Jurnal Artikel Kelompok 1 - s40712-021-00139-1

Rabbi et al.
International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

(2021) 16:15
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40712-021-00139-1
REVIEW ARTICLE Open Access
Injection-molded natural fiber-reinforced

polymer composites–a review
M. S. Rabbi1* , Tansirul Islam1 and G. M. Sadiqul Islam2
Abstract
For the last couple of decades, researchers have been trying to explore eco-friendly materials which would
significantly reduce the dependency on synthetic fibers and their composites. Natural fiber-based composites
possess several excellent properties. They are biodegradable, non-abrasive, low cost, and lower density, which led
to the growing interest in using these materials in industrial applications. However, the properties of composite
materials depend on the chemical treatment of the fiber, matrix combination, and fabrication process. This study
gives a bibliographic review on bio-composites specially fabricated by the injection-molding method. Technical
information of injection-molded natural fiber reinforcement-based composites, especially their type and
compounding process prior to molding, are discussed. A wide variety of injection-molding machines was used by
the researchers for the composite manufacturing. Injection-molded composites contain natural fiber, including
hemp, jute, sisal, flax, abaca, rice husk, kenaf, bamboo, and some miscellaneous kinds of fibers, are considered in
this study.
Keywords: Natural fiber, Bio-composites, Injection molding, Compounding process
Introduction Evaluation of composite materials, their advance-

Researchers are being attracted to study the fabrication ment in both structure and manufacturing technology,
of bio-composites because of the growing interest in had been a milestone in material history. Two mate-
using these composites. It is because the bio-composite rials that are distinctive physically and chemically
material possesses some magnificent qualities when con- would create composite materials. This shows com-
trasted with that of synthetic fiber based. Fibers can be pletely different properties from their constituents.
harvested from renewable resources and provide efficient Between the two materials, one is lighter, and the
stress transfer due to having along aspect ratio. Natural other is stronger. The former is known as matrix,
fibers can be of three types: animal, plant/vegetable, and while the latter is known as reinforcement. Matrix
mineral. Plant/vegetable fibers are the most viable fiber generally works with exchanging stress between rein-
to work as a reinforcement of composite materials. forced fibers and protects them from outside harm.
Among all plant fibers, hemp, jute, sisal, flax, abaca, On the other hand, reinforcement improves hydro-
kenaf, bamboo, rice husk, etc., have caught attention phobicity, durability, wettability, firmness of the com-
(Bledzki & Gassan, 1999; Li et al., 2000; Satyanarayana posites, and their various strengths (Joseph et al.,
et al., 1990; Hornsby et al., 1997; Hepworth et al., 2000; 1996; Chandramohan & Marimuthu, 2011; Lau et al.,
Rozman et al., 2000; Sinha et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2018; 2018; Sarikaya et al., 2019; Huang & Young, 2019;
Adeniyi et al., 2019; Tholibon et al., 2019). Espinach et al., 2017; Jeyapragash et al., 2020; Jariwala
& Jain, 2019; Le Bourhis & Touchard, 2021; Dasore
et al., 2021).
* Correspondence: [email protected] The problem with using natural fibers as
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chittagong University of
Engineering and Technology (CUET), Chattogram 4349, Bangladesh
reinforcement is that they do not provide much adhe-
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article sion to the polymers. However, chemical treatments of
© The Author(s). 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons
licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons
licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Rabbi et al. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (2021) 16:15 Page 2 of 21
the fiber surface can mitigate this. Researchers have tried of tools, minimization of cycle time, recycling conveni-
various types of chemical treatment such as alkaline, si- ence, etc., are the significant advantages of natural fiber-
lane, acetylation, acrylation, maleated coupling agent, based composites. In addition, thermoplastics-based on
and so on (Fiore et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2019; Sood & mineral fillers with ash residue expose a significant char-
Dwivedi, 2018; Chung et al., 2018; Punyamurthy et al., acteristic as energy can be recovered from the compos-
2014; Anbupalani et al., 2020). This surface treatment ites (Nyström, 1999/2000).
process of fiber substantially improves the attachment In the case of the closed mold composite manufactur-
between the polymer and fiber, which brings out better ing process, the injection-molding technique leads to
material characteristics. other thermoplastics and thermosets manufacturing pro-
Another critical factor that plays a vital role in com- cesses. Numerous researchers studied the feasibility of
posite properties is the manufacturing process. Prior to natural fiber composites fabricated by this technique fo-
manufacture, the fiber and matrix should be com- cusing on the application in the industrial sector. This
pounded. Many researchers have adopted different com- study represents a comprehensive and rigorous review of
pounding or mixing techniques. Single/twin screw the previous studies. It depicts the research works by dif-
extruder, two roll mill ball machine, k-mixer, etc., are ferent researchers on key features of the IM process, and
some common types of machines used to compound its application in fabricating natural fiber-reinforced
fiber and polymer. The compounded materials are then composites.
transferred for the manufacturing process. Different
composite fabrication processes are shown in Fig. 1. Injection molding
Among various composite manufacturing processes, Injection molding (IM) had a fast development because
injection molding is famous for mass production. Apart of the advancement of the new application zones such as
from this, other familiar processes are pultrusion, hand automotive, hardware/apparatuses, medical, and bund-
layup, vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VART ling enterprises. The intricacy of the IM procedure re-
M), etc. (Elkington et al., 2015; Balasubramanian et al., quests a greatly improved comprehension of the
2018; Tamakuwala, 2020; Baran et al., 2017; Jaafar et al., material conduct during the fundamental phases of the
2019). This paper deals with the composite that had procedure, the physical phenomena occurring, and its
been fabricated using the injection-molding process. connection to the properties and execution of the last
Thermoplastics produced by injection-molding tech- formed part (Fernandes et al., 2018). IM can be per-
nique have been utilized for many decades, ranges from formed with a vast gathering of materials, including
small household staffs to extreme performance automo- metals, glasses, elastomers, confections, and most gener-
bile parts (Wong & Mai, 1999; Shon & White, 1999; ally thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers (Mohan
Schut, 2002a; Schut, 2003; Fara & Pavan, 2004; Thoma- et al., 2017). Today more than 33% of polymeric items
son, 2002; Miklos & Gregory, 2003). Low wear and tear are created with the utilization of IM (Osswald &
Fig. 1 Major polymer matrix composites fabrication process

Hernández-Ortiz, 2006). The entire procedure is con- Many researchers have been working for a long time
founded due to the complex thermo-mechanical changes to introduce more techniques in the IM process and
of molten liquid polymer. After selecting the suitable make it more efficient. Teraoka (Shoichi, 1968) invented
and appropriate materials, generally, the IM process a new and valuable injection-molding machine with an
consists of the following cyclic process: injector with a plurality of heads that may be selectively
engaged with a plurality of mold elements. Roger (Roger,
(i) Charging the cylinder 1954) made an invention to provide in a clamp having a
(ii) Mold closing double-acting clamping piston and cylinder and having a
(iii)Polymer plasticization double-acting elevating or traversing piston and cylinder,
(iv) Injection/pressure an arrangement such that injection may be provided for,
(v) Cooling either axially through one platen or laterally at the part-
(vi) Ejection or removal of the finished ing plane. Laczko (Laczko, 1975) made development to
give an improved control intends to persistently and
The quality of the final product is crucial in IM successfully observe the consistency and nature of prod-
process as this technique is mostly used for mass pro- ucts created by an IM machine. Havlicsek and Alleyne
duction. Compounding is one of the critical operations (Havlicsek & Alleyne, 1999) inspected the controlling
which play a significant role in the outcome of the IM technique of an industrial injection-molding (IMM) ma-
process. Compounding can be referred to as a process of chine. Such kind of machine is suitable for mold-filling
melt blending of polymers and other additives (natural and mold-packing process. Dinerman and Steffens
fibers in this regard) to enhance the better mechanical (Dinerman & Steffens, 1991) introduced a positive action
properties of the composite. Large, toll, and special com- shut-off valve to provide correspondence between a
pounders are available in the market to provide proper valve inlet and outlet. Piotter et al. (Piotter et al., 1997)
function as per requirement. Usually, in the compound- updated an IM machine outfitted with a unique control
ing process, long fibers are fed to the near end of the ex- unit. The manufacturing apparatus temperature can be
truder to mix with the appropriate matrix (polymer). kept above the liquefying temperatures of the polymers
After compounding, the product in the form of granules within the injection time frame. Matsuda et al. (Matsuda
is fed into the IM machine’s hopper. Single and twin- et al., 1990) presented an invention of an IM which in-
screw extruders are the most used compounding ma- jects a liquefied resin into the cavity of a mold to form
chines available in the market. A typical flow-process plastic moldings. Rees et al. (Rees et al., 1982) made a
chart to prepare natural fiber-based composite products turret type IM machine for facilitating the separation of
using the IM process is given in Fig. 2. freshly molded work pieces from projections or cores of
Fig. 2 Flowchart of IM process to prepare natural fiber-based composites

a turret on which they are retained after the mold has combination of IM, additive manufacturing, and “Indus-
opened. Boehm et al. (Schad, 1984) presented a type of try 4.0” technologies.
two-shot IM, where the primary shot structures the key Zhang et al. (Zhang et al., 2019) introduced the idea of
button’s outside surface. This is “shell first” two-shot cloud manufacturing (CMfg) in the IM-based industry.
IM. Schadn (Schad, 1986) invented “hot runners” for Madan et al. (Madan et al., 2015) concentrated on IM,
supplying hot molten plastic material to several mold where energy can play a vital role as a sustainability indi-
cavities under controlled pressure and temperature con- cator. They proposed the guideline for the unit manufac-
ditions and with generously stream rates. Glaesener turing process as (i) estimation, (ii) performance
(Glaesener & Kestle, 1997) gave securing and clamping evaluation and benchmarking, and (iii) improvement.
assembly to use with the bars of both singular and tan- Kumar et al. (Kumar et al., 2016) went through a com-
dem IM machines. Wenger (Karl, 1964) improved IM, prehensive analysis focusing on handling factors of poly-
particularly in die closing, locking, and sealing means for mer injection-molding (PIM) technique to enhance the
such machines. The machine of his invention is particu- casting of HDPE/cenosphere composites. Scluf et al.
larly suited for molding shaped articles consisting of (Schift et al., 2000) have demonstrated that the combin-
thermoplastic material, but the machine is equally useful ation of hot embossing and IM process can be per-
for casting metallic objects. Schad and Pocock (Schad & formed to produce nanostructures. Link et al. (Link
Pocock, 1989) developed an IM especially for empty et al., 2019) disclosed some methods of operating an IM
plastic materials which are blow formed into containers. machine: (a) releasing a clamping pressure holding a first
A nonlinear mathematical model has been developed by mold section and a second mold section together. The
Chiu et al. (Chiu et al., 1991) based on the Reynolds first mold section is mounted to a movable platen, and
transport theorem to investigate the mold filling process. the second is mounted to a stationary platen. The
Such theorem is used to explain the polymer stream ele- method further includes (b) translating the movable
ments. Through a closed conduit, the filling process of platen in an opening direction away from the stationary
the mold is estimated by the transient flow platen to open the mold. The translating step includes
phenomenon. Sadeghi (Sadeghi, 2000) contemplated the translating the movable platen from a mold-closed pos-
prospect of anticipating the adequacy of the injection- ition to an over-travel position spaced axially apart from
molded parts using an ANN model and dependent on the mold-closed position. The method further comprises
CAE software simulations. Schmidt (Schmidt, 1994) in- (c) translating the movable platen in a closing direction
troduced an invention relates to the IM machine of the opposite the opening direction from the over-travel pos-
hot runner type. A bimetallic clamp arrangement has ition to a transfer position axially intermediate the
taken place in the arrangement to confirm a hot element mold-closed position and the over-travel position, and
located in a specific position around a nozzle body prior (d) moving a take-out device from a retracted position
to feeding molten materials to a mold cavity. Galt et al. to an advanced position. The take-out device is clear of
(Galt et al., 1998) invented a hydraulic IM machine that the first and second mold sections when in the retracted
improved and more straightforward sound insulation. As position, and the take-out device reaches between the
the thickness of the demolded material varies with the first and second mold sections when in the advanced
requirement, it is impossible to directly compare IM position for receiving articles from the first mold section
cycle time and polymerization time (Piotter et al., 1997). when the movable platen is in the transfer position. The
Ribeiro (Ribeiro, 2005) developed a system to monitor method further includes (e) transferring articles from
in-process data, which can react rapidly to unsettling in- the first mold section to the take-out device. The articles
fluences. Thiriez and Gutowski (Thiriez & Gutowski, are received in retained engagement in the take-out
2006) made an environmental investigation of IM, which device when the take-out device is in the advanced
reveals that the type of IM machine (hydraulic, hybrid, position, and the movable platen is in the transfer
or all-electric) has a significant effect on the specific en- position. Ohba et al. (Ohba et al., 2009) proposed a
ergy consumption (SEC). Mianehrow and Abbasian novel sensorless force-control technique where the
(Mianehrow & Abbasian, 2017) measured the SEC of IM reaction torque observer measures the reaction
machines six in numbers and the EC profile during one torque instantly and perfectly without any effect of
complete cycle of the IM process. They investigated the torsion. Kuo and Chang suggested a turbo injection
influence of various parameters related to the machine mode (TIM) for a pivotal transition engine that can
and process on EC. Furthermore, they provide favorable provide specific injection force onto a compactly de-
circumstances of energy saving in the IM process. Gaub signed IM machine. Figure 3 illustrates the two-wye-
(Gaub, 2015) suggested that an automated, digitally net- wye winding structure of such a machine, and it can
worked cyber-physical production system would be cost- be operated in two distinct levels of speed range
effective to create single-unit batches. They used the (Kuo & Chang, 2015).
IM machine. The mixtures were grounded in a grinding

mill before extrusion, and the extrudates were chopped
into pellets before IM. Guillermo Cantero et al. (Cantero
et al., 2003) discussed the impact of chemically treated
fiber on mechanical characteristics and wettability. Be-
fore molding, flax fiber and polypropylene were extruded
in a conical twin-screw extruder. Battenfeld Plus 250 IM
machine was used to prepare the specimen. Bax and
Müssig (Bax & Müssig, 2008) fabricated flax/PLA com-
posite and Cordenka/PLA composite by a Battenfeld
UNILOG 4000 type IM machine. A shredder had been
used for making the pellets. Jerico Biagiotti et al.
(Biagiotti et al., 2004) investigated the impact of chem-
ical refinement of fiber on the polypropylene/flax fiber
composite properties. Initially, a blade mill had been
used to defibrillate the flax pulp and make them dried in
an oven. The defibrillated flax and polypropylene were
fed into a twin-screw extruder (HaakeRheomex CTW
100) for compounding and then molded in a Battenfeld
Plus 250 IM machine. The granulated compound can be
Fig. 3 Axial-flux motor (on the left-hand side) in the plastic
effectively prepared on a typical IM machine. At the
injection-molding machine (adapted from Kuo & Chang, 2015)
mixing and molding process, the low thermal stability of
vegetable fibers was considered (Aurich et al., 1998;
Composites fabricated by injection molding Wielage et al., 1999). Fiber orientation state of compos-
IM process is a popular manufacturing method for mass ites has been investigated. Maximum stock and mold
production. High processability is the key concern in temperature was kept 220 °C, and 50 °C, respectively. A
favor of IM though the reinforcement fiber degrades total of 60-MPa pressure has been occupied as the hold-
during the process. A wide number of natural fiber can ing pressure, and the flow front velocity of 80 mm/s was
be used as a reinforcement for the composite in injec- applied. The bio-composite specimen of 2 mm thickness
tion molding. Injection-molded polymers either with is depicted in Fig. 4 (Aurich & Mennig, 2001).
natural reinforcement or alone had been used for many Mondragon et al. (Arbelaiz et al., 2005) analyzed the
years (Schut, 2002b; Hashemi, 2002). Types of IM ma- characteristics of flax fiber/PPbio-composites. Polypro-
chines had been used for the composite processing, pylene along with dried and chemically treated flax fi-
which is summarized in Table 1. bers passed through a Haake Rheomix 600 with two
Banbury rotors type internal mixer followed by extrusion
Flax fiber based in a Haake Rheomex CTW100 type twin screw extruder.
Arbelaiz et al. (Arbelaiz et al., 2006) interrogated the The specimen was prepared in a BattenfeldPlus 250 IM
fiber treatment influence on the thermal stability of flax machine. Gong et al. (Pilla et al., 2009a) studied static
fiber/polypropylene composites. They used Battenfeld and dynamic characteristics, cell morphology, and
Plus 250 IM for the fabrication of composites. Prior to crystallization behavior by varying fiber and silane con-
IM, the mixture of flax fiber and polypropylene was pel- tent in polylactide–flax fiber composite. The oven-dried
letized as well as dried. Haake Rheomix 600 complied mixtures were blended in a thermo-kinetic mixer (k-
with two Banbury rotors internal mixer had been used mixer), and after that, the mixed materials were fed into
for the compounding of the materials. Harriëtte et al. Davis–Standard twin-screw extruder. They investigated
(Bos et al., 2006) demonstrated the mechanical charac- the sample properties prepared by varying the fiber con-
teristics of flax fiber/polypropylenematerials. In their tent (ranges 1-20%). Bledzki et al. (Bledzki et al., 2008)
study, fibers and polymers were kneaded by Haake interrogated the impact of chemically treated (acetyl-
Rheomix 3000 batch kneader and compounded by Ber- ation) fiber on flax fiber/polypropylene composites. Raw
storf ZE 40 co-rotating twin-screw extruder, then materials were mixed in an HM40-KM120 type
molded using Demag Ergotech 25–80 compact type IM Henschel heat-cooling mixer system. Then dried gran-
machine. Li et al. (Li et al., 2006) discussed the influence ules were made from those mixtures, and test samples
of fiber percentage on flax fiber/high-density polyethyl- were fabricated. Thermo-mechanical properties of short
ene composite. A twin-screw extruder was occupied for flax fiber/PLA composites have been investigated by
compounding, and the mixture was fed into a Battenfeld Laura et al. (Aliotta et al., 2019). The raw materials were
Table 1 Types of IM machines used to fabricate different natural fiber-based composites

Brand Model Composite constituents L/D Manufacturer name
ratio
Battenfeld Plus 250 i. Flax fiber/polypropylene 20 Wittmann Battenfeld
ii. Flax fiber/polyethelyne
UNILOG i. Flax fiber/polylactic acid 22.1
4000 ii. Cordenka/polylactic acid
Plus 350 Rice husk/polypropylene 20
HM 60/210 i. Wood flour/ecoflex 22
ii. Wood flour/polylactic acid
iii. Wood flour/ecovio
iv. Wood flour/bioflex
v. Wood flour/tenite propionate
Cincinnati 33 T i. Jute fiber/polypropylene - Milacron Inc.
Milacron ii. Wood flour/polypropylene
iii. Wood flour/polylactic acid
85 T i. Hemp fiber/cellulose acetate 30
ii. Hemp fiber/soy protein bioplastic
Molder Kenaf fiber/polypropylene -
Demag 25-80 Flax fiber/polypropylene 24 Sumitomo Shi Demag
Ergotech Compact
100 T Jute fiber/polypropylene 20
Ray-Ran Wood flour/polyethylene - RAY-RAN Test Equipment Ltd.
Arburg Allrounder Flax fiber/polypropylene 23.3 ARBURG
320S
Allrounder Roselle fiber/polypropylene 24
270S
40 T Kenaf fiber/PP/MAPP -
100 T 320C Micro sized flax fiber/PA6 20
500-210 Coir fiber/banana fiber/polypropylene 33
PLASTER ET-40 V Jute fiber/polylactide 40 Toyo Machinery & Metal Co. Ltd.
Ferromatik K40/80 Hemp fiber/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co- 22 FERROMATIK
Milacron hydroxyvalerate)
FM 85 Abaca fiber/polylactic acid 25
Reed Prentice 100 T Wood flour/polypropylene - Reed-Prentice Corporation
Little-Ace I Abaca fiber/polyester 40 Tsubako Co. Ltd.
Sandretto Micro-30 Jute fiber/polypropylene DTL Machinery
60 T Sisal fiber/starch 19
ROMIPratica130T Sisal fiber/polypropylene 22 ROMI
Sumitomo SE 50D Bamboo fiber/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3- 20 Sumitomo Corporation
hydroxyvalerate)
55 US SE DU Wood fiber/plastic 23
TTI-80 Sisal fiber/polypropylene - Dong Hua Machinery Co. Ltd.
Engel e-Victory i. Hemp fiber/polypropylene 21 Engel Electronics
ii. Coir fiber/polypropylene
ES 80/25 Date palm/polypropylene 18.2
23/40 Hemp fiber/polypropylene -
ES 80/20 HLS Wood flour/polypropylene /Polylactic acid 23
e-Max 440/ i. Banana fiber/ABS -
100 ii. Banana fiber/HIPS
iii. Banana fiber/HDPE
SM-50 Wood flour/polypropylene 25 Super Master (Chen-Hsong Company)
Table 1 Types of IM machines used to fabricate different natural fiber-based composites (Continued)
Brand Model Composite constituents L/D Manufacturer name
ratio
BOY 50 T Sisal-PP 20 BOY
15S i. Hemp fiber/polypropylene 18
ii. Wood flour/polypropylene
50A Kenaf fiber/polypropylene 18
JSW100 T i. Kenaf fiber/polylactic acid 22.5 Japan Steel Works
ii. Rice husk/polylactic acid
TOYO PSS TI-30F6 Jute fiber/polypropylene - Toyo Machinery & Metal Co. Ltd.
DH-90 Bassalt fiber/polybutylene succinate - Tederic Machinery Co. Ltd.
Endura-60 i. Hemp fiber/polylactic acid 19 Electronica Plastic machines
ii. Sisal fiber/polylactic acid
HAAKE Minijet II Hemp fiber/polylactic acid 25 Thermo Electron Corporation
Flax fiber/polylactic acid
Bamboo fiber/polylactic acid
Meteo 40 Wood flour/polypropylene - Mateu&Solé, S.A
270/75 Flaxseed flour (FSF)/polylactic acid -
WZ-10G Sisal fiber/polypropylene - Shanghai Xinshuo Precision Machinery Co. Ltd.
SZS-20 Abaca fiber/PP/eggshell powder 20 Wuhan Ruiming Experimental Instrument
Manufacturing Co. Ltd.
HAIXING Kenaf fiber/polypropylene 16 HAIXING Company
Haitian MA600 II/130 Rice husk/polypropylene 33 Absolute Machinery
NIOOB 11 Kenaf fiber/xGNP/polypropylene 30 Japan Steel Works Muraron
ES-1000 Coir fiber/polylactic acid - NISSEI Plastic Industrial Co. Ltd.
Zerus 900 Birch fiber/high-density polyethylene - ZHAFIR Plastics Machinery
blended in a co-rotating conical twin-screw extruder be- the different formulations. A Meteo 270/75 IM machine
fore preparing the composite specimen in Haake MiniJet was used to manufacture the pieces from the melt-
II mini IM machine. Aguero et al. characterized the compounded pellets. Mechanical properties of flax fiber-
green composites fabricated from flaxseed flour (FSF) based nanocomposites have been examined, where PA6
and PLA (Agüero et al., 2020). A twin-screw co-rotating was used as the matrix (Shao et al., 2019). A twin-screw
extruder from DUPRA S. L. was employed to compound extruder was used to prepare the compound prior to
Fig. 4 Fabricated specimen with locations of fiber orientation (dimensions in mm) (adapted from Aurich & Mennig, 2001)
injecting in a 100 ton ARBURG-420C IM where the ma- blended using an IM machine before the specimen was
chine was equipped with a microcellular foaming prepared using SHJ-20 twin-screw extruder. Pailoor
system. et al. examined the effect of chopped/continuous fiber,
coupling agent and fiber ratio on the jute fiber/PP com-
Jute fiber based posites (Pailoor et al., 2019). Chopped jute fiber of
Rana et al. (Rana et al., 2003) fabricated jute fiber poly- length 1-2 mm and PP pellets along with MAPP was fed
propylene composite to observe the influence of fiber into a STEER Omega-40 twin-screw co-rotating extruder
loading, impact modifier, and compatibilizer on the to prepare the compounded pellets.
composite. A high shear K-mixer has been used for bet-
ter mixing, and dried granules were made prior to inject- Sisal fiber based
ing in 33 T Cincinnati Milacron IM machine. Another Concerning IM of sisal fiber/polypropylene composites,
jute/polypropylene composites had been fabricated by the problems found are (i) poor interfacial bonding be-
Mäder et al. (Gao & Mäder, 2006) to study the impact of tween raw materials and (ii) escalated melt flow viscosity
modifying the matrix. The composite fabrication was (Joseph et al., 1999; Fung et al., 2002). High injection
commenced by compounding jute, polypropylene and temperature is needed to mitigate high melt viscosity-
maleic anhydride graft polypropylene together on a related problems. A pre-impregnation method is intro-
ZSK30 type co-rotating twin-screw extruder. Ergotech duced by Li et al. (Fung et al., 2003), which involves
100 TIM machine was used to make the required sam- feeding dry sisal fiber through a unique die configur-
ples. Arao et al. (Arao et al., 2015) presented the impact ation, as shown in Fig. 5. A Brabender single screw ex-
of long fiber pellets on the characteristics of jute fiber/ truder was connected to the drying setup. After
polylactide composite materials. The final output was impregnation, the extruded materials were cut, pellet-
fabricated in a PLASTER ET-40 V type IM machine. Be- ized, and finally fed into the injection-molding machine
fore injection molding, fiber with all additives was com- to fabricate the composites.
pounded in a ZSK-18 type twin screw extruder. They Sun et al. (Sun et al., 2010) analyzed the impact of ma-
employed two different configurations while compound- terial optimization on the characteristics of bio-
ing for two specific purposes: (i) reduce the shear stress composite materials. A SK-1600B two-roll mill machine
and (ii) improve the overall fiber dispersion. Yang et al. was used for compounding, and the composites were
(Yang et al., 2011) observed the impact of fiber manufactured using a TTI-80 device. Krishnan Jayara-
immersion into hot water and fiber contents on the ten- man (Jayaraman, 2003) developed a simple manufactur-
sile characteristics of jute/polypropylene composites. A ing method of fabricating sisal fiber-based polypropylene
30 T TOYO PSS TI-30F6 IM machine had been used in composites to minimize the fiber degradation. A BOY
their study to fabricate two types of dumbbell-shaped injection molder with a capacity of 50 tonnes has been
specimen (one is made of pure polypropylene, and the used and the barrel temperature set at 185 °C for prepar-
other was made of jute-polypropylene together). Thoma- ing the composite. Li et al. (Chow et al., 2007) studied
son (Thomason, 2010) used a 200 T Cincinnati Milacron moisture absorption of sisal/polypropylene composite.
IM machine of a capacity 225 g barrel to prepare jute/ Sisal fiber was chemically treated with MA-g-PP had
polypropylene composites. Their research also prepared been melting blended with polypropylene into a single
glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composite based on screw extruder using a pre-impregnation technique. Li
previous studies (Fernandes et al., 2018; Mohan et al., et al. (Xie et al., 2002) systematically investigated the
2017). A comparison has been made between these two mechanical properties, crystalline structure, thermal
composites regarding their dependence on interfacial properties, morphology, melt mixing characteristics. In
strength. Hasan et al. (Rahman et al., 2008; Rezaur Rah- the process, the chopped sisal fiber and the polypropyl-
man et al., 2010) used post-treatment of the jute/poly- ene were mixed in an internal mixer attached with a
propylene composites to improve the physio-mechanical Brabender Plasticorder. Bernal et al. (Alvarez et al.,
properties. A single screw extruder was utilized for com- 2006) interrogated the impact of microstructure on the
pounding jute and polypropylene, and the product was mechanical characteristics of sisal fiber/starch compos-
ground in a grinding machine prior to IM. Cabral et al. ites. In their study, the raw materials were directly fed
(Cabral et al., 2005) figured out the structure-properties into a Sandretto 60 T IM machine. Sabu Thomas et al.
relationship of jute/polypropylene composites. A twin- (Kalaprasad et al., 1997) investigated the enhancement
screw extruder was used for compounding, and speci- of the mechanical characteristics of sisal/polyethylene
mens were prepared using a Micro-30 Sandretto IM ma- composite by adding glass fiber. A hand-operated ram
chine. Jiang et al. investigated the effect of hydrothermal type IM was used for preparing the composites. Fung
aging on injection-molded short jute fiber/PLA compos- et al. (Fung et al., 2002) studied the characteristics of
ites (Jiang et al., 2018). The jute fibers and PLA were sisal fiber/polypropylene bio-composites by improving
Fig. 5 Experimental setup for the impregnation of sisal fiber yarns with MA-g-PP (adapted from Fung et al., 2003)
the fiber interface. They manufactured the composites shrinkage behavior of sisal/glass fiber hybrid composite.
by melt blending followed by IM. Vázquez et al. (Alvarez Six parameters such as (i) holding time, (ii) holding pres-
et al., 2004) presented the melt rheological properties of sure, (iii) injected pressure, (iv) mold and (v) melt
sisal fiber composites. A Sandretto 60 T IM machine temperature, and (vi) cooling time were identified that
was used in this study. influence flow and cross-flow shrinkage. ROMI Pratica
Saurabh Chaitanya and Inderdeep Singh (Chaitanya & 130 type IM machine had been used to manufacture the
Singh, 2017) explored the direct IM method for manu- bio-composites based on the previous study (Birat et al.,
facturing PLA-based sisal fiber bio-composites and made 2015). Arbelaiz et al. (Orue et al., 2016) discussed the in-
a comparison with the extrusion IM method. Endura-60 fluence of various chemical treatments on both sisal fi-
type IM machine had been used in their study. The raw bers and sisal/PLA composites. As part of the composite
materials were mixed in a mechanical agitator for the fabrication, the fiber and matrix were compounded in a
direct IM process depicted in Fig. 6. On the other hand, Haake Rheomix 600 melt mixer and were carried out in
in the extrusion IM process (Fig. 7), a single screw ex- a HAAKE Minijet IIIM machine. Dog bone type speci-
truder was used. It had been concluded that direct IM is mens of the composite were fabricated through this
suitable for short fiber whereas extrusion IM is suitable process. Z. Samouh (Samouh et al., 2019) investigated
for both short and long fiber. the mechanical and thermal characterization of sisal/
KC et al. (Kc et al., 2016) worked with optimizing IM PLA composites with various weight percentages of fiber
parameters using the Taguchi method to reduce (5%, 10%, and 15%). The PLA biodegradable polymer
Fig. 6 Schematic of direct-injection-molding process (adapted from Chaitanya & Singh, 2017)
Fig. 7 Schematic of extrusion-injection-molding process (adapted from Chaitanya & Singh, 2017)
and the fiber were mixed using Labtech LTE 26-44 rotating twin screw-type arrangement before feeding
twin-screw extruder. The specimens were molded by an into a Ferromatik Milacron K40/80 IM machine.
Arburg Allrounder 270-II IM machine. Chaitanya (Chai- Mohanty et al. (Mohanty et al., 2004) observed the in-
tanya et al., 2019) figured out the recyclability character- fluence of processing techniques on the characteristics
istics of sisal/PLA biocomposites (Chaitanya et al., 2019). of hemp fiber/cellulose acetate bio-composites. Paticider
Sisal fiber having fiber weight fraction of 30% recycled was mixed with cellulose acetate to prepare pellets and
using a single screw extruder and molded using an compounded with chopped fiber in a twin screw-type
Endura 60 IM machine. It was found that the biocompo- extruder. The pelletized raw material was eventually
sites recycled up to third recycle for low to medium molded in an 85 ton Cincinnati–Milacron press type IM
strength non-structural application. To inspect the machine. A sample of biocomposite is portrayed in Fig.
changes of intrinsic mechanical properties of sisal fiber/ 8. In another study (Mohanty et al., 2005), soya protein-
PP biocomposites, Sun and Wu (Sun & Mingming, based bioplastic was used as a matrix.
2019) conducted a study on the sol-gel modification of Mustapha et al. (Assarar et al., 2016) characterized the
the sisal fiber (Sun & Mingming, 2019). A WLG-10G acoustic emission of damage of the composites that had
mini twin-screw extruder was used to extrude the resin, been prepared from short hemp fiber and polypropylene.
and the specimen was prepared using a WZ-10G mini- The specimens were supplied by the AFT Plasturgie
IM machine. Company which was elaborated by IM with a two-cavity
mold. Pickering and Beckermann (Beckermann & Pick-
Hemp fiber based ering, 2008) conducted fiber treatment and matrix modi-
Suhara and Mohini (Panthapulakkal & Sain, 2007) fication of hemp/polypropylene composite to evaluate its
assessed various characteristics of hemp/glass/polypro- properties. The extruded raw material was molded in a
pylene composites. Melt blended compounds were dir- BOY15-S IM machine. Qaiss et al. (Qaiss & Bousmina,
ectly fed into the IM machine. Injection temperature 2011) investigated the thermal and mechanical charac-
was 205 °C, whereas injection time, cooling, and mold teristics of hemp fiber/polypropylene composite. The
opening times were 8 s, 25 s, and 25 s, respectively. Kel- treatment procedure and the fabrication method of the
ler (Keller, 2003) studied the mechanical as well as com- composite had been followed by the previous work (Le
pounding characteristics of hemp fiber-based bio- Troedec et al., 2008; Rokbi et al., 2011; Qaiss et al., 2012;
composites. Fiber and matrix were extruded in a co- Qaiss et al., 2013; Arrakhiz et al., 2013). The specimen
Fig. 8 The dimension of injection-molded sample preparing for mechanical and thermal testing (adapted from (Mohanty et al., 2005))
was prepared by Engel e-Victory type IM machine. Ace I Typedesk IM machine to prepare dumbbell-
Panaitescu et al. (Panaitescu et al., 2019) studied the shaped specimen shown in Fig. 9.
characteristics of the alkali and alkali-silane-treated Islam et al. (Rahman et al., 2009; Islam et al., 2010)
hemp fiber/PP composites. In the experiment, PP was assessed the mechanical properties of abaca/polypropyl-
mixed with five wt% MAPP and 15 wt% SEBS in a rotat- ene composite and coir/polypropylene composite. Dried
ing mixture and compounded with fiber in Brabender abaca/coir and polypropylene granules were pre-mixed
DSE 20 twin-screw extruder. Engel 23/40 IM machine and extruded for proper mixing using a single screw ex-
was used to prepare the specimen. It is found that the truder to prepare the composites. The extrudates were
effect of hemp fiber length on the mechanical and ther- again granulated using a grinding machine, and dried
mal properties of PP/SEBS/hemp fiber biocomposites granules were fed into the IM machine to prepare the
(Vinod & Anandajothi, 2020). The impact of hybridizing specimen. Bledzki (Bledzki et al., 2010) prepared a poly-
hemp fiber with recycled carbon fiber on the composite propylene composite where enzyme-modified abaca fiber
characteristics figured out by Shah et al. (Shah et al., was used as reinforcement. The abaca was treated first
2019). The materials were processed into a composite and then got mixed with polypropylene in a high-speed
using a Leistriz Mic 18/GI-40D co-rotating twin-screw cascade mixer. Then, they were fed into a hot mixer to
extruder and pelletized with a Scheer Bay BT25 pellet- form hot agglomerate granules. The granules were then
izer. Eventually, the processed material was injected cooled, dried, and passed into the IM machine to pre-
using a Technoplas hydraulic injection molder. pare the composite sample. Bledzki et al. (Bledzki et al.,
2009) studied the characteristics of abaca fiber/artificial
Abaca fiber based cellulose fiber/PLA biocomposites. The composite had
Shibata et al. (Shibata et al., 2003) fabricated bio- been fabricated by two processes illustrated in Fig. 10.
composites from abaca fiber and polyester. Mixing was First, PLA and fibers were extruded by a twin screw-type
done in a twin rotary mixer, cut into small pieces, arrangement and then fed into a single screw extruder.
immersed in liquid nitrogen, dried, and fed into Little- After getting compounded two times, the compounded
Fig. 9 Dumbbell-shaped specimen for the flexural test (the part shown by the dotted line was cut before measurement) (adapted from (Shibata
et al., 2003))
Fig. 10 Depicting of two-step extrusion principle (above) with successive injection molding (below) (adapted from Bledzki et al., 2009)
materials were pelletized, dried, and fed into the Ferro- flammability and mechanical characteristics of kenaf
matik FM 85 type machine. The addition of bio-waste fiber/polypropylene composites and analyzed the fiber
(eggshell powder) in the abaca fiber/PP composite im- length retention capacity of extrusion and IM processes.
proves thermal and mechanical properties (Mai Nguyen The twin-screw extrusion method was applied for com-
Tran et al., 2020). Abaca fiber of length 2-4 mm and PP pounding the fiber and matrix. The twin-screw extruder
fed the micro double cone SJZS-10B dual screw extruder provides narrow residence time distribution and supplies
hopper. The obtained pellets were molded in a SZS-20 uniform heat, thus reducing degradation (Zhang et al.,
injection machine for getting mechanical test specimens. 2009). A BOY 50A type IM machine was used to fabri-
cate the composite. Kim et al. (Kwon et al., 2014)
Kenaf fiber based assessed the tensile properties of kenaf/PLA hybrid bio-
Anand et al. (Sanadi et al., 1994) examined the effect of composites and compared them with corn husk flour re-
reinforcing kenaf fiber into melted polypropylene poly- inforced PLA composites. Mirbagheri et al. (Mirbagheri
mer composite. The fiber and polymer were blended, et al., 2007) studied the mechanical characteristics of
dried and injection molded to fabricate the composite. A wood flour/kenaf fiber/polypropylenebio-composites. A
twin-screw extruder has been used for compounding the HAAKE internal mixer was used for compounding, and
dried kenaf fiber and mixture of polypropylene and the mixture was directly fed into the IM machine.
MAPP by Kamani et al. (Karnani et al., 1997). The com- Nematollahi et al. (Nematollahi et al., 2019) studied the
pounded pellets were dried and injected in a 40 T effect of surface treatment on morphological features of
Arburg plunger. Sanadi et al. (Sanadi et al., 1995) inves- kenaf fiber/PP composites. Among various weight per-
tigated the characteristics of kenaf/polypropylene com- centages of kenaf fiber, it is found that the 40% fiber,
posite produced by a Cincinnati Milacron Molder. 56% PP, and 4% MAPP content showed a better result.
Yussuf et al. (Yussuf et al., 2010) figured out a compari- The raw materials were blended in a Dr. Collins GmbH
son among the thermal, biodegradable, and mechanical twin-screw extruder and molded using a HAIXING IM
characteristics between kenaf fiber/PLA and rice husk/ machine. It was investigated that, to obtain the complete
PLA composites. A homemade machine was used for interfacial load transfer, the length of kenaf fibers needs
crushing the fibers. Before blending, all materials were to be greater than the critical length being ~ 2.4 mm
kept in desiccators to subside the moisture. A counter- provided that perfect kenaf/PP interfacial interaction
rotating twin-screw extruder has been used as a com- exists (Nematollahi et al., 2020). In the case of kenaf
pounder. The raw materials are then pelletized and fed fiber-based nano-biocomposites, the effect of chemical
into JSW–100 ton type IM machine. Subasinghe and modification of the fiber has been studied by Idumah
Bhattacharyya (Subasinghe et al., 2015) evaluated the et al. (Idumah et al., 2019). The composites were melt-
extruded utilizing a Brabender-PL-2000-Plastic-Coder et al., 2020). The materials were mixed in HAAKE
counter-rotating twin-screw extruder. Specimens were RheoDrive 7 Rheomix OS machine, and the specimens
prepared using the NIOOB-11 IM machine. were obtained using HAAKE Minijet II IM machine.
Bamboo fiber based Rice husk based

Liao and Thwe (Thwe & Liao, 2003) prepared the bam- Aridi et al. (Aridi et al., 2016) and Ishak et al. (Ishak
boo/glass fiber/polypropylene composites and investi- et al., 2001) examined the hydrothermal aging, morpho-
gated their durability. A torque rheometer has been used logical, and mechanical characteristics of rice husk/poly-
for compounding the raw materials. Tokoro et al. propylene composite. The whole preparation process is
(Tokoro et al., 2008) provided instruction about improv- shown in Fig. 12. A Battenfeld BA350CD Plus type IM
ing the mechanical properties of bamboo/PLA compos- machine was used to fabricate the composite sample.
ite. Okubo et al. (Okubo et al., 2009) developed a hybrid Rahman et al. (Ishak et al., 2001) evaluated the effect
bio-composite based on bamboo fibers and micro- of using rice husk/high-density polyethylene bio-
fibrillated cellulose reinforced poly lactic acid. The mix- composite. Grounded rice straw and polyethylene were
ture of the materials was processed in a three-roll mill extruded in a co-rotating and intermeshing twin screw-
compounding machine. Then, they were fed into a type assembly. Jyoti et al. (Jyoti et al., 2021) examined
micro-scale injection molder which is combined with a that amorphous nanosilica from rice husk can reinforce
twin-screw extruding assembly. The molded composite PVDF polymer matrix. Then, the compounded materials
sample is given in Fig. 11. were pelletized and injection molded to prepare the de-
Jiang et al. (Jiang et al., 2008) interrogated the impact sired sample. Influences of the fiber geometry and orien-
of nucleation agent and compatibilizer on bamboo fiber/ tation on the anisotropic behavior of the mechanical and
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) bio- thermal properties of rice husk/high-density polyethyl-
composites. Raw materials were passed through a ene (HDPE) composites have been studied by Hao et al.
HAAKE mixture and then were dried, were pelletized, (Hao et al., 2020). Before preparing the specimen, the
and were transferred into Sumitomo SE 50D type IM raw materials were blended using a SJSH-30 twin-screw
machine for sample fabrication. 3D printing capability of extruder and SJ-45 single screw extruder. Stress ratio
bamboo fiber/PP/PLA composite has been assessed by plays a significant role on fatigue crack growth of rice
Long et al. (Long et al., 2019). Dried BF, PP, PLA, and husk/PP bio-composites (Hao et al., 2020). Betol BTS 40
MAPP were blended using a co-rotating twin-screw ex- has been occupied for melt-blending the materials, and
truder prior to feeding into the IM machine. Kumar and the specimens were prepared using Haitian MA600 II/
Tumu (Kumar & Tumu, 2019) investigated the prospect 130 IM machine. Rice husk/PBS composite achieved
of bamboo powder-based bio-composites. Electron beam 92% mass loss after 6 months of soil burial test confirms
irradiated bamboo powder compounded with PLA and its biodegradability (Yap et al., 2021).
epoxide silane using a twin-screw extruder. The durabil-
ity of bamboo fiber/PP composites was evaluated where Wood fiber based
the samples were exposed to natural weathering for 1 Kuo et al. (2009) discussed the impact of material com-
year before characterization (Fajardo Cabrera de Lima position on wood flour/polypropylenebio-composites. A
Fig. 11 Processing of model bamboo/MFC/PLA composites (left) bamboo fiber suspended in the injection mold using a piece of wood to center
the fiber and (right) embedded bamboo fiber specimens after molding (adapted from (Okubo et al., 2009))
Fig. 12 Pallet preparation of rice husk/PP composites injection molding (Aridi et al., 2016)
SM-50 type IM machine to manufacture the composite. (Ichazo et al., 2001) studied the variation of morpho-
Stark and Rowlands (Stark & Rowlands, 2003) produced logical, thermal, and mechanical characteristics of wood/
wood fiber/polypropylene composite and assessed its polypropylene composite due to filler modification.
characteristics. A co-rotating, intermeshing twin-screw Dried wood flour was mixed with polypropylene in a co-
extruder was used for compounding the raw materials rotating twin-screw extruder and then 100 ton Reed
prior to molded in a Cincinnati Milacron 33 T IM ma- Prentice IM machine was used to fabricate the test sam-
chine. Bledzki and Faruk (Bledzki & Faruk, 2006) manu- ples. Koubaa et al. (Migneault et al., 2009) discussed the
factured microcellular wood fiber-polypropylene impact of varied reinforcement size and pre-processing
composite where the use of different chemical foaming techniques on the characteristics of wood/plastic com-
agents was investigated. Prior to IM, wood fiber and posites properties. The samples were prepared by Sumi-
polypropylene were mixed by a high-speed mixer. Pilla tomo 55-US ton SE-DU Series IM machine.
et al. (Pilla et al., 2009b) fabricated bio-composites from Ansari et al. (2017) investigated the anisotropic behav-
recycled wood and polylactic acid. The raw material was ior of wood fiber/polypropylene composite. They used a
mixed using a k-mixer and molded using a Cincinnati 40-Meteo IM machine for molding the composite. They
Milacron 33 T IM machine. Koubaa et al. (Bouafif et al., also studied a theoretical rheological performance by the
2009) fabricated wood plastic composite in two stages. Moldex 3D program. Figure 13 shows the outcome of
First, the wood particles were compounded with high- the rheological study. Reinforcement alignment was
density polyethylene and molded in a reciprocating homogeneous along with the sample (from the film gate
screw IM machine. Second, the raw materials were com- to the end of the mold).
pounded in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder. Injection Sykacek et al. (Sykacek et al., 2009) extruded and in-
and hold pressure was 900 kPa. Cooling and holding jection molded five different bio-composites. In their
time was set to 15 s and 4 s, respectively. Pilla et al. (Pilla study, five types of polymer matrices (Ecoflex, polylactic
et al., 2008) investigated the physical properties of acid, Ecovio, Bioflex, Tenite Propionate) with only wood
polylactide-pine wood flour composites to assess their flour were used as a reinforcement. A Battenfeld HM
use considering the low material cost. Ichazo et al. 60/210 IM machine had been used for preparing the
Fig. 13 Design of the film-gated mold used for injecting plate samples with dimensions of 70 mm × 70 mm × 1.5 mm. The color coding
indicates the fiber orientation, and the scale bar shows the orientation factor (as obtained by Moldex 3D simulation for fiber glass fiber
composites). The mold design was chosen so as to obtain a uniform orientation throughout the mold area (adapted from Ansari et al., 2017)
composites. Pickering and Beg (Beg & Pickering, 2006) Stokes equation (SemlaliAouraghHassani et al., 2019).
investigated the effect of pretreatment on wood- Experimental work has been done for short coir fiber/PP
polypropylene composite. Granulated and dried ex- composites to verify the mathematical model. Engel e-
truded compounded pellets were injection molded by victory IM machine was used to prepare the final prod-
using a BOY15-S IM machine. Jayaraman and Bhatta- ucts. Gunturu et al. (Gunturu et al., 2020) characterized
charyya (Jayaraman & Bhattacharyya, 2004) evaluated the banana/coir/PP hybrid composites (Gunturu et al.,
the mechanical characteristics of wood fiber/wasted 2020). The pellets were fabricated by using a twin-screw
polyethylene composites. A Ray-Ran laboratory IM ma- extruder, whereas the specimens were manufactured by
chine was used for molding the test specimen. Mohanty ARBURG 500-210 50 ton IM machine. Coir fiber can be
and Singh (Singh & Mohanty, 2007) fabricated wood/ used as the reinforcement in PHB (polyhydroxybutyrate)
bacterial bio-plastic composite and evaluated its per- (da Silva Moura et al., 2019). It is found from the injec-
formance. Before extrusion, both maple wood fiber and tion molded final products that the presence of the
polyhydroxybutyrate-co-valerate (PHBV) were dried. treated fiber in the PHB matrix improved thermal stabil-
Then, the materials were passed through a micro- ity along with better interfacial adhesion.
extruder before being fed into a pre-heated mini-IM ma-
chine for fabricating sample. They varied the retention Miscellaneous natural fiber composites
time (ranges from 3 to 10 s) based on the proportion Junkasem et al. (2006) studied the mechanical character-
(wt%) of the reinforcement (ranges from 0 to 40%) and istics of roselle/polypropylene composite. MAPP was
matrix (ranges from 100 to 60%) content in the mixture. added with polypropylene and roselle fiber, and the mix-
The processing temperature was 160 °C. The resistance tures were transferred into a self-wiping co-rotating
to natural weathering and biodegradability of wood twin-screw extruder for compounding. After that, the
flour/PP composite has been assessed by Vedrtnam et al. dried pellets were fed into ARBURG Allrounder® 270 M
(Vedrtnam et al., 2019). The JSW 18OH IM machine IM machine for fabricating the test specimen. Xu et al.
was used to prepare the specimens. It is found that ex- (2012) fabricated ramie fibers reinforced PLA composite
posure of products to UVB radiation deteriorated the and examined fibers’ alignment and nucleation activity
matrix quality, results in inferior mechanical properties. in the composite. Abu-Sharkh & Hamid (2004) analyzed
Glass fiber and carbon fiber can be used as filler mate- the thermal and mechanical characteristics of date palm
rials in wood fiber/PP products to prepare the hybrid fiber/polypropylene composites. They also examined the
composites (Guo & Kethineni, 2020). Engel E-victory 30, degradability of the composite in spontaneous and artifi-
the injection-molding machine used for making all the cial weather. AnES 80/25 type IM machine has been
specimens, consists of a hydraulic clamping unit and an used for composite manufacturing. Zhang et al. (2012)
electric injection unit. Andrzejewski et al. (Andrzejewski assessed the thermal and mechanical characteristics of
et al., 2019) conducted the feasibility study to use a basalt/PBS composites. Dried basalt fibers and PBS gran-
cork-wood hybrid filler system in PP/PLA-based com- ules were compounded in the twin-screw extruder. The
posites to improve the mechanical properties. The wood compounded materials were again cut to the granules
flour type used during this study was Lignocel C120, the and transferred to the DH-90 IM machine for sample
particle size ranges 70-150 μm. The test samples were fabrication. Basalt fiber can be compounded with PP and
fabricated using Engel ES80/20HLS IM machine after glass fiber. A TI-30F6 IM machine was used for
blending in ZAMAK EH-16.2D. hybridization (Yan et al., 2017). It is found that such
hybridization enhances the fiber agglomeration
Coir fiber based phenomenon, results in better mechanical properties. Yu
Coir materials can be used as reinforcement with differ- et al. studied the 3D microstructural characterization of
ent thermoplastic, thermosetting, and cement-based bio- short basalt fiber/polyamide 6,6 (PA6,6) composites (Yu
composites to improve the mechanical properties (Hasan et al., 2020). The composite was mixed with a co-
et al., 2021). The chemical treatment of coir fiber by ma- rotating, intermeshing twin-screw extruder, and the pel-
leic anhydride grafted to polylactic acid (MAPLA) and lets were feed in HAAKE IM machine. Koffi et al. (2021)
poly methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic anhydride (MA-c- was investigated that the injection-molded Birch fiber
PMVE) improves the mechanical properties of coir reinforced HDPE composites offer better performance
fiber/PLA bio-composites (González-López et al., 2019). than those manufactured using other techniques. The
The materials were first processed in a Micro 27 32D specimens were produced using a 100 T Zerus 900 press
twin-screw extruder. The pellets were injection molded IM machine. The feasibility of using sustainable biocar-
in an ES-1000 IM machine. The mold filling phase be- bon in fabricating composite materials has been assessed
havior controls the final part structure. The flow behav- by Abdelwahab et al. (2019). Biocomposites were pro-
ior can be predicted using the incompressible Navier- duced using 30 wt% biocarbon in a PP matrix. Banana
fiber provides a better prospect to use as the bone cement, and bone grafts. Cotton, coconut, flax,
reinforcement in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), hemp, sisal, jute, etc., fibers are commonly used in the
high impact polystyrene (HIPS), and high density poly- medical and pharmaceutical sector (Morris et al., 2020;
ethylene (HDPE) matrix (Kusić et al., 2020). The com- Tavares et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2020; Sarasini et al.,
pounds were obtained by extrusion through LABTECH- 2015).Sports materials are presently made utilizing
LTE 20-40 twin-screw extruder, and the specimens were composite materials, e.g., tennis boards, badminton,
fabricated Engel e-Max 440/100 IM machine to conduct golf clubs, climbing ropes, and various lines, are fabri-
the mechanical tests. Mohammed et al. (2016) character- cated from natural fiber composites (Wang, 2012). Nat-
ized the physicochemical properties of sugar palm-based ural fibers such as bamboo-, flax-, and wood fibers-
biocomposites. Thermoplastic polyurethane was consid- based composite materials have been used to make sev-
ered a matrix in their study, whereas the operating pa- eral musical applications (Phillips & Lessard, 2012).
rameters were speed, fiber sizes, and temperatures.
Thermo Scientific Eurolab 16 extruder machine was Conclusion
used to fabricate the samples. Improvement of the im- The demand for bio-composites is soaring up signifi-
pact resistance has been studied by Várdai et al. (2021). cantly as being the most viable alternative of other non-
The PP polymer was compounded with sugar palm degradable composites. This review article discussed the
using a Brabender twin-screw compounder, whereas the details of the IM process and associated operations to
samples were prepared by Demag IntElect 50/330-100 fabricate natural fiber composites. In this regard, various
IM machine. natural fibers, their compatible polymers, along the com-
pounding details are mentioned. In addition, the manu-
Practical implication script also covers the state-of-the-art regarding IM
Based on the required mechanical and physical proper- equipment in composite fabrication. Nowadays, bio-
ties, the applications of composites are developing in nu- composites have great feasibility in many fields such as
merous divisions such as aviation, automobiles, automobile, aircraft, and bio-medical, which led to grow-
development building materials, human nourishment, ing more interest in fabricating them. Through literature
sports, and pharmaceutical and fine chemicals (Reddy & review, most industry adopts IM for the composite
Yang, 2005). Osoka et al. (2018) investigated the mech- manufacturing. It is because the IM process is both
anical properties of empty Plantain Bunch Fiber, empty time-efficient and cost-efficient in comparison with
Palm Bunch Fiber and Rattan Palm Fiber strengthened other production processes. On top of that, injection-
Polyester, and epoxy resins composites for automobile molded products ensure less porosity and high uniform-
application. World’s leading automobile manufacturers, ity. However, researchers are still working on making
Mercedez-Benz, Audi, BMW, Toyota, have already taken more updated IM machines. As far as natural fiber is
the initiative to use natural fiber-based composites to concerned, almost all types can be manufactured by the
fabricate various automobile parts (Puglia et al., 2004; IM technique.
Koronis et al., 2013; Sanjay et al., 2016). Kenaf, flax, jute,
sisal, sugarcane, and coir fibers are used in the automo- Acknowledgements
I acknowledge the funding authority for granting the project proposal.
bile industry. Nowadays, approximately 50% of compo-
nents of the airplane are fabricated from composites. Authors’ contributions
Numerous studies have been carried out to investigate The corresponding author prepares the entire manuscript, whereas the 2nd
the potential application of ramie fiber (Boegler et al., author helped to collect the information. The 3rd author is the project
member and guided in writing this article. The authors read and approved
2015), flax fiber (Black, 2017), cotton fiber (Eloy et al., the final manuscript.
2015), etc., in the aerospace sector (Mansor et al., 2019).
In the construction sector, wood or timber-based com- Funding
posites can be used to manufacture those components. The research work has been funded by the Directorate of Research &
Extension, Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology (CUET),
Coir fiber, jute fiber, rice husk, straw, and their compos- Bangladesh.
ites are heavily used in manufacturing wall panels, floor-
ing, roofing, etc. (Keya et al., 2019). Natural fiber Availability of data and materials
composites can also fabricate bridge components (Anal As this is a review article, no information has been generated in the
laboratory; instead, gather those from various sources and declaring that all
& Verma, 2017), beams, columns, building templates, were collected by the researcher at the laboratory of the Department of
etc. (Bakis et al., 2002). In the chemical sector, various Mechanical Engineering, CUET, Bangladesh.
types of reactor, pipe, storage tank, casings, are made
using such composites (Gupta et al., 2016). Composite Declarations
materials have been utilized in orthopedic applications, Competing interests
especially hip joint replacement, bone fixation plates, The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details polypropylene composites. Polym Compos, 37(4), 1101–1112. https://doi.org/1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chittagong University of 0.1002/pc.23272.
Engineering and Technology (CUET), Chattogram 4349, Bangladesh. T. Aurich, T. Lampke, G. Mennig, and B. Wielage, Werk- SbffeinderFertigung, 36,
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering and 12 (1998).
Technology (CUET), Chattogram 4349, Bangladesh. Aurich, T., & Mennig, G. (2001). Flow-induced fiber orientation in injection
molded fit fiber reinforced polypropylene. Polym Compos, 22(5), 680–689.
Received: 11 June 2021 Accepted: 26 October 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.10570.
Bakis, C. E., Bank, L. C., Brown, V., Cosenza, E., Davalos, J. F., Lesko, J. J., …
Triantafillou, T. C. (2002). Fiber-reinforced polymer composites for
construction—state-of-the-art review. J Compos Construction, 6(2), 73–87.
References https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2002)6:2(73).
Abdelwahab, M. A., Rodriguez-Uribe, A., Misra, M., Mohanty, K., & A. (2019). Balasubramanian, K., Sultan, M. T., & Rajeswari, N. (2018). Manufacturing
Injection molded novel biocomposites from polypropylene and sustainable techniques of composites for aerospace applications. In Sustainable
biocarbon. Molecules, 24(22), 4026. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules2422402 Composites for Aerospace Applications (pp. 55-67). Cambridge: Woodhead
6. Publishing.
Abu-Sharkh, B. F., & Hamid, H. (2004). Degradation study of date palm fibre/ Baran, I., Cinar, K., Ersoy, N., Akkerman, R., & Hattel, J. H. (2017). A review on
polypropylene composites in natural and artificial weathering: mechanical the mechanical modeling of composite manufacturing processes. Arch
and thermal analysis. Polym Degrad Stab, 85(3), 967–973. https://doi.org/10.1 Comput Methods Eng, 24(2), 365–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-016-
016/j.polymdegradstab.2003.10.022. 9167-2.
Adeniyi, A. G., Onifade, D. V., Ighalo, J. O., & Adeoye, A. S. (2019). A review of coir Bax, B., & Müssig, J. (2008). Impact and tensile properties of PLA/Cordenka and
fiber reinforced polymer composites. Compos Part B Eng, 176, 107305. PLA/flax composites. Compos Sci Technol, 68(7-8), 1601–1607. https://doi.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107305. org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.01.004.
Agüero, Á., Lascano, D., Garcia-Sanoguera, D., Fenollar, O., & Torres-Giner, S. Beckermann, G. W., & Pickering, K. L. (2008). Engineering and evaluation of hemp
(2020). Valorization of linen processing by-products for the development of fibre reinforced polypropylene composites: fibre treatment and matrix
injection-molded green composite pieces of polylactide with improved modification. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 39(6), 979–988. https://doi.org/10.1
performance. Sustainability, 12(2), 652. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12020652. 016/j.compositesa.2008.03.010.
Aliotta, L., Gigante, V., Coltelli, M. B., Cinelli, P., Lazzeri, A., & Seggiani, M. (2019). Beg, M. D. H., & Pickering, K. L. (2006). Fiber pretreatment and its effects on wood
Thermo-mechanical properties of PLA/short flax fiber biocomposites. Appl Sci, fiber reinforced polypropylene composites. Mat Manufac Proc, 21(3), 303–307.
9(18), 3797. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9183797. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426910500464750.
Alvarez, V., Vazquez, A., & Bernal, C. (2006). Effect of microstructure on the tensile Biagiotti, J., Puglia, D., Torre, L., Kenny, J. M., Arbelaiz, A., Cantero, G., …
and fracture properties of sisal fiber/starch-based composites. J Compos Mondragon, I. (2004). A systematic investigation on the influence of the
Mater, 40(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998305053508. chemical treatment of natural fibers on the properties of their polymer
Alvarez, V. A., Terenzi, A., Kenny, J. M., & Vazquez, A. (2004). Melt rheological matrix composites. Polym Compos, 25(5), 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1002/
behavior of starch-based matrix composites reinforced with short sisal fibers. pc.20040.
Polymer Eng Sci, 44(10), 1907–1914. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.20193. Birat, K. C., Panthapulakkal, S., Kronka, A., Agnelli, J. A. M., Tjong, J., & Sain, M.
Anal, I. & Verma, D. (2017).Construction materials reinforced with natural (2015). Hybrid biocomposites with enhanced thermal and mechanical
products, Springer International Publishing.Handbook of Ecomaterials, 1-24. properties for structural applications. J Appl Polym Sci, 132(34). https://doi.
Anbupalani, M. S., Venkatachalam, C. D., & Rathanasamy, R. (2020). Influence of org/10.1002/app.42452.
coupling agent on altering the reinforcing efficiency of natural fibre- Black, S. (2017). Looking to lighten up aircraft interiors-with natural fibers?
incorporated polymers–a review. J Reinforced Plastics Composites, 39(13-14), Bledzki, A. K., & Faruk, O. (2006). Injection moulded microcellular wood fibre–
520–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684420918937. polypropylene composites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 37(9), 1358–1367.
Andrzejewski, J., Szostak, M., Barczewski, M., & Łuczak, P. (2019). Cork-wood hybrid https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.08.010.
filler system for polypropylene and poly(lactic acid) based injection molded Bledzki, A. K., & Gassan, J. (1999). Composites reinforced with cellulose based
composites. Structure evaluation and mechanical performance. Compos Part fibres. Prog Polym Sci, 24(2), 221–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-
B Eng, 163, 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.12.109. 6700(98)00018-5.
Ansari, F., Granda, L. A., Joffe, R., Berglund, L. A., & Vilaseca, F. (2017). Experimental Bledzki, A. K., Jaszkiewicz, A., & Scherzer, D. (2009). Mechanical properties of
evaluation of anisotropy in injection molded polypropylene/wood fiber PLA composites with man-made cellulose and abaca fibres. Compos A:
biocomposites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 96, 147–154. https://doi.org/10.101 Appl Sci Manuf, 40(4), 404–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.
6/j.compositesa.2017.02.003. 01.002.
Arao, Y., Fujiura, T., Itani, S., & Tanaka, T. (2015). Strength improvement in Bledzki, A. K., Mamun, A. A., Jaszkiewicz, A., & Erdmann, K. (2010). Polypropylene
injection-molded jute-fiber-reinforced polylactide green-composites. Compos composites with enzyme modified abaca fibre. Compos Sci Technol, 70(5),
Part B Eng, 68, 200–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.08.032. 854–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.02.003.
Arbelaiz, A., Fernández, B., Cantero, G., Llano-Ponte, R., Valea, A., & Mondragon, I. Bledzki, A. K., Mamun, A. A., Lucka-Gabor, M., & Gutowski, V. S. (2008). The effects
(2005). Mechanical properties of flax fibre/polypropylene composites. of acetylation on properties of flax fibre and its polypropylene composites.
Influence of fibre/matrix modification and glass fibre hybridization. Compos Express Polymer Letters, 2(6), 413–422. https://doi.org/10.3144/
A: Appl Sci Manuf, 36(12), 1637–1644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2 expresspolymlett.2008.50.
005.03.021. Boegler, O., Kling, U., Empl, D., & Isikveren, A. T. (2015). Potential of sustainable
Arbelaiz, A., Fernandez, B., Ramos, J. A., & Mondragon, I. (2006). Thermal and materials in wing structural design (pp. 16-18). Bonn: Deutsche Gesellschaft
crystallization studies of short flax fibre reinforced polypropylene matrix fürLuft-und Raumfahrt-Lilienthal-Oberth eV.
composites: effect of treatments. Thermochimica Acta, 440(2), 111–121. Bos, H. L., Müssig, J., & van den Oever, M. J. (2006). Mechanical properties of
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2005.10.016. short-flax-fibre reinforced compounds. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 37(10),
Aridi, N. A. M., Sapuan, S. M., Zainudin, E. S., & Al-Oqla, F. M. (2016). Mechanical 1591–1604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.10.011.
and morphological properties of injection-molded rice husk polypropylene Bouafif, H., Koubaa, A., Perré, P., & Cloutier, A. (2009). Effects of fiber characteristics
composites. Int J Polymer Anal Charac, 21(4), 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1 on the physical and mechanical properties of wood plastic composites.
080/1023666X.2016.1148316. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 40(12), 1975–1981.
Arrakhiz, F. Z., Malha, M., Bouhfid, R., Benmoussa, K., & Qaiss, A. (2013). Tensile, Cabral, H., Cisneros, M., Kenny, J. M., Vazquez, A., & Bernal, C. R. (2005). Structure–
flexural and torsional properties of chemically treated alfa, coir and bagasse properties relationship of short jute fiber-reinforced polypropylene
reinforced polypropylene. Compos Part B Eng, 47, 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1 composites. JCompos Materials, 39(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021
016/j.compositesb.2012.10.046. 998305046434.
Assarar, M., Scida, D., Zouari, W., Saidane, E. H., & Ayad, R. (2016). Acoustic Cantero, G., Arbelaiz, A., Llano-Ponte, R., & Mondragon, I. (2003). Effects of fibre
emission characterization of damage in short hemp-fiber-reinforced treatment on wettability and mechanical behaviour of flax/polypropylene
composites. Compos Sci Technol, 63(9), 1247–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/ fiber biocomposites. Polym Compos, 40(6), 2132–2141. https://doi.org/10.1
S0266-3538(03)00094-0. 002/pc.24997.
Chaitanya, S., & Singh, I. (2017). Processing of PLA/sisal fiber biocomposites using Gunturu, B., Vemulapalli, C., Malkapuram, R., & Konduru, N. (2020). Investigation
direct-and extrusion-injection molding. Mat Manufac Proc, 32(5), 468–474. on mechanical, thermal and water absorption properties of banana/coir
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2016.1198034. reinforced polypropylene hybrid composites investigation on mechanical,
Chaitanya, S., Singh, I., & Song, J. I. (2019). Recyclability analysis of PLA/sisal fiber thermal and water absorption properties of banana/coir reinforced
biocomposites. Compos Part B Eng, 173, 106895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. polypropylene hybrid composites. Revue des Composites et des
compositesb.2019.05.106. MatériauxAvancés, 30.
Chandramohan, D., & Marimuthu, K. (2011). Tensile and hardness tests on natural Guo, G., & Kethineni, C. (2020). Direct injection molding of hybrid polypropylene/
fiber reinforced polymer composite material. Int J Adv Eng Sci Technol, 6(1), wood-fiber composites reinforced with glass fiber and carbon fiber. Int J Adv
97–104. Manufac Technol, 106(1), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04572-7.
Chiu, C. P., Shih, L. C., & Wei, J. H. (1991). Dynamic modeling of the mold filling Gupta, G., Kumar, A., Tyagi, R., & Kumar, S. (2016). Application and future of
process in an injection molding machine. Polymer Eng Sci, 31(19), 1417–1425. composite materials: a review. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol, 5(5), 6907–
https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.760311908. 6911.
Chow, C. P. L., Xing, X. S., & Li, R. K. Y. (2007). Moisture absorption studies of sisal Hao, X., Zhou, H., Mu, B., Chen, L., Guo, Q., Yi, X., … Ou, R. (2020). Effects of fiber
fibre reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos Sci Technol, 67(2), 306– geometry and orientation distribution on the anisotropy of mechanical
313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.08.005. properties, creep behavior, and thermal expansion of natural fiber/HDPE
Chung, T. J., Park, J. W., Lee, H. J., Kwon, H. J., Kim, H. J., Lee, Y. K., & Tai Yin Tze, W. composites. Compos Part B Eng, 185, 107778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(2018). The improvement of mechanical properties, thermal stability, and compositesb.2020.107778.
water absorption resistance of an eco-friendly PLA/kenaf biocomposite using Hasan, K. F., Horváth, P. G., Bak, M., & Alpár, T. (2021). A state-of-the-art review on
acetylation. Appl Sci, 8(3), 376. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8030376. coir fiber-reinforced biocomposites. RSC Adv, 11(18), 10548–10571. https://doi.
da Silva Moura, A., Demori, R., Leão, R. M., Frankenberg, C. L. C., & Santana, R. M. org/10.1039/D1RA00231G.
C. (2019). The influence of the coconut fiber treated as reinforcement in PHB Hashemi, S. (2002). Influence of temperature on weldline strength of injection
(polyhydroxybutyrate) composites. Mat Today Commun, 18, 191–198. https:// moulded short glass fibre styrene maleic anhydride polymer composites.
doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.12.006. Plastics Rubber Composites, 31(7), 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1179/1465801
Dasore, A., Rajak, U., Balijepalli, R., Verma, T. N., & Ramakrishna, K. (2021). An 02225005027.
overview of refinements, processing methods and properties of natural fiber Havlicsek, H., & Alleyne, A. (1999). Nonlinear control of an electrohydraulic
composites. Materials Today: Proceedings. injection molding machine via iterative adaptive learning. IEEE/ASME Trans
Dinerman, A., & Steffens, N. L. (1991). U.S. Patent No. 5,035,605. Washington, DC: U. Mechatronics, 4(3), 312–323. https://doi.org/10.1109/3516.789689.
S. Patent and Trademark Office. Hepworth, D. G., Hobson, R. N., Bruce, D. M., & Farrent, J. W. (2000). The use of
Elkington, M., Bloom, D., Ward, C., Chatzimichali, A., & Potter, K. (2015). Hand untreated hemp fibre in composite manufacture. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf,
layup: understanding the manual process. Adv Manufac Polymer Compos Sci, 31(11), 1279–1283. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(00)00098-1.
1(3), 138–151. Hornsby, P. R., Hinrichsen, E., & Tarverdi, K. (1997). Preparation and properties of
Eloy, F. S., Costa, R. R. C., De Medeiros, R., Ribeiro, M. L., & Tita, V. (2015). polypropylene composites reinforced with wheat and flax straw fibres: part I
Comparison between mechanical properties of bio and synthetic composites fibre characterization. J Mater Sci, 32(2), 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1
for use in aircraft interior structures. In Meeting on Aeronautical Composite 018521920738.
Materials and Structures. São Carlos: University of São Paulo. Huang, J. K., & Young, W. B. (2019). The mechanical, hygral, and interfacial
Espinach, F. X., Granda, L. A., Tarrés, Q., Duran, J., Fullana-i-Palmer, P., & Mutjé, P. strength of continuous bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Compos
(2017). Mechanical and micromechanical tensile strength of eucalyptus Part B Eng, 166, 272–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.12.013.
bleached fibers reinforced polyoxymethylene composites. Compos Part B Ichazo, M. N., Albano, C., Gonzalez, J., Perera, R., & Candal, A. M. (2001).
Eng, 116, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.10.073. Polypropylene/wood flour composites: treatments and properties. Composite
Fajardo Cabrera de Lima, L. D. P., Santana, R. M. C., & Chamorro Rodríguez, C. D. Structures, 54(2-3), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-8223(01)00089-7.
(2020). Influence of coupling agent in mechanical, physical and thermal Idumah, C. I., Ogbu, J. E., Ndem, J. U., & Obiana, V. (2019). Influence of chemical
properties of polypropylene/bamboo fiber composites: under natural modification of kenaf fiber on xGNP-PP nano-biocomposites. SN Appl Sci,
outdoor aging. Polymers, 12(4), 929. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040929. 1(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1319-1.
Fara, S., & Pavan, A. (2004). Fibre orientation effects on the fracture of short fibre Ishak, Z. M., Yow, B. N., Ng, B. L., Khalil, H. A., & Rozman, H. D. (2001).
polymer composites: on the existence of a critical fibre orientation on Hygrothermal aging and tensile behavior of injection-molded rice husk-filled
varying internal material variables. J Mater Sci, 39(11), 3619–3628. https://doi. polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci, 81(3), 742–753. https://doi.org/1
org/10.1023/B:JMSC.0000030714.13161.f6. 0.1002/app.1491.
Fernandes, C., Pontes, A. J., Viana, J. C., & Gaspar-Cunha, A. (2018). Modeling and Islam, M. N., Rahman, M. R., Haque, M. M., & Huque, M. M. (2010). Physico-
optimization of the injection-molding process: a review. Adv Polymer Technol, mechanical properties of chemically treated coir reinforced polypropylene
37(2), 429–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/adv.21683. composites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 41(2), 192–198. https://doi.org/10.101
Fiore, V., Di Bella, G., & Valenza, A. (2015). The effect of alkaline treatment on 6/j.compositesa.2009.10.006.
mechanical properties of kenaf fibers and their epoxy composites. Compos Jaafar, J., Siregar, J. P., Tezara, C., Hamdan, M. H. M., & Rihayat, T. (2019). A review
Part B Eng, 68, 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.08.025. of important considerations in the compression molding process of short
Fung, K. L., Li, R. K. Y., & Tjong, S. C. (2002). Interface modification on the natural fiber composites. Int J Adv Manufac Technol, 105(7), 3437–3450.
properties of sisal fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04466-8.
Sci, 85(1), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.10584. Jariwala, H., & Jain, P. (2019). A review on mechanical behavior of natural fiber
Fung, K. L., Xing, X. S., Li, R. K. Y., Tjong, S. C., & Mai, Y. W. (2003). An investigation on reinforced polymer composites and its applications. J Reinforced Plastics
the processing of sisal fibre reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos Sci Composites, 38(10), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684419828524.
Technol, 63(9), 1255–1258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00095-2. Jayaraman, K. (2003). Manufacturing sisal–polypropylene composites with
Galt, J., Kestle, M., &Yetter, J. (1998). U.S. Patent No. 5,707,667. Washington, minimum fibre degradation. Compos Sci Technol, 63(3-4), 367–374. https://
DC: U.S. doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(02)00217-8.
Gao, S. L., & Mäder, E. (2006). Jute/polypropylene composites I. Effect of matrix Jayaraman, K., & Bhattacharyya, D. (2004). Mechanical performance of woodfibre–
modification. Compos Sci Technol, 66(7-8), 952–963. waste plastic composite materials. Resource Conserv Recycling, 41(4), 307–319.
H. Gaub, Reinf. Plast. (2015), doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repl.2015.09.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2003.12.001.
Glaesener, P., &Kestle, M. R. (1997). U.S. Patent No. 5,620,723. Washington, DC: U.S. Jeyapragash, R., Srinivasan, V., & Sathiyamurthy, S. J. (2020). Mechanical properties
,1997. of natural fiber/particulate reinforced epoxy composites–A review of the
González-López, M. E., Pérez-Fonseca, A. A., Manríquez-González, R., Arellano, M., literature. Mat Today Proc, 22, 1223–1227.
Rodrigue, D., & Robledo-Ortíz, J. R. (2019). Effect of surface treatment on the Jiang, L., Huang, J., Qian, J., Chen, F., Zhang, J., Wolcott, M. P., & Zhu, Y. (2008).
physical and mechanical properties of injection molded poly (lactic acid)-coir Study of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)(PHBV)/bamboo pulp
fiber composites: effects of nucleation agent and compatibilizer. J Polym Lau, K. T., Hung, P. Y., Zhu, M. H., & Hui, D. (2018). Properties of natural fibre
Environ, 16(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-008-0086-7. composites for structural engineering applications. Compos Part B Eng, 136,
Jiang, N., Yu, T., & Li, Y. (2018). Effect of hydrothermal aging on injection molded 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.10.038.
short jute fiber reinforced poly (lactic acid)(PLA) composites. J Polym Environ, Le Bourhis, E., & Touchard, F. (2021). Mechanical properties of natural fiber
26(8), 3176–3186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-018-1205-8. composites. In Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials
Joseph, K., Thomas, S., & Pavithran, C. (1996). Effect of chemical treatment on the Engineering.
tensile properties of short sisal fibre-reinforced polyethylene composites. Le Troedec, M., Sedan, D., Peyratout, C., Bonnet, J. P., Smith, A., Guinebretiere, R.,
Polymer, 37(23), 5139–5149. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(96)00144-9. … Krausz, P. (2008). Influence of various chemical treatments on the
Joseph, P. V., Joseph, K., & Thomas, S. (1999). Effect of processing variables on the composition and structure of hemp fibres. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 39(3),
mechanical properties of sisal-fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. 514–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.12.001.
Composit Sci Technol, 59(11), 1625–1640. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-353 Li, X., Tabil, L. G., Panigrahi, S., & Crerar, W. J. (2006). The influence of fiber content
8(99)00024-X. on properties of injection molded flax fiber-HDPE biocomposites. In 2006
Junkasem, J., Menges, J., & Supaphol, P. (2006). Mechanical properties of ASAE annual meeting (p. 1). American Society of Agricultural and Biological
injection-molded isotactic polypropylene/roselle fiber composites. J Appl Engineers.
Polym Sci, 101(5), 3291–3300. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.23829. Li, Y., Mai, Y. W., & Ye, L. (2000). Sisal fibre and its composites: a review of recent
Jyoti, A., Singh, R. K., Kumar, N., Aman, A. K., & Kar, M. (2021). ‘Synthesis and developments. Compos Sci Technol, 60(11), 2037–2055. https://doi.org/10.101
properties of amorphous nanosilica from rice husk and its composites. Mat 6/S0266-3538(00)00101-9.
Sci Eng B, 263, 114871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2020.114871. Link, C., Osmokrovic, L., & Fan, Y. (2019). U.S. Patent Application No. 16/248,162.
Kalaprasad, G., Joseph, K., & Thomas, S. (1997). Influence of short glass fiber Liu, Y., Xie, J., Wu, N., Wang, L., Ma, Y., & Tong, J. (2019). Influence of silane
addition on the mechanical properties of sisal reinforced low density treatment on the mechanical, tribological and morphological properties of
polyethylene composites. J Compos Materials, 31(5), 509–527. https://doi. corn stalk fiber reinforced polymer composites. Tribol Inter, 131, 398–405.
org/10.1177/002199839703100504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2018.11.004.
Karl, W. (1964). U.S. Patent No. 3,156,014. Washington, DC: U.S. Long, H., Wu, Z., Dong, Q., Shen, Y., Zhou, W., Luo, Y., … Dong, X. (2019).
Karnani, R., Krishnan, M., & Narayan, R. (1997). Biofiber-reinforced polypropylene Mechanical and thermal properties of bamboo fiber reinforced
composites. Polymer Eng Sci, 37(2), 476–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.11 polypropylene/polylactic acid composites for 3D printing. Polymer Eng Sci,
691. 59(s2), E247–E260. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25043.
Kc, B., Faruk, O., Agnelli, J. A. M., Leao, A. L., Tjong, J., & Sain, M. (2016). Sisal-glass Madan, J., Mani, M., Lee, J. H., & Lyons, K. W. (2015). Energy performance
fiber hybrid biocomposite: optimization of injection molding parameters evaluation and improvement of unit-manufacturing processes: injection
using Taguchi method for reducing shrinkage. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 83, molding case study. J Clean Prod, 105, 157–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.034. jclepro.2014.09.060.
Keller, A. (2003). Compounding and mechanical properties of biodegradable Mai Nguyen Tran, T., Mn, P., Lee, D. W., Cabo, M. J., & Song, J. I. (2020).
hemp fibre composites. Compos Sci Technol, 63(9), 1307–1316. https://doi. Polypropylene/abaca fiber eco-composites: influence of bio-waste additive
org/10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00102-7. on flame retardancy and mechanical properties. Polymer Composites.
Keya, K. N., Kona, N. A., Koly, F. A., Maraz, K. M., Islam, M. N., & Khan, R. A. (2019). Mansor, M. R., Nurfaizey, A. H., Tamaldin, N., & Nordin, M. N. A. (2019). Natural
Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites: history, types, advantages and fiber polymer composites: utilization in aerospace engineering. In Biomass,
applications. Mat Eng Res, 1(2), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.25082/MER.2019.02. Biopolymer-Based Materials, and Bioenergy (pp. 203-224). Cambridge:
006. Woodhead Publishing.
Koffi, A., Koffi, D., & Toubal, L. (2021). Mechanical properties and drop-weight Matsuda, K., Inaba, N., Kaminishi, M., Funabashi, T., & Tanaka, N. (1990). U.S. Patent
impact performance of injection-molded HDPE/birch fiber composites. No. 4,932,854. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Polymer Testing, 93, 106956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2020.1 Mianehrow, H., & Abbasian, A. (2017). Energy monitoring of plastic injection
06956. molding process running with hydraulic injection molding machines. J Clean
Koronis, G., Silva, A., & Fontul, M. (2013). Green composites: a review of adequate Prod, 148, 804–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.053.
materials for automotive applications. Compos Part B Eng, 44(1), 120–127. Migneault, S., Koubaa, A., Erchiqui, F., Chaala, A., Englund, K., & Wolcott, M. P.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.07.004. (2009). Effects of processing method and fiber size on the structure and
Kumar, A., & Tumu, V. R. (2019). Physicochemical properties of the electron beam properties of wood–plastic composites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 40(1), 80–
irradiated bamboo powder and its bio-composites with PLA. Compos Part B 85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.10.004.
Eng, 175, 107098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107098. Miklos, M. and Gregory, R. (2003). Common mistakes in long-fibre molding,
Kumar, B. B., Doddamani, M., Zeltmann, S. E., Gupta, N., Ramesh, M. R., & plastics technology, 49: 1;ProQuest Science Journals, p. 40.
Ramakrishna, S. (2016). Processing of cenosphere/HDPE syntactic foams using Mirbagheri, J., Tajvidi, M., Hermanson, J. C., & Ghasemi, I. (2007). Tensile properties
an industrial scale polymer injection molding machine. Mat Design, 92, 414– of wood flour/kenaf fiber polypropylene hybrid composites. J Appl Polym Sci,
423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.12.052. 105(5), 3054–3059. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.26363.
Kumar, S., Zindani, D., & Bhowmik, S. (2020). Investigation of mechanical and Mohammed, A. A. S., Bachtiar, D., Siregar, J. P., Rejab, M. R. B. M., & Hasany, S. F.
viscoelastic properties of flax-and ramie-reinforced green composites for (2016). Physicochemical study of eco-friendly sugar palm fiber thermoplastic
orthopedic implants. J Mat Eng Perform, 29, 3161–3171. polyurethane composites. BioResources, 11(4), 9438–9454. https://doi.org/10.1
Kuo, J. L., & Chang, M. T. (2015). Multiobjective design of turbo injection mode 5376/biores.11.4.9438-9454.
for axial flux motor in plastic injection molding machine by particle swarm Mohan, M., Ansari, M. N. M., & Shanks, R. A. (2017). Review on the effects of
optimization. Math Probl Eng. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/974624. process parameters on strength, shrinkage, and warpage of injection
Kuo, P. Y., Wang, S. Y., Chen, J. H., Hsueh, H. C., & Tsai, M. J. (2009). Effects of molding plastic component. Polym-Plast Technol Eng, 56(1), 1–12. https://doi.
material compositions on the mechanical properties of wood–plastic org/10.1080/03602559.2015.1132466.
composites manufactured by injection molding. Mat Design, 30(9), 3489– Mohanty, A. K., Tummala, P., Liu, W., Misra, M., Mulukutla, P. V., & Drzal, L. T. (2005).
3496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2009.03.012. Injection molded biocomposites from soy protein based bioplastic and short
Kusić, D., Božič, U., Monzón, M., Paz, R., & Bordón, P. (2020). Thermal and industrial hemp fiber. J Polym Environ, 13(3), 279–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/
mechanical characterization of banana fiber reinforced composites for its s10924-005-4762-6.
application in injection molding. Materials, 13(16), 3581. https://doi.org/10.33 Mohanty, A. K., Wibowo, A., Misra, M., & Drzal, L. T. (2004). Effect of process
90/ma13163581. engineering on the performance of natural fiber reinforced cellulose acetate
Kwon, H. J., Sunthornvarabhas, J., Park, J. W., Lee, J. H., Kim, H. J., Piyachomkwan, biocomposites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 35(3), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1
K., … Cho, D. (2014). Tensile properties of kenaf fiber and corn husk flour 016/j.compositesa.2003.09.015.
reinforced poly (lactic acid) hybrid bio-composites: role of aspect ratio of Morris, R. H., Geraldi, N. R., Stafford, J. L., Spicer, A., Hall, J., Bradley, C., &
natural fibers. Compos Part B Eng, 56, 232–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Newton, M. I. (2020). Woven natural fibre reinforced composite materials
compositesb.2013.08.003. for medical imaging. Materials, 13(7), 1684. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13
Laczko, F. (1975). U.S. Patent No. 3,893,792. Washington, DC: U.S.. 071684.
Nematollahi, M., Karevan, M., Fallah, M., & Farzin, M. (2020). Experimental and Rahman, M. R., Huque, M. M., Islam, M. N., & Hasan, M. (2008). Improvement of
numerical study of the critical length of short kenaf fiber reinforced physico-mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced polypropylene
polypropylene composites. Fibers Polymers, 21(4), 821–828. https://doi.org/1 composites by post-treatment. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 39(11), 1739–1747.
0.1007/s12221-020-9600-x. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.08.002.
Nematollahi, M., Karevan, M., Mosaddegh, P., & Farzin, M. (2019). Morphology, Rahman, M. R., Huque, M. M., Islam, M. N., & Hasan, M. (2009). Mechanical
thermal and mechanical properties of extruded injection molded kenaf fiber properties of polypropylene composites reinforced with chemically treated
reinforced polypropylene composites. Mat Res Express, 6(9), 095409. https:// abaca. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 40(4), 511–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab2fbd. compositesa.2009.01.013.
Nyström, B. (1999/2000). Karakterisering av kompositers förbränningsegenskaper, Rana, A. K., Mandal, A., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (2003). Short jute fiber reinforced
SICOMP TR 01-009. Proj Rep VAMP, 18, 1999–2002. polypropylene composites: effect of compatibiliser, impact modifier and fiber
Ohba, Y., Sazawa, M., Ohishi, K., Asai, T., Majima, K., Yoshizawa, Y., & Kageyama, K. loading. Compos Sci Technol, 63(6), 801–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3
(2009). Sensorless force control for injection molding machine using reaction 538(02)00267-1.
torque observer considering torsion phenomenon. IEEE Trans Indus Electron, Reddy, N. and Yang, Y.Q. (2005) Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for
56(8), 2955–2960. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2009.2024444. industrial applications. Trends in Biotechnology, 23, No.1.
Okubo, K., Fujii, T., & Thostenson, E. T. (2009). Multi-scale hybrid biocomposite: Rees, H., Brown, P., & Grund, M. (1982). U.S. Patent No. 4,330,257. Washington, DC:
processing and mechanical characterization of bamboo fiber reinforced PLA U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
with microfibrillated cellulose. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 40(4), 469–475. Rezaur Rahman, M., Hasan, M., MonimulHuque, M., & Nazrul Islam, M. (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.01.012. Physico-mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced polypropylene
Orue, A., Jauregi, A., Unsuain, U., Labidi, J., Eceiza, A., & Arbelaiz, A. (2016). The effect composites. J Reinforced Plastics Composites, 29(3), 445–455. https://doi.org/1
of alkaline and silane treatments on mechanical properties and breakage of sisal 0.1177/0731684408098008.
fibers and poly (lactic acid)/sisal fiber composites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 84, Ribeiro, B. (2005). Support vector machines for quality monitoring in a plastic
186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.01.021. injection molding process. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cyber C (Applications and
Osoka, E., Onukwuli, O. D., & Kamalu, C. (2018). Mechanical properties of selected Reviews), 35(3), 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCC.2004.843228.
natural fiber reinforced composites for automobile application. Am J Eng Res, Roger, A. J. (1954). U.S. Patent No. 2,689,978. Washington, DC: U.S.
7, 384–388. Rokbi, M., Osmani, H., Imad, A., & Benseddiq, N. (2011). Effect of chemical
Osswald, T., & Hernández-Ortiz, J. P. (2006). Polymer processing. Modeling and treatment on flexure properties of natural fiber-reinforced polyester
Simulation. Munich: Hanser, 1-651, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3139/9783446412 composite. procedia Engineering, 10(0), 2092-2097, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1
866. 016/j.proeng.2011.04.346.
Pailoor, S., Murthy, H. N., Hadimani, P., & Sreenivasa, T. N. (2019). Effect of Rozman, H. D., Tan, K. W., Kumar, R. N., Abubakar, A., Ishak, Z. M., & Ismail, H.
chopped/continuous fiber, coupling agent and fiber ratio on the mechanical (2000). The effect of lignin as a compatibilizer on the physical properties of
properties of injection-molded jute/polypropylene composites. J Natural coconut fiber–polypropylene composites. Eur Polym J, 36(7), 1483–1494.
Fibers, 16(1), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1410510. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-3057(99)00200-1.
Panaitescu, D. M., Vuluga, Z., Sanporean, C. G., Nicolae, C. A., Gabor, A. R., & Sadeghi, B. H. M. (2000). A BP-neural network predictor model for plastic injection
Trusca, R. (2019). High flow polypropylene/SEBS composites reinforced with molding process. J Mater Process Technol, 103(3), 411–416. https://doi.org/1
differently treated hemp fibers for injection molded parts. Compos Part B 0.1016/S0924-0136(00)00498-2.
Eng, 174, 107062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107062. Samouh, Z., Molnar, K., Boussu, F., Cherkaoui, O., & El Moznine, R. (2019).
Panthapulakkal, S., & Sain, M. (2007). Injection-molded short hemp fiber/glass Mechanical and thermal characterization of sisal fiber reinforced polylactic
fiber-reinforced polypropylene hybrid composites—mechanical, water acid composites. Polymers Adv Technol, 30(3), 529–537. https://doi.org/10.1
absorption and thermal properties. J Appl Polym Sci, 103(4), 2432–2441. 002/pat.4488.
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.25486. Sanadi, A. R., Calufield, D. F., & Rowell, R. M. (1994). Reinforcing polypropylene
Phillips, S., & Lessard, L. (2012). Application of natural fiber composites to musical with natural fibers. Plastics Eng (USA), 50(4), 27–28.
instrument top plates. J Compos Materials, 46(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/1 Sanadi, A. R., Caulfield, D. F., Jacobson, R. E., & Rowell, R. M. (1995). Renewable
0.1177/0021998311410497. agricultural fibers as reinforcing fillers in plastics: mechanical properties of
Pilla, S., Gong, S., O’Neill, E., Rowell, R. M., & Krzysik, A. M. (2008). Polylactide-pine kenaf fiber-polypropylene composites. Industr Eng Chem Res, 34(5), 1889–
wood flour composites. Polymer Eng Sci, 48(3), 578–587. https://doi.org/10.1 1896. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie00044a041.
002/pen.20971. Sanjay, M. R., Arpitha, G. R., Naik, L. L., Gopalakrishna, K., & Yogesha, B. (2016).
Pilla, S., Gong, S., O’Neill, E., Yang, L., & Rowell, R. M. (2009b). Polylactide-recycled Applications of natural fibers and its composites: an overview. Nat Res, 7(3),
wood fiber composites. J Appl Polym Sci, 111(1), 37-47, 1, DOI: https://doi. 108–114. https://doi.org/10.4236/nr.2016.73011.
org/10.1002/app.28860. Sarasini, F., Tirillo, J., Puglia, D., Kenny, J. M., Dominici, F., Santulli, C., … De Santis,
Pilla, S., Kramschuster, A., Lee, J., Auer, G. K., Gong, S., & Turng, L. S. (2009a). R. (2015). Effect of different lignocellulosic fibres on poly (ε-caprolactone)-
Microcellular and solid polylactide–flax fiber composites. Composite based composites for potential applications in orthotics. RSC Adv, 5(30),
Interfaces, 16(7-9), 869–890. https://doi.org/10.1163/092764409X124774 23798–23809. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA00832H.
67990283. Sarikaya, E., Çallioğlu, H., & Demirel, H. (2019). Production of epoxy composites
Piotter, V., Hanemann, T., Ruprecht, R., & Hausselt, J. (1997). Injection molding and reinforced by different natural fibers and their mechanical properties.
related techniques for fabrication of microstructures. Microsystem Technol, Compos Part B Eng, 167, 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.
3(3), 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s005420050069. 03.020.
Puglia, D., Biagiotti, J., & Kenny, J. M. (2004). A review on natural fibre-based Satyanarayana, K. G., Sukumaran, K., Mukherjee, P. S., Pavithran, C., & Pillai, S. G. K.
composites—Part II: Application of natural reinforcements in composite (1990). Natural fibre-polymer composites. Cement Concrete Composites, 12(2),
materials for automotive industry. J Natural Fibres, 1(3). 117–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/0958-9465(90)90049-4.
Punyamurthy, R., Sampathkumar, D., Bennehalli, B., &Badyankal, P. V. (2014). Study Schad, R. D. (1984). U.S. Patent No. 4,444,711. Washington, DC: U.S.
of the effect of chemical treatments on the tensile behaviour of abaca fiber Schad, R. D. (1986). U.S. Patent No. 4,588,367. Washington, DC: U.S.
reinforced polypropylene composites. J Adv Chem, 10(6), 2803–2811. Schad, R. D., & Pocock, J. (1989). U.S. Patent No. 4,836,767. Washington, DC: U.S.
Qaiss, A., & Bousmina, M. (2011). Biaxial stretching of polymers using a novel and Schift, H., David, C., Gabriel, M., Gobrecht, J., Heyderman, L. J., Kaiser, W., …
versatile stretching system. Polymer Eng Sci, 51(7), 1347–1353. https://doi. Scandella, L. (2000). Nanoreplication in polymers using hot embossing and
org/10.1002/pen.21869. injection molding. Microelectronic Eng, 53(1-4), 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1
Qaiss, A., Saidi, H., Fassi-Fehri, O., & Bousmina, M. (2012). Cellular polypropylene- 016/S0167-9317(00)00289-6.
based piezoelectric films. Polymer Eng Sci, 52(12), 2637–2644. https://doi.org/1 Schmidt, H. (1994). U.S. Patent No. 5,360,333. Washington, DC: U.S..
0.1002/pen.23219. Schut, J. (2002a). Why long-glass molders are compounding in-line. Plastics
Qaiss, A., Saidi, H., Fassi-Fehri, O., & Bousmina, M. (2013). Theoretical modeling Technol, 48(4), 52–59.
and experiments on the piezoelectric coefficient in cellular polymer films. Schut, J. H. (2002b). Long-glass leader: how faurecia helped put TP composites in
Polymer Eng Sci, 53(1), 105–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.23234. the driver’s seat. Plastics Technol, 48(8), 44–48.
Schut, J. H. (2003). Long-fiber thermoplastics: extend their reach. Plastics Technol, Thwe, M. M., & Liao, K. (2003). Durability of bamboo-glass fiber reinforced
49(4), 56–61. polymer matrix hybrid composites. Compos Sci Technol, 63(3-4), 375–387.
SemlaliAouraghHassani, F. Z., Ouarhim, W., Zari, N., Bensalah, M. O., Rodrigue, D., https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(02)00225-7.
Bouhfid, R., & Qaiss, A. E. K. (2019). Injection molding of short coir fiber Tokoro, R., Vu, D. M., Okubo, K., Tanaka, T., Fujii, T., & Fujiura, T. (2008). How to
polypropylene biocomposites: prediction of the mold filling phase. Polym improve mechanical properties of polylactic acid with bamboo fibers. J Mater
Compos, 40(10), 4042–4055. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.25265. Sci, 43(2), 775–787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-007-1994-y.
Shah, N., Fehrenbach, J., & Ulven, C. A. (2019). Hybridization of hemp fiber and Várdai, R., Lummerstorfer, T., Pretschuh, C., Jerabek, M., Gahleitner, M., Bartos, A.,
recycled-carbon fiber in polypropylene composites. Sustainability, 11(11), … Pukánszky, B. (2021). Improvement of the impact resistance of natural
3163. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113163. fiber–reinforced polypropylene composites through hybridization. Polymers
Shao, M. W., Huang, J. J., Chen, Y. X., & Hwang, S. S. (2019). Synthesis and Adv Technol, 32(6), 2499–2507. https://doi.org/10.1002/pat.5280.
characterization of the microcellular injection molded PA6/flax and the PA6/ Vedrtnam, A., Kumar, S., & Chaturvedi, S. (2019). Experimental study on
graphene nanocomposites. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and mechanical behavior, biodegradability, and resistance to natural weathering
Engineering (Vol. 542, No. 1, p. 012067). Xiamen: IOP Publishing. and ultraviolet radiation of wood-plastic composites. Compos Part B Eng, 176,
Shibata, M., Ozawa, K., Teramoto, N., Yosomiya, R., & Takeishi, H. (2003). 107282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107282.
Biocomposites made from short abaca fiber and biodegradable polyesters. Vinod, B., & Anandajothi, M. (2020). Mechanical and tribological properties of
Macromol Mat Eng, 288(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.200290031. abaca-roselle/cardanol formaldehyde hybrid composites. Mat Res Express,
Shoichi, T. (1968). U.S. Patent No. 3,417,433. Washington, DC: U.S. 6(12), 125363. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab66fa.
Shon, K., & White, J. L. (1999). A comparative study of fiber breakage in Wang, J. L. (2012). Application of composite materials on sports equipments. In
compounding glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastics in a buss kneader, Applied Mechanics and Materials (Vol. 155, pp. 903-906). Trans Tech
modular co-rotating and counter-rotating twin screw extruders. Polymer Eng Publications Ltd.
Sci, 39(9), 1757–1768. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.11570. B. Wielage, T. Lampke, G. Marx, K. Nestler. and D. Starke, ’IhermochimicaActa, SS7,
Singh, H., Singh, J. I. P., Singh, S., Dhawan, V., & Tiwari, S. K. (2018). A brief review 169 (1999)
of jute fibre and its composites. Mat Today Proc, 5(14), 28427–28437. Wong, S. C., & Mai, Y. W. (1999). Essential fracture work of short fiber reinforced
Singh, S., & Mohanty, A. K. (2007). Wood fiber reinforced bacterial bioplastic polymer blends. Polymer Eng Sci, 39(2), 356–364. https://doi.org/10.1002/
composites: fabrication and performance evaluation. Compos Sci Technol, pen.11422.
67(9), 1753–1763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.11.009. Xie, X. L., Li, R. K. Y., Tjong, S. C., & Mai, Y. W. (2002). Structural properties and
Sinha, A. K., Bhattacharya, S., & Narang, H. K. (2020). Abaca fibre reinforced mechanical behavior of injection molded composites of polypropylene and
polymer composites: a review. J Mater Sci, 56(7), 4569–4587. sisal fiber. Polym Compos, 23(3), 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.10434.
Sood, M., & Dwivedi, G. (2018). Effect of fiber treatment on flexural properties of Xu, H., Liu, C. Y., Chen, C., Hsiao, B. S., Zhong, G. J., & Li, Z. M. (2012). Easy
natural fiber reinforced composites: a review. Egypt J Petroleum, 27(4), 775– alignment and effective nucleation activity of ramie fibers in injection-
783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.11.005. molded poly (lactic acid) biocomposites. Biopolymers, 97(10), 825–839.
Stark, N. M., & Rowlands, R. E. (2003). Effects of wood fiber characteristics on https://doi.org/10.1002/bip.22079.
mechanical properties of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood and fiber Yan, X., Shen, H., Yu, L., & Hamada, H. (2017). Polypropylene–glass fiber/basalt
science. Vol. 35, no. 2 (2003): Pages 167-174. fiber hybrid composites fabricated by direct fiber feeding injection molding
Subasinghe, A. D. L., Das, R., & Bhattacharyya, D. (2015). Fiber dispersion during process. J Appl Polym Sci, 134(44), 45472. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.45472.
compounding/injection molding of PP/kenaf composites: flammability and Yang, Y., Ota, T., Morii, T., & Hamada, H. (2011). Mechanical property and
mechanical properties. Mat Design, 86, 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ma hydrothermal aging of injection molded jute/polypropylene composites. J
tdes.2015.07.126. Mater Sci, 46(8), 2678–2684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-010-5134-8.
Yap, S. Y., Sreekantan, S., Hassan, M., Sudesh, K., & Ong, M. T. (2021).
Sun, Z., & Mingming, W. (2019). Effects of sol-gel modification on the interfacial
Characterization and biodegradability of rice husk-filled polymer composites.
and mechanical properties of sisal fiber reinforced polypropylene
Polymers, 13(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010104.
composites. Ind Crop Prod, 137, 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.
Yu, S., Hwang, J. Y., & Hong, S. H. (2020). 3D microstructural characterization and
05.021.
mechanical properties determination of short basalt fiber-reinforced
Sun, Z. Y., Han, H. S., & Dai, G. C. (2010). Mechanical properties of injection-
polyamide 6, 6 composites. Compos Part B Eng, 187, 107839. https://doi.org/1
molded natural fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites: formulation and
0.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107839.
compounding processes. J Reinforced Plastics Composites, 29(5), 637–650.
Yussuf, A. A., Massoumi, I., & Hassan, A. (2010). Comparison of polylactic acid/
https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684408100264.
kenaf and polylactic acid/rise husk composites: the influence of the natural
Sykacek, E., Hrabalova, M., Frech, H., & Mundigler, N. (2009). Extrusion of five
fibers on the mechanical, thermal and biodegradability properties. J Polym
biopolymers reinforced with increasing wood flour concentration on a
Environ, 18(3), 422–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-010-0185-0.
production machine, injection moulding and mechanical performance.
Zhang, J., Park, C. B., Rizvi, G. M., Huang, H., & Guo, Q. (2009). Investigation on the
Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 40(8), 1272–1282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
uniformity of high-density polyethylene/wood fiber composites in a twin-
compositesa.2009.05.023.
screw extruder. J Appl Polym Sci, 113(4), 2081–2089. https://doi.org/10.1002/a
Tamakuwala, V. R. (2020). Manufacturing of fiber reinforced polymer by using
pp.29991.
VARTM process: a review. Materials Today: Proceedings.
Zhang, Y., Xi, D., Yang, H., Tao, F., & Wang, Z. (2019). Cloud manufacturing based
Tavares, T. D., Antunes, J. C., Ferreira, F., & Felgueiras, H. P. (2020).
service encapsulation and optimal configuration method for injection
Biofunctionalization of natural fiber-reinforced biocomposites for biomedical
molding machine. J Intell Manuf, 30(7), 2681–2699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1
applications. Biomolecules, 10(1), 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10010148.
0845-017-1322-6.
Thiriez, A., & Gutowski, T. (2006). An environmental analysis of injection molding. Zhang, Y., Yu, C., Chu, P. K., Lv, F., Zhang, C., Ji, J., … Wang, H. (2012). Mechanical
In Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and and thermal properties of basalt fiber reinforced poly (butylene succinate)
the Environment, (pp. 195-200). IEEE. composites. Mater Chem Phys, 133(2-3), 845–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ma
Tholibon, D., Tharazi, I., Sulong, A. B., Muhamad, N., Ismial, N. F., Radzi, M. K. F. M., tchemphys.2012.01.105.
… Hui, D. (2019). Kenaf fiber composites: a review on synthetic and
biodegradable polymer matrix. J Kejuruter, 31, 65–76.
Thomason, J. L. (2002). The influence of fibre length and concentration on the Publisher’s Note
properties of glass fibre reinforced polypropylene: 5. Injection moulded long Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
and short fibre PP. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf, 33(12), 1641–1652. https://doi. published maps and institutional affiliations.
org/10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00179-3.
Thomason, J. L. (2010). Dependence of interfacial strength on the anisotropic
fiber properties of jute reinforced composites. Polym Compos, 31(9), 1525–
1534. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.20939.

Jurnal Artikel Kelompok 1 - s40712-021-00139-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Jurnal Artikel Kelompok 1 - s40712-021-00139-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Jurnal Artikel Kelompok 1 - s40712-021-00139-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rabbi et al.

International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

REVIEW ARTICLE Open Access

Injection-molded natural fiber-reinforced

Introduction Evaluation of composite materials, their advance-

Fig. 1 Major polymer matrix composites fabrication process

Fig. 2 Flowchart of IM process to prepare natural fiber-based composites

IM machine. The mixtures were grounded in a grinding

Table 1 Types of IM machines used to fabricate different natural fiber-based composites

Bamboo fiber based Rice husk based

Author details polypropylene composites. Polym Compos, 37(4), 1101–1112. https://doi.org/1

You might also like