ECA Lab manual

SINGLE TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

AIM: To study single tuned voltage Amplifier and to calculate
1. Resonant Frequency.
2. Q factor.
3. Bandwidth and
4. Impedance

APPARATUS:
1. Tuned RF Amplifier trainer Kit.
2. Function Generator.
3. CRO.
4. BNC probes and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
It is usually required to use a number of tuned amplifier stages in cascade in order to
obtain large overall gain. These cascade tuned amplifiers may be put into the following
three categories:
1. Single tuned amplifiers.
2. Double tuned amplifiers.
3. Stagger-tuned amplifiers.
Single tuned amplifiers use one parallel tuned circuit as the load impedance in each stage and
all these tuned circuits in different stages are tuned to the same frequency.Double tuned
amplifier uses two inductively coupled tuned circuits per stage, both the tuned circuits being
tuned to the same frequency.Staggered tuned amplifier uses a number of single tuned stages
in cascade, the successive tuned circuits being tuned to slightly different frequencies.
Single tuned amplifiers may again be put into following two categories:
a) Capacitance coupled single tuned amplifiers and
 ECA Lab manual

b) Transformer coupled or inductively coupled single tuned amplifiers

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
Depending upon the frequency of the source voltage Vs, the circuits may behave either as
inductive or capacitive. However, at a particular frequency when the inductive reactance Xl
equals the capacitive reactance Xc, then the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit. This
phenomenon is called resonance: and the corresponding frequency is called resonant
frequency. The resonant frequency (fr) can be found by equating the two reactance values.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect ions should be made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the AC signal source from function generator (above AF range) to input of the
trainer kit.
3. Keep the input voltage constant , vary the frequency in regular steps and down the
corresponding output voltage
4. Calculate the resonant frequency.
5. Plot the graph: gain (db) Vs frequency
6. Find the input and output impedance
7. Calculate the bandwidth and Q factor
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check connections before switching ON power supply
2. Don’t apply over voltage
3. When you are not using the equipment switch them OFF.
4. Handle all equipment carefully
EXPECTED GRAPH:

Observations:
Input Voltage= (Constant)
S.NO Input Frequency OutputVoltage(Vo) Gain A = Vo- Gain in dB
(Hz) /Vi 20log(Vo/Vi)
 ECA Lab manual

RESULT: Gain and frequency as observed of single tuned voltage amplifier.

FT = FP=
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are tuned amplifiers?
2. What is tuning?
3. Explain how the tuned amplifiers work?
REDRAW THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 ECA Lab manual

CLASS B COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency of Class B
Complimentary symmetry power amplifier.

APPARATUS:
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Power supply 0-30V- 1 No.
CRO 20MHz - 1 No.
Digital multimeter - 1 No.
Signal generator 1Hz - 1MHz - 1 No.
COMPONENTS:
Resistors : 2.2K - 2 Nos.
100 - 2 Nos.
1K - 1 No
Transistors CL100- 1No , CK100 -1NO

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
An amplifying system consists of several stages in cascade. The input and the
intermediate stages amplify small signal excitations to a value large enough to drive the final
device .The out put stage feeds the final device .The output stage feeds a transducer such as a
CRO,loudspeaker or servomotor. Thus the final stage must be capable of delivering a large
voltage or current or appreciable amount of power. This requires an amplifier which is referred as
a power amplifier
 ECA Lab manual

In class B complimentary symmetry class _B amplifier one n-p-n and p-n-p is used. Hence the
circuit is called class-B complimentary symmetry amplifier. This circuit ifis transformer less
circuit .But with common emitter configuration it becomes power transfer without output
impedance for maximum power transfer without an output transformers. Hence the matched pair
of complementary transistors are used in common collector configuration This is because in
common collector configuration has lowest output impedance and hence the impedance matching
is possible.

PROCEDURE:
1.conncet the circuit s per the circuit diagram
2.apply 4v p-p with 1KHZ frequency using function generator
3.observe the output in CRO .
4.note the cross over distortion in output.(outputVp-p)
5.remove the collector connection and put ammeter.
6.note the Idc value in the ammeter.
7.using Pdc and Pac formulas find the efficiency.

OBSERVATION:

Pac=Vm2/2RL =

Pdc=Vcc*Idc =
VO =

VCC =

RL =

EFFICIENCY: η =Pac/Pdc*100=

MODEL GRAPHS: I/P WAVEFORM

 ECA Lab manual

O/P WAVEFORM

Vivavoice:
1.In classB power amplifiers why crossover distortion will be occurred?

2.what are he different methods to eliminate distortion?

3..howmuch efficiency will b obtained in classs-B power amplifier?

4.where is the location of operating point in class-B power amplifier?

REDRAW THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

 ECA Lab manual

CLASS -A POWER AMPLIFIER(TRANSFORMER COUPLED)

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Power supply 0-30V- 1 No.
CRO 20MHz - 1 No.
Digital multimeter - 1 No.
Signal generator 1Hz - 1MHz - 1 No.
COMPONNTS REQUIRED:
Resistors 33KΩ - 1N0
5.6KΩ -2NO
470Ω -1NO
Capacitors 47uf -1NO
2.2uf - 1NO
TRANSFORMER -1NO
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The amplifier is said to be class A power amplifier if the q point and the input
signal are selected such that the output signal is obtained for a full input cycle . For this
class the position of q point is approximately y at the mid point of the load line.
For all the values of input signal the transistor remains in the active region and
never entire into the cutoff or saturation region. The collector current flows for 3600
(life cycle) of the input signal in other words the angle of the collector current flow
is 3600 the claa a amplifiers or furthers classified as directly coupled and transformer
coupled and transformer coupled amplifiers in directly coupled type .The load is
directly connected in the collector circuit while in the transformer coupled type,
the load is coupled to the collector using the transformer.
Advantages:
 ECA Lab manual

1. Distortion analysis is very important

2. It amplifies audio frequency signals faithfully hence they are called as audio amplifiers

Disadvantages:
1. H parameter analysis is not applicable
2. Due to large power handling the transistor is used power transistor which is large in
size and having large power rating

PROCEDURE:

1.CONNCECT the circuit as per the ciecuit diadram

2. Set Vs (say 250 to 300 mV), at 10 KHz using signal generator.

3. Connect milli ammeter to the ammeter terminals

4. By keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 0 to 1MHz

in regular steps .

5. Note down the corresponding output voltage from CRO

6. Calculate the DC input power using the formula Pdc= VccIc

7. Calculate the AC output power using the formula Pac = VO2/8RL

8. Calculate the efficiency n = Pac /Pdc

9. Plot the graph between Gain (db) and frequency.

10. Calculate bandwidth from the graph.

OBSERVATIONS:
VO = ______________________________, VI = ____________________________

VCC = _____________________________

RL = _____________________________

CALCULATIONS:
Efficiency (Pac/ Pdc) = __________________

P ac = Vcc Ic

PDC = Vm/2RL = V2pp/8RL

%n = Pac/ PDC X 100

 ECA Lab manual

GRAPH: I/P

O/P

RESULT: Gain and frequency as observed of Class A power amplifier.

%n = Pac/ PDC X 100 =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1.On which criteria based the power amplifiers are classified?

2.what is the operating point of class-A power ampliier?
3.what is meant by efficiency?
4.howmuch efficiency will b obtained in classs-A power amplifier?
5. what are the applications of power amplifier?

REDRAW THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

 ECA Lab manual

CLASS B PUSH PULL POWER AMPLIFIER

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency of Class B
Complimentary symmetry power amplifier.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Power supply 0-30V- 1 No.
CRO 20MHz - 1 No.
Digital multimeter - 1 No.
Signal generator 1Hz - 1MHz - 1 No.
COMPONNTS REQUIRED:
Resistors 10KΩ - 1N0
1KΩ - 1NO
220Ω -1NO
Capacitors 0.47uf -1NO
22uf - 2NO
TRANSFORMER -2NO

CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
An amplifying system consists of several stages in cascade. The input and the intermediate stages
amplify small signal excitations to a value large enough to drive the final device .The out put
stage feeds the final device .The output stage feeds a transducer such as a CRO,loudspeaker or
servomotor. Thus the final stage must be capable of delivering a large voltage or current or
appreciable amount of power. This requires an amplifier which is referred as a power amplifier
 ECA Lab manual

In class B complimentary symmetry class _B amplifier one n-p-n and p-n-p is used. Hence the
circuit is called class-B complimentary symmetry amplifier. This circuit ifis transformer less
circuit .But with common emitter configuration it becomes power transfer without output
impedance for maximum power transfer without an output transformers. Hence the matched pair
of complementary transistors are used in common collector configuration This is because in
common collector configuration has lowest output impedance and hence the impedance matching
is possible.

PROCEDURE:
1.conncet the circuit s per the circuit diagram
2.apply 4v p-p with 1KHZ frequency using function generator
3.observe the output in CRO .
4.note the cross over distortion in output.(outputVp-p)
5.remove the collector connection and put ammeter.
6.note the Idc value in the ammeter.
7.using Pdc and Pac formulas find the efficiency.

OBSERVATION:
VO =

VCC =

RL =

EFFICIENCY: Pac/PDC = Vmx II /4 X VCC =

Vm = V pp/2

MODEL GRAPHS: I/P

O/P
 ECA Lab manual

RESULT: The efficiency of class B complimentary symmetry power amplifier is obtained.

EFFICIENCY: Pac/PDC = Vmx II /4 X VCC =

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.In classB power amplifiers why crossover distortion will be occurred?

2.what are he different methods to eliminate distortion?

3..howmuch efficiency will b obtained in classs-B power amplifier?

4.where is the location of operating point in class-B power amplifier?

REDRAW THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

 ECA Lab manual

INTRODUCTION TO PSPICE:

PSPICE is abbreviated as Personal Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis.

PSpice is a SPICE analog circuit and digital logic simulation program.

SPICE (Simulated Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a general purpose software
that simulates different circuits and can perform various analysis of electrical and electronic
circuits including time domain response, small signal frequency response, total power
dissipation, determination of nodal voltages and branch current in a circuit, transient analysis,
determination of operating point of transistors, determinations of transfer functions etc. This
software is designed in such a way so that it can simulate different circuit operations
involving transistors, operational amplifiers (op – amp) etc. and contains models for circuit
elements (passive as well as active).
SPICE was first developed in the University of California, Berkeley, USA in early 1970s.
Subsequently an improved version SPICE 2 was available in the mid of 1970s especially to
support computer aided designs. In due course of time this program (SPICE 2 has become so
versatile in the industry that people used to call, this program itself as SPICE. PSpice is also
the member of SPICE family and it is a commercial software product based on SPICE
algorithm. It is useful for simulating all types of circuits in a variety of applications. In both
SPICE and PSpice, the circuit is described by statements those are stored in a file (namely
Circuit File). The SPICE simulator is assigned to read this file to run the simulation. In
PSpice, the statements are self – contained and independent; obviously they do not interact
with each other. The statements are also easy to learn and use. PSpice includes additional
features that make the program more flexible and user friendly. Notably among other features
is the graphics post processor probe which acts like a software oscilloscope and is capable of
exhibiting various waveforms. PSpice has become one of the most popular circuit simulation
programs. In order to draw the circuit and create a schematic file, schematic editor can be
used in the PSpice simulation.
PSpice is a part of larger software package called the Design Lab, originally developed by
MicroSim Corporation as the Design Centre. It is now marketed by Or CAD.

OVERVIEW:

Start a Project  Draw a schematic  Simulate circuit  Graph data

Each part will be discussed in more detail in the next four sections.

1. STARTING A PROJECT

2. DRAWING A SCHEMATIC

1. Summary of PSpice Parts

 ECA Lab manual

2. What your Schematic Needs

3. Adding Parts to your Circuit

4. Using Wires

5. Adding a Ground

6. Changing the Value of a Part

7. Other Notes: Unique Names and Labeling Nodes

3. SIMULATING YOUR CIRCUIT

1. General Instructions

2. Bias Point (DC Calculations)

3. DC Sweep on Input Source, Vi

4. Parametric Sweep

5. AC Sweep (Frequency Domain Simulation)

6. Transient Analysis (Time Domain Simulation)

4. GRAPHING IN PSPICE

1. General Instructions

2. Bode Plot

5. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

1. Creating an IV Plot

2. Using the OpAmp

3. Family of Curves Option for Resistance

4. Using the Zener Diode

5. Creating a Potentiometer

1. STARTING A PROJECT

1) Open OrCAD Capture

2) Go to File => New => Project…

3) Enter a name

4) Choose "Analog or Mixed A/D"

 ECA Lab manual

5) Set the location. (You should create a new directory for your project since PSpice
will generate a bunch of project files in this folder.)

6) Click OK

7) Choose "Create blank project" and click OK

8) You should now see a window where you can draw the schematic (i.e., your circuit
diagram).

2. DRAWING A SCHEMATIC

2.1 Summary of PSpice Parts for ECE 65

PART PART NAME PICTURE NOTES

DC Source VDC / Source

AC Source VAC / SOURCE

 ECA Lab manual

See Section 4.6 for

Sine Wave Source VSIN / SOURCE
more instructions

Triangle Wave
See Section 4.7 for
Source VPULSE / SOURCE
more instructions
Square Wave Source

Ground (ref. voltage) 0 / SOURCE

Resistor R / ANALOG

Capacitor C / ANALOG

Inductor L / ANALOG

See Section 6.2 for

741 OpAmp uA741 / EVAL
more instructions

Diode D1N4148 / EVAL

See Section 6.4 for

Zener Diode D1N5232 / EVAL
more instructions

npn BJT Q2N3904 / BIPOLAR

2.2 What your Schematic Needs

All schematics you draw on PSpice will need the following: a voltage source, components,
wires, and a ground. The next couple of sections will instruct you on how to draw a full
circuit.

2.3 Adding Parts to your Circuit

1) Go to Place => Parts

 ECA Lab manual

2) Click on the library you want to use, or select multiple libraries by holding Ctrl or
dragging the mouse. In the parts window you should see at least the ANALOG, BIPOLAR,
EVAL, SOURCE, and SPECIAL libraries. If you don't see these libraries already listed, you
will need to add them:

a. Click Add Library…

b. Navigate to C:\Program Files\OrCad_Demo\Capture\Library\Pspice (This is the

location in the PSpice lab computers. The location may be different if you install PSpice
on your own computer, but find the ...\Capture\Library\Pspice folder)

c. Highlight all the *.olb files in this folder. You can hold Ctrl and click on the files, or
drag the mouse to select multiple files.

d. Click Open. You should now see a list of libraries in the "Libraries:" section.

3) Find the part you want to add and press OK.

4) Click where you want to place the part on your schematic. (Press R to rotate the part by
90 degrees)

5) When you are finished with the part, right click and select End Mode to return to the
pointer.

2.4 Using Wires

1) Select Parts => Wire. The pointer changes to a cross-hair.

2) Drag cursor from one connection point to another. Clicking on any valid
connection will end the wire.
 ECA Lab manual

3) Continue connecting the rest of the circuit.

4) When you are finished, right click the mouse and select End Wire to return to the
pointer. An example circuit from Lab 1 is shown below.

2.5 Adding a Ground

There are many types of grounds (common points in the circuit, noise reduction, etc.) PSpice
uses node-voltage method for circuit simulation and, therefore, needs a reference node with
“zero voltage”. This is the 0/source ground. You need to have it in your circuits! (It looks
like a ground symbol with a zero.) If you don't, PSpice may complain of "floating nodes"
even if you have a ground.

To place the ground on the circuit:

1) Go to Place => Ground. The ground you want to use is either listed as 0 or
0/source.
 ECA Lab manual

If you don't see the 0/source ground, you will need to add the "source" library:

a. Click Add Library…

b. Navigate to C:\Program Files\OrCad_Demo\Capture\Library\Pspice (This is the

location in the PSpice lab computers. The location may be different if you install PSpice
on your own computer, but find the ...\Capture\Library\Pspice folder)

c. Highlight source.olb.

d. Click Open. You should now see the “source” library and the 0/source ground.

2) Connect the ground to your circuit.

2.6 Changing the Value of a Part

For the parts above, V2 and R4 are the names of the components, while 0Vdc and 1k are the
values. To change a part’s value, double-click the value of the part. A new window will pop
up where you can type in the value you want.
 ECA Lab manual

Special Characters Meaning Example What to Type

M milli (10-3) 10 mH 10m
K kilo (103) 1 kΩ 1k
MEG mega (106) 10 MΩ 10MEG

2.7 Other Notes

1) All parts must have unique names. You can't have two parts named "R1" in your circuit.
If you are copying and pasting parts or circuits from another project, you will need to rename
your parts because PSpice doesn't do this automatically.

2) Labeling Nodes. I recommend you use aliases to label your input and output nodes. This
makes your node easier to find when you start plotting out your data. V(Vout) is simpler than
finding V(R1:1)

a. Go to Place => Net Alias

b. Enter a name, i.e., Vout or Vin

c. Place the label on the wire connected to the node.

An example of labeling from Lab 1 is shown below.

3. SIMULATING YOUR CIRCUIT

3.1 General Instructions

 ECA Lab manual

1) Go to PSpice => New Simulation Profile. Or if you already have a profile and would like
to edit it, go to Edit Simulation Profile

2) Choose the analysis type from the drop down menu.

3) Adjust the settings on the right hand side. More instructions are given in the next four
sections.

4) Press OK.

5) Go PSpice => Run. Or press the play button.

6) A new window (the simulation window) will pop up. Any errors from your circuit will be
displayed on the bottom left text window. Fix those errors before you continue. If there are
no errors, you are now ready to do one of two things: plot data on the simulation window or
display the DC calculations on your schematic.

3.2 Bias Point (DC Calculations)

1) Analysis Type: Bias Point

2) Options: General Settings

a. For Lab #7, you will also need to select Temperature (Sweep) to run the simulation at
different temperatures.

3) Output File Options: None

Press OK and then simulate your circuit. To display DC bias voltages and currents on your
circuit after you run the simulation, go to PSpice => Bias Points, and check Enable, Enable
Bias Current Display, and/or Enable Bias Voltage Display. You should now see values on
your circuit representing current and/or voltage.

3.3 DC Sweep on Input Source Vi

1) Analysis type: DC Sweep

2) Options: Primary Sweep

3) Sweep Variable: Voltage Source

4) Type in the name of the source you are sweeping.

5) Sweep Type: Linear (this is so you can sweep three a range of values)

6) Fill in the Start, End, and Increment Values. Type in 0.1V for the increment value to get a
nice smooth plot.

3.4 Parametric Sweep for Resistance

You will need to make the following changes to your circuit first:
 ECA Lab manual

1) Change the value of the part (not the name!) to {RL} (use curly braces, name is arbitrary)

2) Go to Place => Part

3) Add the part PARAM/SPECIAL to your schematic

4) Double click on the PARAM part

5) Click "New Column..."

6) Set the name to RL (same name as in “a” but with no curly braces)

7) Set the value to something, e.g., 1k (this is the value that is used in calculating DC bias
values, choose somewhere in the range of your sweep).

8) Select the RL column (do not double click!) so that it is highlighted and then click
Display...

9) Select "Name and Value" and press OK.

10) An example schematic from Lab 1 is shown below:

Simulation Settings:

1) Analysis type: DC Sweep

2) Options: Primary Sweep (not Parametric Sweep!)

3) Sweep variable: Global parameter

4) Parameter name: RL (or name of the parameter you used without curly braces)

5) Sweep Type: Linear

6) Fill in the Start, End, and Increment values. Note for resistance, the start value cannot be
0! Use 0.1 instead.

Press OK and simulate. The simulation window should now include a place for you to plot
your data.
 ECA Lab manual

3.5 AC Sweep (Frequency Domain Simulation)

1) Set up your circuit with VAC voltage sources.

2) Go to PSpice => New or Edit Simulation Profile

3) Analysis Type: AC Sweep/Noise

4) Sweep Type: choose logarithmic and decade. Then select the frequency range of interest.
Don't start frequency sweeps at 0!

5) Set the Points/Decade to be at least 20.

Press OK and simulate. The simulation window should now include a place for you to plot
your data.

3.6 Transient Analysis (Time Domain Simulation)

1) For a sine wave, use VSIN for your voltage source instead of VAC (VOFF is the DC
offset, VAMPL is the amplitude, and FREQ is the frequency of the sine wave).

2) For a square or triangular wave, use VPULSE . The values you type in for V1 and V2 will
depend on the amplitude specified on the lab instructions. If a 5V amplitude signal is
specified, then V1 = 5V and V2 = -5V.

a. Square Wave is the VPLUSE function in the limit of TR = TF = 0 and PW = 0.5 * PER
(PER is the period of the wave). This limit case, however, causes numerical difficulties in
calculations. In any case, we can never make such a square function in practice. In reality,
square waves have very small TR and TF. Typically, we use a symmetric function, i.e., we
set TR = TF and PW = 0.5 * PER - 2 * TR. Thus, for a given frequency we can set up the
square function if we choose TR. If we choose TR too large, the function does not look like a
square wave. If we choose TR too small, the program will take a long time to simulate the
circuit and for TR smaller than a certain value, the simulation will not converge numerically.
A good choice for TR is to set it to be 1% of the PER (a period): TR = TF = 0.01 * PER, PW
= 0.48 * PER. This usually results in a nice signal without a huge amount of computational
need. Note that TR does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice round
numbers for TR, TF, and PW.

b. Triangular Wave is the VPLUSE function in the limit of TR = TF = 0.5* PER and PW =
0 (convince yourself that this is the case). As before, the limit case of PW = 0 causes
numerical difficulties in calculations. So we have to choose PW to be a reasonably small
 ECA Lab manual

value. A good choice for PW is to be set at 1% of the PER (period): PW = 0.01* PER, TR =
TF = 0.49 * PER (and not TR = TF = 0.495 * PER so that we get a symmetric function). This
usually results in a nice signal without a huge amount of computational need. Again, note that
PW does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice round numbers for TR, TF,
and PW.

3) Simulation settings:

a. Analysis Type: Time Domain (Transient)

b. Options: General Settings

c. Enter a Run to time so that a few periods will be displayed. Remember that the period
(seconds) = 1/frequency (Hz), i.,e, if you are using a 1kHz sine wave, it has a 1/1kHz=1ms
period, so use a Run to time of 5ms for 5 periods

d. Set the Maximum step size to be much smaller than the period. i.,e, for a 1kHz sine
wave: It has a 1ms period, so set a maximum step size of approx .01ms. (This works out to
100 data points per period). If you don't set the maximum step size, PSpice may choose
one which is too big, making your sine wave look angular and ugly.

Press OK and simulate. The simulation window should now include a place for you to plot
your data.

4 GRAPHING IN PSPICE

4.1 General Instructions

On the simulation window,

1) Go to Trace => Add Trace

2) Select the variable you want to plot on the y-axis. Or type in an expression on the Trace
Expression prompt at the bottom of the window. Press OK

3) To mark points:

a. Click the "Toggle Cursor" button. (Or go through the menu, Trace => Cursor
=> Display.) You will now be able to move the cursor along your plot.

b. Click the "Mark Label" button to label that point. (Or go through the menu, Plot
=> Label => Mark.)

4.2 Bode Plots

1) For the magnitude plot, use the PSpice DB() function to convert the transfer function to
decibels. For example, you could type in DB(V(Vout)/V(Vin)) as your Trace Expression,
 ECA Lab manual

assuming you have labeled your output and input nodes with "Vout" and "Vin" aliases. Note
that DB(Vout) is NOT the transfer function in dB.

2) Next, mark the cutoff frequency on the magnitude plot. To find the cutoff frequency,
remember the cutoff frequency is 3dB below the highest point (NOT always at -3dB). Here
are some instructions on how to label the cutoff frequencies.

a. Click the "Toggle Cursor" button. (Or go through the menu, Trace => Cursor
=> Display.)

b. Click the "Cursor Max" button to find the highest point. (Or go through the menu,
Trace => Cursor => Max.)

c. Click the "Mark Label" button to label the max point. (Or go through the menu,
Plot => Label => Mark.) This point is the center frequency fo for a bandpass filter.

d. Click the "Cursor Search" button (Or go through the menu, Trace => Cursor
=>Search Commands…)

e. Select 1 for Cursor To Move to search along the y-axis

f. To find the cutoff frequency fc (or cutoff frequencies fcl and fcu for a bandpass filter),
enter "search forward level (max-3)" (don't enter the quotation marks) to move the cursor
to the right to the point which is 3dB below the max. Or enter "search back level (max-
3)" (don't enter the quotation marks) to move the cursor to the left

f. Click the "Mark Label" button to label that cutoff point.

 Unclick the Toggle Cursor button to disable the cursor so you can move the label.
 Double click on the label to edit the text (to add units, or to name the point)
3) Once you have completed the magnitude plot, you will now need to create a phase plot.
To put the plot on the same window for convenience, go to Plot => Add Plot to Window. To
graph the phase plot, use the PSpice P() function. For example, P(V(Vout)/V(Vin)).

4) To label the cutoff frequencies on the phase plot, simply search for the angles that
correspond to each cutoff frequency. You can find these in the class lecture notes. For
 ECA Lab manual

example, for a passive lowpass filter, the cutoff frequency is located where the phase shift is -
45 degrees. So on the plot, you would search for -45 and then label that point.

5) It may help to increase the width of the lines in the plot:

a. The colored symbol at the bottom of the graph, or on the graph line.

b. Note you can select all of the lines by going to Edit => Select All.

c. Right click on the line. Make sure the selection list has Information, Properties, Cursor
1, and Cursor 2. (If it lists Settings and Properties, you clicked on the background, not on
the line).

d. Select Properties.

e. You can change the width and other settings of that trace.

6) An example of a complete Bode plot with labels is shown below:

5. MISCELLANEUOUS ITEMS

5.1 Creating an IV Plot

Here, you will need to make a plot of current vs. voltage.

1) Use the same schematic and settings you made for a parametric sweep on the resistance.

2) Simulate the circuit.

3) On the simulation window, go to Trace => Add Trace.

4) Select the current through the load resistance. If you typed in RL as your parameter, the
variable you will choose will be I(RL).
 ECA Lab manual

5) Add a negative sign in the trace expression, so that you have –I(RL). You will need to do
this because you want the current going into the voltage divider circuit. Without the negative
sign, you will be plotting the current coming out of the voltage divider circuit.

6) Change the x-axis variable from resistance to voltage:

a. Go to Plot => Axis Setting
b. Under the X Axis tab, click Axis Variable…
c. Select the voltage across the load. This will probably be V2(RL) if RL is your
parameter name.
7) Press OK. Your graph should now be a plot of I vs. V.

5.2 Using the OpAmp

1) Connection points 2, 3, and 6 should be self-explanatory. See the circuit diagram in your
lab instructions to figure what to connect to these points.
2) Connection point 7: attach a VDC to supply power to the OpAmp and change the value to
15V. Don’t forget to ground the DC source by attaching the 0/source to the negative
terminal.
3) Connection point 4: attach a VDC to supply power to the OpAmp and change the value to
-15V. Don’t forget to ground the DC source by attaching the 0/source to the negative
terminal.
4) Do not connect anything to connection points 1 and 5.
5) An example circuit is shown on the next stage:
 ECA Lab manual

5.3 Family of Curves Option for Resistance

First, you will need to make changes to your circuit so that your resistance R2 is now a
parametric variable. Follow the first part of the instructions in section 4.4 on how to do this.
Do not follow the instructions for the simulation settings. You will need to follow these
instructions:

1) Analysis type: AC Sweep

2) Options: General Settings and Parametric Sweep

3) For General Settings,

a. AC Sweep Type: Logarithmic Decade

b. Fill in Start, End, and Points/Decade

4) For Parametric Sweep,

a. Sweep variable: Global parameter

b. Parameter name: R (or name of the parameter you used on the schematic minus the
curly braces)

c. Sweep type: Value list

d. Fill in the list box. Make sure to separate each value with a space and not a comma.
For example, you would type in 1k 2k 3k and not 1k, 2k, 3k.

Once you have set up the Sweep Type, press OK and then simulate your circuit. The
simulation window should now include a place for you to plot your data. See Section 5.

5.4 Using the Zener Diode

1) You need 2 files

a. D1N5232.lib (PSpice library file)

b. D1N5232.olb (Orcad Capture library file)

2) PSpice Instructions:

a. Go to the menu: 'PSpice => Edit Simulation Settings'

b. Go to the 'Libraries' tab. Click the 'Browse...' button. Open the D1N5323.lib file

c. Click 'Add as Global'

d. Press 'OK' to exit the simulation settings.

e. Now go to the menu: 'Place => Part...'

 ECA Lab manual

f. Click 'Add Library'

g. Open the D1N5232.olb file

h. You should now see a part named D1N5232. Select it and press OK to use the part.

5.5 Creating a Potentiometer

You will not need to use a special part for this. Simply perform a parametric sweep on a
regular resistor
 ECA Lab manual

CLASS B COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency of Class B
Complimentary symmetry power amplifier.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: PSPICE Simulation Software

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
An amplifying system consists of several stages in cascade. The input and the
intermediate stages amplify small signal excitations to a value large enough to drive the final
device .The out put stage feeds the final device .The output stage feeds a transducer such as a
CRO,loudspeaker or servomotor. Thus the final stage must be capable of delivering a large
voltage or current or appreciable amount of power. This requires an amplifier which is
referred as a power amplifier
In class B complimentary symmetry class _B amplifier one n-p-n and p-n-p is used. Hence
the circuit is called class-B complimentary symmetry amplifier. This circuit ifis transformer
less circuit .But with common emitter configuration it becomes power transfer without output
impedance for maximum power transfer without an output transformers. Hence the matched
pair of complementary transistors are used in common collector configuration This is because
in common collector configuration has lowest output impedance and hence the impedance
matching is possible.
 ECA Lab manual

PROCEDURE:
1. Enter in to the Pspice software.
2. Customize the screen and then draw the circuit on the screen .
3. Start the simulation and observe the input and output waveforms.

MODEL GRAPHS:

RESULT:.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the efficiency of Class B complimentary symmetry power amplifier?

2. What are the advantages of Class B complimentary symmetry power amplifier?
3. What are the disadvantages in Class B push pull power amplifier?
 ECA Lab manual

SINGLE TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

AIM: To study single tuned voltage Amplifier and to calculate
1. Resonant Frequency.
2. Q factor.
3. Bandwidth and
4. Impedance

APPARATUS: Pspice software

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
It is usually required to use a number of tuned amplifier stages in cascade in order to
obtain large overall gain. These cascade tuned amplifiers may be put into the following
three categories:
1. Single tuned amplifiers.
2. Double tuned amplifiers.
3. Stagger-tuned amplifiers.
Single tuned amplifiers use one parallel tuned circuit as the load impedance in each stage and
all these tuned circuits in different stages are tuned to the same frequency.Double tuned
amplifier uses two inductively coupled tuned circuits per stage, both the tuned circuits being
tuned to the same frequency.Staggered tuned amplifier uses a number of single tuned stages
in cascade, the successive tuned circuits being tuned to slightly different frequencies.
Single tuned amplifiers may again be put into following two categories:
a) Capacitance coupled single tuned amplifiers and
b) Transformer coupled or inductively coupled single tuned amplifiers
RESONANT FREQUENCY:
Depending upon the frequency of the source voltage Vs, the circuits may behave either as
inductive or capacitive. However, at a particular frequency when the inductive reactance Xl
equals the capacitive reactance Xc, then the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit. This
 ECA Lab manual

phenomenon is called resonance: and the corresponding frequency is called resonant

frequency. The resonant frequency (fr) can be found by equating the two reactance values.

PROCEDURE:

1. Enter in to the Pspice software.

2. Customize the screen and then draw the circuit on the screen .
3. Start the simulation and observe the input and output waveforms.

GRAPH:
 ECA Lab manual

RESULT:.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are tuned amplifiers?
2. What is tuning?
3. Explain how the tuned amplifiers work?
 ECA Lab manual

CLASS -A POWER AMPLIFIER(TRANSFORMER COUPLED)

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency of

CLASS A Power Amplifier.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Pspice software

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The amplifier is said to be class A power amplifier if the q point and the input
signal are selected such that the output signal is obtained for a full input cycle . For this
class the position of q point is approximately y at the mid point of the load line.
For all the values of input signal the transistor remains in the active region and
never entire into the cutoff or saturation region. The collector current flows for 3600
(life cycle) of the input signal in other words the angle of the collector current flow
is 3600 the claa a amplifiers or furthers classified as directly coupled and transformer
coupled and transformer coupled amplifiers in directly coupled type .The load is
directly connected in the collector circuit while in the transformer coupled type,
the load is coupled to the collector using the transformer.
Advantages:

1. Distortion analysis is very important

2. It amplifies audio frequency signals faithfully hence they are called as audio amplifiers

Disadvantages:
 ECA Lab manual

1. H parameter analysis is not applicable

2. Due to large power handling the transistor is used power transistor which is large in
size and having large power rating

PROCEDURE:

1. Enter in to the Pspice software.

2. Customize the screen and then draw the circuit on the screen .
3. Start the simulation and observe the input and output waveforms.

GRAPH:

I/P

O/P:
 ECA Lab manual

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1.On which criteria based the power amplifiers are classified?

2.what is the operating point of class-A power ampliier?

3.what is meant by efficiency?

4.how much efficiency will b obtained in classs-A power amplifier?

5. what are the applications of power amplifier?

 ECA Lab manual

10.CLASS B PUSH PULL POWER AMPLIFIER

AIM: To observe the input and output waveforms and to calculate the efficiency of Class B
Complimentary symmetry power amplifier.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Pspice software

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
An amplifying system consists of several stages in cascade. The input and the intermediate stages
amplify small signal excitations to a value large enough to drive the final device .The out put
stage feeds the final device .The output stage feeds a transducer such as a CRO,loudspeaker or
servomotor. Thus the final stage must be capable of delivering a large voltage or current or
appreciable amount of power. This requires an amplifier which is referred as a power amplifier
In class B complimentary symmetry class _B amplifier one n-p-n and p-n-p is used. Hence the
circuit is called class-B complimentary symmetry amplifier. This circuit ifis transformer less
circuit .But with common emitter configuration it becomes power transfer without output
impedance for maximum power transfer without an output transformers. Hence the matched pair
of complementary transistors are used in common collector configuration This is because in
common collector configuration has lowest output impedance and hence the impedance matching
is possible.

PROCEDURE:
1.conncet the circuit s per the circuit diagram
2.apply 4v p-p with 1KHZ frequency using function generator
3.observe the output in CRO .
4.note the cross over distortion in output.(outputVp-p)
 ECA Lab manual

5.remove the collector connection and put ammeter.

6.note the Idc value in the ammeter.
7.using Pdc and Pac formulas find the efficiency.

GRAPHS:

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.In classB power amplifiers why crossover distortion will be occurred?

2.what are he different methods to eliminate distortion?

3..howmuch efficiency will b obtained in classs-B power amplifier?

4.where is the location of operating point in class-B power amplifier?

 PDC LAB

EXPERIMENT NO: Date:

BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM: To design a fixed bias Bistable Multivibrator and to measure the stable state
voltages before and after triggering.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors 2.2KΩ-2
15 KΩ-2
100 KΩ-2
2. Transistors 2N2369 – 2
APPARATUS:
1. Bread board
2. Power supply 0-30V
3. CRO
4. Connecting wires
THEORY:
A bistable multivibrator has two stable output states. It can remain indefinitely in any one of
the two stable states, and it can be induced to make an abrupt transition to the other stable state by
means of suitable external excitation. It would remain indefinitely in this stable state, until it is
again induced to switch into the original stable state by external triggering.
Bistable multivibrators are also termed as „Binary‟s or Flip-flops‟. A binary is sometimes
referred to as ‘Eccles-Jordan Circuit’.

Principle of Operation of bistable multivibrator.

Consider the circuit as shown in the figure.7.1. The transistor Q1 and Q2 are n-p-n
transistors. They are coupled to each other as shown in figure 7.1. It is evident that the output of
each transistor is coupled to the input of the other transistor. Since the transistors are identical, there
quiescent currents would be the same, unless the loop gain is greater than unity. When I1 increases
slightly, the voltage drop across the collector resistance RC1 increases. Since VCC is fixed, the
voltage of point C decreases. This has the effect of decreasing the base current of Q2. This, in turn,
decreases the collector current of Q2 viz. I2 decreases, the voltage drop I2RC2 decreases. Hence the
voltage of point D increases.
Due to increase of VD, the base current of Q1 increases. This increases the collector current
of Q1 viz I1. Thus I1 further increases. I1RC1 drop further increases, VC further decreases, the base
current of Q2 further decreases, with the result that I2 further decreases. Thus it can easily seen that
if the collector current I1 increases even marginally, I2 would go on progressively decreasing and as
a result, I1 would progressively increase. Eventually I2 would become practically zero, cutting off
the transistor Q2, at the same time transistor Q1 would conduct heavily with the result that it would
be driven into saturation. Thus Q2 becomes OFF and Q1 becomes ON. It can similarly be shown
that if I2 increases even marginally similar sequence of operation would result and ultimately Q2
would be ON and Q1 OFF. Thus when Q1 is ON, Q2 is OFF and when Q1 is OFF Q2 is ON.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC 12V

RC1 RC2
2.2KΩ 2.2KΩ
R1 15KΩ R1 15KΩ

2N2369 2N2369
Q2 100KΩ Q1

100KΩ
R2

R2
-VBB = -1.5V
Figure 7.1.Bistable multivibrator

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.

2. Observe the waveforms at VBE1, VBE2, VCE1, VCE2
3. Observe which transistor is in ON state and which transistor is in OFF state.
4. Apply –ve triggering at the base of the ON transistor and observe the voltages VC1, VC2,
VB1, and VB2.
5. Apply + ve triggering at the base of the OFF transistor and observe the
Voltages VC1, VC2, VB1, VB2.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
Voltage

Voltage

VC1 VC2

VC2 VC1
0 t 0 t
Before Triggering After Triggering
Tabulations:

Stable State Voltages VBE1 VBE2 VCE1 VCE2

Before Triggering
After Triggering
RESULT:
Hence we have designed a fixed bias Bistable Multivibrator and measured the
Stable state voltages before and after triggering.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is Multivibrator? Explain the principle on which it works? Why is it called a
binary?
2. Explain the role of commutating capacitors in a Bistable Multivibrator?
3. Give the Application of a Binary.

APPLICATIONS:
1. used for the performance of many digital operations such as counting and storing binary
information.
2. used in the generation and processing of pulse-type waveforms.
DESIGNING PROBLEM:
1. Silicon transistors with hfe(min) equal to 20 are available. If Vcc=VBB = 10V, design the
bistable multivibrator.
EXPERIMENT NO: Date:
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM : To design and test performance of an Astable Multivibrator to generate clockpulse for a
given frequency.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors 3.3KΩ-2
10KΩ-2
2. Capacitors 0.1 f - 2
3. Transistors 2N2369 – 2

APPARATUS :
1. CRO
2. Power supply 0-30V
3. Bread board
4. Connecting wires
THEORY:
An Astable multivibrator has two quasi-stable states, and it keeps on switching between
these two states, by itself, No external triggering signal is needed. The astable multivibrator cannot
remain indefinitely in any of these two states. The two amplifiers of an astable multivibrator are
regeneratively cross-coupled by capacitor.

Principle:
A collector-coupled astable multivibrator using n-p-n transistor in figure 1. The working of
an astable multivibrator can be studied with respect to the figure1.

Figure 8.1: Astable Multivibrator

Let it be assumed that the multivibrator is already in action and is oscillating i.e., switching
between the two states. Let it be further assumed that at the instant considered, Q2 is ON and Q1 is
OFF.
i) Since Q2 is ON, capacitor C2 charges through resistor RC1. The voltage across C2 is VCC.
ii) Capacitor C1discharges through resistor R1, the voltage across C1 when it is about to start
discharging is VCC.(Capacitor C1 gets charged to VCC when Q1 is ON).

As capacitor C1 discharges more and more, the potential of point A becomes more and more
positive (or less and less negative), and eventually VA becomes equal to V, the cut in voltage of
Q1. For VA > V, transistor Q1 starts conducting. When Q1 is ON Q2 becomes OFF.

Similar operations repeat when Q1 becomes ON and Q2 becomes OFF.

Thus with Q1 ON and Q2 OFF, capacitor C1 charges through resistor RC2 and capacitor C2
discharges through resistor R2. As capacitor C2 discharges more and more , it is seen that the
potential of point B becomes less and less negative (or more and more positive), and eventually VB
becomes equal to V, the cut in voltage of Q2. when VB > V, transistor Q2 starts conducting. When
Q2 becomes On, Q1 becomes OFF.

It is thus seen that the circuit keeps on switching continuously between the two quasi-stable
states and once in operation, no external triggering is needed. Square wave voltage are generated at
the collector terminals of Q1 and Q2 i.e., at points C and D.

DESIGN:

IC max = 5 mA ; VCC = 12 V; VCE (SAT) = 0.2V

RC = (VCC - VCE(SAT)) / IC MAX
Let C = 0.1 f
and R= 10K
T = 0.69 (R1C1+R2C2) = 0.69(2RC)  ( R1=R2 ; C1=C2)
=TON+TOFF
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Observe the waveforms at VBE1, VBE2, VCE1, VCE2 and find frequency.
3. Vary C from 0.01 to 0.001F and measure the frequency at each step.
4. Keep the DC- AC control of the Oscilloscope in DC mode.
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

Q1 OFF, Q2 ON Q1 OFF, Q2 ON
VCC

Q1 ON, Q2 OFF Q1 ON, Q2 OFF

VC1 VCE (SAT)
t
VCC

VC2 VCE (SAT)

t

VB1 V
t

VB2 V
t
I.RC

Figure 8.2. Expected Waveforms

RESULT:
TON = TOFF = T(TON + TOFF) =
Astable multivibrator is designed and its performance is tested.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is a switching circuit?

2. Justify that the Astable Multivibrator is a two stage RC coupled Amplifier using
negative feedback. How does it generate square wave.
3. What is the difference between a switching transistor and an ordinary transistor?
4. What is the effect of slew rate on the working of an Op-amp Multivibrator?

APPLICATIONS:
1. Used anywhere, where we need the clock pulse train of low frequency, like a function generator.
2. Used to produce waveforms.
3. used in signal generation

DESIGNING PROBLEM:
1. Design an Astable multivibrator to generate a square wave of 1Khz.
 EXPERIMENT NO: Date:
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM : To design and test performance of a monostable multivibrator to generate clock

pulse for a given frequency. And obtain the waveforms.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors 2.2KΩ-2
10KΩ-1
1KΩ-2
1.5 KΩ-1

2. Capacitors- 0.1µF
1 µF
3. Transistors 2N2369 – 2
4. Diode QA79-1

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. CRO
2. Power supply 0-30V
3. Bread board
4. Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 9.1. Monostable multivibrator

THEORY :
„A monostable multivibrator has only one stable state, the other state being quasi-
stable. Normally the multivibrator is in the stable state, and when an external triggering pulse is
applied, it switches from the stable to the quasi-stable state. It remains in the quasi-stable state fro a
short duration, but automatically reverts i.e. switches back to its original stable state, without any
triggering pulse‟.

Principle of operation
A collector-coupled Monostable multivibrator of the two transistors Q1 and Q2, Q1 is
normally OFF and Q2 is Normally ON. Resistor R1 and R2 are connected to the normally OFF
transistor, and the capacitor C is connected to the normally ON transistor.
It is seen from the circuit of the monostable multivibrator that, under normal conditions, the
supply voltage VCC provides enough base drive to the transistor Q2 through resistor R, with the
result that Q2 goes into saturation. With Q2 ON, Q1 goes OFF, as already studied in the context of
binary operation.
With Q2 ON and Q1 OFF, the capacitor finds a charging path. The voltage across the
capacitor is VCC with polarity. It is obvious that in the stable state of the multivibrator, Q2 is ON
and Q1 is OFF.
If the negative triggering pulse is applied to the collector of Q1, it is transmitted to the base
of Q2 through the capacitor, and hence makes the base of Q2 negative. Immediately Q2 goes OFF
and Q1 becomes ON. However, this is only a quasi-stable state as is obvious form the following
observation.
With Q1 ON and Q2 OFF, the capacitor C finds a discharging path. As the capacitor
discharges, it is seen that the potential at the base of the transistor Q2 becomes less and less
negative, and after a time, we have VB = V, the cut-in-voltage of Q2.
As soon as VB crosses the level of V, Q2 starts conducting and gets saturated. When
Q2 becomes ON, Q1 becomes OFF. Thus the original stable state of the multivibrator is restored.
[ In quasi-stable state: Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF]
The interval during which the quasi-stable state of the multivibrator persists i.e., Q2 remains
OFF is dependent upon the rate at which the capacitor C discharges. This duration of the quasi-
stable state is termed as delay time or pulse width or gate time. It is denoted as T. The wave forms
of the voltage at base of the transistor Q2 and C (Collector of Q1)

DESIGN:
VCE = 5.56v, VCC = 6v, VCE(sat) = 0.3v, VBE(sat), = 0.7v, IC = 6mA,VF = -0.3v
Rc = (VCC–VCE(sat))/IC.

 VBB R1 VCE ( sat) R2

VF  
R1  R2 R1  R2

VCC R1 VBE ( sat) RC

VCE  
R1  RC R1  RC

Find the values of R1 and R2

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. With the help of a triggering circuit and using the condition T (trig) >
T(Quasi) a pulse waveform is generated.
3. The output of the triggering circuit is connected to the base of the off
transistor.
4. The Off transistor goes into ON state.
5. Observe the waveforms at VBE1, VBE2, VCE1, VCE2
6. Keep the DC- AC control of the Oscilloscope in DC mode.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
 Q2 OFF, Q1 ON Q1 OFF, Q2 ON VCC

VC2 Q2 ON, Q1 OFF VCE (SAT)

t

V 
VB2
t
I.RC
VCC

VCE (SAT)
VC1
t

V 
VB1
t

Figure 9.2. Expected Waveforms

RESULT:
TON =
TOFF =
Total T (TON + TOFF) =
Monostable multivibrator is designed and studied.

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the operation of collector coupled Monostable Multivibrator?
2. Derive the expression for the gate width of a transistor Monostable Multivibrator?
3. Give the application of a Monostable Multivibrator.
APPLICATIONS:
1. Frequency divider
2. Pulse width modulation
3. Linear ramp generator
4. Missing pulse detector
DESIGNING PROBLEM:
1. Design a collector coupled one shot with a gate width of 3ms, using n-p-n
transistors.
EXPERIMENT NO: Date:
SCHMITT TRIGGER

AIM: To design and analyze Schmitt trigger and to observe the waveforms.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors 100 KΩ-1
2.2 KΩ-2
3.3 KΩ-1
3.9 KΩ-1
6.8 K Ω-1
2. Capacitors 0.01µF-1
2. Transistors BC 107 – 2

APPARATUS:
1. Bread board
2. Power supply 0-30V
3. Signal generator
4. CRO
5. Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure: 10.1. Schmitt trigger

THEORY:

The most important application of Schmitt Trigger circuit are amplitude comparator and
squaring circuit are amplitude comparator and squaring circuit. The circuit is used to obtain a
square waveform from any arbitrary input waveform. The loop gain is to be less than unity.

Dept of ECE, Lendi Institute of Engineering and Technology Page 61

 If Q2 is conducting there will be voltage drop across RZ which will elevate the emitter of Q1.
Consequently if V is small enough in voltage, Q1 will be cut-off with Q1 conducting, the circuit
amplifies and since the gain is positive, the output to rise, V2 continues to fall and Z2 continues to
rise. Therefore a value of V will be reached where Q2 is turned OFF. At the point the output no
longer responds to the input.
Here the input signal is arbitrary except that it has large enough excursion to carry input
beyond the limits of hysteresis range, VH = (V1 – V2).
The output is a square wave whose amplitude is independent of the amplitude of the input
waveform.

DESIGN:
IC2 = 5mA
(Rc2 + RE) = VCC / IC2
U.T.P = VE2 = 5V
VE2 = (RE VCC) / (Rc2+RE)
I2 = 0.1IC2
L.T.P = VE1 = 3V
R2 = ER2i / I2 = VE1 / I2 = L.T.P / I2
Rc1 = {(REVCC) / VE1} –RE
IB2 = IC2 / hfe(min)
(VCC - VE2) / (R1+RL1))) = (VE2/R2)+IB2
RB = (hfeRE) / 10
Find R1, R2, RE, Rc1and Rc2 from the above equations

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1 with designed values.

2. Apply VCC of 12V and an input frequency of 1KHz with an amplitude more than the
designed UTP.
3. Now note down the output wave forms
4. Observe that the output comes to ON state when input exceeds UTP and it comes to OFF
state when input comes below LTP
5. Observe the waveforms at VC1, VC2, VB2 and VE and plot graphs.
6. Keep the DC- AC control of the Oscilloscope in DC mode.
MODEL GRAPHS:

UTP
Input sin wave
VMAX>UTP LTP

Schmitt Trigger
VC2 output

VC1

VB2

Figure 10.2. Model Graphs

RESULT: Schmitt Trigger circuit is designed and studied.

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain how a Schmitt trigger acts as a comparator?
2. Derive its expressions for UTP & LTP.

APPLICATIONS:
1. squarewave generator
2. on/off controllers
3. Used as a comparator

DESIGNING PROBLEM:
1. Design a Schmitt trigger circuit for the specifications: UTP = 8v, LTP = 5V, IC(sat) =
2mA, hFE(min) =25.
 VBB
VBB
But i 
RB1  RB 2
 VBB  RB2
 V1    RB1
 RB1  RB 2 
 RB1  V1
  VBB
 B1
R  R B2 
i
 RB1  RB1
The ratio   is termed as the intrinsic stand
 RB1  RB 2 
off ratio and it is denoted as .

Figure 11.2

 RB1 
  when , I E  0V1  VBB .
 RB1  RB 2 

Form the equivalent circuit, it is evident that the diode cannot conduct unless the emitter voltage VE
= V + V1, where V is the cutin voltage of the diode.

This value of the emitter voltage which makes the diode conduct is termed as peak voltage,
and it is denoted as VP.

We have VE = V + V1,
or since VP = V + VBB V1 = VBB.

It is obvious that if VE < VP, the UJT is OFF, and

if VE < VP, the UJT is ON.
Figure 11.3. Shows the emitter characteristics of a UJT (plot of VE vs IE)
VE

VP Peak Point

Negative
resistance
region
VV
Valley Point
IE
0 IP IV

Figure 11.3. Emitter characteristics of a UJT

The main application of UJT is in switching circuits wherein rapid discharging of capacitor
is very essential.
Having understood the basic of UJT, we shall next study the working of UJT relaxation
oscillator.
 PDC LAB

Working of UJT relaxation oscillator (OR UJT sweep circuit)

V or VBB
RB2 R

B2 E
+
B1
C Vs
RB1

Figure:11.4. UJT relaxation oscillator

The UJT sweep circuit shown in the figure 4 consists of a UJT, a capacitor and a resistor
arranged as shown.
We studied that a UJT is OFF as long as VE < VP, the peak voltage. Hence initially when the
UJT is OFF, the capacitor C charges through the resistance R from the supply voltage V.
Let VS = capacitor voltage.
It is seen that when the capacitor voltage VS rises to the value VP the UJT readily conducts.
When the UJT becomes ON, the capacitor discharges and its voltage falls. When the voltage falls to
the valley point VV, the UJT becomes OFF and the capacitor charges again to VP.

This cycle of charging and discharging of the capacitor C repeats, and as a result, a saw
tooth wave form of voltage across C is generated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

VCC =12V
R
47k
1 E B
 2N26
2
B 46
R1 100
C 0.1 2 
F
1. Emitter 2. Base1 3. Base2
Figure:11.5. Circuit Diagram of UJT relaxation oscillator

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure with designed values.
2. Note down the voltages and frequencies across C& R2 .
3. The time period of the output wave form is noted and is compared with theoretical value
T = R1  C[ ln {(VBB – VV) / (VBB – VP)}]
EXPERIMENT NO: Date:
BOOT STRAP SWEEP CIRCUIT

AIM: To design and test the performance of bootstrap sweep circuit.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Resistors 100K-1
5.6K-1
10K-1
2.Capacitors 0.1F-1,
10F-1
100F-1
3. Diode IN4007-1
4. Transistors 2N2369– 2

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Bread board
2. Power supply
3. CRO
4. Signal generator
5. Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VCC = 12V
IN4007 100µF

100K 5.6K

2N2369
Q2

Q1 0.1µF
10µF 2N2369 10K
Vi V0

-VBB =-10V

Figure 12.1. Boot Strap Sweep Circuit

DESIGN:

VCC  Tg
VS 
RC

TR 
(C  VS ) / VCC 
(h fe / RB )  (1 / R) 
Sweep time = TS = RC

THEORY:

The input to Q1 is the gating waveform. Before the application of the gating waveform, at t
= 0, transistor Q1 is in saturation. The voltage across the capacitor C and at the base of Q2 is VCE(sat).
To ensure Q1 to be in saturation for t = 0, it is necessary that its current be at least equal to iCE / hFE
so that Rb < hfeR.

With the application of the gating waveform at t = 0, Q1 is driven OFF. The current iC1 now
V t
flow into C and assuming units gain in the emitter follower V0  CC . When the sweep starts, the
RC
diode is reverse biased, as already explained above, the current through R is supplied by C1. The
current VCC / R through C and R now flows from base to emitter of Q2.if the output V0 reaches the
voltage VCC in a time TS / Tg, then from above we have TS = RC.

If the sweep amplitude is less than VCC, then the maximum ramp voltage is given by
VCCTg
VS 
RC

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Apply the square wave or rectangular wave form at the input terminals.
3. Connect the CRO at output terminals now plug the power card into line switch on and observe
the power indication.
4. As mentioned in circuit practical calculation. Observe and record the output waveforms from
CRO and compare with theoretical values.
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

Vo
Input

Output
ts tr
tg
Figure 12.2. Expected Waveforms

RESULT:
TS =
TG=
TR =

Bootstrap sweep circuit is designed and studied

QUESTIONS:
1 .What are the other methods of sweep generator?
2. Compare bootstrap and miller sweep generator?
3. Describe the operation a single transistor Boot strap time base voltage waveform
generator making use of its related circuit diagrams?
4. Explain the principle of working of Boot strap circuit?

APPLCATIONS:
1.Used In analog circuit designs to alter the input impedance of a circuit.
2.Used in dc-dc converters to serve as top-side bias voltage supplies.

DESIGNING PROBLEM:
1. In the transistor bootstrap circuit of figure above , VCC = 25V, VEE = -15V,R = 10KΩ, RE =
15KΩ, C = 0.05µF and C1 = 100µF. The gating waveforms has a duration, Tg = 300µs. The
transistor parameters are hie = 1.1KΩ, hre = 2.5x10-4 kΩ, hfe = 50, hoe = 1/40KΩ.
a) Draw the waveforms of ic1 and Vo, labeling all current and voltage levels.
b) What is the slope error of the sweep.
c) What is the sweep speed and the minimum value of the sweep voltage
d) What is the retrace time T, for C to discharge completely.
e) Calculate the recovery time T1 for C1 to recharge completely.