Step 5: Deciding on the Sample Design

 Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic
idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small
number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population)
to conclude the whole population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the
population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

 A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make

some inference or generalization whereas sample is a part of the population,
carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical procedures are
followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the
population as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-Probability Sampling

probability sampling- is based on a random selection, a controlled procedure that

assures that each population element is given chance of selection.

4 Probability Sampling Methods

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a procedure that gives each sampling unit in the
population an equal and known nonzero probability of being selected.

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method involving selecting

elements from an ordered sampling frame.

Stratified Random Sampling

A restricted sampling design, which can be more efficient than simple random
sampling, is stratified random sampling.
Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a probability sampling technique where the population is

divided into multiple groups or clusters.

non-probability sampling is a non-random and subjective method of sampling

where the selection of the sample’s population elements depends on the
personal judgment or the discretion of the sampler.

4 non-probability sampling methods

Convenience Sampling

Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are known as convenience

samples.

Researchers or field workers have the freedom to choose whomever they find;
thus, the name is convenient. The convenience sample may consist of
respondents living in an easily accessible locality. Undoubtedly, it is the simplest
and least reliable form of non-probability sampling. The primary virtue is its low
cost.

While a convenience sample cannot ensure precision, this method is frequently

used, especially in market research and public opinion surveys.

They are used because probability sampling is often a time-consuming and

expensive procedure and in fact, may not be feasible in many situations.

In the early stages of exploratory research, when one is seeking guidance, this
approach is recommended.

Accidental Sampling

An accidental type sampling is one in which the selection of the cases is made
whatever happens to be available instantly.

In such sampling, individuals are selected as they appear in a process.

Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sampling method that conforms to certain criteria is called

purposive sampling.

There are two major types of purposive sampling:

Judgment sampling
Quota sampling

Judgment sampling

In Judgment sampling, individuals are selected who are considered to be most

representative of the population as a whole.

It is a judgment sampling because the choice of the individual units depends

entirely on the sampler, who, on his judgment, decides the sample be selected
that conforms to some criteria.

In a study of labor problems, you may decide to talk only with those who have
experienced discrimination while in a job.

Election results are predicted from only a few selected persons because of their
predictive record in past elections.

Quota sampling

A quota sampling is a non-probability sampling in which the interviewers are told

to contact and interview a certain number of individuals from certain subgroups
or strata of the population to make up the total sample.

The formation of the strata is usually based on such characteristics as sex, age,
social status, a region of residence. These characteristics used to form strata are
termed ‘quota control’.

The technique is widely used by market researchers, political opinion seekers,

and many others to avoid the cost problems of interviewing individuals.

The term ‘quota’ arises from the fact that in this method, the interviewers are
given quotas of the sub-groups (i.e. strata) of the population at the very outset to
build a sample roughly proportional to the population.

That is, quotas of the desired number of sample cases are computed
proportionally to the population sub-groups.

The sample quotas are divided among the interviewers, who then do their best to
choose persons who fit the restrictions of their quota controls.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is the colorful name for building a list or a sample of a special
population. Some recent authors have referred to snowball sampling as chain
referral or network sampling.
 Snowball sampling is conducted in stages. In the first stage, a few persons
possessing the requisite characteristic are identified and interviewed.

These persons are used as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion
in the sample. The second stage involves interviewing these persons who can be
interviewed in the third stage.

For example, consider the selection of beggars for which no frame is available.
This can be best done by asking an initial group of beggars to supply the names
of other beggars they come across.

The selection of street sex workers also can be made following this network
approach.

If you were able to find a few sex workers willing to talk to you, you might ask
them for the names and locations of others they know who might also be willing
to be interviewed.

The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but
becomes bigger and bigger as it falls downhill.

Snowball sampling has been particularly used to study drug cultures, heroin
addiction, teenage gang activities, and community relations, and other issues
where respondents may not be readily visible or are difficult to identify and
Step 6: Collecting Data

 The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey
in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data. This includes:
o The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured
interview. Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called
surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered
questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data
may be collected. Other means of data collection include the use of
secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration records, official
documents, previous surveys, etc.
 Meanwhile, Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews,
focus group discussions, Key Informant Interview KII, and observational
studies.

Step 7: Processing and Analyzing Data

• Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data.
Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility,

and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing,
the data also need coding. Because it is impractical to place raw data into
a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more
manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal
computer offers an excellent opportunity for data editing and coding
processes.

• Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a

manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and
applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the
findings in the light of the research questions.

• Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings

are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.

Step 8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing

Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results
• The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a
proposal. A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer,
a statement of intent or commitment from an individual researcher or an
organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or
sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research
process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the
purpose of the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the

procedures utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and
recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and program managers to make
a decision.

There are various research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles,
papers for presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, thesis, and
so on. The results of a research investigation prepared in any form are of little
utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective

media channels to reach different audience groups with study findings most
relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an

oral or poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience,
the occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the
client’s perspective

• A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s

credibility. At a bare minimum, a research report should contain sections
on:

• An executive summary;
• Background of the problem;
• Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Findings;
• Discussion;
• Conclusions and
• Recommendations.