Arab Spring

The term “Arab Spring” refers to the wave of protests that swept across the Arab world
beginning in December 2010 and lasting roughly through the spring of 2011. These events are
referred to by other names as well, such as the Arab uprisings, the Arab Awakening, and the
Arab Revolution. The protests represented cross-class popular mobilizations and were united in
demanding the end of ruling coalitions. A common slogan of the protestors in Arabic was Ash-
sha’b yurid isqat an-nizam (The people want to bring down the regime).1

Causes
 Political Repression
 Economic Grievances
 Corruption
 Authoritarian Rule
For forty years or more before the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old Tunisian
street vendor, that symbolically triggered the stunning wave of popular upheavals that swept
the Arab world, there had been little indication that the political landscape of the region would
be shaken up so dramatically by the train of political unrest still unfolding.
Despite widespread use of social media and modern information and communication
technologies (ICT) such as satellite television and the internet has sparked the revolutions and
facilitated the mobilization of rioters, this does not seem to be self-evidently the case and has
little to do with the underlying the economic and political roots of the uprisings.2
In fact, as a range of diverse but interconnected events have developed in distinct ways in
particular places, it appears that the uprisings across the region were motivated by similar sets
of socio-economic problems and political grievances, but that the outcomes vary from country
to country according to the role of security forces, the ethnic and sectarian makeup of the
society and the politico-institutional feature of the regimes
In an economic sense, although poverty and relatively low economic growth rates have been
among the region’s prominent economic predicaments (unpleasant situation) even for oil-
producing countries like Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Iraq, in absolute terms, they do not have
explanatory power per se (by themselves). Rather, more complex and longstanding structural
economic problems endemic to the Arab world came to a head prior to the events in 2011.

1
Arab Spring Marion W. Dixon
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-
0204.xml

2
Ekaterina Stepanova, “The Role of Information Communication Technologies in the “Arab Spring,” PONARS
Eurasia Policy Memo No.159(2011).
Before 2011, some Arab countries such as Egypt and Tunisia were in fact experiencing higher
economic growth rates than they had a decade earlier, with an increase of approximately 5
percent per annum; considerably above European rates, but low by the standards of emerging
market economies such as China and India.3
Moreover, compared to Asia/Pacific, Latin America/Caribbean and Sub-Saharan African
countries, most of the Arab states have experienced rapid progress in the Human Development
Index (HDI) over the past three decades. (Source: IMF, World Economic Outlook, April 2011.)
Along with it they fostered considerable progress in key human development outcomes,
including expected schooling, life expectancy, and infant mortality with annualized rates of
1.2%, 0.7%, and -3.8% respectively. Despite the relatively higher economic growth rates in the
last decade and rapid progress in HDI over the past three decades, the socio-economic
problems have continued to center on rising unemployment rates, particularly among youth,
unequal wealth distribution, non-competitive economic structure, and unresponsiveness of the
economies to the needs of changing demographic structures.
In general terms, the roots of growing political discontent have primarily lied at the core of two
endemic problems of the region: a freedom deficit and widespread corruption. In terms of
freedom, democracy and participatory governance, the Arab countries have been notoriously
bad compared to those of other developing countries in Latin America, East Asia, Eastern
Europe
In respect to these political parameters, the region, in general terms, consists of three major
types of regimes: praetorian republics (Praetorianism means excessive or abusive political
influence of the Armed Forces in a country. The word comes from the Roman Praetorian Guard,
who became increasingly influential in the appointment of Roman emperors. Daniel R.),
monarchies and “ethno-religious democracies”4 most severe and full-scale demonstrations
have occurred in the praetorian republics, such as Libya, Egypt, Syria, Yemen and Tunisia in
which the public enjoys very limited “voice and accountability” in comparison to monarchies,
except for Saudi Arabia, and democracies.
Despite the official calls to root out corruption, MENA countries, particularly the Arab states,
had a slight improvement in the control of corruption in the last 14 years before the Arab
Spring, from the 46.3 percentile in 1996 to 47.6 percentile in 2010.30 The anger over perceived
corruption and calls for rooting it out of the Arab world has also been noticeable in a number of
opinion surveys conducted in the wake of the uprisings. As reported in Figure 5, in sixteen of
eighteen Arab countries surveyed by YouGovCambridge31, a large majority of the 260,000
respondents gave priority to the corruption as the most important problem facing their

3
An Empirical Look To The Arab Spring: Causes And Consequences Muhammed Kürşad Özekin* , Hasan Hüseyin
Akkaş / ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/tjir/v13i1/f_0033740_27513.pdf
4
Wilson, “Economy: the Root of the Uprising,”
country, with the exceptions of Palestinian territories where the Arab Israeli conflict retains its
priority over other issues.
To sum up, in the wake of the Arab Spring, a widespread tendency revealed itself amongst
columnists and some scholars that the uprisings came into being as a result of factors such as
the spread of modern information and communication technologies (ICT) and social media
networks, as well as the globalization of democratic values and globally-orientated and digital-
savvy (the ability to make good judgments) youth as primary agents of change. To be sure, all
these factors seem to have played a considerable role in triggering as well as contributing to the
uprisings across the region, but neither one is fully convincing without an in-depth look into
similar sets of socio-economic and socio-political problems underpinning the domestic politics
of Arab states for near half a century.
As a range of diverse but interconnected events have developed in distinct ways in particular
places, it appears that despite the common motivations beneath the surface of the events,
their outcomes vary from country to country depending on a combination of factors such as the
government response, role of security forces, foreign intervention, the ethnic and sectarian
makeup of society and the politico-institutional characteristics of state structure.5

Timeline of events
i
Tunisia (December 2010 - December 2010: Mohamed January 2011: President Zine
January 2011): Bouazizi's self-immolation El Abidine Ben Ali flees the
triggers protests. country.
ii
Egypt (January 2011 - January 2011: Mass protests February 2011: President
February 2011): erupt in Cairo and other Hosni Mubarak resigns
cities.
iii
Libya (February 2011 - February 2011: Anti-Gaddafi October 2011: Muammar
October 2011): protests escalate into armed Gaddafi is captured and
conflict. killed.

iv
Yemen (January 2011 - January 2011: Protests February 2012: Saleh
February 2012): demand the resignation of officially transfers power.
President Ali Abdullah Saleh.
v
Syria (March 2011 - March 2011: Protests Ongoing: Escalation into a
ongoing): President Bashar al-Assad prolonged and devastating
begin. civil war.

Key Figures
Mohamed Bouazizi (Tunisia):
 Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation in December 2010 served as a catalyst for the
Tunisian Revolution.
5
Clement and Springborg, Globalization and the politics of development in the Middle East,
  His act symbolized frustration with economic hardships, unemployment, and
government corruption.
Hosni Mubarak (Egypt):
 Mubarak's 30-year presidency came to an end in February 2011 after weeks of protests
demanding his resignation.
 The Mubarak era was characterized by political repression and economic challenges.

Muammar Gaddafi (Libya):

 Gaddafi's four-decade rule ended in October 2011 after NATO-backed rebels captured
and killed him.
 The Libyan conflict involved a complex mix of tribal, regional, and ideological factors.

Ali Abdullah Saleh (Yemen):

 Saleh's 33-year rule in Yemen faced widespread protests, and he eventually agreed to
transfer power in 2012.
 Yemen's political transition remained fragile, leading to continued instability.
Bashar al-Assad (Syria):
 Assad faced mass protests that evolved into a protracted civil war.
 The Syrian conflict involved complex geopolitical dynamics and led to a humanitarian
crisis.
Consequences
1. Refugee Crisis
The Arab Spring, particularly in countries like Syria and Libya, led to internal conflicts and civil
wars, resulting in a significant refugee crisis. As violence escalated, millions of people were
displaced, both internally and externally, seeking safety and asylum in neighboring countries
and beyond.
Regional Consequences:
 Neighboring Countries: Countries like Lebanon, Jordan, and Turkey hosted large
numbers of Syrian refugees. This influx strained local resources, infrastructure, and
social services, contributing to economic and political challenges in these host nations.
Global Consequences:
 European Migration Crisis: The refugee crisis extended beyond the immediate region,
with many Syrians and other refugees attempting to reach Europe. The European Union
faced a substantial influx of migrants, leading to debates over immigration policies and
the strain on the Schengen Agreement.vi
2. Spread of Unrest to Other Regions
The Arab Spring inspired movements for political change and social justice in other regions,
creating a ripple effect beyond the Arab world.
Regional Consequences:
  Middle East and North Africa (MENA): Protests and movements emerged in countries
like Bahrain, Yemen, and Algeria, influenced by the events of the Arab Spring.
 Turkey: The Gezi Park protests in 2013 reflected a broader dissatisfaction with the
government and drew inspiration from the Arab Spring.
Global Consequences:
 Occupy Movement: The Occupy Wall Street movement and its global counterparts,
which began in 2011, shared themes of economic inequality and social justice, drawing
inspiration from the Arab Spring. (Newyork)vii
3. Impact on Global Politics
The Arab Spring reshaped the political landscape in the Middle East and had repercussions for
global geopolitics.
Regional Consequences:
 Political Realignment: Changes in leadership and power dynamics in countries like Egypt
altered regional alliances and relationships, impacting regional stability.
Global Consequences:
 Shift in Foreign Policy: The international community had to adapt to new political
realities, with changes in government impacting diplomatic relationships and foreign
policies.
 Security Concerns: The rise of extremist groups in the power vacuum left by conflicts,
such as ISIS in Iraq and Syria, posed global security challenges. viii
The Arab Spring had far-reaching consequences, creating complex challenges both within the
region and globally. The dynamics of the refugee crisis, the spread of unrest, and the impact on
global politics continue to shape geopolitical discussions and policy considerations.

Failure and Challenges

. Unfulfilled Promises of Reform
 Slow Pace of Reform: In some cases, the pace of implementing reforms was slow,
leading to frustration among the population. Governments made promises but struggled
to deliver tangible and immediate changes.
 Economic Challenges Persisted: Economic issues, including high unemployment rates
and economic inequality, persisted in many countries despite calls for economic
reform.ix
2. Return to Authoritarianism in Some Cases
While some countries saw initial transitions toward more open political systems, others
experienced a regression toward authoritarianism.

 Military Intervention: In Egypt, the military played a significant role after the ousting of
President Mubarak, leading to a period of military rule and a subsequent return to
authoritarianism under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.
  Repression and Crackdowns: In some cases, governments responded to protests with
increased repression, limiting political freedoms and reversing initial moves toward
democratization.
3. Continued Political Instability
 Civil Wars: Countries like Syria and Libya descended into civil wars, leading to prolonged
instability, significant loss of life, and displacement of populations.
 Power Vacuums: The removal of established leaders sometimes resulted in power
vacuums, creating opportunities for extremist groups and contributing to ongoing
conflict.

Legacy & Lessons

 Change in Political Landscape: The uprisings led to the overthrow of long-standing
leaders and the emergence of new political dynamics in countries like Tunisia and Egypt.
 Increased Activism: The Arab Spring inspired a wave of political activism and awareness,
with people demanding greater participation in governance and an end to corruption. x
2. Lessons for Future Movements
 Importance of Inclusivity: Movements that were more inclusive, representing diverse
segments of society, were often more successful in achieving lasting change.
 Challenges of Transition: The difficulties in managing the transition from authoritarian
rule to democracy highlighted the importance of planning for post-revolution
governance.xi
3. Assessing the Successes and Failures
The outcomes of the Arab Spring were mixed, with some countries experiencing positive
changes, while others faced prolonged conflict and instability.
Legacy:
 Mixed Successes: Tunisia is often considered a relative success story, with a peaceful
transition to democracy. However, other countries like Syria and Libya faced protracted
conflicts and humanitarian crises.xii
Civil War & Violence
1. Escalation of Violence in Syria
In Syria, what began as peaceful protests in 2011 demanding political reforms and the release
of political prisoners escalated into a full-blown civil war.
Dynamics of Violence:
 Government Repression: The Assad regime responded to protests with severe
repression, leading to increased popular discontent and resistance.
  Fragmentation: Over time, various factions and armed groups emerged, both opposing
the government and, in some cases, each other. This fragmentation intensified the
conflict.
Humanitarian Consequences:
 Displacement: The violence in Syria led to one of the largest refugee crises globally, with
millions of Syrians internally displaced and seeking refuge in neighboring countries and
beyond.
 Humanitarian Crisis: The conflict resulted in a severe humanitarian crisis, with
widespread displacement, food shortages, and inadequate access to healthcare. xiii
2. Civil Conflict in Libya
In Libya, the Arab Spring protests evolved into a broader uprising against Colonel Muammar
Gaddafi's regime, leading to international intervention.
Dynamics of Violence:
 International Intervention: NATO's intervention, initially aimed at protecting civilians,
escalated into a military campaign against Gaddafi's forces. The conflict took on an
international dimension.
 Fragmentation: Post-Gaddafi Libya experienced internal divisions, with different militias
vying for power, contributing to prolonged instability.
Humanitarian Consequences:
 Displacement and Instability: The conflict caused internal displacement and led to the
rise of human trafficking and migration across the Mediterranean.
 Economic Challenges: The civil conflict contributed to economic challenges, with
infrastructure damage and disruptions affecting daily life.xiv

OVERVIEW
COUNTRY Commo Governme Role of Foreign Ethnic and Politico-
n nt Security Interventi Sectarian Institutional
Motivati Response Forces on Makeup Characteristi
ons cs
Tunisia Political Political - Limited Limited Diverse Transition to
reforms compromi use of external society with a more
se; force; interventi Arab- inclusive
President' military on Muslim government
s neutrality majority
departure
Egypt Political Mubarak Violent Limited Predominan Political
reforms; ousted; crackdow foreign tly Arab- instability;
Econom Transition
n on interventi Muslim Military
y to military
protests; on population involvement
rule Military (initially)
control
Libya Political Gaddafi Armed Significan Ethnically Fragmentati
reforms; ousted; conflict; t foreign diverse; on; Ongoing
Democra Civil war NATO interventi Arab-Berber conflict
cy and power interventi on divide
vacuum on against
Gaddafi
Syria Political Harsh Brutal Substanti Complex Ongoing
reforms; crackdow repressio al foreign ethnic and conflict;
Democra n on n; Use of interventi sectarian Humanitaria
cy protests; military on composition n crisis
Civil war and
militias
Yemen Political Political Internal Foreign Divided Humanitaria
reforms; instability; conflict; interventi along n crisis;
Econom Civil war Saudi-led on (Saudi- sectarian Political
y interventi led lines deadlock
on coalition)
Bahrain Political Crackdow Use of External Sectarian Suppression
reforms n on security interventi divisions of dissent;
protests; forces; on (GCC (Sunni-Shia) Political
Foreign GCC support) unrest
military interventi
aid on (Saudi
troops)
 i
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ii
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iii
Trofimov, Y. (2013). "Yemen: Dancing on the Heads of Snakes." Random House.
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iv
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v
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vi
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vii
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viii
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ix
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x
Trofimov, Y. (2013). "Yemen: Dancing on the Heads of Snakes." Random House.
 Lackner, H. (2018). "Yemen in Crisis: Autocracy, Neo-Liberalism and the Disintegration of a
State." Saqi.
xi
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xii
Beinin, J., & Vairel, F. (2013). "Social Movements, Mobilization, and Contestation in the
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xiii
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xiv
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