NAME: SHALINI.K.

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Paul 45 Canada
Kumar 36 India
Pamela 55 Brazil
Rose 22 Switzerland
Anne 45 USA
Jeniffer 20 UK
Adarsh 18 India

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Applications[edit]
Domestic use[edit]
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is used to provide drinking water, domestic water, water for
livestock, water for small irrigation, and a way to replenish groundwater levels.

Agriculture[edit]
In regards to urban agriculture, rainwater harvesting in urban areas reduces the impact of runoff
and flooding. The combination of urban ‘green’ rooftops with rainwater catchments have been
found to reduce building temperatures by more than 1.3 degrees Celsius.[7] Rainwater harvesting
in conjunction with urban agriculture would be a viable way to help meet the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals for cleaner and sustainable cities, health and wellbeing, and
food and water security. The technology is available, however, it needs to be remodeled in order
to use water more efficiently, especially in an urban setting.
Kenya has already been successfully harvesting rainwater for toilets, laundry, and irrigation.
Since the establishment of the country's 2016 Water Act, Kenya has prioritized the regulation of
their agriculture industry. [8] Additionally, areas in Australia use harvested rainwater for cooking
and drinking.[7] Studies done by Stout et al researching the feasibility in India found RWH was
most beneficial used for small-scale irrigation, which provides income with the sales of produce,
and overflow used for groundwater recharge.[7]
Missions to five Caribbean countries have shown that the capture and storage of rainwater runoff
for later use is able to significantly reduce the risk of losing some or all of the year's harvest
because of soil or water scarcity. In addition, the risks associated with flooding and soil erosion
during high rainfall seasons would decrease. Small farmers, especially those farming on hillsides,
could benefit the most from rainwater harvesting because they are able to capture runoff and
decrease the effects of soil erosion.[9]
Many countries, especially those with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap
and reliable source of clean water.[10] To enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are
constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running down hills and slopes. Even in periods of
low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow.[11] Water can be collected from roofs,
dams and ponds can be constructed to hold large quantities of rainwater so that even on days
when little to no rainfall occurs, enough is available to irrigate crops.

Industry[edit]
Frankfurt Airport has the biggest rainwater harvesting system in Germany. The system helps
save approximately 1 million cubic meters of water per year. The cost of the system was 1.5
million dm (US$63,000) in 1993. This system collects water from the roofs of the new terminal
which has an area of 26,800 square meters. The water is collected in the basement of the airport
in six tanks with a storage capacity of 100 cubic meters. The water is mainly used for toilet
flushing, watering plants and cleaning the air conditioning system.[12]
Rainwater harvesting was adopted at The Velodrome – The London Olympic Park – in order to
increase the sustainability of the facility. A 73% decrease in potable water demand by the park
was estimated. Despite this, it was deemed that rainwater harvesting was a less efficient use of
financial resources to increase sustainability than the park's blackwater recycling program. [13]

Technologies[edit]
Traditionally, stormwater management using detention basins served a single purpose.
However, optimized real-time control lets this infrastructure double as a source of rainwater
harvesting without compromising the existing detention capacity.[14] This has been used in
the EPA headquarters to evacuate stored water prior to storm events, thus reducing wet weather
flow while ensuring water availability for later reuse. This has the benefit of increasing water
quality released and decreasing the volume of water released during combined sewer
overflow events.[15][16]
Generally, check dams are constructed across the streams to enhance the percolation of surface
water into the subsoil strata. The water percolation in the water-impounded area of the check
dams can be enhanced artificially manyfold by loosening the subsoil strata
and overburden using ANFO explosives as used in open cast mining. Thus, local aquifers can be
recharged quickly using the available surface water fully for use in the dry season.

System setup[edit]
Rainwater harvesting systems can range in complexity, from systems that can be installed with
minimal skills, to automated systems that require advanced setup and installation. The basic
rainwater harvesting system is more of a plumbing job than a technical job, as all the outlets from
the building's terrace are connected through a pipe to an underground tank that stores water.
There are common components that are installed in such systems, such as pre-filters (see
e.g. vortex filter), drains/gutters, storage containers, and depending on whether the system is
pressurized, also pumps, and treatment devices such as UV lights, chlorination devices and
post-filtration equipment.
Systems are ideally sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be
big enough to support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a
building roof must be large enough to maintain an adequate flow of water. The water storage
tank size should be large enough to contain the captured water. For low-tech systems, many low-
tech methods are used to capture rainwater: rooftop systems, surface water capture, and
pumping the rainwater that has already soaked into the ground or captured in reservoirs and
storing it in tanks (cisterns).

Rainwater harvesting by freshwater-flooded forests[edit]

Ratagul Freshwater Flooded Forest, Bangladesh

Rainwater harvesting is possible by growing freshwater-flooded forests without losing the income
from the used, submerged land.[17] The main purpose of the rainwater harvesting is to use the
locally available rainwater to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need of
huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate the availability of uncontaminated water for
domestic, industrial, and irrigation needs.

Rainwater harvesting by solar power panels[edit]

Solar panels for water heating on top of a hotel in Perissa, Santorini, Greece

Good quality water resource, closer to populated areas, is becoming scarce and costly for the
consumers. In addition to solar and wind energy, rainwater is major renewable resource of any
land. The vast area is being covered by solar PV panels every year in all parts of the world. Solar
panels can also be used for harvesting most of the rainwater falling on them and drinking quality
water, free from bacteria and suspended matter, can be generated by simple filtration and
disinfection processes as rainwater is very low in salinity.[18][19][20] Exploitation of rainwater for value-
added products like bottled drinking water, makes solar PV power plants profitable even in high
rainfall/ cloudy areas by the augmented income from value-added drinking water generation.
Recently cost-effective rainwater collection in the already dug wells found to be highly effective in
bringing groundwater level up in India.

Other innovations[edit]

RainSaucer system at an orphanage in Guatemala

Instead of using the roof for catchment, the RainSaucer, which looks like an upside-down
umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for contamination and
makes RainSaucer a potential application for potable water in developing countries. [21] Other
applications of this free-standing rainwater collection approach are sustainable gardening and
small-plot farming.[22]
A Dutch invention called the Groasis Waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with harvested
and stored dew and rainwater.

Advantages[edit]
Rainwater harvesting provides the independent water supply during regional water restrictions,
and in developed countries, it is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water
when a drought occurs, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on
wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained. It also helps in the availability of
potable water, as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts. Applications of
rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water
supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution
systems, less generated stormwater in sewer systems,[23] and a reduction in stormwater runoff
polluting freshwater bodies.
A large body of work has focused on the development of life cycle assessment and its costing
methodologies to assess the level of environmental impacts and money that can be saved by
implementing rainwater harvesting systems.[20]

Independent water supply[edit]

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during water restrictions. In areas
where clean water is costly, or difficult to come by, rainwater harvesting is a critical source of
clean water. In developed countries, rainwater is often harvested to be used as a supplemental
source of water rather than the main source, but the harvesting of rainwater can also decrease a
household's water costs or overall usage levels. Rainwater is safe to drink if the consumers do
additional treatments before drinking. Boiling water helps to kill germs. Adding another
supplement to the system such as a first flush diverter is also a common procedure to avoid
contaminants of the water.[24]

Supplemental in drought[edit]
When drought occurs, rainwater harvested in past months can be used. If rain is scarce but also
unpredictable, the use of a rainwater harvesting system can be critical to capturing the rain when
it does fall. Many countries with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and
reliable source of clean water. To enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are
constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running downhills. Even in periods of low rainfall,
enough water is collected for crops to grow. Water can be collected from roofs and tanks can be
constructed to hold large quantities of rainwater.
In addition, rainwater harvesting decreases the demand for water from wells, enabling
groundwater levels to be further sustained rather than depleted.

Life-cycle assessment[edit]
Life-cycle assessment is a methodology used to evaluate the environmental impacts of a system
from cradle-to-grave of its lifetime. Devkota et al,[25][26] developed such a methodology for
rainwater harvesting, and found that the building design (e.g., dimensions) and function (e.g.,
educational, residential, etc.) play critical roles in the environmental performance of the system.
To address the functional parameters of rainwater harvesting systems, a new metric was
developed – the demand to supply ratio (D/S) – identifying the ideal building design (supply) and
function (demand) in regard to the environmental performance of rainwater harvesting for toilet
flushing. With the idea that supply of rainwater not only saves the potable water but also saves
the stormwater entering the combined sewer network (thereby requiring treatment), the savings
in environmental emissions were higher if the buildings are connected to a combined sewer
network compared to separate one.[26]
Cost-effectiveness[edit]
Although standard RWH systems can provide a water source to developing regions facing
poverty, the average cost for an RWH setup can be costly depending on the type of technology
used. Governmental aid and NGOs can assist communities facing poverty by providing the
materials and education necessary to develop and maintain RWH setups.[27]
Some studies show that rainwater harvesting is a widely applicable solution for water scarcity
and other multiple usages, owing to its cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness. [27] Constructing
new substantial, centralized water supply systems, such as dams, is prone to damage local
ecosystems, generates external social costs, and has limited usages, especially in developing
countries or impoverished communities. On the other hand, installing rainwater harvesting
systems is verified by a number of studies to provide local communities a sustainable water
source, accompanied by other various benefits, including protection from flood and control of
water runoff, even in poor regions.[27][28] Rainwater harvesting systems that do not require major
construction or periodic maintenance by a professional from outside the community are more
friendly to the environment and more likely to benefit the local people for a longer period of time.
[27]
Thus, rainwater harvesting systems that could be installed and maintained by local people
have bigger chances to be accepted and used by more people.
The usage of in-situ technologies can reduce investment costs in rainwater harvesting. In-situ
technologies for rainwater harvesting could be a feasible option for rural areas since less material
is required to construct them. They can provide a reliable water source that can be utilized to
expand agricultural outputs. Above-ground tanks can collect water for domestic use; however,
such units can be unaffordable to people in poverty.[29]

Limitations[edit]
Rainwater harvesting is a widely used method of storing rainwater in the countries presenting
with drought characteristics. Several pieces of research have derived and developed different
criteria and techniques to select suitable sites for harvesting rainwater. Some research was
identified and selected suitable sites for the potential erection of dams, as well as derived a
model builder in ArcMap 10.4.1. The model combined several parameters, such as slope, runoff
potential, land cover/use, stream order, soil quality, and hydrology to determine the suitability of
the site for harvesting rainwater.[30]
Harvested water from RWH systems can be minimal during below-average precipitation
in arid urban regions such as the Mideast. RWH is useful for developing areas as it collects water
for irrigation and domestic purposes. However, the gathered water should be
adequately filtered to ensure safe drinking.[31]

Quality of water harvesting[edit]

Rainwater may need to be analyzed properly, and used in a way appropriate to its safety. In
the Gansu province, for example, solar water disinfection is used by boiling harvested rainwater
in parabolic solar cookers before being used for drinking.[32] These so-called "appropriate
technology" methods provide low-cost disinfection options for treatment of stored rainwater for
drinking.
While rainwater itself is a clean source of water, often better than groundwater or water from
rivers or lakes,[33] the process of collection and storage often leaves the water polluted and non-
potable. Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain human, animal and
bird feces, mosses and lichens, windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides,
and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx).
High levels of pesticide have been found in rainwater in Europe with the highest concentrations
occurring in the first rain immediately after a dry spell;[34] the concentration of these and other
contaminants are reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of run-off water to waste.
Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than
from the base of the tank) and by using a series of tanks, withdraw from the last in series.
Prefiltration is a common practice used in the industry to keep the system healthy and ensure
that the water entering the tank is free of large sediments.
A very interesting concept of rainwater harvesting and cleaning it with solar energy for rural
household drinking purposes has been developed by Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute.[35]
Conceptually, a water supply system should match the quality of water with the end-user.
However, in most of the developed world, high-quality potable water is used for all end uses. This
approach wastes money and energy and imposes unnecessary impacts on the environment.
Supplying rainwater that has gone through preliminary filtration measures for non-potable water
uses, such as toilet flushing, irrigation, and laundry, maybe a significant part of a sustainable
water management strategy.

Research[edit]
The South African Water Research Commission has supported research into rainwater
harvesting.[36] Studies in arid, semiarid, and humid regions have confirmed that techniques such
as mulching, pitting, ridging, and modified run-on plots are effective for small-scale crop
production.[37] Hydrofracturing has regularly been used to improve the performance of
water boreholes. From 1990 to 1992, 170 boreholes had been hydrofractured.[38]

Country examples[edit]
Canada[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Rainwater harvesting in Canada.[edit]

A small rainwater harvesting tank in Quebec.

Rainwater harvesting is becoming a procedure that many Canadians are incorporating into their
daily lives, although data does not give exact figures for implementation. [39] Rainwater can be
used for a number of purposes including stormwater reduction, irrigation, laundry and portable
toilets.[40] In addition to low costs, rainwater harvesting is useful for landscape irrigation. Many
Canadians have started implementing rainwater harvesting systems for use in stormwater
reduction, irrigation, laundry, and lavatory plumbing. Provincial and municipal legislation is in
place for regulating the rights and uses for captured rainwater. Substantial reform to Canadian
law since the mid-2000s has increased the use of this technology in agricultural, industrial, and
residential use, but ambiguity remains amongst legislation in many provinces. Bylaws and local
municipal codes often regulate rainwater harvesting.
Multiple organizations and companies have developed in Canada to provide education,
technology, and installation for rainwater harvesting. These include the Canadian Association for
Rainwater Management (CANARM),[41] Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC),
and CleanFlo Water Technologies.[42] CANARM is an association that prioritizes education,
training and spreading awareness for those entering the rainwater harvesting industry. [41]
India[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Water supply and sanitation in India § Rainwater harvesting.[edit]
Tamil Nadu was the first state to make rainwater harvesting compulsory for every building to
avoid groundwater depletion. The project was launched in 2001 and has been implemented in all
rural areas of Tamil Nadu. Posters all over Tamil Nadu including rural areas create awareness
about harvesting rainwater.[43] It gave excellent results within five years, and slowly every state
took it as a role model. Since its implementation, Chennai had a 50% rise in water level in five
years and the water quality significantly improved.[44]
United Kingdom[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Rainwater harvesting in the United Kingdom.[edit]
Rainwater harvesting in the United Kingdom is a practice of growing importance. Rainwater
harvesting in the UK is both a traditional and reviving technique for collecting water for domestic
uses and is generally used for non-hygienic purposes like watering gardens, flushing toilets, and
washing clothes.[45] In commercial premises like supermarkets it is used for things like toilet
flushing where larger tank systems can be used collecting between 1000 and 7500 litres of
water. It is claimed that in the South East of England there is less water available per person
than in many Mediterranean countries.[citation needed]
Rainwater is almost always collected strictly from the roof, then heavily filtered using either a filter
attached to the down pipe, a fine basket filter or for more expensive systems like self-cleaning
filters placed in an underground tank.[46] UK homes using some form of rainwater harvesting
system can reduce their mains water usage by 50% or more, although a 20-30% saving is more
common.[47] At the present time (depending upon where you live in the UK) mains water delivery
and equivalent waste water and sewerage processing costs about £2 per cubic metre. Reducing
mains-water metered volumes also reduces the sewerage and sewage disposal costs in the
same proportion, because water company billing assumes that all water taken into the house is
discharged into the sewers.
United States[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Rainwater
harvesting.[edit]
In the United States, until 2009 in Colorado, water rights laws almost completely restricted
rainwater harvesting; a property owner who captured rainwater was deemed to be stealing it from
those who have the rights to take water from the watershed. Now, residential good owners who
meet certain criteria may obtain a permit to install a rooftop precipitation collection system (SB
09-080).[48] Up to 10 large scale pilot studies may also be permitted (HB 09-1129).[49] The main
factor in persuading the Colorado Legislature to change the law was a 2007 study that found that
in an average year, 97% of the precipitation that fell in Douglas County, in the southern suburbs
of Denver, never reached a stream—it was used by plants or evaporated on the ground.
Rainwater catchment is mandatory for new dwellings in Santa Fe, New Mexico.[50] Texas offers a
sales tax exemption on the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment. Both Texas [51] and Ohio
allow the practice even for potable purposes. Oklahoma passed the Water for 2060 Act in 2012,
to promote pilot projects for rainwater and graywater use among other water-saving techniques.
[52]

Other countries[edit]
 Thailand has the largest fraction of the population in the rural area relying on
rainwater harvesting (currently around 40%).[53] Rainwater harvesting was promoted
heavily by the government in the 1980s. In the 1990s, after government funding for
the collection tanks ran out, the private sector stepped in and provided several million
tanks to private households, many of which continue to be used.[54] This is one of the
largest examples of self-supply of water worldwide.
Rainwater harvesting tank

 In Bermuda, the law requires all new construction to include rainwater harvesting
adequate for the residents.[55]
 New Zealand has plentiful rainfall in the West and South, and rainwater harvesting is
the normal practice in many rural areas, using roof water directed by spouting into
covered, 1000 litre storage tanks, with the encouragement of most local councils. [56]
 In Sri Lanka, rainwater harvesting has been a popular method of obtaining water for
agriculture and for drinking purposes in rural homes. The legislation to promote
rainwater harvesting was enacted through the Urban Development Authority
(Amendment) Act, No. 36 of 2007.[57] The Lanka Rainwater Harvesting Forum is
leading Sri Lanka's initiative.[58]

History[edit]
See also: History of water supply and sanitation
The construction and use of cisterns to store rainwater can be traced back to the Neolithic Age,
when waterproof lime plaster cisterns were built in the floors of houses in village locations of
the Levant, a large area in Southwest Asia, south of the Taurus Mountains, bound by
the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the Arabian Desert in the south, and Mesopotamia in the
east. By the late 4000 BC, cisterns were essential elements of emerging water management
techniques used in dry-land farming.[59]
Many ancient cisterns have been discovered in some parts of Jerusalem and the entire Land of
Israel. At the site believed by some to be that of the biblical city of Ai (Khirbet et-Tell), a large
cistern dating back to around 2500 BC was discovered that had a capacity of nearly
1,700 m3 (60,000 cu ft). It was carved out of a solid rock, lined with large stones, and sealed with
clay to keep from leaking.[59]

Shivaganga Tank in Tamil Nadu

The Greek island of Crete is also known for its use of large cisterns for rainwater collection and
storage during the Minoan period from 2,600 BC–1,100 BC. Four large cisterns have been
discovered at Myrtos–Pyrgos, Archanes, and Zakroeach. The cistern found at Myrtos-Pyrgos
was found to have a capacity of more than 80 m3 (2,800 cu ft) and date back to 1700 BC.[59]
Around 300 BC, farming communities in Balochistan (now located in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and
Iran), and Kutch, India, used rainwater harvesting for agriculture and many other uses.
[60]
Rainwater harvesting was done by Chola kings as well.[61] Rainwater from the Brihadeeswarar
temple (located in Balaganpathy Nagar, Thanjavur, India) was collected in Shivaganga tank.
[62]
During the later Chola period, the Vīrānam tank was built (1011 to 1037 AD) in the Cuddalore
district of Tamil Nadu to store water for drinking and irrigation purposes. Vīrānam is a 16-km-long
tank with a storage capacity of 1,465,000,000 cu ft (41,500,000 m3).
Rainwater harvesting was also common in the Roman Empire.[63] While Roman aqueducts are
well-known, Roman cisterns were also commonly used and their construction expanded with the
Empire.[59] For example, in Pompeii, rooftop water storage was common before the construction
of the aqueduct in the 1st century BC.[64] This history continued with the Byzantine Empire; for
example, the Basilica Cistern in Istanbul.
Though little-known, for centuries the town of Venice depended on rainwater harvesting. The
lagoon which surrounds Venice is brackish water, which is not suitable for drinking. The ancient
inhabitants of Venice established a system of rainwater collection which was based on man-
made insulated collection wells.[65] Water percolated down the specially designed stone flooring,
and was filtered by a layer of sand, then collected at the bottom of the well. Later, as Venice
acquired territories on the mainland, it started to import water by boat from local rivers, but the
wells remained in use and were especially important in the time of war when access to the
mainland water could be blocked by an enemy.

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