Zoology Lecture 1

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 11

Zoology

Zoology, branch of biology that studies the members of the animal kingdom
and

animal life in general. It includes both the inquiry into individual animals and their

constituent parts, even to the molecular level, and the inquiry into animal

populations, entire faunas, and the relationships of animals to each other, to

plants, and to the nonliving environment. Though this wide range of studies

results in some isolation of specialties within zoology, the conceptual integration

in the contemporary study of living things that has occurred in recent years

emphasizes the structural and functional unity of life rather than its diversity.

Meaning of Zoology
The word zoology originated from two ancient Greek words "zoion" meaning

"animal" and "logia" meaning "the study or. Therefore, the word literally means

"the study of animals".

History of Zoology (Historical background)

Identification and study of animals around us has been a part of human

civilization since its start. The ancient civilization of India, China, Egypt, Greece,

etc. has always been fascinated by the animal kingdom and we can see many

descriptions and use of animals in the scripture. However, extensive modem

scientific studies were undertaken and documented by many prominent

scientists and philosophers which led to our current understanding of zoology.

Some such scientists are listed below;

I. Aristotle (384-322 BC): He is often considered the father of zoology


due to his significant work on the classification and characterization of
animals.

2. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778): His work on taxonomy and


classification laid the foundation of the current pretext of zoology.
3. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832): His work on paleontology and
comparative anatomy of animals greatly contributed to the understanding of
zoology.

4. Charles Darwin (1809-1882): Other than his work on evolution, his

research on the Galapagos Island also contributed significantly to

zoological studies.

5. Thomas Huxley (1825-1895): His work on Darwin's theory of evolution

also contributed greatly to the field of comparative anatomy of animals.

6. Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989): His work on animal behavior has a

significant impact on the understanding of zoology.

7. E. 0. Wilson {1929-2021): His work on biodiversity and sociobiology

greatly contributed to our current understanding of ecology.

Biodiversity: Biodiversity, short for "biological diversity," refers to the wide variety

of living organisms found on Earth, encompassing a l l forms of life, from

microorganisms to plants, animals, and ecosystems. It is a measure of the

richness and variability of life forms within different habitats and ecosystems

around the world. Biodiversity is a fundamental aspect of life on our planet and

plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance, providing ecosystem

services, and contributing to human well-being.

Scope of Zoology
Zoology has a wide range of scopes, some of which are listed below;

1. Understanding of animal biology, behavior, and ecology as


research scientist.

2. Study and manage wildlife populations as a wildlife biologist.

3. As a zoological educator in organizations and institutions.

4. Caring, managing, and overseeing animals in the zoo as a zoo curator.


5. The study of marine and freshwater ecosystems as aquatic biologists.
6. As an environmental consultant assess the impact of human activities
on wildlife and ecosystems.
7. As a conservation biologist to protect and preserve the ecosystems.
8. To provide medical care for animals, both domestic and wild as a
veterinarian.

Importance of Zoology
The study of zoology is very significant for the understanding of the living
world.

Some common reasons to study zoology are listed below;

1. To study and conserve the world's diverse animal species.

2. The understanding of animal interactions and their role within the


ecosystem is crucial for maintaining the ecosystem.

3. To achieve important medical breakthroughs.

4. Pest management, livestock improvement, contribution to food


security, etc. Can be achieved with the knowledge and understanding
of zoology.

5. Knowledge of zoology will help to promote the welfare of domestic and


wild animals.

6. To assess the impact of human activities on wildlife and ecosystems.

7. The study of zoology contributes to economic sectors such as


ecotourism, wildlife management, etc. creating jobs and revenue.

8. Global awareness and cooperation for environmental conservation


can also be achieved.

Who is a Zoologist?
A zoologist is a biologist or scientist who specializes in the study and understanding
of animals. They specialize in various aspects of the animal kingdom. including

their biology, behavior, classification, physiology, and ecology. They investigate

and study animal species from simple or primitive invertebrates to complex

vertebrates. They conduct research to answer questions about animal life,

behavior, evolution, and interactions with their environments.

How to Become a Zoologist?

To become a zoologist in India one has to complete high school with

physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics {optional). Then they have to

pursue a Bachelor of Science in zoology or a related field. After that a

Master's degree-(M.Sc.) in Zoology or a related field. A Ph.D. in Zoology is

optional. However, it is important to participate in internships, research

projects, and fieldwork t o gain practical knowledge in zoology.

Branches of Zoology

Zoology is a vast and diverse field of biology having many major and

minor branches. Some of them are listed below;

1. Protozoology: Protozoology is a branch of zoology that deals with the


study of Protozoa (which are unicellular organisms such as amoeba).

2. Entomology: The study of insects is called entomology.

3. Herpetology: The study of amphibians and reptiles is called


herpetology.

4. Ornithology: The study of birds is called ornithology.

5. Ichthyology: The study of fish is called ichthyology.

6. Mammalogy: The study of mammals is called mammalogy.


7. Zoogeography: Zoogeography is the scientific study of the geographical
distribution of animal species (both historical and contemporary) in the world.

8. Ethology: The study of animal behavior is exclusively a zoological


discipline.
Only animals have nervous systems, with their implications for perception,
coordination, orientation, learning, and memory.

9. Zoography: Zoography is the study of animals and their habitats (also


known as descriptive zoology)

10.Zoometry: Zoometry is a sub-division of zoology that deals


with measurements (length or size) of animal parts.

11. Human Biology, the branch of biology that studies the structure,
function, and diversity of human body systems and organs.

Areas of study
Cytology:
Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around

the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell

permits detailed understanding of the tissues and organisms that cells

compose. Some organisms have only one cell, while others are organized

into cooperative groups with huge numbers of cells. On the whole, cell

biology focuses on the structure and function of a cell, from the most general

properties shared by all cells to the unique,

highly intricate functions particular to specialized cells.

Histology:

Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy (microanatomy) of cells


and tissues. Every cell of tissue type is unique, based on the many functions
an organism carries out. Histology uses advanced imaging techniques to
analyze and identify the tissues and structures present. Both light microscopy and
specialized systems such as electron microscopy are used to visualize the tiny
structures present in specially prepared tissue samples. The histology of different
tissues can be used to identify unknown tissues, provide clues to the function of
tissue or cells, or even identify disease in the cells of an organism.

Anatomy:
The study of the internal and external structures of animals is called
anatomy. Descriptions of external form and internal organization are among
the earliest records available regarding the systematic study of animals.
Aristotle was an indefatigable collector and dissector of animals. He found
differing degrees of structural complexity, which he described with regard to
ways of living, habits, and body parts. Although Aristotle had no formal system
of classification, it is apparent that he viewed animals as arranged from the
simplest to the most complex in an ascending series. Since man was even
more complex than animals and, moreover, possessed a rational faculty, he
therefore occupied the highest position and a special category.

Taxonomy:
Taxonomy refers to the science of naming, describing, and classifying

organisms. It involves creating a hierarchical system of categories based

on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships. Systematics, on

the other hand, is the study of the diversity of life and the relationships

between different organisms.

Physiology:
Physiology is the study of how the human body works. It describes the chemistry
and physics behind basic body functions, from how molecules behave in cells to how
systems of organs work together. It helps understand what happens when your body
is healthy and what goes wrong when you get sick.

Most of physiology depends on basic research studies carried out in a laboratory.


Some physiologists study single proteins or cells, while others might do research on
how cells interact to form tissues, organs, and systems within the body.

Embryology:
Embryology is the branch of biology and medicine concerned with the study of
embryos and their development. It encompasses the study of prenatal
development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos
and fetuses. The study of embryology also includes the study of congenital
disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology. The history of
embryology dates back to the Renaissance, where accurate observations
were made by anatomists such as Aldrovandi and Leonardo da Vinci. The
theory of epigenesis, which is now accepted, was proposed by Aristotle.
Evolutionism (Phenology):
Evolutionism is a term used to denote the theory of evolution. Its exact meaning
has changed over time as the study of evolution has progressed. In the 19th
century, it was used to describe the belief that organisms deliberately improved
themselves through progressive inherited change (orthogenesis). The
teleological belief went on to include cultural evolution and social evolution. In
the 1970s, the term "Neo- Evolutionism" was used to describe the idea that
"human beings sought to preserve a familiar style of life unless change was
forced on them by factors that were beyond their control."

The term is most often used by creationists to describe adherence the scientific
consensus on evolution as equivalent to a secular religion. The term is very
seldom used within the scientific community, since the scientific position on
evolution is accepted by the overwhelming majority of scientists. Because
evolutionary biology is the default scientific position, it is assumed that
"scientists" or "biologists" are "evolutionists" unless specifically noted otherwise.
In the creation evolution controversy, creationists often call those who accept
the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis "evolutionists" and the theory
itself "evolutionism·. Darwin was not the first to speculate that organisms can
change from generation to generation and so evolve, but he was the first to
propose a mechanism by which the changes are accumulated. He proposed
that heritable variations occur in conjunction with a never-ending competition for
survival and that the variations favoring survival are automatically preserved. In
time, therefore, the continued accumulation of variations results in the
emergence of new forms. Because the variations that are preserved relate to
survival, the survivors are highly adapted to their environment. To this process
Darwin gave the apt name natural selection.
Many of Darwin's predecessors, notably Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, were willing to
accept the idea of species variation, even though to do so meant denying the
doctrine of special creation and the static-type species of Linnaeus. But they
argued that some idealized perfecting principle, expressed through the habits of
an organism, was the basis of variation. The contrast between the romanticism
of Lamarck and the objective analysis of Darwin clearly reveals the type of
revolution provoked by the concept of natural selection. Although mechanistic
explanations had long been available to biologists forming, for example, part of
Harvey's explanation of blood circulation they did not pervade the total structure
of biological thinking until the advent of Darwinism.

Genetics
The problem of heredity had been the subject of careful study before its definitive
analysis by Mendel. As with Darwin's predecessors, those of Mendel tended to

idealize and interpret all inherited traits as being transmitted through the blood

or as determined by various "humors" or other vague entities in animal

organisms. When studying plants, Mendel was able to free himself of

anthropomorphic and holistic explanations. By studying seven carefully defined


pairs of characteristics e.g., tall and short plants; red and white flowers, etc. As

they were transmitted through as many as three successive generations, he

was able to establish patterns of inheritance that apply to all sexually

reproducing forms. Darwin, who was searching for an explanation of

inheritance, apparently never saw Mendel's work, which was published in 1866

in the obscure journal of his local natural history society; it was simultaneously

rediscovered in 1900 by three different European geneticists.

Further progress in genetics was made early in the 20th century, when it was

realized that heredity factors are found on chromosomes. The term gene was

coined for these factors. Studies by the American geneticist Thomas Hunt

Morgan on the fruit fly (Drosophila), moved animal genetics to the forefront of

genetic research. The work of Morgan and his students established such major

concepts as the linear array of genes on chromosomes; the exchange of parts

between chromosomes; and the interaction of genes in determining traits,

including sexual differences. In 1927 one of Morgan's former students,

Hermann Muller, used X rays to induce the mutations (changes in genes) in

the fruit fly, thereby opening the door to major studies on the

nature of variation.

Meanwhile, other organisms were being used for genetic studies, most notably
fungi and bacteria. The results of this work provided insights into animal
genetics just as
-
principles initially obtained from animal genetics provided insight into botanical
and

microbial forms. Work continues not only on the genetics of humans, domestic

animals, and plants but also on the control of development through the orderly

regulation of gene action in different cells and tissues.


Molecular biology •

Although the cell was recognized as the basic unit of life early in the 19th

century, its most exciting period of inquiry has probably occurred since the

1940s. The new techniques developed since that time, notably the perfection

of the electron microscope and the tools of biochemistry, have changed the

cytological studies of the 19th and early 20th centuries from a largely

descriptive inquiry, dependent on the light microscope, into a dynamic,

molecularly oriented inquiry into fundamental life processes.

The biochemical study of life had helped in the characterization of the major

molecules of living systems which are proteins, nucleic acids, fats, and

carbohydrates, and in the understanding of metabolic processes. That nucleic

acids are a distinctive feature of the nucleus was recognized after their discovery

by the Swiss biochemist Johann Friedrich Miescher in 1869. In 1944 a group of

American bacteriologists, led by Oswald T. Avery, published work on the

causative agent of pneumonia in mice (a bacterium) that culminated in the

demonstration that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the chemical. Basis of

heredity. Discrete segments of DNA correspond to genes, or Mendel's

hereditary factors. Proteins were discovered to be especially important for their

role in determining cell structure and in controlling chemical reactions.

The advent of techniques for isolating and characterizing proteins and nucleic

acids now allows a molecular approach to essentially all biological problems

from the- appearance of new gene products in normal development or under

pathological conditions to a monitoring of changes in and between nerve cells

during the transmission of nerve impulses.


Ecology
Animal ecology, the study of consumers and their interactions with the.
environment,

is very complex; attempts to study it usually focus on one particular aspect.

Some studies, for example, involve the challenge of the environment to

individuals with special adaptations (e.g., water conservation in desert animals);

others may involve the role of one species in its ecosystem or the ecosystem

itself. Food-chain sequences have been determined for various ecosystems,

and the efficiency of the transfer of energy and matter within them has been

calculated so that their capacity is known; that is, productivity in terms of

numbers of organisms or weight of living matter at a specific level in the food

chain can be accurately determined (see biosphere).

General trends

Zoology has become animal biology that is, the life sciences display a new
unity, one that is founded on the common basis of all life, on the gene pool-
species organization of organisms, and on the obligatory interacting of the
components of ecosystems. Even as regards the specialized features of
animals involving physiology, development, or behavior. The current emphasis
is on elucidating the broad biological principles that identify animals as one
aspect of nature. Zoology has thus given up its exclusive emphasis on animals
to an emphasis maintained from Aristotle's time well into the 19th century in
favor of a broader view of life. The successes in applying physical and chemical
ideas and techniques to life processes have not only unified the life sciences
but have also created bridges to other sciences in a way only dimly foreseen by
earlier workers. The practical and theoretical consequences of this trend have
just begun to be realized.

You might also like