Microbiology & Parasitology Immunology – the study of immune system and the immune

response
Kinds of Precaution
Immunogen – any substance capable of including an immune
Isolation Precaution
response, whether humoral or cell-mediated or both
The process of separating the individual with an infectious
Antigen – a substance recognized by the immune system,
disease from that of the healthy population to prevent the
whether by the B cell or T cell, that serves as the target of the
spread of infection.
immune response but may not necessarily lead to an immune
All precaution should apply to all body fluids including blood, response
skin and mucous membrane which includes:
Epitope – the structure in the antigen that is recognized by the
1. Proper handwashing B cell or the T cell

2. Use of PPE Hapten – substance that is of low molecular weight that can
only induce an immune response if bound to another
3. Proper handling & disposal of linen and equipment substance that is already immunogenic
4. Environmental control

5. Proper handling of secretions & excretion excluding

sweat

6. Prevention of injury from sharp and needles

7. Patient placement

Transmission Based Precaution

Contact Precaution – used to prevent the spread of infections

or infectious agent that can be transmitted thru touching of
patients or items in the room where infectious agent may be
deposited

- MRSA,VRE, diarrheal illness, open wound

- Gloves
- Gown

Droplet Precaution – precaution used for disease that are

spread in tiny droplets caused by coughing or sneezing

- Influenza, mumps, pertusis pneumonia

- Surgical mask

Airborne Precaution – preventing the spread of disease

through air from one person to another

- Chicken pox, measles, TB

- Negative pressure room Adaptive Immunity: Active and Passive

Host Response to Infection

Lymphocytes

- Natural Killer Cell

- CD8 Cytotoxic T Cell
- B Cell
- Regulatory T Cell
- CD4 Helper T Cell
Adaptive immunity: Mechanisms

• Cell-mediated immune response (CMIR)

▪ T-lymphocytes

▪ eliminate intracellular microbes that survive

within phagocytes or other infected cells

• Humoral immune response (HIR)

• B-lymphocytes

• mediated by antibodies

• eliminate extra-cellular microbes and their toxins

3 ways in which pathogens may cause illness:

• Plasma cell (Derived from B-lymphocyte, produces
1. Toxins
antibodies)
2. Reproduction

3. Immune response

Hypersensitivity Reaction- is an exaggerated and

inappropriate immune responses that lead to tissue injury
resulting in harm to the host.

DEFENSES

1ST LINE OF DEFENSE

- Skin

- Mucous membrane

- Secretions

2nd LINE OF DEFENSE

- Macrophages

- Neutrophils

- NK Cells

3rd LINE OF Defense

- Lymphocytes

T-lymphocytes - recognized antigens

B-Lymphocytes - produce a special chemicals called antibodies IgA

• Monomeric in serum

• Dimeric with secretory component in the lumen of

the gastro-intestinal tract and in the respiratory tract

• Major function / application

• neutralizes microbes and toxins

• Sero-diagnosis of tuberculosis

• Synthicial respiratory virus tests

IgG

• 70-75% of total immuniglobulin

IgD
• Secreted in high quantities in secondary exposures
• Monomeric
• Cross the placenta
• Major functions / applications
Major functions / applications
▪ present on the surface of B lymphocytes
• neutralize microbes and toxins
▪ functions as membrane receptor
• opsonize antigens for phagocytosis
▪ role unclear
• activate the complement
has a role in antigen stimulated lymphocyte differentiation
• protect the newborn

IgE
• 4-fold rise or fall indicates active infection
• Mediates type I hypersensitivity
• A single positive sample indicates past exposure.
• Monomeric
IgM
• Major functions / applications
• Secreted initially during primary infection
• associated with anaphylaxis
• Cannot cross the placenta
• plays a role in immunity to helminthic
• Major functions / applications
parasites
▪ secreted first during primary exposure
• Serodiagnosis of infectious and non infectious
▪ activates the complement allergies (e.g., allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis, parasitic diseases)
▪ used as a marker of recent infection
Sequential IgM-IgG humoral response

• IgM
• Presence in newborn means infection
▪ produced as a first response to many
• Single positive sample in serum or CSF indicates antigens
recent or active infection
▪ levels remain high transiently
• Used to detect early phase of infection
 • IgG - Developed memory

▪ produced after IgM Adaptive

▪ higher levels persist in small amounts • Based upon resistance acquired During life
throughout life
• Relies on genetic events and cellular
▪ produced in large amounts during secondary
Growth
response
• Responds slowly, few days
• persistence of antigen sensitive
‘memory cells’ after primary • Specific
response
• Has memory
Immunodeficiency
2 Types of Immunity
• Loss or inadequate function of various components of
the immune system 1. Natural – results of body’s previous encounter

• Can occur in any part or state of the immune system 2. Artificial – results from injection of a vaccine or an
antibody
▪ physical barrier, phagocytes, B lymphocytes,
T lymphocytes, complement, natural killer Emerging Infectious Diseases
cells ▪ Occurrence of new diseases and increasing incidence
• The immuno-compromised host of old ones (EID)

▪ has an impaired function of immune system ▪ Factors:

▪ is at high risk of infection (a) evolutionary changes in existing organisms

Immune System (b) spread of known diseases into new

geographic areas by modern transportation
Innate (natural)
(c) ecological changes resulting in introduction
- No time lag of unusual agents

- Not antigen specific (d) emergence of antimicrobial resistance

- No memory Classifying Infectious Diseases

Innate - Communicable disease

• Based on genetic make up A disease that spreads from one host to another.

• Rapid response - Contagious disease

Mechanical Barriers: A disease that is easily spread from one host to another.
(chicken pox, measles)
- Skin, cilia, acidic pH in stomach
- Non Communicable disease
Humoral Mechanism:
A disease that is not transmitted from one host to another.
- Lysosomes in tears
(tetanus)
- Interferons
Occurrence of Disease
Adaptive
- Incidence
- Lag period
Fraction of a population that contracts a disease during a
- Antigen specific specific time.
 - Prevalence - Chronic Disease

Fraction of a population having a specific disease at a given Disease develops slowly (TB)
time
- Subacute Disease
- Sporadic Disease
Symptoms between acute and chronic (subacute sclerosing
Disease that occurs occasionally in a population. (typhoid panencephalitis)
fever)
- Latent Disease
Morbidity Rate
Disease where causative agent is inactive for a time, but then
▪ is the state of illness or the number of people in a becomes active to produce symptoms (shingles).
given population that are ill.

▪ This is expressed as the number of cases per 100,000

people per year.

▪ is the number of people that are dead.

▪ This is measured as the number of deaths from a

specific cause per 100,000 people per year.

Occurrence of Disease

Endemic Disease

- Disease constantly present in a population.(influenza,

aids)
- Disease acquired by many hosts in a given area in a
short time.

Pandemic Disease

Worldwide epidemic.

Herd Immunity

Immunity in most of a population.

Severity or Duration of a Disease

- Acute Disease

Symptoms develop rapidly but last a short time (influenza)