personal principles.
judgment mainly on the external consequences of its actions.
At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question, but a
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation changeable mechanism. Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view rules and laws to be
important in maintaining peace and order but it only serves as a guide that needs to be weighed against
This is also called the 'pre-moral stage where decisions and actions are personal principles and beliefs to uphold one's human rights.
determined by immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value. The
overall goal at this stage is to avoid punishment. For example, "I am going to study my Stage 5: Social contract orientation
lessons because mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test"
This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral or
Stage 2: Reward Orientation good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they belong to and that
only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually universal.
As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for
negotiation because other people have their own goals to meet and wan that must be The person at this level understands that the world holds different opinions, rights, and values;
satisfied too. Children learn to behave in a manner based on the principle "What's in it thus different views should be mutually respected. Laws are also regarded as a matter a social contract
for me?" For example, an older child might reason: "IFI get good grades mom and dad with one's fellow human beings in order to promote universal values and that, decisions are made for
will buy me a new smart phone. So, I'm going to do my homework." "the greater good for the most number of people". The best example for this level is the Democratic form
of government.
Level II: Conventional Morality
Stage 6: Ethical - Principle Orientation
This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Conventional morality is to
reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner. It is accepting the rules and At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal
standards of one's group. This means decisions and the morality of his/her actions are based on society's commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect. At this stage, an
individual already has a principled conscience; and will follow universal, ethical principles
regardless of what the laws or the rules say. Judgment here is based on abstract reasoning such d. values
as being able to put oneself in other people's shoes.
4. Which of these statements is wrong about culture?
(Garz, Detlef, 2009; Munsey, B., 1980; Otig & Gallinero, 2015)
a. Culture rewards favorable behavior and quell undesirable conduct.

b. Cultural influence is more potent in children.


Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
c. Culture cannot corrupt the mind.
Where are you now in your moral development based on Kohlberg's Stages of Moral
Development? Cite some situations to illustrate your answer. d. Culture promotes the interests of a particular group.

SUMMATIVE TEST: 5. These are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of people.

Name: Date: a. symbol

Year & Section: Score: b. language

c. beliefs

Let's see if you understood the concept. Encircle the letter that corresponds with your answer. d. values

A. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer. 6. Which is the best definition of cultural relativism?

1. Which of these statements show the power of culture according to Karl Marx? a. A guideline explaining that one society cannot impose its views and

a. Culture has the power over individuals to create beliefs. standards on another

b. Culture feeds our need to be accepted. b. The highest ranking for a group's most cherished customs and values

c. Culture increases our chances to survive. C. A cultural group's desire to pass on its values to the next generation

d. Culture serves to justify inequality. d. An anthropologist's fanciest way of saying "culture"

2. Anything that a group of people find meaningful 7. Which of the following is false regarding cultural relativism?

a symbol a. When studying another culture, you must convert to its religious beliefs to understand
its customs.
c. beliefs
b. Something that might be taboo in your own society might be perfectly acceptable in
b. language another society.

d. values c. You should not force your own culture's rituals onto another group.

3. A complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate d. People tend to be more tolerant of another culture's customs when they learn the
meaning behind them.
a. symbol
8. Which one is NOT an advantage of cultural relativism?
c. beliefs
a. Cultural relativism promotes respect in the beliefs and practices of other people.
b. language
b. Cultural relativism discourages you to criticize the beliefs and practices of

other people even if these are harmful to them and/or to others.

c. Cultural relativism warns you not to belittle the beliefs and traditions of other culture.

d. Cultural relativism trains your mind to be open and seek the truth. 1. Filipino character depicting openness, helpfulness, and generosity towards other people

9. Which of these situations is an example of cultural relativism? 2. Regarded as the culprit for Filipino colonial mentality

a. Andy is a Muslim boy who fell in love with Ana, a Christian girl. 3. Character that gave Filipinos sense of belonging and security

b. Malay folk stories talks about a penanggal, a flying head with its disembodied stomach 4. A trait that makes it difficult for a Filipino to separate objective task and emotional
sac dangling below. It sucks the blood of infants. Filipino folklore tells of a manananggal, involvement.
a woman with bat like wings. She detaches her upper body from her lower torso and
hunts humans to suck his or her blood. 5. It is a factor in the optimism, resilience, and fatalistic attitude of Filipinos

c. In the Philippines, Christian and Muslim holy days are respected and observed by 6. A negative Filipino attitude of pulling others down to get ahead in life
Filipinos 7. This trait is noticeable in our willingness to take risks like working abroad.
d. Ben was a Christian before but he converted to Buddhism when he married a Chinese 8. A Filipino character that can make use of whatever is at hand to make something beautiful and
woman. useful
10. Which of these statements below describes the danger of cultural relativism? 9. The proverb "matutong mamaluktot habang maliit ang kumot" depicts this Filipino instinct
a. Social reforms are questionable. Therefore, social progress is not possible. 10. A character that Filipinos lack. This is characterized by Filipino time.
b. "Mañ ana habit" is a known Filipino trait. Therefore, there is no need to discipline C. Enumeration
Filipinos to be conscious of time.
1-2. The universal values according to University professor Dr. James Rachels.
c. Neither A nor B.
3-4. The two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativistm.
d. Both A and B
5-8. Reasons why cultural relativism is not plausible.
B. Word Search. Find and encircle the word described by the clues below.
9-10. Give one strength and one weakness of the Filipino character.

D. Evaluate each of the situations below. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer on the space
provided. Options can be answered more than once.

A. Pre-conventional B. Conventional C. Post conventional

1. "If I listen to my parents, they'll probably give me money for being good."

2. "I am a conscious objector because killing is always wrong regardless of what your country
says."

3. "I won't chest during exams because I'm afraid I will be caught and my teacher will flunk me."

4. "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."


5. "I always wear my school ID the moment I enter the school's premises." 2. Developing the will

6. "I should maintain my scholarship because my parents promised they will buy me a new pair
of shoes if I get high grades"
Diagnostic Exercise: Think about an instance in your life when you were faced with a moral dilemma.
7. "I will obey my parents about not having a boyfriend/girlfriend at this time." Answer the following questions briefly.

8. "I would rather follow what the sign that says "No jaywalking" or else I will be penalized. 1. How did your feelings influence your decision?

9. "I will not hurt any living thing, even this mosquito on my arm." 2. Do you agree to use only reason in making moral decisions, and that feelings should be
ignored? Defend your viewpoint:
10. "Don't eat that because mom will get angry"
3. What is the difference between reason and will?
Chapter 2

THE ACT
LESSON 1: FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE AND TRAINED RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS
You make moral decisions daily. However, have you noticed that some decisions are automatic
responses and that you are not consciously deciding at all? For example, you help an elderly cross the Philosophical Insights on Feelings
road. Without thinking, you ran to the opposite side of the road, away from some perceived danger. Your
desire to help and your fear of danger are gut reactions while reasoned argument is just swirling beneath Ancient to contemporary philosophers discussed the role and importance of feelings in moral
conscious awareness. decision-making.

This section addresses the following questions: Hume and the Philosophy of the Mind

Philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist David Hume (1711-1776) famously placed
 What is the role of feelings in moral decisions? What are the disadvantages of over-reliance
himself in opposition to most moral philosophers, ancient and modern, who argued to regulate actions
on feelings?
using reason and that reason has dominion over feelings or emotions. Hume is best known in ethics for
 How can we make reasoned and impartial decisions?
asserting four theses:
 Why is reason not enough in carrying out moral decisions?
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the "slave of the passions"
The basic concepts that will be discussed are:
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.
A. Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval (esteem,
1. Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas
praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate a character trait or action.
a. Why they can be obstacles to making the right decisions?
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are artificial.
b. How they can help in making the right decisions?
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)
B. Reason and Impartiality as Minimum requirements for Morality
Hume maintained that, although reason is needed to discover the facts of any concrete situation,
1. Reason and Impartiality defined reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is virtuous or vicious (Hume, 2003;
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016). Hume sided with the moral sense theorists that a person
2. The seven-step moral reasoning model gains awareness of moral good and evil by experiencing the pleasure of approval and the uneasiness of
C. Moral Courage disapproval.

1. Why the will is as important as reason? According to Hume's "Theory of the Mind", humans have what he called passions (which he used
to describe emotions or feelings). He further classified passion as direct and indirect. The direct
passions are caused directly by the sensation of pain or pleasure; the passion that "arises immediately Sensual feelings involve bodily pleasures or pain. Vital feelings are the life functions such as
from good or evil, from pain or pleasure that we experience or expect to experience. For example, desire health, sickness, energy, fatigue, etc. Psychic feelings are about aesthetics, justice, and knowledge
is a direct passion because it is an immediate response to the pleasure we expect to feel. Other direct (scientific). Lastly, Spiritual feelings deal with the Divine. (Moran and Parker, 2015)
passions include aversion, hope, feat, grief, and joy. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016; Cohon,
2010) According to Scheler, of the four, it is spiritual feelings alone that is intentional. This means
spiritual feelings are directed to a particular special object or a higher being that he attributed to as the
Indirect passions are caused by the sensation of pain or pleasure derived from some other idea Divine. Scheler believed that values of the holy are the highest of all values because it has the ability to
or impression. For example, pride is a passion that emanated from the pleasure you get for possessing endure through time. Thus, since it possessed the nature of intent, Scheler philosophized that among all
something admirable (it could be intellect, physique, property, family, etc.). Pride, therefore, is but a the four levels, spiritual feelings is the most important (Moran and Parker, 2015).
result of the person, the object of the passion, and quality of the object. Other indirect passions are
humility, ambition, vanity, love, hatred, envy, pity, malice, generosity. (Blattner, 2017) Difference Between Responses Based on Reason and on Feelings

However, Hume acceded that there are instances wherein passion can be unreasonable. He said On the opposite side of the discussion about the role of feelings in making moral decisions are
this could happen when we make a mistake in judgment or our opinion is wrong. Strictly speaking, it is those who argued on the use of reason over feelings. Philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels
not passion that can be called unreasonable in these instances because it was the judgment or the opinion asserted that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on your feelings no matter how powerful these
that was wrong in the first place. Once the judgment or opinion is corrected, "passion yields to reason feelings may be. Feelings can be irrational and merely a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural
without any opposition." (Norton & Norton, 2007). conditioning. The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational arguments. An argument is
reasonable if:
Scheler and the Philosophy of Fealings
a. The facts are correct.
Max Ferdinand Scheler was an important German Ethical philosopher distinguished for his
contributions in phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical anthropology (Davis and Steinbock, 2016). As b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
a phenomenologist, Scheler sought to know what comprised the structures of consciousness, including c. Each individual's well-being is treated equally important.
that of mental acts such as feeling, thinking, resolve, etc. -as well as the inherent objects or correlates of
these mental acts such as values, concepts, and plans (Frings, 2013). What is the Role of Feelings in Decision-making

In Max Ferdinand Scheler's philosophy, the emotion is the most important aspect in human Reason plays a role in making a moral decision. Philosophers encourage the use of reason in
existence (Dy, 1986). Scheler asserted that emotions/feelings are inherent, objective, and it exists even if making moral decisions. However, it should be noted too that our moral compasses are also powerfully
you have not experienced it before (a priori). He also claimed that feelings are independent of the mind; influenced by feelings. Hume claimed that in any given situation a person would act based on emotions
that it corresponds to the Divine Plan (Chuhina, 1993; Frings, © 2017; Tymieniecka, 1993). According to rather than reason (Bucciarelli, et al. 2008). For example, your teacher announced there would be a long
Scheler, human feelings are not chaotic. It is actually strict, exact, and objective. It follows a peculiar form test next meeting. After school, you saw a classmate at the mall. You knew she was absent when your
of laws that you cannot avoid and is obligated to follow. He firmly rejected the idea that feelings are in the teacher announced the test. However, you did not go out of your way to inform her about the test. Why?
subconscious and asserted that it is actually the "purest sphere" of human consciousness. (Tymieniecka, No particular reason really. It could be that you just did not feel like telling her, or you were not that close
1993) anyway, or you just passed by each other you barely had time to talk; etc.

Scheler presented four strata of feelings. He claimed that these strata or levels are constant and it On several instances, reasoning in moral decisions is preceded by an initial intuition or gut-feel
follows and exact order of importance. He called these levels of feelings as the "stratification model of (Haidt, 2012). For instance, in choosing between studying and partying before an exam you already feel
emotive life". some negative emotions (guilt, worry) just thinking about going out rather than studying, 20th century
philosopher Alfred Jules Ayer described two elements in moral judgment: the "emotive" and the
1. Sensual feelings "prescriptive" elements (2012). The emotive element in moral decisions meant expressing positive
2. Vital feelings feelings towards a particular act. For example, "Kindness is good" meant you feel positive about acts of
kindness. When you feel positively about an act, you do not only do the act you also feel this act should be
3. Psychic feelings encouraged that others may follow. This is where the second element - prescriptive - comes in such as
saying, "Be kind to others." The prescriptive element, in a sense, is an instruction or prescription of a
4. Spiritual feelings particular behavior.
Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right decisions (CYDonohue, & Kitchener, 1996; Randall, 2012).

There are three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in making the right Emotions influence our attention. Thus, it governs what attracts and holds attention. Emotions
decisions: make us preoccupied with specific matters and we become oblivious tο everything else (Harvard
Business Review, 2015). The feeling of "being in love" is an example. In romantic stories this type of love
1. Its non-deliberate nature is portrayed as spending almost every waking moment thinking about the person you are "in love" with,
2. Its partial nature (Been Zeev, 1997; and and everything else is just a (happy) blur. The narrow area of focus is more evident when you and your
girlfriend/boyfriend are not in good terms. You cannot think of anything else but the end of your romance
3. It is capricious (Pizarro, 2000) and you become overwhelmed with sadness and despair. In this narrowly focused state, you have an
extremely hard time taking other aspects that lie outside the center of attention (in this case, the
THE NON-DELIBERATE NATURE OF FEELINGS
"breakup") into consideration. For example, you have a hard time focusing on your lessons: you do not
Deliberate means the act was intentional, planned, with conscious effort, Nondeliberate is the feel like talking to anyone; you even dread going to bed because you cannot sleep. In such an emotional
contrary term that denotes spontaneous actions. It is during something without thinking through. For state, your activities are all about "getting over her/him" so that you can get yourself back together and
instance, you run to your bed the moment you turn off the light because you are afraid. Why did the think straight again.
darkness scare you? You never thought about it, you just ran. Not surprisingly, you will find that a
The second partial nature of emotion is that it draws its perspective from personal interest. It
common excuse for doing a grossly undesirable act was "being overcome by emotions" in that customary
addresses subjective concerns and takes action primarily to satisfy such concerns (O'Donohue, &
restraints failed ("I couldn't help myself"; "I totally blanked out"; "I felt overwhelmed"; "I don't know, I
Kitchener, 1996). For example, Gemma broke up with her boyfriend. She then dropped out of school
just felt like doing it"). Under this characterization, emotions are no different from mindless automatic
because she cannot bear to see him in campus with another girl. In this situation, Gemma sacrificed her
reflex.
education, wasting time and money for a broken relationship. A highly partial perspective is interested
Philosopher Aaron Been Zeev summarized the nondeliberate nature of feelings as follows: only in the immediate situation; no rational explanations from a broader perspective are relevant.

1. Responsibility entails free choice, if we are not free to behave in a certain manner, then we are The Capricious Nature of Feelings
not responsible for this behavior.
The third problem with emotions is that it rises up for arbitrary reasons. For example, you did
2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives ar considered and the best not give money to an old beggar asking for alms simply because she tugged at your shirt and startled you.
one is chosen. Without such consideration, we dearly cannot understand the possible Aspects or situations that have nothing to do in moral situations could rile up your emotion, and this
alternatives and are not responsible for preferring one of them. emotion will certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment (Pizarro, 2000).

3. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions, we cannot be responsible for our How Emotions Help In Making the Right Decisions
emotions (p.244).
Although several studies point out the negative effects of emotion in making decisions,
The Partial Nature of Feelings contemporary research on how emotions facilitate reasoning is also catching up. Several studies suggest
that emotions are the foundation of all our cognitive and behavioral processes, and emotional responses
Emotions notoriously play favorites. It operates on a principle called "the law of concern" (Fridja, often guide a person in making beneficial choices without any conscious reasoning (Arnold, 1960,
1988) where emotions give focus only on matters of personal interest. However, emotions are quiet Damasio, 2003),
when it is of no personal concern. Take for example a catastrophic event like an earthquake. The sorrow
that you feel for earthquake victims from other countries is nowhere near the level of sorrow that you In this line of thought, researchers studied two groups of research participants Group I was made
feel if your family were the victims. up of relatively healthy people with no history of head injury, while the second group was composed of
those with decision-making defects resulting from head injury. Both groups were measured while
There are two aspects in the partial nature of emotions: performing gambling tasks. The researchers observed that Group 1 began to choose cards that were to
their advantage even before they knew what strategy worked best. While the second group continued to
1. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a narrow area, and
choose disadvantageously even though they already knew what the best card strategy was. Moreover, in
2. It reflects personal and self-interest perspectives the same gambling task, the researchers observed that the skin properties of the first group changed in
response to thinking about risky choices, even though the participants did not know the move was
actually risky. The second group, on the other hand, never had such reaction. The study suggested, "In Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
normal individuals, non-conscious biases guide behavior before conscious knowledge does (Bechara, et
al., 1997)" a) in what way are feelings important in moral decision-making according to Hume and Scheler?

This work, and the subsequent works that followed, indicated that emotions could help in b) In what way is a feeling detrimental in moral decision-making?
making better choices, even without consciously reasoning these choices out. Other studies further c.) As human beings, we cannot help but be influenced by feelings. Based on what you have
suggested that negative, feelings make the perfect occasion in develop emotional responses and align it learned about the role of feelings in decision-making, what is the best approach in making moral
with moral attitudes and goals (Gilovich and Medver, 1995) decisions?
There are at least three ways that feelings, especially negative feelings, help in making the right
decisions:
LESSON 2: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS
1. It signals the need to adjust behavior.
You might be wondering, "Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what is right?"
2. It can help us learn from our mistakes.
Here are some compelling reasons
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.
a. It is enlightened self-interest – “I will be better off"
Psychologists have long acknowledged that emotions serve as a red flag Emotions signal that
something is happening and that it needs attention (Arnold, 1960). Om times you get the feeling that b. It is the traditional law – “Because some authority says so"
"something is wrong" when you make an incorrect judgment. This red flag aspect in emotions helps in
c. It is a responsibility – “It is expected of me"
making better decisions. It had been observed too that physiological processes are heightened when
incorrect judgments were made, and those who spend more time deliberating on his or her mistake are d. It is what is fair and equitable – “It is about fairness and justice"
more likely to correct his or her behavior (Bonner and Newell, 2010; De Neys and Franssens. (2009).
But most of all,
We are all familiar with feelings of regret, shame, guilt, disappointment, and sadness as a result
from acting contrary to what we believe as morally right. Studies, however, have shown that negative e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are better met
feelings are integral to our ability to learn. The surge of negative emotions triggers "counterfactual when people treat each other in a manner that promotes what is right and good.
thinking" (Smallman and Roese, 2009). Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept about the
(Thiroux and Krasemann, 2009),
human tendency to create possible or alternative scenarios other than what had actually happened. Have
you ever replayed a situation in your mind repeatedly, thinking about how you could have done better or Is reason a requirement for morality?
how you should have reacted instead? This analysis of what went wrong present an opportunity to reflect
and prepare oneself in making a different, and possibly better. choice in the future. This idea is supported A relevant definition of reason to our topic is "the power of the mind to think, understand, and
by evidence that focusing on the action. rather than on shortcomings or weakness, can result in making form judgments by a process of logic" (Merriam-Webster ©2017). However, one of the most influential
better choices in similar encounters in the future (Roese, 1994; McMullen and Markman, 2000). philosophers in the history of Western philosophy, Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis
for morality, and once the person understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see
The idea that behavior can be changed is a hallmark in Psychology. What is important, however, that acting morally is the same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960). In Kant's view, the definition of morality
is the idea that emotional responses can be deliberately altered. The psychological state of "mindfulness", alone shows that a person must decide what to do. You, as a person, are able to think and reflect on
where you give active and open attention to personal thoughts and feelings show that, with some effort, different actions and then choose what action to take. That a moral decision means mere desires did not
emotional reactions can be brought in accord with your beliefs and goals. force you to act in a particular manner. You acted by the power of your will.
Emotions are powerful and unavoidable. Upsurge of feelings is natural. However, it should not As a student, you are constantly in turmoil on whether to study or not to study. You know the
control behavior nor should it prevent reason. What we do with our feelings is what makes us ethical or importance of studying and the consequence of not studying. However, you also know the importance of
unethical. taking a break from the daily grind. So when exams are coming and you feel so stressed from fulfilling all
school requirements and you feel the need to take a break - in Kant's argument that morality is based on
reason, what is the moral choice?
Is impartiality a requirement for morality? 3. Articulate the dilemma

Before discussing how impartiality is related to morality, it is important to understand what 4. List the alternatives
impartiality is. It is a broad concept, but it is also identified as a core value in professional codes of ethics.
Impartiality is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that decisions should be "based 5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one perion over 6. Weigh the consequences
another for Improper reasons" (Jollimiore, 2011), impartiality stresses everyone ought to be given equal
importance and not favur one class (people, animals, or things) in a capricious way. 7. Make a decision

How is impartiality a requirement for morality? For example, during an exam you saw your Gather the Facts
friend (who is sitting next to you) secretly open her notebook to look for an answer on one of the test
Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how and why). There may
questions. Your teacher noticed that your classmate was doing something suspicious. He called your
be instances when facts are hard to find or are not available because of the uncertainty that surround
classmate and asked if she was cheating. She surreptitiously closed her notebook and answered, "No".
ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are making.
Your teacher did not trust your classmate's answer so he asked you. What will you say? According to
philosopher and professor Dr. James Rachels, for your decision to be moral, you should think how your
answer will affect your friend, your teacher, the rest of your classmates, and how it will affect you as a
person. An impartial choice involves basing your decision on how all the persons in the situation will be Identify the Stakeholders
affected, and not to the advantage of a particular party that you favor.
Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation. Who are the primary
Thus for the question, "are reason and impartiality a requirement for morality? Let us go back to stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they stakeholders in the issue? Get the
what Dr. Rachels (2004) said: morality "at the very least is the effort to guide one's action based on the proper perspective. Try to see the situation through the eyes of the people affected.
most logical choice (reason) while giving equal importance to the interests of each person affected by your
Articulate the Dilemma
decisions (impartiality)". The 7-step Moral Reasoning Model
Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is important that you express
A key distinguishing feature of a moral dilemma is that it typically arises when individuals or
the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values? The purpose of articulating the dilemma is to make
groups might be harmed, disrespected, or unfairly disadvantaged (Beall 2017). Most ethical decisions lie
sure that you understand the situation and the moral conflict you are facing, Awareness and
in a gray area. Often times you are faced with a situation where there are no clear-cut or obvious choices;
comprehension are important in making the right decision, especially when there are lives that will be
the situation cannot be determined by simple quantitative analysis of data. Ethical decision-making
affected.
requires interpretation of the situation, application of your values, and estimating the consequences of
your action. In real life, our situations do not only involve between right and wrong, good or bad. List the Alternatives
Oftentimes, it is about choosing between good and better or bad and worse.
Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you neglected. This will help
Knowing this, you would ask, how do you make ethical decisions? Here is a 7-step model for ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner. For example, you may already have solution A
ethical decision-making, Ethical decision-making is a process of evaluating and choosing among and solution B. Try to brainstorm and come up with solution C that might satisfy the interests of the
alternatives in a manner that is consistent with moral principles (University of California, 2004). primary parties involved.
Making ethical choices requires the ability to make distinctions between competing options. Here Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
are seven steps to help you make better decisions.
In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in making your decision.
The 7-step model for ethical decision-making Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line with your values. Identifying the values and
comparing your action with these values are important because it will help identify if your alternative
Adapted from 2 gen. CHED-GET, XU Training
action is illegal or unethical, thus making this action easy to discard.
1. Gather the facts
Remember the scenario we presented early in our discussion where you were a junior executive,
2. Identify the stakeholders and you accidentally found out that your officemate was making anomalous transactions at the expense
of your company? (Introduction, Topic 1, When do you say a situation is a moral experience) You were in Pre-discussion: Watch a movie depicting moral courage. Write a short reflection about the morie. What
a dilemma on whether or not to divulge what you knew because you found out about the anomaly by was the moral dilemma that the main character faced? What did the main character go through in
illegally logging in to your officemate's computer. Your possible actions were to keep quiet, confront your standing up for his moral principles? Was the main character correct in showing moral courage on such
officemate, or report him to the administration. In this situation, what are the values that need to be situation? Defend your answer.
upheld? Let us say, the value in honesty. Now, compare the alternatives with the value of honesty. Does
keeping quiet uphold honesty? No. Does confronting your officemate uphold honesty! No. Does reporting Moral courage is the courage to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in
your officemate to the administration (even if you had to admit that you illegally used his computer) doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves careful deliberation and mastery
uphold honesty? Yes. Thus, based on this list, you now know which among the three possible actions is of the self. Moral courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but also a happy one because integrity is
the moral decision. essential to self-esteem.

Why is it important to have a system in making decisions? In systematically considering your set However, according to philosopher Mark Johnson, acting morally often requires more than just
of values, the risk of overlooking important principles and considerations are reduced. Hence, the chance strength of character (Drumwright and Murphy, 2004). Johnson added. it is important to have “an ability
of doing something you will regret in the future is also reduced. to imaginatively discern various possibilities for acting within a given situation to envision the potential
help and harm that are likely to result from a given action (Johnson, 1994)." This ability is called moral
imagination.

Weigh the Consequences Moral imagination is "ability in particular circumstances to discover and evaluate possibilities
not merely determined by that circumstance, or limited by its operative mental mode or merely framed by a
When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to determine if your options will set of rules or rule-governed concerns (Werhane, 1999)" Although it is a necessary component, moral
violate ethical values. Determine how all the stakeholders will be affected by your decision. imagination is not sufficient alone for moral decision-making. Moral reasoning is still needed.
Make a decision How can one practice moral courage? This is where the "will" comes into play. It takes
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid "paralysis by analysis" or the state determination and willpower to act on and stand by your moral principles.
of over-analyzing (or over-thinking) a situation so that a decision or action is never taken, in effect What is "will"?
paralyzing the outcome. There is no easy, painless decision to a moral dilemma.
Generally, "will" is the mental capacity to act decisively on one's desire. It is the faculty of the
However, it is also important that the decision you make reflects the value you want to uphold. mind to initiate action after coming to a resolution following careful deliberation (Joachim, 1952). Within
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: Here is a case study: Jen and her messenger lithics, "will" is an important topic along with reason because of its role in enabling a person to act
husband Lito, along with their three young children, live as informal settlers in a compound in Halaan deliberately,
City. Jen works as the stay- out house help for Ms. Carla, who is the administrative assistant of Mayor On the concept of "will" in Classical Philosophy, Aristotle said: "The soul in living creatures is
Balasic of Halaan City. One day, Ms. Carla approached Jen to offer her a source for extra money. What Ms. distinguished by two functions, the judging capacity which is a function of the intellect and of sensation
Carla wants Jen to do is to sign up as a ghost employee in a city hall project Ms. Carla is overseeing. Ms. combined, and the capacity for exciting movement in space." (Hett, 1964)
Carla tells Jen she does not have to do anything except to put her signature in an employee contract. Ms.
Carla will give Jen half of the expected Php 8,000 monthly allowance for the six-month long project, Jen, Why is the "will" as important as reason?
who is an active member of her local parish, is now feeling conflicted. Ms. Carla wants her to sign soon.
Aristotle believed that "will" is the product of intellect and sensation; and that "will" gave the
Using the 7-step model for ethical decision-making, what must Jen do, and why? person the capacity for "exciting movement in space. For example, Riza is torn between buying a new
smart phone or save up for a trip outside the country. On one hand, she can afford the smart phone now.
(Adapted from 2nd gen. CHED-GET, XU Training! On the other hand, she would be nowhere near her target travel date because her savings is still far from
enough. Riza weighed the pros and cons between buying a new phone and saving up for her trip.
Eventually, she decided to walk away from the store and go to the bank to deposit her money. It was
LESSON 3: MORAL COURAGE Riza's will that enabled her to walk out of the store without buying the phone she liked.

Developing the "will"


Aristotle discussed the difference between what people decide to do and what they actually do. d. None of the above
In Aristotle's philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just one part of the moral decision. The resolve to
put the decision into action is the role of the "will". He said since vice and virtues are up to us, "we 4. Which of the situations below describe David Hume's view on the role of feelings in decision-
become just by the practice of just actions; self-control by exercising self-control; and courageous by making?
practicing acts of courage (as translated by Baird, 2016)." a. I will not give money to the beggar because this will not develop the right attitude in
Self-mastery therefore is the product of the "will" that is achieved by actually putting rational, him.
moral choice into action. b. I will not give money to the beggar because it is against the law.

c. I will not give money to the beggar because I do not have any money.
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: d. I will not give money to the beggar because I don't trust him.
What was your most important moral experience last year? How did you go about formulating 5. Which of the situations below describe Immanuel Kant's argument on reason as basis for
and coming up with a decision? What did you actually do? Was your decision and action aligned with morality?
your moral principles? Why do you say so?
a. I want to study but I feel like partying.
SUMMATIVE TEST
b. It is okay to party, schools will not go anywhere anyway.
A. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer.
c. I want to party but I have to prioritize,
1. Which of the statements below are not Devid Hume's theses in ethics
d. Partying and studying go together well.
a. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather in the "slave of the passions".
6. Janice, the SBO President found out there was discrepancy in their finances and that her best
b. While sanse virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are artificial friend Becky, who was also their Treasurer, mishandled the money, Janice needed to talk to her
c. Moral distinction is the result of reason. best friend about the problem, but knowing this was a sensitive issue that will affect their
friendship, she needed the best approach. Which among the statements below followed the seven
d. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments. step model!

2. Which of the statements do not describe Max Ferdinand Scheler's stratification model of a. First, Janice listed down the possible sanctions she can impose on Becky Then she
emotive life? talked to Becky personally to hear her side. After listening to her best friend, Janice
weighed the pros and cons about telling their Adviser regarding the problem. Eventually,
a. Pleasure and pain are on the sensation level. Janice sought help from their Adviser and Becky was kicked out of the school.
b. Psychic feelings involve the metaphysical and paranormal. b. Janice gathered all the documents and identified other parties involved. She then
c. Your physical, mental, and emotional health are vital feelings. clearly identified her dilemma involving her best friend and listed all the possible
actions she can take. She weighed all the pros and cons of the situation before she went
d. Spiritual feelings deal with the Divine. to talk to Becky privately bringing the documents with her.
3. Dr. James Rachels asserted that you could not rely on frelings in moral reasoning. This means c. Janice was so surprised that Becky had the nerve to use the money, so she called Becky
that: up and confronted her right away.
a. Feelings can be a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning d. Janice went to her Adviser. They both talked to Becky.
b. Feelings are moved by rational arguments. 7. Eric witnessed a kid being bullied. One of the bullies told liric not to report what he saw and
threatened him if he does. Which of the actions below portray moral courage?
c. Feelings are biased but still correct.
a. Eric threw a rock at the bullies so the bullied kid can run away.

b. Eric walked on pretending he did not see the incident.

c. Eric just told his friends what happened hoping that the news will spread and
eventually reach the principal.

d. Eric stood up to the bully and reported the incident to their principal

8. Which of the following is not the characteristic of the "will"?

a. It is strength of character.

b. It is the mental capacity to act decisively on one's desire.


1. This passion is an immediate response to pain or pleasure.
c. It is the resolve to put the decision into action.
2. A psychological concept about the human tendency to create possible or alternative scenarios other
d. Its product is self-mastery. than what had actually happened.

9. Which of the expressions below portray the characteristic of feelings 3. The courage to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in doubt, are afraid, or
face adverse consequences,
a. "I don't really know why I behaved the way I did."
4. The mental capacity to act decisively on one's desire.
b. "I really feel sorry about the flood victims, but I also have a big right now,"
5. He argued that reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment.
c. Both A and B
6. Caused by the sensation of pain or pleasure derived from some other idea or impression.
d. Neither A nor B
7. The state in which emotions or feelings are inherent, objective, and existing even if you have not
10. How do emotions help make the right decision? experienced it before, as asserted by Scheler.
a. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by. 8. According to Scheler, of the four levels of feelings it is the only one that is intentional and the most
b. It signals the need to adjust behavior. important.

c. It can help us learn from our mistakes. 9. It plays a role in making a moral decision according to Prof. James Rachels.

d. All of the above 10. The nature of feelings that is no different from mindless automatic reflex.

B. Word Search. Find and encircle the word described by the clues below. C. Enumeration

1-3 The three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in making the right decisions.

4-6 How feelings help make the right decisions

7-10 Give at least three reasons why human beings should do what is right.

D. Essay. Provide brief but well-rounded answers to the questions below. (5 points each)

1. What is the role of feelings in moral decisions? What are the disadvantages of over-reliance on feelings?
2. How can we make reasoned and impartial decisions? 1. Origin and nature of theory
2. Distributive justice

i. Egalitarian
Chapter 3
ii. Capitalist
FRAMEWORKS AND PRICIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL DISPOSITION FRAMEWORKS
iii. Socialist
Decisions about right and wrong permeate in everyday life, and it can be very difficult to do.
Making ethical decisions requires sensitivity to the ethical implications of problems and situations. It also The state and citizens: responsibilities to each other: The principles of taxation and inclusive
requires practice. Understanding the framework for ethical decision-making is therefore essential. growth

This section addresses the following questions:

 What are the overarching frameworks that dictate the way we make our individual moral Diagnostic Exercise
decisions?
Can you recall some good habits you acquired in school and at home? What is your favorite good
 What is my framework in making my decisions?
habit from your teachers and from your parents? Are they helpful in doing moral things?
The basic concepts that will be discussed are:
Habits from School Habits from Home
A. Virtue ethics
___________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
1. Aristotle
___________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
i. Telos
___________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
ii. Virtue as habit
Favorite habit:__________________________________________ Favorite habit:
iii. Happiness as virtue ____________________________________

2. St. Thomas: Natural Law

i. The natural and its tenets Are they helpful in doing the right things? If yes, why. If no, why.

ii. Happiness as constructive of moral and cardinal virtues Are they helpful in doing the right things? If yes, why. If no, why.

B. Kant and rights theorists

1. Kant LESSON 1: VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTLE

i. Good will Pre-discussion: Watch a short video presentation about Aristotle's virtue theory. Know the concept of
the Golden Mean and how it exists as the midpoint between vices of excess and deficiency. Furthermore,
ii. Categorical imperative know about moral exemplars and what "eudaimonia" is about. After watching the video, come up with a
2. Different kinds of rights scenario that will depict the concept of "eudaimonia".

i. Legal What is virtue ethics and who is Aristotle?

ii. Moral Virtue ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of character and
virtue in living one's life rather than in doing one's duty or in acting to bring about good consequences.
C. Utilitarianism For virtue ethicists, their moral code would be: "Act as a virtuous person would act in your situation".
Most virtue ethics theories take their inspiration from Aristotle who declared that a virtuous epistemological point-of-view, only human beings are capable of seeing the good in all things. The rest of
person is someone who has ideal character traits. There is also St. Thomas Aquinas who asserted that no the creatures are incapable of doing so since they do not have the rationality, of the faculty of reasoning.
human act is morally good (or "right", in the sense of "not wrong") unless it is in line with love of self and This is the reason why achieving the good is always considered a rational activity. Second, every action
neighbor (and thus with respect for the basic aspects of the wellbeing of each and all human beings) not that aims in achieving the good is the telos/end of human actions. It only means that the result of our
only: ethical decision-making is good. In fact, there are so many seemingly good ends in life, and sometimes we
understand them subjectively and relatively. Simply our understanding of the good may but necesarily
i. in the motives or intentions with which it is chosen, and good to others. Therefore, there is a need to define what good means. Corollary to settling the definition
ii. in the appropriateness of the circumstances, but also of good is bow do we know that a particular result is good.

iii. in its object (more precisely the object, or closest-in intention of the choosing person) Aristotle understands the meaning of good from the perspective of finality and self-sufficiency. These are
the two features that serve as criteria of determining the good. First, the finality of the object of human
(The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ©2017) action has two views - the dominant or monistic view and the inclusivists' view. The first view claims that
the aim of every act is good. But there are some human goals that entail more actions. If one, who comes
Aristotle
from Valencia City, Bukidnon, wants to go to Cagayan de Oro City, one has to incur several actions like
Aristotle was born in a small colony of Stagira in Greece. That was fifteen years after the death of one should ride a bus, pay the ticket, watch movies on the monitor or watch beautiful sceneries on its
Socrates, the teacher of Platin. His father was Nicomachus, who happened to be the court physicion way, take a nap, or talking to someone sitting besides you. All the series of actions before arriving at
during the reign of King Amyntas. Because of this affiliat Arutotle became the tutor of Alexander the Cagayan de Oro, which is the finality of the act, yield good results. Yet these are subordinate goods since
Great, who was the grandson of the king When Aristotle's father died, he left Stagiro and went to Athens the arrival at Cagayan de Oro is considered as the dominant good. The second view claims that good,
to join the Academy a famous school of Plato, and became student of Plato for twenty years. He joined the which is the result of the series of human acts on your way to Cagayan de Oro, is the totality of all goods
whool at the age of seventeen. His known works that are related to moral philosophy are Nicomachean achieved, both the dominant and subordinate goods in the first viewe. It only means that it is
Ethuics (NE), Eudemian Ethics (EE), and the Magna Moralia. Ment of the ideas related to the framework he inconsiderate to think of the dominant good alone because it cannot be achieved without the personal
conceived are taken from his first two works. acts. The second feature of good is the self-sufficiency of the object of human action. This means that the
object of the act must be something that will make life worthwhile. One can say that it is not enough to
Telos just fulfill what one intends to do without considering whether it is worth of doing and acting on it or not.
Since that object of the act is self-sufficient, it only means that there is nothing more to desire. In other
How often do you ask why you always prepare yourself before going to school! Perhaps your
words, the object lacks nothing.
reason is because of hygienic purpose (you take a bath), or to be presentable (you dress properly) before
your classmates and teacher. Or maybe asking why you need to study all your lessons before entering the Virtue As Habit
class, and your answer simply to go with the flow of all undertakings (reading notes or handouts or books
in advance) to happen inside the classroom. Under the ethical framework of Aristotle, be means a lot that In the second book of NE, Aristotle explicates about the acquisition of character excellence by
we need be aware of every action we make. For him, what we do entaih direction. If we decide to eat habituation (ethismos). Character excellence and habit are the two important terms we need to consider
breakfast before we leave the house, it is because we want nourishment, that is, having enough energy to here. The word character means the development of personality that resulted in the application of
prepare our body to actively engaging with the concerns for the day. So, we eat to gain nourishment. virtues, while the word habit means that certain human acts are being carried out frequently. It only
Same thing goes with other human actions that have objectives. This objective will lead us to our means that when a person carries a certain act only ones, it is just a plain act and not a habitual act. Now
intended direction. the terms habit and virtues are closely connected to each other, for virtues are good acts (of which its
equivalent opposite is vice, which means bad habit) habitually put into action. So, what are these virtues
This direction is what we foresee as the outcome of our act. Conversely, we act in order to get us that has to be acted oftentimes that which in turn develops the character of the person! There are two
to the intended direction. In short we may not get to our destination if we do not act. This is what telos kinds of virtues
means for Aristotle. All our human actions would lead to our desired end. The end of human act is either
good or bad. But for Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, the end is something that is good. In real life, we  Moral virtue
always pursue the good because it makes us feel good. Conversely no one pursues a bad end.  Intellectual virtue

Now there are two things about the end as good. First, Aristotle insists that any good end is Since our concern is more on the moral virtue, the role of intellectual vinu complements moral virtue.
achievable. Nothing in real life that good end is non-achievable by human action. From the There are two classifications under the delectual viete the intellectual virtue of wisdom and the
intellectual virtue of understanding. The intellectual virtue of wisdom has the role of governing ethical subordinate goods and the last is the dominant good. This is not all there is since there are also series of
behavior. In this sense this intellectual virtar of wisdom helps us what particular virtue, among moral dominant goods in the scheme of human actions. Therefore, for Aristotle, all human acts that we
virtues we need to apply under specific circumstance. undertake must have to have the ultimate telos or end. He is referring to happiness or in Greek
eudaimonia as the supreme good. What is this happiness by the way? Can we exercise happiness the way
Now regarding moral virtues (we can find them in Books 2 to 5 of NE and Borda 2 to 3 of EE), for we exercise other virtues? Is happiness just one of the virtues laid down in his doctrine of the mean?
Aristotle, they are not innate, that is, those virtues just flow from our beings. These virtues are acquired
through constant practice, which in turn develops our character excellence. That is why they are being The understanding of the term happiness is sometimes subjective since we interpret according
put into action habitually er frequently. But ones we cease in carrying out or put into disuse those virtues to our own need. In NE 1.4 1095a22-5, Aristotle shows the instances of understanding happiness. When
frequently or habitually, they will be lost from us. we are sick, we think that to gain health is already happiness, or if we are poor, we think having much
money is a form of happiness. Moreover, for Aristotle happiness is not about emotion as one is feeling
Moreover, the moral virtues of Aristotle, when put into action, should observe moderation. This contented when one gains health or possesses large amount of money. He gives a hint that happiness is
moderation entails that one has to avoid what is excess or defect in action. In local parlance, the excess exclusively for human beings, and if it permits, the gods too can have it. For him, happiness is a pleasant
means too much and the defect means too little Aristotle suggests that the moral virtues are in the middle activity or excellent rational action where one judges his whole life as successful and worth living. Thus,
between too much and too little. It is also called the Doctrine of the Mean. Here are the excess and defects eudaimonia also means success.
of the following virtues (Urmson, 33-34)
If happiness is a rational activity in accordance with virtue (NE 1.7), how is this to be
understood? One has to live a virtuous life, that is, practicing all virtues in one's life. For Aristotle, living a
virtuous life is the best life because it contributes to the happiness or eudaimonia of the person. It means
that happiness is not an immediate result of a certain human action, but a conglomeration of human
virtuous acts so as to achieve a eudaemon life.

LESSON 2: NATURAL LAW: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

Who is St. Thomas Aquinas?

St. Thomas Aquinas was born in Roccasecca, Italy during the medieval period. He studied liberal
arts at the University of Naples, and in 1249, he became a Duminican Friat. He is known as the Doctor of
the Church because of his immense contribution to the theology and doctrine of the Catholic Church. His
We have to take note that the exercise of the moral virtues differs from one person to another influence on Western thought is considerable, especially on modern philosophy. His most important
person. For instance, let us compare the situation of a lover and a soldiet. A lover who has a feeling works are the "Summa Theologica" where he expounded on the five proofs of the existence of God and
towards his beautiful classmate has not expressed yet his feelings towards her. The reason for not the "Summa Contra Gentiles" or the "Book on the truth of the Catholic faith against the errors of the
expressing his love for the giri is that he is afraid of getting busted. Thus he needs courage to do it. On the unbelievers". The two books are combinations of philosophy and theology where he discussed about the
other hand, a soldier who has been sent for a mission to rescue a hostage victim is also afraid to die in the role of natural law, virtues and happiness in mural philosophy,
line of duty It is because he is afraid to leave his family, wife and children behind Thus he needs courage
Natural Law
to do it too. Both lover and soldier need the virtue of courage, but the courage needed by a lover is not a
matter of life and death unlike the soldier. Now, how are we going to achieve the right amount of virtues St. Thomas Aquinas begins his explanation of virtue ethics by grounding on natural lave. He
so as to avoid the excess and the defect? Aristotle has the answer: by observation and correction those discusses the natural law along with eternal law. By linking the two laws be shows that it has theological
excess and defect in our conduct. underpinning because his philosophy is theistic or belief in God as the highest of all beings and the
highest of all goods. God expresses his self through the eternal law, his will and his plan for all his
Happiness As Virtue
creatures.
The telos or end of our human actions, which are what we desire and tend for. is good. From the
Aquinas insists that the natural law expreses moral requirements. It contains rules, Co it is not
dominant or monistic view, we see some series of actions by its corresponding results, with the rest are
and action guiding requirements. But if we ask where to find it or discover i, it is not outside of tin, that is,
located somewhere. The natural law is found within us, his rational creatures. But there is the condition, When animals are hungry, they tend to look for food to eat, or they tend to look for a comfortable place to
that is, only insofar as the rational creatures share in the divine providence. It implies that we adhere to lay their tired bodies when sleepy. When the sun rises in the west, it will set in the east eventually, or
the will and plan of God who shares his love and goodness to us, His creature. In that, we live up to the when an object is thrown in the air, it will just fall to the ground. These are all instances of how they are
expectation of God - to be His moral creature, and with obedience to the lave governed by the natural lave. In the broad sense, the natural law guides both the rational and irrational
creatures in their own respective tendencies towards the realization of their beings.
There are two groups of allerents who are God's creatures to natural law, but in different sense.
The difference manifests to who can reciprocate and respond to the moral requirements of God. The first Can we say that this natural moral law is different from the eternal law? It is not exactly. This
group is the rational creatures. It refers to us. huntan beings, who are gifted with rationality and freedom. natural moral law is an expression of participation in the eternal law. The word moral is inserted
Because we are thinking beings, it is we who can understand and analyze the content of the moral between the two words to show that emphasis on moral action - observance to the moral requirements
requirements, and since we are free beings, it is we who can either show obedience to the moral established by God. In moral philosophy, this natural law is a picture of eternal law as something sensible
requirement or not. The second group is the irrational creatures. It refers to animals, plants and other and knowable to rational beings. These two laws can never be contradicting from each other. But this law,
nonliving creatures without rationality and freedom. Though they are without the gifts of reasoning and because it is discoverable by the use of our reason, has to be enacted to make them feasible to other
free will, their actuations are governed by the natural rational beings. Once it is enacted into written law, it is now called human positive law. It implies that if
we do not just enact them to make it official, it remains within the realm of natural lave, unknowable to
The premise is clear that rational creatures, where natural law is present, insofar as une shares those who do not recognize them. There are two subclasses of human positive law - the civil lave, which is
in divine providence, have to exercise their capacity to recognize that law within them. Conversely, this enacted and promulgated by the lawmakers of the land, and the ecclesiastical law, which is enacted and
natural law has to be discovered by any human beings by using their rationality. This law will rule the promulgated by the religious people regarding faiths and morals.
whole human community, command them what to do and what not to do, and guide their action towards
the right direction. The repercussion is that since only rational creatures can discover and obey the lave, Happiness as Constitutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues
hence, it is only they who can disobey them.
The moral and cardinal virtues of Aquinas has special meaning in this moral philosophy, Virtues
The Natural and Its Tenet consist of human actions that are frequently carrying out, so much so that such human act becomes easily
executed. There are many kinds of acts that can be carried out frequently but not all them belong to one
In his book ETHICS: A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy. The Right Reverend Msgr. Paul J. Glenn category called virtues. Virtues are special kind of human acts that are moral. It means that such moral
made a distinction of natural law in broad sense and in the narrow seme for rational and irrational act is carried out in accordance with the dictates of reason. This dictate of reason is also called
creatures. Other than being a priest and an author, Reverend Msgr. Glenn was also an educator at St. conscience, which is the proximate norm of morality. Conscience is being formed through unceasing
Charles Preparatory School and Seminary. He served as the rector and principal of the seminary from education by parents, members of the community, the church and the society at large. Achieving certain
1945-1957. His books include A Tour of the Summa: A Journey Through St. Tomas Aquinas Summa and true conscience takes time. It is not given automatically from above. That is why we see now the
Theologica and Apologetics: A Philosophic Defense and Explanation of the Catholic Religion, definition of virtue as moral frequent act. The opposite is the Immoral frequent act or vice. This
Where is natural law situated in the scheme of things in the philosophy of Aquinas? As we all proximate norm of morality is patterned after the divine reason called eternal law that is established by
know that his philosophy is grounded on the belief that God exists. God is known as the highest good and God from all eternity.
being who establishes eternal law where his divine plan for his creatures has heen inscribed. But he also Among the frequent moral good acts, there are some virtues that standout among other virtues.
categorizes the law to make his eternal law more comprehensible. These are the known four moral cardinal virtues, It is called cardinal from the Greek word cardo, means
From eternal law is the natural law, which we are talking about. This law is discoverable by any hinge because when these virtues are being practiced, the rest of the virtues follow,
rational creatures and unknowable for irrational ones. In his Ethics, Glenn has made a distinction of The four cardinal virtues are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance
natural law in broad sense and in the narrow sense for rational and irrational creatures, In the narrow
sense, for rational creatures, it is already given aburve that natural law is already present in us who are Prudence. What is its role to our moral life? This virtue is an exercise of understanding that
rational beings. All we have to do is to recognize that we are his creatures, and that we are called to helps us know the best means in solving moral problems in which we encounter in the concrete
participate in the divine life of the highest being in order to have a fullness of being. In the language of circumstance. Knowing the best means, and without acting carelessly without thinking, will incline us to
religious people, this is our divine vocation where we are to realign our moral life, our thinking, and out apply them immediately with certainty. It is like a one-step-backward-and-two-steps-forward technique.
being with that of God. This is also known as participation. For irrational creatures, the way they exist If we encounter a moral dilemma, we do not rush into conclusion without considering the pros and cons
and the way their actions tend toward something that seems to be good are all guided by this natural law.
of our act, and more so what is right and what is wrong. If we do so, then there is a big possibility of nature? This nature is no other that to live as being His creature, in accordance to his purpose and to the
committing an immoral act than moral one. divine plan of God and to act that does not hinder his future union with God in heaven.

Justice. What is its role to our moral life? This habit is an exercise of the will to give or render the
things, be it intellectual or material, to anyone who owns it. If a thing belongs to you, then everyone
should respect it and not own it, or if it belongs to someone, then we must not treat it as ours. If a laborer Queen Bee Alert!!Tell your classmates what you think:
renders eight hours of work in a day, then the employer should give him his just wage. If a student enters What particular moral and cardinal virtue you would like to develop at this point in your life?
the classroom with the things left behind by his classmates who are in the ground for their PE subject, What are other virtues you think will follow as consequence of practicing your chosen virtue?
that student has no right to get their things like cellphone or money. It is simply because those things are
not his. Robbers, burglars, and thieves are usually the violators of this injustice.

Fortitude. What is its vole in our moral life! This habit is an exercise of courage, to face any Immanuel Kant is a German philosopher and one of the famous thinkers during the modern
dangers one encounters without fear, especially when life is at stake. period. He was born in Konigsberg in 1724. He spent the rest of his life in Konigsberg from birth to death,
and worked in Konigsberg University first as lecturer and later as professor in philosophy from 1755
Temperance. What is its role to our moral life? This habit is an exercise of control in the midst of until his death in 1804. His works related to moral philosophy are the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of
strong attraction to pleasures. The key word here is moderation. Getting indulged into strong pleasures Morals (1785) and The Critique of Practical Reason (1788).
has undesired consequences, either excess or disorder. Becoming beautiful or handsome is not a bad idea,
but if one is willing to spent thousands of pesos in order to achieve it is already vanity. Now what framework should we use in making an ethical decision! The second ethical
framework you will be introduced is the duty ethics of Immanuel Kant. This framework focuses on the
The next question is: How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and carding virtues? If the agent with the motivation to do morally good out of duty.
telos or end of Aristotle is happiness, which means success or human flourishing, for Aquinas, it entails
the wholeness of human beings that involves body and soul to be united with the highest good or Good Will
summum bonum, no other than God himself who is in heaven. How this is being done? Let us go back to
Are you familiar with the situation of St. Paul in the Bible, particularly in his letter to the Romans
the contention of Aristotle that every act tends towards something. That something must be good l short,
7:15 of the New Testament when he said that I do not understand what I da. For what I want to do I do not
good is anything that which is aimed at. This good is not a prescriptive term or that knowing that it is
da, but what I hate I do. He has the knowledge of what are the right things to be done but he ends up
good, it should be done right away. When good is done, whatever is that good, promotes the ultimate
doing the wrong ones. He is confused of himself. St. Paul's situation is a counter-argument to Socrates
good. What is the ultimate good? The ultimate good for man is for him to fulfill his nature. What is this
contention that if you know what is right, you will do what is right or possessing moral knowledge will
nature? This nature is no other than to live as being His creature, in accordance to his purpose and to the
guarantee us with the production of moral acts. By experience we know that this is not the case in reality.
divine plan of God and to act that does not hinder his future union with God in heaven.
Why is that sof The answer of Kant is we need to look into our will, as either we possess the will that is
good or will that is bad. In highlighting the rule of the will as the starting point of his monal theory, Kant
gives the argument that the happiness of the endaimonia of Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas is not the
LESSON 3: KANT AND THE RIGHTS THEORISTS highest good.
1. When you help your classmate in doing his/her assignment. Kant claims that the only good without qualification is the good will. He treats the good will as
2. When you give money to the beggar outside the Church or somewhere in the market. the highest good since its end will always be good. It is also a condition of all other goods. Other matters
such as fortune or power or intelligence or other traditional virtues are not enjoying the status of highest
The next question is: How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and carding virtues? If the goods since they can be used by rational beings for bad ends. He even goes further that happiness also
telos or end of Aristotle is happiness, which means success or bunun flourishing, for Aquinas, it entails corrupts. How do we possess the good will? In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant says
the wholeness of human beings that involves body and soul to be united with the highest good or that the role of reason, particularly in ethics, is to produce a will that is good, and this will becomes good
summum bonum, no other than God himself who is in heaven. How this is being done? Let us go back to only when it is motivated by duty. So when we act from duty, we exhibit the good will.
the contention of Aristotle that every act tends towards something. That something must be good l short,
good is anything that which is aimed at. This good is not a prescriptive term or that knowing that it is The highlight of the will rests on the fact that humans, aside from being rational are persons of
good, it should be done right away. When good is done, whatever is that good, promotes the ultimate moral worth. If every person realizes that he is a human being with moral worth, he should always will
good. What is the ultimate good? The ultimate grod for man is for him to fulfill his nature. What is this what is right. The moral worth he possesses is an absolute value over other things like talents and right
judgment. Now let us consider the motive of the willing. If a person does the right thing just because it everyone can fulfill them. If people are confused with the fulfillment of the maxim or law with other
pleases him, for Kant, he is not yet intrinsically moral. Moreover, when his motive is whatever that maxims or laws, there is existing contradiction among them. It means that one maxim or law contradicts
pleases him, he could have done the wrong thing. Therefore, his will is acting not for the sake of duty. with other maxims or laws. If that is the case, then rither of those maxims becomes pointless and
meaningless.
Good will, for Kant, is an indispensable condition in order to achieve the rightness of act. Having
the will is not enough but the will must be good in order to correct the undesirable acts or wrongful acts. Kant uses the example of lie and promise to illustrate the point of contradiction under
But what makes the will good is simply by virtue of volition. To quote: universalizability. If you make promise to each other to keep the friendship even after your high school
graduation, you are now imposing the duty among yourselves. and at the same time earning the right to
To act morally is to act from no other motive than the motive of doing what is right. This kind of that duty. It is a promise to be fulfilled among friends, and it can be imitate by other circle of friends as
motive has nothing to do with anything as subjective as pleasure. To do right out of principle is to recognize well. This is an act of universalizing. But one day, you have changed your mind and lied about the promise
an objective right that poses an obligation on any rational being (Abbot, 88). since you found someone in your new school better than your previous friends in high school. Do you
Kant uses an analogy to explain further about the good will. When the will does in role of doing think other people can imitate your lying? Can lying be universalized? If we use our common sense, the
what is moral, the will is like a jewel that shine[s] by its own light (Abbet, 88). Moreover, Kant two maxims you created-keeping the promise and lying about the promise are contradicting. Since you lie
emphasizes that when a person acts out of duty, he is obedient to the categorical imperative, and not the about the promise, you deprive your friends, as well as to yourself, the right of the benefits of friendship.
hypothetical imperative. These two determiners are different in ways of coming up with the same moral course of action.
Categorical Imperative In universalizing the maxim or law, the respect for person as end and means, and never solely as meam to
serve one's and must be considered at all times. If the respect for person will be out of reach in every
When a person is acting out of duty, it presumes that that person knows the categorical universalizing, then there is always contradiction. The reason is simply that every person has intrinsic
imperative. For Kant, moral commands are always categorical and not hypothetical. In speaking about worth or dignity.
categorical, it is all about ought, that is to say, one is ought to do the moral law in the absence of
conditions since it is simply done out of duty. This categorical Imperative comes from the nature of the This reality cannot be just ignored. In the same manner, whatever that pertains to the
law, a wet af imposing obligation. There are two formulas of the imperative written by Kant in his two consideration of treating every person as means and an end is always universalizable.
writings In the first formulation of the categorical imperative, it says "act only according to a maxim by So if the maxim or law says keep the promise, one is ought to fulfill it because it is a moral
which you can at the same time will that is shall become a universal law" and in the second formulation of command. The existence of a law means that one has to fulfill them no matter what are the circumstances.
the categorical imperative, also known as the formula of humanity, it says "act in such a way that you In the hypothetical imperative, there is always the presence of conditions in carrying out the moral
always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a command. If the maxim I will buy a house next year under hypothetical imperative, one has to consider
means, but always at the same time the condition if the unit is not of substandard materials or of reasonable price.
From the two formulas are the two principles or determiners of moral imperative. the respect for Different Kinds of Rights: Legal versus Moral Rights
person and the universalizability. The respect fie person is the basic thing about how we treat people we
encounter in our daily living For Kant, any act that is good happens only when we deal with other people Legal rights refer to all rights one has by simply being a citizen of a particular country like the
not as merely means. It is all about dealing people just because we want something from him/her, and we Philippines. If the Philippines is governed by all legalities stated in the 1987 Constitution, so all its
cannot have the wants without them. When a man sticks with a certain woman out of lust, that is, to citizens are governed by the same constitution. Being a Filipino, one is entitled to all rights and privileges
satisfy his sexual desire is an example of disrespecting a person. But when a man sticks with that woman accorded by the constitution. This entitlement is acquired either by birth or by choice. By birth means
for the sake of the good of the woman, and thereby the woman sticks with him for the sake of his own that one is born within a certain territory such as the Philippines. By choice means each Filipino has the
good, is an example of treating each other as means and ends at the same time. This is the first kind option to stay as citizen of the republic or denounce it and embrace other citizenship. This happens to few
determiner of moral imperative. Filipinos who have gone abroad to work and have stayed there for a longer period of time, in countries
that grant citizenship and permanent residency. It only shows that every person has the right to abandon
The second one is universalizability, that is, an act is capable of becoming a universal law. An act their being Filipino, American, and altogether embraced with other citizenship called dual citizenships.
is considered morally good if a maxim or law can be made universal. That maxim or law is made not only
for our self but also for others as well to perform or to prohibit. Sometimes when we follow the maxim or Moral rights are rights that belong to any moral entities such as human beings and animals. What
law, it becomes either subjective or personal. In order to avoid this to happen, that maxim or law is put to make them moral entities are the following features such as freedom, rationality and sentience. First,
test by the principle of universalizability. The particular maxim or law becomes morally good when human beings are the only beings that enjoy freedom. With freedom, every act they execute accompanies
moral consequences becomes possible. Second, human beings are the only beings gifted with rationality. First is, the basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is in its consequence they
With rationality, everything they do comes with rational deliberation whether certain course of action produced. It is known as consequentialism. What is there in the consequence that makes it morally right?
would lead to a desired result without regrets or undesired result with undesired consequence. Lastly, It is only when there is the presence of happiness. In short. happiness is the key in determining the
human beings are not the only beings who are capable of experiencing pleasure and pain. Of course, morality of the act. It is the end or telos of every act, that is, to produce happiness.
humans can determine which action plan would yield more pleasure than pain and vice versa like the
utilitarian, and only humans can give different dimensions of meanings to pleasure and pain. On the other The second point is, what matters in every act that we do would be the amount of pleasure
hand. animals too are capable of experiencing pleasure and pain. On this ground animals are qualified of produced. One must not forget the element of happiness in assessing the morality of the act. If there is no
becoming moral entity. pleasure yielded, then the act is morally wrong Happiness is comparative, that is, there will be great
happiness, greater happiness, and greatest happiness. Likewise, there also will be great pain, greater
pain, and greatest pain. If there are multiple acts that can produce a variety and different degrees of
happiness. which act is right? In the theory of utility of Bentham, the greatest happiness produced should
LESSON 4: UTILITARIANISM be chosen over the others. How do we determine the greatest happiness over the other greater and great
Pre-discussion: Our next stop in our tour of the ethical lay of the land is utilitarianism. Watch a video that happiness? Bentham uses the felicific calculus, a method that can calculate or measure happiness and
explains the principle of utility, and the difference between act and rule utilitarianism. After the video pain.
presentation, analyze this scenario: You bought a mobile phane that is worth 50 thousand pesos. Do you The third point, which is the happiness experienced by every person is counted the same. It
also get the benefit exactly that is of equal worth? If yes, why? If no, why? means that every person's happiness is taken into account and no one is left behind. How are we going to
Jeremy Bentham is known as the founder of utilitarianism. He was born in 1748 London, to a use such method? Bentham is a hedonist and be understands happiness as pleasure. This pleasure has a
father who was a prosperous lawyer at that time. He was sent to school at the age of seven in partner, which is pain. He believes that the world is governed by these two principles. It follows that
Westminster School, then graduated from The Queen's College, Oxford at fifteen. He was expected to human beings are inclined more on achieving happiness and as much as possible avoid what is painful
follow his father's footstep as a lawyer but he did not. His famous works related to moral philosophy are: Now to measure happiness or pleasure, all we need to do is to count all the happiness or pleasure that an
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation and A Fragment on Government. What led him to act brings minus the amount of pain that an act will also brings. If the amount of happiness or pleasure is
believe in the theory of utility is after be read the book of David Hume on the Treatise of Human Nature. greater than pain, then the act is good.

Now what framework should we use in making an ethical decision? The third ethical framework amount of pleasure – amount of pain moral or immoral act
you will be introduced is the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham, This framework focuses on happiness as Furthermore, one has to consider in assessing an act the following factors. 1)
the barometer of right morality through the calculation of more pleasure produced over pain. Happiness/pleasure should be more intense. 2) Happiness/pleasure should last longer. 3)
Origins and Nature of Theory Happiness/pleasure should be more certain to occur. 4) Happiness/pleasure should be happening sooner
rather than later. 5) Happiness/pleasure will produce in turn many happiness and few pains. 6) Lastly, in
You are familiar with our great national heroes Dr. Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio. We have determining the amount of happiness/ pleasure, one has to consider how many people will be affected.
learnt from our history subjects that they did not die for nothing, but offered their lives for igniting the The better position would be when there are more people affected positively, that is, greatest happiness
spirit of liberty and independence among their fellow Filipinos. It done by the followers of Jesus Christ, for the greatest number of people, and fewer affected negatively.
their master and teacher, who died on the cross as an offering for the forgiveness of mankind's sins and
their salvation. The point of their deaths is clear: for the sake of the people's liberty, independence, and Thus, right actions are those that produce the greatest possible balance of happiness over
forgiveness of their sins. They have their end or telos in offering their lives. unhappiness, with each person's happiness counted as equally important. (We speak of right action as
determined by the result of the act. In Thomistic ethics, moral act is determined by right action.) The
The theory of utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism, focuses on the effect of a downside of the felicific calculus is not in the method per se. It is in the assignment of the object being
particular end or telos called happiness. The first who proposed the idea is David Hume, a philosopher measured. There are objects easily measurable since they are concrete, but how about those objects that
during the modern period, but the ones who have made the idea more depth and made it more profound are immeasurable such as love and friendship? For sure there is no apparatus intended to measure them.
were: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. It is enough for us to deal Jeremy Bentham and his classical
utilitarianism. He is also considered as the founder of utilitarianism. The classical version of utilitarianism Business Fascination and with Utilitarianism
as formulated by Bentham can be summed up into three points. In the field of business, there is also ethics. It is just one of the three paints of view used by
people when it comes to decision-making related to business in the corporate world. The other two views
are economic and legal. It only shows that in the corporate world, there is the presence of ethical issues, it LESSON 5: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS: PROMOTING THE COMMON GOOD
is specifically intended for managers. The outcome of corporate activities will affect all stakeholders-
employees and employees, consumers and producers, and members of the public. One of the ethical Pre-discussion: In the light of the free tuition law, the RA 10931, also known as the "Universal Access to
theories being used by the managers is the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. Quality Tertiary Education Act", signed by President Duterte in 2016, all college studenti have the
privilege to enroll in any state'colleges and state universities without paying the tuition and other fees.
How is utilitarianism being used in the business world? The key word used by Bentham is Are you in favor that no matter what the financial status - upper class, middle class, and lower class of the
extension. It refers to the extent of pleasure and pain spread through all the populace. This is being students will be given the same privilege!
considered and applied in public policy. After crafting the content of public policy is in turn affect the
legislative and judicial process of the government. The extent of the consequence, which is the greatest John Rawls is one of the important political philosophers during the 20 century. His main work is
good of the greatest number, is determined by the use of felicific calculus. We have to acknowledge that A Theory of Justice published in 1971. This work has addressed some of the social issues especially in the
the calculus is not without problem. The manager or the economist has to consider the amount of utility name of justice between the state and the citizens and among the citizens. He received his academic
for each individual and the amount of utility for a whole society. The same computation is being used- training at Princeton University, and later part of his career he became a philosophy professor at Harvard
amount of pleasure minus amount of pain-where of course, the amount of pleasure should be greater University.
than the amount of pain. Rawl's proposes justice as fairness as an ethical framework. This framework focases on how
The second problem is that pleasure cannot be measured precisely in terms of quantity and justice should be distributed that would yield fairness for those who have mor and those who have less.
quality. There is no valid and reliable instrument to measure it. Some utilitarian manages the problem by The term fairness refers not to equality but as equity.
making educated guess, plus the past experience. Other economists, instead of using the felicific calculus, There are different definitions of justice just as there are different thinkers in the respective field
use the cost-benefit analysis. The difference between the calculus of Bentham and the analysis is that of specialization. Plato defines justice as harmony where the three groups of people in the society
economists would use monetary units that represent benefits or advantages and drawbacks or working together for a common goal. The justice of Ravis embraces not only sociological dimension but
disadvantage. If the benefit is greater than the amount spent, then it is worth it Therefore, it is pleasure. includes political and socio economic as well. In fact, for Rawls, he understands justice where there is
Cost-benefit amount of money spent versus amount of benefit or drawback fairness among memben of the society with the goal of promoting their common good.

If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent, then it is not worth it. Therefore, it is pain. The two principles are as followed:

The cost-benefit analysis is commonly used only as means for making decisions such as major 1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties
investments and on matters of public policy. But it is not limited to business matters alone. Sometimes it compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others.
can be applied to matters related to purchasing things for personal use or family use. But again, just like 24 Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably
the felicific calculus, the cost- benefit analysis has its problem, that is, there are other things that expected to be to everyone's advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all.
monetary values cannot be assigned like the life of a human being. Some would say that the life of a
human being is worth more than a house and lot purchased in an exclusive subdivision, while other Rawls speaks of fairness in terms of equality and equity. He acknowledges that there are certain
economists and businessmen would intentionally exclude such an example in their decision-making. just distributions that are governed by existing principles. The first principle is called the principle of
equality. In this principle, Rawls claims that every member of the society should have equal rights and
liberties. These rights and liberties refer to political condition of every citizen. The second principle is
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: called the principle of difference. In this principle, Rawls acknowledges that there cannot be just
distribution in the society in terms of socioeconomic goods because of unequal socioeconomic status
a) Do you agree that the greatest happiness produced become the basis in determining whether a among members of the society. He highlights that these inequalities should benefit the least advantaged
certain human act is moral? If yes, why? If ns, why? members of the society, and that opportunities be given through employments. These two principles are
not independent from each other. The second principle shapes the decision making of the political
b) Everyone loves music including you. Let us presume that you love a particularly loud music institutions while the first principle is most of the time influenced by the socioeconomic institutions.
and you have lots of neighbors nearby. Show the cost and benefit of such activity between you and your
neighbors. The Nature of the Theory
A common view about a just society is that every member treats each other in a just way. We As egalitarian, one is concerned with a just distribution in terms of receiving an equal share.
want to treat others justly and, we want others to treat us exactly the same way too. John Rawls has in There are two kinds of distributive justice under egalitarianism on the level of state or governmental
mind about an ideal and just society where there is justice, bar in different philosophical nuances. By the distributions. The first is political egalitarianism whers legal rights of every citizen are equally observed.
way, for Rawls, justice is the first virtue of a social institution, and therefore it is expected that he would For instance, in the exercise of the right to suffrage, it is not only intended for the few citizens. Every
always think of a society exercising justice. How did Rawls expose the idea of a just society? He citizen of the country should have the right to choose who is his/her political candidate should be given
understands Justice as fairness. His idea is different from that of Plato in which the latter speaka of justice the powers to govern them. The second is economic egalitarianism where the distribution of
as every member of the society (the philosopher king, the military, and the laborers) acts harmoniously socioeconomic goods is equally observed. The socioeconomic goods refer to those basic necessities -
according to assigned roles. Rawls' justice is very much emphasized in taking into consideration the primarily food, clothing, and shelter - that would enable each citizen to have and live a descent life.
interest of every member of the society. Another example of equal treatment of all citizma from economic egalitarianism is the establishment of
the "minimum wage lave" Every employee is entitled to a just wage in terms of the lowest possible wage
Before he spraiks what is a just society, he would first lay the foundation of a social order. Just they can recens from doing legal work according to the law as agreed upon by the governiyent and the
like any political philosophers, he would consider order as first thing first. He would talk about social private employers.
order where there are rules and sanctions that put social affairs into places. He would underscore that
rules in social order should be construed as our moral obligation to obey. Rules are there for us to obey
and follow for the sake of social order. The question that comes to mind about rules, since we have a
biased mind that rules are impartial ise are the rules implemented can accommodate all people without Capitalist Distributive Justice
discrimination? So Rawls formulate an idea of original position. What is this all about? As capitalist, one is concerned with a just distribution in terms of receiving ones share according
Rawls has his theory's beginning in the original position. He wants to put things in place where it to how much one contributes to the over-all success of the goals of the Institution where one is employed.
creates a favorable condition for justice to exist. It is an imaginary idea to speak about this position but it The term proportion is usefal here. One receives one's share according to the proportion of one's
is important and the basis of justifying his belief. The world's situation is unjust when one thinks of unjust contribution. If one contributes mone, one receives more. If one contributes less, the less one receives.
rules. He endorses the anonymity condition and rejects the moral relevance of threat advantage. These There is a working student who shares his experience being a library staff during his vacant time. He
two elements, when it observes well would result to justice as fairness. What are they are all about? receives his salary/allowance according to the number of hours rendered, and for every hour, he is paid
P20. If he decides to be on duty for four hours, he receives P80, if is hours, P120; if two hours, P40. That is
The two elements can be summed into what he calls the veil of ignorance. Why he needs to an example of distributive justice according to the mindset of the capitalists.
endorse the anonymity condition? It is because we cannot but doubt that rules are created with partiality.
In this anonymity condition, one knows nothing about the particular individual each represents, about Socialist Distributive Justice
that citizen's gender, skin, color, natural endowments, temperament, interests, tastes, and references As socialist, one is concerned with a just distribution in terms of one's needs. We have various
(Poggr, 64). Due to the veil ignorance, it creates a just condition where there is no threat advantage to needs in life, and if we want to achieve those needs, we need to work hard according to the amount of
anyone. Therefore, everyone is seen from the point-of-view of fairness. needs we have. If one has greater needs, then one expects that his share is greater in the distribution
So if one wants to accept a social order that is just, then see to it that the object of agreement is scheme, and vice versa. This view of distributive justice would seek to level the playing field of every
fair, that is, that social order takes into account the interests of all members of such society equally. This member of the society where all of them have natural inequalities. These inequalities refer to those
is the barometer of where justice as fairness prevails. inequalities in our initial endowments in life. One has the natural talent of singing that others do not have.
One has the genes of being intelligent that others do not have. One is born into an affluent family, who
Distributive Justice owns a big hacienda in the province, and so you can have all the latest gadgets, the best school to choose
to study and many others you need to make all your wishes and desires happen in just one request.
There are different theories of justice, and Rawis speaks of justice as distributive. The meaning of
distributive justice is that everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the benefit of Consequently, from the natural inequalities, the duadvantaged cannot really compete with those
whatever the society offers. If one enjoys the benefits offered to them, one has to also accept the burden. advantaged. In order to get that kind of share, the socialint justice would emphasize the kind of work that
Nobody enjoys only benefits without taking the burden or purely burden without taking the benefit. What is based on one's natural talents. If one has the talent for singing, one has to be employed as singer, if one
is the content of benefit and burden? This can be answered depending on the following kinds of society- has the talent for public relation, one has to be in a PRO office. According to this mindset, this kind of
egalitarian, capitalist, and socialist. work from one's talent is fulfilling and humanizing. This mindset in part of the ades "from each according
to his abilities, to each according to his needs of Karl Mars. No alienation and dehumanization will take
Egalitarian Distributive Justice
place. If one wants to receive according to the proportion of one's needs, one has to get the pruceeds by business entity comes from the consumers' pocket. Let us say, if the price of prepaid load (smart or globe)
utilizing in full use of one's talents. This setup corrects the natural inequalities. is P100 with already certain amount of profit imposed by the seller. When the government imposes tax
on it by 10%, the total price is now P110. However, the burden of paying the additional P10 is distributed
The State and Citizens: Responsibilities to each other: The Principles of Taxation and in both the seller and the buyer, probably P from the seller and P3 from the buyer.
Inclusive Growth
The point of raising this matter is for us to understand that all of us are paying taxes to the
We all exist under a particular state like the Philippines, and the state has the power to collect government. In return we expect better service from them. Now the problem of the principle of benefits-
taxes from its citizens. As citizens, we have the obligation to support its existence through monetary received is this. We have the mentality that when we pay some amount, we also expect that the benefit
contribution. It stated in the 1987 Constitution, Article X "LOCAL GOVERNMENT," Section V that "Each we are going to receive must also be of the same amount. But in reality, it is not happening. There are
local government unit shall have the power to create its own sources of revenues and to levy taxes, fers some government projects undertaken are exclusively for a portion of the population. The benefits given
and charges subject to such guidelines and limitations as the Congress may provide, consistent with the to the poor like housing and livelihood projects are not given to all who have already roofs for one's head
baske policy of local autonomy. Such taxes, fees, and charges shall accrue exclusively to the local and decent jobs. In short, all taxpayers do not receive exact amount of the benefit in comparison with
governments. their monetary tax contribution. If some showbiz personalities pay millions of pesos as income tax, those
The state possesses inherent powers wherein the government can issue command for the millions will go to the rest of the populace who cannot pay tax. There are also some people who do not
survival of the people, and at the same time, maintain order and peace in the land. One the inherent pay tax honestly while others evade from paying tax. Thus there is no fair play on this matter.
powers is the taxation power, and the other powers are police and eminent domain. The reason why the The role of Economics and Inclusive Growth
state possesses such power is to let the people contribute monetarily in order to support the cost of the
government, its existence, and its other projects for the betterment of the whole populace. This power to Now, let us get familiarized with the basic concept of economics. Economics is focused on the
tax the people, together with the amount to collect, is amended and improved by the legislative body that scarce resources that every member of the society is facing. The role of the economists is to come up with
is composed of lawmakers, and is executed by the executive branch. a plan on how to produce them abundantly so that can enjoy and benefit from it. There are different
economic models to product. Scarce resources. For some years, economists have made some evaluation
The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties. As to necessity, the government should on the model that most countries used, and recommended that such economic growth does not ensure
collect some amount of money from its populace for its existence and its expenses. There can be no prosperity for all. This prosperity for all means that economic growth should be felt and scaled down
government without the monetary aspect for its operations. As to reciprocal duties, we see how the state from macro-level to micro-level.
and the citizens have responsibilities towards each other. This responsibility springs from the concept of
rights and duties. The range of the definitions of the terms rights and duties is wide, but let settle their In the traditional economic growth, the usual method is on the growing of the pie. and the
prima facle definitions. We all know that all of us have the rights to be treated as human by others as distribution of the pie to the people comes later. The pie simply means national income. But that is not
enshrined in the Constitution. All of us have the duties to protect those rights from being violated by us the usual case happens. We have the common knowledge that the lion's share of the pie is usually being
towards others' rights and by others wards ours. Since there are so many subtopics under the term enjoyed by the few, and the remaining share is distributed to the many. This is an example of inequality in
rights, let us fit our eyes on the role of taxation in this mutual exchange among the state the citizens. economic growth. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),
whose mission is to provide policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of people
As recipients of the benefits given by the State, we need to do our responsibility by paying taxes around the world, the wealthiest that consists of 1% holds 19 of the wealth while the 40% of the poor
so that social and physical projects of the government will be carried out smoothly, and the existence of only holds 3% of the wealth. It means to say that the rich people enjoy the resources more than the poor.
the State will be firmed. Taxes collected from the people are considered public money to be used for The common reaction of ordinary people is "I only enjoy small amount or quantity of the growth," and
public needs such as constructions and maintenance of roads, health care, education, security, promotion much worst for others say, "I did not feel the growth anyway." Inequality exists and persists in such
of science, commerce, industry, and others for the welfare of the general public (Valencia and Rosas 6). condition. The solution to the defects of traditional economic growth is inclusive growth. What does it
Therefore there should be mutual cooperation between the state and the people mean by this phrase?
The controversy on the benefits-received principle The goal of every economic growth is to increase the production of scarce resources so that
The principle of benefits-received is not without problems. All of us are paying taxes to the every people's well-being shall be sustained. This happens only when the resources are well-distributed
government both direct and indirect, that is, from economic perspective For employed citezen a portion from the macro-level, which is the (economic growth from regional, national and international level),
of your income is deducted and paid directly to the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), it is called direct down to micro-level, which is (economic growth from the personal level that addresses their aspirations,
tax. When money is collected from a business entity, it is called indirect tax. The money collected from capabilities, productivities and opportunities). In short, economic growth under inclusive growth must
create opportunities for all people in different levels of the societies, and the resources distributed to 3. It refers to those things without rationality and freedom that are also governed by natural law.
them accordingly. The term opportunity does not only mean of monetary values, but also non-monetary
values as well. If economic growth is limited to the macro-level, then that is exclusive growth. In order to It is the divine plan of God for his creatures.
achieve the growth, the role of taxation is of utmost importance. 5. It is our divine vocation to realign our moral life and thinking with the will of God.
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think: Explain the role of veil of ignorance in setting up 6. It is a law enacted and promulgated by the lawmakers of the land.
Rawls theory of justice.
7. It is a law enacted and promulgated by the religious people regarding faiths and morals.

8. It is the proximate norm of morality


SUMMATIVE TEST
9. It is an exercise of the will to give or render the things, be it intellectual or material, to one who owns it.
A. Virtue Ethics
10. It is an exercise of control in the midst of strong attraction to pleasures.
General Directions: Identify which among the keywords is being described in each statements. Write
your answer in the blank space before the number. C. Kant and Rights Theorists

character, dominant view, moral virtue, telos, virtuous life, good, eudaimonia, God, virtue, mean Formula of humanity, legal right, universalizability, freedom and rationality, Good will, the
respect for person, categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative, duty ethics, means
1. It refers to the desired end of human act.
1. It is the highest good without qualification.
2. It is what moral human beings want to achieve in the performance of the act.
2. We treat each other not simply as means but as means and end as well.
3. It is a view in which all series of human acts, that is, before doing the final act as the ultimate end of the
moral agent, are considered subordinate 3. It is an Imperative about fulfilling the moral law in the absence of conditions because it is done out of
duty.
4 It is considered self-sufficient good where lack and imperfection are not part of its essence.5. It is the
development of personality that resulted in the application of virtues. 4. It is a principle about how we treat other people not as merely meam.

6. It is achieved through frequent act until it becomes part of one's system of action. It refers to those 5. It is a principle we apply to certain human act whether it has the capacity of becoming a universal lase
good habits that have something to do with the rightness and wrongness of actions. 6. It is an imperative where the presence of conditions becomes a prerequisite in carrying out the moral
8. It is a doctrine that teaches moderation not too much and not too little. law.

9. It is the supreme good for Aristotle. 7. It is a kind of rights one possessed by simply being a citizen of a particular country.

10. It is a state of life where moral agents perfect those good acts. 8. They are features that make human beings moral entities.

9. This framework focuses on the agent with the motivation to do morally good out of duty.

B. St. Thomas Aquinas 10. For Kant, any act that is good happens only when we deal with other people not as merely.

Ecclesiastical law, eternal law, natural lave, civil law, irrational creatures, hustice, God, D. Utilitarianism
temperance, conscience, participation Consequence, David Hume, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, cost-benefit analysis,
1. He is the highest being and the highest good. Jeremy Bentham, A Fragment on Government, Immoral act, happiness, extension, felicific calculus

2. It is a law found within us as God's rational creatures. 1. He was the first philosopher who proposed the idea of utilitarianism.

2. He was the founder of utilitarianism.


3. It is the telos or end of every act under the theory of utilitarianism. ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN. AND ETHICS AND RELIGION

4. It is the basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong. In the, strict sense, ethics is an academic study. In the loose sense, we interchange ethics and
morality in discussions that describe the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. In the popular
5. It is a method of calculating and measuring happiness and pain. phrasing, we label an action as "unethical" when we think it is morally wrong or "ethical" when we think
6. It is the result of the amount of happiness less than the amount of pain. it upholds moral standards. The foundation af moral behavior has been a challenge and a topic of never
ending discussions by the great thinkers throughout time.
7. It refers to the extent of pleasure and pain spread throughout the populace.
Thanks to technology, our material and immaterial "selves" are well represented in this day and age. We
8. It is the alternative used by economists in measuring things in terms of its quantity and quality. live and interact both in the physical world and in virtual reality: crossing both worlds with ease.
Technological developments also enabled people coming from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs
9.10. Jeremy Bentham's famous works related to moral philosophy.
closer together. Globalization opened yet another issue for ethical discussions. Can there be a universal
ethical foundation for thi flat, multi-dimensional, and fragmented world of today?

D. Justice as Fairness: Promoting the Common Good This section addresses the following questions

Instruction: Identify which among the keywords is being described in the given statements. Here are your 1. What are the challenges to ethical behavior in today's world?
choices:
2. Is it still meaningful to search for universal values!
Pris.ple of Difference, Justice, Principle of Equality, Original Position, Veil of Ignorance, Political
3. How do we respond to an increasingly plaralist and individuallat globalized world!
Egalitarianism, Economic Egalitarianism, Socialist Distributive Justice, Capitalist Distributive Justice,
Taxation power The basic concepts that will be discused are:
1. It is a principle that shapes the decision making of the political institutions. A. The challenges of pluralism and fundamentalium: The search for universal values
2. It is the first virtue of a social institution. 1. Globalization and pluralium: New challenges to ethics
3. It is a principle that influences by the socioeconomic institutions. 2. Challenges of Filinnial
4. It creates a favorable condition for justice to exist. 1. The religious response: The role of religion in ethics
5. It creates a just condition where there is no threat advantage to anyone. Diagnostic Exercise
6. It is a kind of egalitarianism where legal rights of every citizen are equally observed. View a video presentation on globalization. Answer the following questions briefly and on point.
7. It is a kind of egalitarianism where the distribution of socioeconomic goods is equally observed. 1. Why is globalization a positive development?
8 It is a kind of justice that concerns with a just distribution in terms of one's needs. 2. How do competition and profit contribute to the negative effects of globalization?
9. It is a kind of justice that concerns with a just distribution in terms of receiving one's share according 3. Are your personal moral principles still relevant in a globalized world? Explan your answer.
to how much one contributes to the over-all success of the goals of the institution where one is employed.

10. It is a power that let the people contribute monetarily to support the cost of the government, its
existence, and other projects for the betterment of the whole populace. LESSON 1: MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION

Pre-discussion: As a group, come up with a scenario that depicts ethical problema arising fram
globalization. In your scenario, present how this ethical challenge should be resolved.
CONCLUSION
When your OFW relative sends money here in the Philippines, how long does it take? Seconds. Today's world is confrunted by a host of environmental problems that carry with them potential
When you message your OFW relative that the money has been received, how long does it take? Seconds. planetary consequences (Peter Osimiri, 2015). The ozone layer is rapidly depleting, Global warming has
This scenario is just one simple example of how fast intercontinental transactions occur today. created a chain of extreme changes in weather conditions. The ecosystem worldwide is experiencing
Globalization is the opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an rapid reduction in the number of species (Scholte, 2005, p.72), Even though industrial activity in mostly
interconnected and Inner-dependent world with tree transfer of capital, guods, and services across confined in the West and more recently to some part of Asia, the entire world is suffering from the effects
national frontiers (Goggins, t2017; WEB). Gobalization has significantly reduced the distance barrier, of climate change. Thus, while the advanced capitalist countries enjoy the benefits of industrialization, the
compressing space and time (David Mittelman, 1996). Globalization has linked worldwide relationships rest of the world is forced to share in the negative consequences resulting from industrial activity (Peter
that events happening millions of miles away can affect local events (Anthony Giddens, 1990). Osimiri, 2015). Exacerbating the global environmental problems is the explosive human population
growth that is threatening to exceed the Earth's capacity to support (Mcleish, 2010),
Notice that the given descriptions on globalization do not particularly emphasize political,
economic, and cultural dimensions. Rather, the common theme is the emphasis on the establishment of 3. The intrusion of international economic organizations on indebted nations
worldwide relationships today. Globalization has reconfigured social geography (Scholte, 2009) from
predominantly territorial to one that is increasingly "transnational". If in the past, interactions and International financial institutions are corporations that act as a mediator to bring about an agreement.
affiliations involved only those who are within your nearest vicinity, globalization has opened doors of These types of institutions typically deal with lending money to countries so that these countries could
opportunity for you without the need for you to leave your own territory (Peter Osimiri, 2015) implement its developmental planm and projects. The largest international financial institutions are the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. These institutions were established in a 1944 United
With globalization, events that are happening oceans away can actually affect local events. Nations Monetary and Financial Conference participated by all World War II allied nations held in
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA and resulted in what is called the Bretton Woods Agreement
Having established the significance of globalization in human relationships, the issue of wherein the US dollar was established as the global currency (Bordo & Eichengreen, 2007). But the
transnational harm also arises. "Harm" as a concept is fundamental to ethics. Defined broadly as "damage question is: To whom are these institutions accountable and are they accountable to those whom they
or loss caused by a person on an event" or "the violation of core interest in physical and mental directly affect? (Woods and Narlikar, 2001). In the sphere of economic management, states are
wellbeing," harm defines the core of human obligation to others and by others' it means fellow human increasingly losing their sovereignty since international economic organizations can address issues
beings and everything that thrives in the natural environment like plants and animals (OED, 2000, which were previously dealt with at the level of national governments (Woods and Narlikar, 2001).
Shapcott, 2008; Peter Osimiri, 2015). International financial institutions are seen to have become so powerful it can forcibly impose economic
Moral Challenges of Globalization policies on societies (state, country, nation, government) in different parts of the globe.

1. The rise of radical inequality Why do we have to pay taxes?

As the world become more technologically advanced, the gap between the rich and the poor is Philosophical Perspective
becoming even more pronounced. The global financial scenario is that wealth is concentrated in the Man's individual nature is subordinated to his social nature. Man's social nature, though it is just
hands of the fee, while it leaves the majority in poverty (Colado, 2006). Simply put, some people benefit at a property which flows from his essence being rational, is modified under three important components.
the expense of others. Globalization is used by advanced capitalist countries to perpetuate their political
and economic leadership or dominance (Ali, H. A. (2009), both the consequentialist and deontological First, man is born with sexuality, ie. essential mode of being a human person as characterized by
perspectives find globalization morally condeminable from. Deontological perspective is an approach to the duality of the sexes. Man is born either male or female. This polarity of sexes gives rise to a natural
ethics that looks at the rightness and wrongness of the action itself (Mastin, 2008). On the other hand, for tension that exists between them by virtue of their differences. Hence, they form a family.
Consequentialism an action is right or wrong based on the results of the action (Mastin, 2008). From the
consequentialist perspective, the ethical argument against globalization is that it fails to maximize Second, it should be noted that a collection of families forms a civil society. The existential end of
happiness for the greatest number of people (Singer, 2000). From a deontological point of view, society is the common good.
globalization will be condemned on the account that exploited populations are treated as "means to an How can this be achieved then?
end" and not as "end in themselves (Kant, 1948; Peter Osimiri, 2015).
Common good can only be achieved if there is a harmonious relationship that exists among the
2. The problem of managing global environment to prevent global ecological collapse people. Such harmonious relationship is achieved if there is a law which governs the populace.
The law which obliges us to pay taxes is an aspect that leads us to the common good. Economics, Finally, we need to pay taxes to the government because it is our moral and legal obligation to do
which is the supra structure of society, collapses if people don't pay taxes. It is the blood of every society. so. Failure to pay tax is an abuse of our freedom as it defies the end of society, which is the common good.
If a man dies due to blood loss, society dies too without taxes. Not paying taxes or not paying the right amount of taxes constitutes the crime of tax evasion which is
punishable under our laws, as it may lead to the fall of the republican State or the collapse of our society
Not paying taxes to the government signifies an abuse of freedom on the part of the in general.
subordinates, for it is an act which defies the essence of the purpose of why society is formed. It is an act
which does not lead society to achieve the end to which it is designed, the common good. Hence, it is right Calls for a Global Ethic
and just to pay taxes to the government.
To manage global ethical problems, some scholars have suggested that the time has come for the
Constitutional-Legal Perspective world to develop a global ethic (1.e. a set of universally accepted principles) that could provide the basis
for regulating global interactions (Osimiri, 2015). The global ethic perspective assumes that a set of
The power of taxation is one of the inherent and fundamental powers of the State, along with police shared ethical values and standard will help lessen social injustices committed by a large global
power and power of eminent domain. These powers are inherent in a State as they need not be conferred community, and that this ethic is indispensable for global peace and justice (Gephardt, 2011).
to it by a constitution or statute (Dimsampao, 2015). The moment a State exists, these powers go along
with its existence. A State would not qualify as such if its government is bereft of the power to make laws, As discussed in our topic about Cultural Relativism, university professor James Rachels
to expropriate private property, and to levy taxes upon persons or things. All these powers share one enumerated three universal values shared by all cultures. These are:
Important element that they are exercised ultimately for the common good.
1. Caring for the young
One of the aims of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as expressed in its preamble is the promotion
of the common good. The doctrine "salus populi est suprema lex" may be considered as the foundation of 2. Murder is wrong
the concept of the common good. It rationalizes the State's power to legislate. Simply put, it means that 3. Tell the truth
the welfare of the people is the supreme law (De Leon, 2014). It can, therefore, be argued that State
powers emerged out of the desire for conmmon good. It must be noted that no society can survive Moreover, a value was dermed universal if people of different places and situations and at almost
without laws and no law can be valid if its intention does not result to the common good. However, the all times hold in common (whether consciously, explicitly, or as expressed in behavior) that this value is
promotion of the common good carries with it the limitation of one's right or freedom. Thus, the right to important to uphold, follow, protect, preserve (Crowder. 2004). Professor Rachels also pointed out that
acquire and use one's properties may be validly subjected to State limitations, including the exercise of its the Importance of a universal value is that "there are some moral rules that all societies will have in
power of taxation, common, because those rules we necessary for society to nevive" (Rachels, 2004).

How will the fundamental powers of the State effect common good? Police power enables the Moral Absolutism: An ethical perspective on universal value
State to enact laws that promote and protect the welfare of the general public, which may be in the form
Moral absolutism is the ethical belief that actions can be judged as right or wrong hased on
of public health, public safety, public security, or general convenience. Power of eminent domain allows
absolute standards, regardless of the situational background or framework of the act. It holds that there
the State to take private properties for public use upon payment of just compensation and with
is a fundamental moral law inherent to the universe.
observance of due process during the act of expropriation. The same significant public objective is
attained when the State imposes taxes upon its citizens and their properties to generate revenues in The prominent ancient Western philosophers who believed in a kind of moral absolutism were
order to finance the necessary operations of the government. The power to tax is based from the Plato and Aristotle. The most prominent philosopher who promoted moral absolutism was Immanuel
assumption that the government's existence is a matter of necessity and such power is an attribute of Kant. In his Categorical Imperative, Kant said "So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or
sovereignty. Hence, no government can exist without taxes (5) Am. Jur. 42, as cited by Dimaampao, 2015). in another, always as an end, and never as only a means." Kant provided a concept of "good or goodwill
without qualification. In Kantian thought, all human actions should be based on doing what is good for
The power of taxation may also be used as a valid implement of police power just so that the
"others" (Le. fellow human beings and everything that exists in the natural world) without any
ends of society are achieved. In instances when it is difficult to regulate a certain kind of trade considered
conditions.
destructive to the moral fibres of society but the government cannot prohibit it either, then it can pass a
tax ordinance imposing a burden on the business so that eventually it ceases to operate. In the end, Advantages of Moral Absolutism
common good is attained through the promotion of public morals.
 It allows moral rules to be evaluated critically.
 It is fair as people are treated the same as the rules are the same for everyone.
 If a moral rule is right, then there would be no need to have different rules for different Fundamentalism is an approach to religion (and by extension moral philosophy) that literally
people because the absolute rules are universal. and strictly adheres to their religious doctrines. A collection of essays called "The Fundamentalist
Mindset" laid out the psychological structure or features of fundamentalism. These are:
Criticism to Moral Absolutism
1. Dualistic thinking: Fundamentalists are inclined to see the world in clear categories. You are
 Sometimes it is not appropriate to treat people the same due to circumstances that arise either good or bad, right or wrong, for them or against them. There is no room for context or probabilities
from different situations. in a fundamentalist's viese
 Life is not simply "black and white".
2. They are obsessed with the ultimate end for society and humanity. This mindset usually has two
The Challenge of Pluralism components: first, the current system must "end", and second, to witness a new beginning.
What is pluralism! Pluraliam as process refers to ways of recognition. It is a state of society in 3. Cult leadership. Fundamentalist groups are usually founded by a charismatic Seader who is
which members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious, or social groups maintain an autonomous participation able to wield total devotion from followers.
in and development of their traditional culture or special interest, within the confines of a common
civilization (WEB). 4. Total conversion and commitment. Members are fully immeried and committed to their
religious doctrine, Loyalty and commitment is not only expected, it is demanded.
In Philosophy, Pluralism is the theory that there is more than one basic substance or principle
(The Basics of Philosophy © 2008). In Ethics, Pluralism is the supposition that there are many Moral Absolutism versus Fundamentalism
independent sources of value and that there is no single truth, even in moral matters (The Basics of
Fundamentalism is a kind of Moral Absolutism but in a radical way. Moral absolutism is an
Philosophy © 2008). In Political philosophy, some points about pluralism claimed by pluralista in the
assertion that human beings should hase their behavior on univerial rases or as Kant prescribed
Pluralism Project at Havard University (Diana L. Eck 2006) are:
"goodwill without conditions". Fundamentalists, on the other hand, believe their doctrines ARE the
1. Pluralism is not diversity alone, but the energetic engagement with diversity, universal values that everyone SHOULD follow

2. Pluralism is not just tolerance, but the active seeking of understanding across lines of Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
difference.
a) Are the moral problems due to globalization discussed above affecting the political, social,
3. Pluralism is not relativism, but the encounter of commitments. economic, and environmental conditions of the Philippines! yes, in what way? If no, why not?

4. Pluralium is based on dialogue. b) (t's time to check your values. The saying "Treat others the way you want yourself to be
treated is an example of moral absolutism. Thus, since all of us want to survive, will you sacrifice yourself
Ethical Pluralism for the benefit of others even if it means your loved ones will suffer ton? Should you expect other people
Ethical pluralism (also moral pluralism/value pluralism) is the idea that values may be equally to sacrifice their life for you?
correct, and that there is no single moral system that can objectively judge an action to be right or wrong.
For example, assume a building is on fire and there are children trapped inside. A woman rushed inside
and saved the trapped children. Unfortunately, having inhaled toxic smoke, her lungs gave out and she LESSON 2: MILLENIALS AND "FILLENIALS": ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
died learing her own daughter an orphan. Was the woman morally correct in saving other children while
Pre-discussion: How different are you. Filipino millennials, from your parents? Watch a video that shows
leaving her own child an orphan? Or should she just have saved herself for the sake of her child?
some of the difference between baby boomers and millennials. Then, as a group, come up with a scenario
A moral pluralist would conclude that there is no definitive way to decide which is the better that shoves the moral values of the older generation versus the moral values of millennials. Discuss the
course of moral action. Indeed, moral pluralism declares that it is sometimes difficult to choose between factors that could have influenced these differences between generations.
competing values.
What to expect: Millennials are those born between 1981 and 2000. Authors Wiliam Strauss and Neil
The Challenge of Fundamentalism Howe are credited for coining the term "millennials". But who are the Filipino millennials? Get to know
the qualities of the "Fillennials" that make them different from their global contemporaries. However,
there is one thing not affected by generation gap-the Queen Bee. She is still buzzing around.
The Filipino Millenials ("Fillenials")  Filipino millennials are more active in social media and are more easily influenced by peers.
 61% feel pressured to portray themselves in the best way ponible in social media.
In a 2010 survey census, there are an estimated 25 million Filipino millennials or "Fillennialk"
 96% feel it is important to a positive contribution to the community.
(aged 15-29) in the Philippines. In 2015, Filipino millennials (aged15-34) make up 53% of the working
population and 45% of them were employed. Those who were in the 25-29 years age bracket were the However, despite the fast-moving world of social media and communication there are three enduring
highest percentage of Filipinos workers abroad. Most Filipino youths today own a mobile phone and use human truths about being young that as true today as they ever were in the previous generations.
the Internet. The Philippines was once dubbed as the social media capital of the world. It was found most
Filipino youth have a social media account and the Filipino millennials aged 20-29 are the most common 1. The notion of needing to "find yourself"
users of Facebook. Being young is still ridden with angst. They are at the stage wherein identity is being formed.
Currently, there are four generations working in the same workplace: Millennials go through the same agony of "trying to figure things out" specifically "to figure what kind of
person I am."
 Traditionalists – Those born from 1900-1945. The generation that lived through two World
Wars. Their formative years were that of survival. 2. “Friends are everything”
 Baby Boomers – Those born from 1946-1964. They are called "Baby Boomers" because of the Finding your group (barkada, ka-berks,dabarkadsbeshie) to hang out with is the key to
significant increase of population in their generation. establishing the sense of "self" and happiness.
 Generation X – Those born from 1965-1980. The generation born in the ers of video games and
computers. 3. "Finding your place in the world"
 Millennials – Those born from 1981-2000. They are also called the digital natives". They grew
This pursuit remains relevant across eras. The millennials still strive to figure out their values,
up in the digital age, rather than acquiring familiarity of it as an adult. The generation born in the
passions and ideals, as well as establishing their sense of personal justice of what is right and wrong.
internet era.
Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:
Generation Z is the fifth classification. These are those who were born in 2001 to the present. They
are also called the iGeneration. They are the generation born in an era of individualized mobile What issues caused moral friction between you and your parents? How did you resolve the
technologies (smartphones, tablets, iPad, iPhone, etc.) friction? Who was right? Why do you say that it was right?
By 2025, millennials are estimated to account for 75% of the global workforce. This means that
the attitudes and traits of these self-involved, selfie-taking individuals are what will be shaping various
industries, both as workers and consumers. So much extensive research is being done to get a better LESSON 3: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND RELIGION
picture of this generation.
Pre-discussion: As a group, come up with a scenario and portray the important contribution of religion to
Qualities of Fillennials humanity.

2016 study dubbed "The Truth About The Youth Philippines" was conducted by McCann Truth What is Religion
Central by McCann Worldgroup, a leading global marketing services company. This was part of a larger
Generally, religion is a "system of beliefs and practices" (Hopkins, et al., 2001). Religion and
study consisting of findings from 33,000 interviews across 18 countries including the US, Germany, Japan,
ethics are not synonymous. However, ethics and religion are often understood and treated as the same
and the Philippines.
thing. Various religions claim that their belief systems are the best way to live and that their faith
It turned out that there are things the Filipino millennials care more about than their millennial represents a path in enlightenment and salvation. Ethics on the other hand is not dependent on religion.
counterparts in other countries. Here are some of the interesting statistics: While religion promotes proper social behavior based on the teachings of a deity or a Supreme Being
ethics is a universal decision-making tool that may be used by any person from any religion, and even by
 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily on their parents for advice. atheists.
 On adulthood, Fileinnials value close family relationships.
 However, they also believe that the age limit for someone to continue living with their parents is The Role of Religion in a Globalized World
30 years old. The global average was surveyed at 32 years old.
Globalization made way for the creation of international for a through various organizations
where nations around the world participate (Le. the United Nations and ASEAN). Through these
organizations, issues that concern participant nations (peace, security, health issues, poverty, the
environment, etc.) are discussed. In discussing sues, these organizations generally share several of the
basic commitments (such as peace, human dignity, human equality, and conflict resolution) of religious
traditions (Bandchoff, 2008). Religious organizations also actively take part in international affairs.
Moreover, as themselves, religious groups have been involved in interreligious dialogues.

Globalization made possible for religions to come in direct contact with one another. An example
of this was the gathering at the UN's Millennium Peace Summit in September 2000. The Summit's
conversation encouraged the world's religious communities to stop fighting and arguing amongst
themselves and begin working together for peace, justice, and social harmony (Bandchoff, 2008),
Through readily available modes of communication, shared religious values such as human dignity and
human freedom can be relayed to each of their members at the shortest time, and this can be used at
means to manage religious diversity and avoid violence.

Queen Bee Alert! Tell your classmates what you think:

What role does your religion play in making the world a better place to live while co-existing
with other religions. Cite specific programs, activities, or endeavors as an example.

SUMMATIVE TEST

Based on what you have learned overall, answer the following:

1. What are the challenges to ethical behavior in today's world?

2. Is it still meaningful to search for universal values? Elaborate your answer.

3. How do we respond to an increasingly pluralist and individualist globalized world?

You might also like