MTE 3252: ENERGY AND HEAT TRANSFER

Thermodynamics:

Absolute Pressure Toe total pressure or absolute pressure is thus the sum of gauge
Gauge Pressure pressure and atmospheric l!ressure: Pabs= P8+ P!tm
Atmosnheric Pressure
The Gibbs phase rule P+F==C+l: Toe number of phases P, Degree of Freedom - F and
Comoonents C
Energy Balance On.t,m - Wn«,cut = AU
equation for a cycle
Enthaluv H = U + PV where U - Internal energy_ P- Pressure V - Volwne
Work Transfer - Wb " f12 6W = f12 PdV = W12•
Closed system.
A) Constant Volume -Wb=O.
B) Constant Pressure 2
Wb= fi2PdV =P 1 dV f = P4V = mP4v
C)
Temperature
Constant
w.., = f1
2
P dV = cft~dV =Cln~ = P1 V1 ln~ = P1 V1 ln~
D) Adiabatic Process: Wb = f12 p dV = C f12v-n dV = C Y2 - n+~n-+:1-n+1 = P2V~==1V1
n = adiabatic index
E) Polytropic Process; Wb= f12PdY= cJtv-n dV = cv2-n+~n-+:1 - n+1 = P2V~==1V1
n - oolvtrooic index
Specefic heat c,,=c.+R
capacities and Gas
constants relationship Cp=Cv+Ru k= c,,/ c,,
Heat transfer - Closed
svstem-
At constant Volume 112-u, = c.,.,,. (T2-T1)
At constant Pressure
h2-h1 = c,,,... (T2-T1)
At constant Wb = (PdV =Cfi2~dV = CJn:='.! = P1 V1 tn:!! = P1 V1 ln!!
Temperature Qt,= V V1 V1 P2

Steady A1,A~ofsueam,m1
flow W1, Wr-tlJalS ftowntc, kg/I
P,,-aboolut,,N/m'
energy v1, v2-specific volume, m'lka
equation u1, 11z-tpeeific inlemal enerzy,J/q
V 1, V;z-velocity,m/1
Z1, Zz-elcYltion above an arbitrary dllum, m

Mass
Balance

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Efficiency of reversible
heat engine
1J
rev
&IJ
mu.
=1-(.!?L)
QI rev
=I-Ii_
7i
COP of refrigerator
(COP),.,,•--2L_ [COP..,.J,..•_L
Q, -Q, ; 7j - T,
COP of Heat Pump
/COPH_,J_ . __Ii_
7j -T,
Change in Entropy for any
process
4Q Sd.r
T
Clausius Inequality
If f Iii •0, lbe cycle is revenible,
f 4i < 0, the cycle ia irrevenible and possible

Entropy change of an ideal

gas
f,
Tdr •du+pdv
> 0, tbc: cyc:le is impossible,

Td.r•dh-vdp
for aa ideal gas, du • c. dT, dh • c. dT, aad ov • RT,
Properties of pure v .. v,+xv11 x = dryness fraction, subscript
substances
u - 11r+xu11 f - saturated liquid, subscript
fg = difference in saturated
h •h,+x hr1
gas aud saturated liquid
3 = 3t+ X St& values.

Applied Thermodynamics:

Isentropic fo•ntropic E111halp1· Chung,• (h,1.,. - h I

111 1
Efficiency of ·•~ .
Act11af Emhalpy Change • th1 -h1 l
Compressor aud (!)
Power The compressor power can be calculated by
Power • (1i1)( h -11 )• (iil )( h.,,,, -h,)
1 1
11,...
(2)

Volumetric
efficiency of Vapor ... -
Actual volume or gas drawn II evapoouor JJ1C1SUJO lllld
PistoD dlsplacemaa
...,,,_nin,
compression cycle
:. Volume of s•• bandied by lbe compressor

• W·"t(m
3
/1)•(fo'L¾• )x IJ,o1
wbcre w is the refrigerant flow rate,
v 1 i1 the specific volume of the re&igerant at the compretlOI' illlet,
D andl are 1hc diameter and stroke oftbe compreuor.
n is thenwnberorcyli..aderliD lhe«m1pmsor,ancl
N is the r.p.m.

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Fluid Mechanics:

Pronerties of Fluids
l .) Mass densltv or Soeciflc mass (ke/m3 )
Al Mass(kg)
~Vokme(mS)
"
p=;_ For Liquids water at 4CIC. p = 100::> ko,'m3
Forgases, iWat 1~atsealevet. p-122ko/m'
2. l Soeclflc weiebt or Wel•bl densltv fN/m'l
J.) Snecific 2ravity or Relative densitv
p.-u,=100::>kQlml
S=~ S= 1 (for water at4oC)
P~1-4fhu,j
S=13.6 ' for ..~-·•
4. l Snecllic volume Im' I k•l
¥ M= Mass(kg)
,i,=;;;

.
~=Vol....,(m')
5.) Newton's Law ofViscositv
r = Shear stress (N/m2)
T = µdy µ = Dynamic Viscosiy (Nslm')
- Rate of shear strail or Velocity gradient (Is)
6. l Ostwald-de Waele Model

r=m(*f r = Shear stress (Nlm2)

m = Flow behavior" index
n = Flow c:onsislency index
.,
~ - Ral:e of shear strain or Velocity !Tcl(ler1I: (Is)

7.l Ideal Plastic Fluid

du , • Shear stress (Nml2)
r • IJ.;;;+ra ,, • Initial yiekl S1ress vak,e (Nlfnl)
• - Dynamic Viscosiy (Ns/m')
• Rate of shear strain or Vek)dty 1JacierC (Is)

8.) Effect ofTemnerature on Vlscosltv of Li11uids

µ(t) = 11-o (1 +at+ Pt 2 ) ,., • Viscosiyof- atO"C = 1.79x10'P

a = 0.03368, fl = 0.000221
r • T--rure 1cc\
9.) Effect ofTemnerature on Vlscositv of Gases
µ(t) =µ 0 + at +Pt 2 ,., • Viscooily of - at O"C =0.000017 P
a • 56x10,., p • 0.1189x10,.
t•T8ff1)erab.Jre(GC)
10.l Kinematic Vlscositv (m1/sl
v=~ µ = llynamic Viscosiy (Nslm')
p p = Massdensiy(k!>'ffl')

11.) Relationship between Pressure and Surface Tension

For a liquid droplet

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 .,;
<Pi-Po),.,{)
p,= Inside pressin (Win')
For a liquid jet P. = OU1slde prasscre (Nim')
D = IJiameler al dnll)lel /jet/ bulllle (m)
• = &rnlce lension (Nim)
<Pi-Po)•~

.
For a hollow bubble

<P1-Po)"",i

12.) Expression for Capillary rise or deoression

h = C3plary raise or depression
4acos9 • = &rnlce lension (Nim)
h=-- 8 = N<je al oontact (' )
pgd
p = Mass densly (kg/m')
d = Oiameler al capilary tube (m)
g=-clJek>gravly=9.81 m/5'
13. Bull< modulus (N/m2) and Compresslbllltv (m 2/N\
K = Bult rnocllJus (Nhn'}
dP = Chalge in presstl'e (Nim')
K•-~lt.
61,t. ~=Voll.metric strain
; = Volirne (m')
- 2x10' kNlm'
Ka= 101 kNlm'(at STP)

14. Thermodynamic properties ofDulds

a) The eouation ofstate for perfect eas
e_•RT
p

b) For Isothermal process

~= Constant R = Gas constan1: for ai' = '1B7 .Ml.OK

p p=--("""12)
p=K p = Mass densty(kghn')
T = Abso1"8 temperakn ('I<)
K=a..Mod""5
k = Ratio at specific heal at oas at constant pres5lJ'e to
that at constari YOkme
c) For Adiabatic process
~ • Constant
Pft=K

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Buovan9'
l.) Buoyant force (N)

Fa= p g.V F, = 8uoyart force (N)

p = Density " the fluid (l<Olm')
ll=Vollmedlheliquiddisplacedbythe-c,fi.ly
irmMned tvvtv
2.) Net weight ofhody submerged in liquid (N)

w. ,=wA-Fa w~ = N e t - ci lhe pa,talycx f\My irmlersed body (N)

WA= Weqlt cl lhe body 'tlltieo l"I ai' (N)
F, = 8uoyart force (N)
3,) Meta centric height (m)

GM=BM • BG GM= Meta cef1rlc h8iOhl (m)

BM= Meta cef1rlc radius (m)
BG = ~ce between Center cl buoyancy and Cef1er cl
grayily(m)
4.) Metacentric height - Analytical method

GM =2f"-sc GM=Metacef1richei0ht(m)
1,, = Area momert cl nertia rJ plane cl tloalati:>n about
'°""'Oa>cis(m')
ll=Voi.medliQUiddisplaced bythe portialy"""'°'Oed
body(m')
BG = Distance .,._, Center d buoyancy and Cer<er d
grayily(m)
5,) Metacentric height -Experimental method

•=Al'4fedheel(degae)
GM=.!!.l.x-'- GM= Meta cemic height (m)
w ra,.(8) w, = Wagtt or sma1 mass ffl0Yed on the deck ct lhe ship
(N)
W = Weight d the ,t;p alone 11<0)
X = Distance cl moveme,t of W1 (m)

6.) Time period of oscillation of Doatin2 bodv

T=Z,r~
Cllf :.:g

Laminar and Turbulent flow

~=
T=Trneperiodofoscilation(s)

~...J;'lm,
a= Acceleralon due to gav1ty = 9.e1 rrn2

1.) Flow of viscous fluid throu gh a circular pipe:

a) Shear stress distribution

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 r = Shear stress (N/m 2)
r=-~W Tm.a: = Maximum sheer stress (N/m 2)
r = Radial distance which can vary
from Oto radius of pipe R (m)
D = Diameter of the pipe (m)
L = Length of the pipe (m)
0 = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
p, and p2 = Pressure intensities at
sections 1 and 2
Ap = Pressure drop (N/m 2 )

~::: Pressure gradient (Nlm 3)

µ = Dynamic viscosity (Nslm2)

u = Velocity at radial distance r (mis)
ii= Average velocity (mis)
Fo = Total drag force (N)
b) Velocity distribution

11=-_J_x~ x(R' -r' )

4µ ax
c) Drop ofpressure over a given length ofpipe (Hagen-Poiseuil/e Formula)

t:,p=(p, -Pi)= 32µ,:Z- = 128µQL

- D- trD'
d) The total drag force on the pipe ofle11gth L,

F0 =r_x2trRL

2.) Flow of viscous fluid between two fixed narallel olates

a) Shear stress distribution

t = Gap between the plates

r=-
I ap
a;:(t-2y) y = Normal distance from one of the
2 fixed plate (0 Sys t)

ap = Pressure gradient (Nim')

ax
u = Velocity at distance y (mis)
ii= Average velocity (mis)
Ap = Pressure drop (Nlm 2 )
L = Length of the plates (m)
µ = Dynamic viscosity (Nslm 2 )

b} Velocity distribution

II =-_1_1'.(ty- / )
2µ ax
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c) Drop in pressure for a length L ofplates:

12 iiL
t,p = (Pt - p, ) = _£_ - ,2
3.) Power reouired to maintain a laminar flow between two sections 1 and 2:
P=Power{W)
P=(p, -A)xQ pi and p2 = Pressure intensities at
sections 1 and 2 (N/m 2)
0 = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)

4.) Revnolds number tfor flow throul!'b circular nine)

p = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
R _ pVD V = Average velocity of now (mis)
e- D = Diameter of pipe (m)
µ µ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid (Ns/m 2)
5.) Darcy-Weisbach equation

4{LV 2
h1=2g0

..
ht= Head loss due to friction (m)
L = Length of pipe (m)
f = !! for Re < 2000 (laminar flow) V = Average velocity of flow (mis)
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
I_
..
o.079
--;:r,:r
6.) Chezy's equation
for 4000 :S Re :S 106 (Turbulent flow}
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
m/s2
f = Coefficient of friction

V=C..fmi V = Average velocity of flow (mis)

c = Chezy's constant
D
m=-=
4
Hydraulic mean depth Of

hydraulic radius
D = Diameter of pipe (m)

; = !!£ = Loss of head per unit length of

L
pipe
7.) a). Head lost due to sudden enlargement

h = (Jii-V,)'
• 2g

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b). Head lost due to sudden contraction

h =kV,' V = Average velocrty of flow (mis)

v, and V2 = Velocrty of flow
• 2g
immediately before and after the

k=(f-1)'
enlargement/contraction of pipe (mis)
V0 = Exit Velocity (mis)
where,
k• = Coefficient of bend
koo = Coefficient of obstruction
Area at vena contracta
c, k,r = Coefficient of pipe fittings
Area after contraction
g = Acceleration due to gravity= 9.81
If C, is not known, k = 0.5 mis2
c). Bead lost due to entrance at a pipe

h =o.sv,'
' 2g

d). Head lost due to exit from the pipe

v'
h =....!...
0 2g
e). Head lost due to bend In the pipe

h =k,V'
• 2g
I). Head lost due to a pipe fitting

t,.,v'
hfi,=~
g). Head lost due to an obstruction In the pipe

k v'
h,,. =-,,.--
2g

where, k.,.=[--·'--tr
C,(.<-a)
and C, =-• •-
(.< -n)

A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m 2)

o = Maximum area of obstruction (m 2)

a~= Cross sectional Area at vena contracta (m2)

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8.) Power lost due to frictional losses (kW)
P = pgQhr g =Acceleration due to gravity =9.81
mls2
1000 p = Fluid densrty (kg/m 3 )
Q = Discharge through pipe (m 3)
hr = Head loss due to friction (m)
Heat Transfer
1.) Heat Row rate (W)

Q=~ .4T0 .n-a, = 0Yerall dfterence In temperature (-C or IC)

• R = Thermal resistrce (KNV)
1.1.1 Conduction A = An!a(m')
k =ThennalconclJdlvityfN/rrK)

mJ
L =Thckness(m)
Tw = Walten,)eralu'e
T. Fklidlelnperal\n

h ~ h e a l ........ ooeffidenl fNlm'K)

TI, T 2 Temperah,n at Z8fO and L planes /
Raeia!ir1Qsurface18-...
.........;. Corodon
o = Slel'an Boltzmann constant

R=1;_ , ~=f
(5.67x 10--'WhnZK")
F Raciation Shape factor

km= k (1 ±aT':12)
"'" MeanttlermalCXllWCIMlyfN/rrK)
0

2.) Convection

I
R=-
hA

3.) Radiation

I
R = 11AF(T1 i + T2 2)cr, + T:z)

P age 37 I 42
Stead state conduction
1.) Heat Dow rate (W)

Q = .6.T~naU
a. Hollow Cylinder
r,, l'J = lmerandoulerradi (m)
Ti. To = lmerandoulerswfacetemperatin
L = LenQlllof-(m)
Ta, To = Fudterni:,erallXeoutskleandlnside
l 1, lz.U = Tti:koessdlayerS(m)
k,,lu,lu = ConOJdMtydlayeB1.28003
tb. re = COnvectMt coeffldert al a n b

b) Hollow sphere

c) Composite plane wall with convection on sides

P age 38 I 42
d) Composite cylinder with convection

L.eng11lof-(m)
Fklid--and

...... inside
ConvectiYe ooeffldenl at a and b
k, , lu,lu Conducllvity of layers 1,2 and 3
To, T1 Fklid _ . . , . ..-and inside
kA,ke..•kG Thermal conduchities of A,B....G

,.,_,., ,.,
l.A,u ...lA
___
Thickness of the ldab A. B ....G (m)
Alea perpencicua to heat flow of
materials A.B .... G

e) Composite sphere with convection

f) Series-parallel composite layers

Page 39 I 42
Fins

T. , T. = St.rroumlg fluid '8mperai,e ("C)

T• = F11base~("C)
T = T8l'Tll)eraU'eat(IQ,ce11frombase("C)
L =F11lerlglh(m)
m = F11mnstanl(rrr1)
a = Healtransrertromnn(W)
=Fi'laffldency
£ =Fi'l"'8ct¥ef1ess
9, = Ternc,e,alnclfference(Tr-T.)
i2 = Ternc,e,aknclfference(TrTa)

m = J(hP/kA)

a) Long fin (TL= Too)

b) Short fin (adiabatic end)

= (Ta, -T.. )(hPkA)D.5 tanh(mL)

;:;:;::
T-T.a
= cosll(m(L-.r)) Q

'ltln = tan:~mL) ' £ = tanh(mL)(Pk/hA)o.s

c) Short fin (convective loss from end)

T-T.. cosh(m(L-x))+(l'l/mJr:)stnh.(m[L-.rl)
T,,-r., cosla(mL)+(l'l/mJr:)sfnh.(mL)

Q =(T0 - Tm) :::/:::.c::::) (hPkA)

65

l rtanh(mL)+(ll/mt))
'lftn = ;;;L' l+(h/mk)tanlt(mL) '

Page 40 I 42
 at different temperatures
d) Bar connected to two beat sources

T -Ta = e,sinlt(m~.t=~.::tblh(nu")
Q = (8 1 + 82 ) C::!.~; (hPkA)o.s
1

Heat exchangers:

Q = UA!J.T1m
Q = ,cmin(T1 - t 1)
I.) LMID method

a). Parallel flow

T Entry temperature of hot fluid {•C)
1
T, Exit temperature of hot fluid C-C)
,, Entry temperature of cold fluid c•q

b). Coumer flow

,, Exit temperature of cold fluid C-C)
Q Heat transfer rate (W)

u Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

A Heat transfer area (m 2)

ti.Tim Logarithmic mean temperature rq
c). Multi pass and cross flow: aT1mcf Counter flow LMTD
F Correction factor (based on P, Rand heat
Q = FUA!J.T1mcf exchanger type (Refer chart)