International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2016

Vol. 21, No. 4, 433–448, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2013.862733

A study of time use and academic achievement among secondary-

school students in the state of Kelantan, Malaysia
Siew Foen Nga*, Razimi Zakariaa1, See May Laia2 and Gary J. Confessoreb3
a
Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia, Bukit Ilmu, Machang 18500,
Malaysia; bGraduate School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington
University, 2134 G Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
(Received 8 September 2013; accepted 2 November 2013)

The preliminary report of the Malaysian Education Blueprint – 2013–2025 (Malaysia

Ministry of Education, 2012. Preliminary education blueprint (2013–2025). Retrieved
June 11, 2012 from http://www.moe.gov.my/userfiles/file/PPP/Preliminary-Blueprint-
Eng.pdf) highlights the importance, in a globalised world, of producing future
intellectual, social and human capital for Malaysia. It is paramount to note that
adolescents are the future human capital of Malaysia. Literature indicates adolescents are
confronted with an environment that is rapidly changing and the time spent on non-
school-related activities has negatively impacted academic performance. This research
investigated the contribution of time use among students to academic achievement. The
sample of secondary school students was stratified to ensure balance of gender, school
type and grade level. Correlation analyses were conducted to determine the associations
among the variables identified in the study. Participants completed the Daily Record of
How I Use My Time each day for seven consecutive days. Cooperating schools provided
copies of the academic transcript of each participant. This information was used to
establish the overall secondary school academic achievement of each participant. The
data collected were subjected to bivariate comparison of means and t-test comparisons of
means to yield correlations among the target variables. The findings of this research
support those of some previous studies and contradict those of other studies, many
conducted with non-Malaysian populations. In sum, this study may help to develop a
conceptual framework for guiding efforts to improve academic performance, as it relates
to time use, as a contribution to accomplishing the national agenda of Malaysia.
Keywords: time use; academic achievement; secondary school students; school-
related-activities; non-school-related-activities; youths

Introduction
Today’s youth are confronted with a media environment that is rapidly changing. The time
spent on media, whether for the purpose of school-related or non-school-related learning,
has influenced youths more than before. A study on Malaysian youths showed that they
spend about 32.6 hours per day on media-related activities such as watching television
(TV), surfing the Internet, listening to the radio and reading magazines (Raj, 2012). It is
possible to exceed 24 hours per day of such activities because technology allows us to
multitask. One can talk on the phone, watch TV, check the Facebook account and listen to
music at the same time. However, research shows that out of the 32.6 hours, more than
30%, or approximately 11 hours, is spent on media-related activities such as surfing the
Internet (3.3 hours), watching TV (2.5 hours) and using phones (1.3 hours). On the use of

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

q 2014 Taylor & Francis

2434 S.F. Ng et al.

computers for social networking, Malaysians are found to have the highest number of
Facebook friends, with an average of 233 in each account. Malaysians spend 9 h a week on
Facebook, which is one of the highest compared with other countries, and more than
10 million Malaysians are currently Facebook users.
A study of time use among Malaysian youths as it relates to school achievement,
particularly one that differentiates between school-related activities and non-school-
related activities, may provide insights into how these activities impact the performance
of youths in school. Such insights may be useful to educational policy-makers, school
administrators, teachers, civic groups, parents and adolescents concerned with
optimising the opportunities provided during the secondary school years of Malaysian
children.

Objectives of the research

The objectives of this research are the following:
(1) To investigate the contribution of time use for school-related activities to
academic achievement among secondary school students in Malaysia.
(2) To investigate the contribution of time use for non-school-related activities to
academic achievement among secondary school students in Malaysia.

Literature review
Kirkorian, Wartella, and Anderson (2008) state that the content that is being portrayed in
the television (TV) can act as the tool for interaction between the viewers and the media.
High levels of exposure to educational TV are positively linked with students’ academic
achievement especially for those who had started since their early childhood. Kirkorian
et al. (2008) and Noor-Ul-Amin and Mattoo (2012) agreed that the frequency of TV
watching does influence the academic performance among secondary school students. In
the same study, Noor-Ul-Amin and Mattoo (2012) reveal that high TV viewers, as
compared to low TV viewers, are seen to plan their study well in advance. This group of
people (high TV viewers) is also found to possess higher note-taking ability by applying
effective paraphrasing and summarising skills. On the other hand, low TV viewers are
found to prefer quiet and calm working style, which help them to show good abilities in
vocabulary, reading and memorising skills. Low TV viewers are also found to have better
learning motivation than high TV viewers as they are seen to have the desire to learn
quickly and retain information for a long time.
Studies done by Carvin (2006) and Ogedebe (2012) found strong correlations of
Internet access with academic performance. Both studies agreed that the use of Internet
has improved students’ academic performance as Internet assists them to have better
preparation for exams. These respondents claim they get relevant information pertaining
to their course of study while browsing the Internet. Technology-based activities are able
to facilitate students’ understanding of the content and provide different ways of
expressing knowledge to the students and, therefore, have a positive influence on their
academic performance (Sun & Bradley, 2010).
The usage of Internet among adolescents nowadays is definitely inseparable from social
networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter and MySpace. A study done by Kabre and
Brown (2011) on the influence of Facebook usage on academic performance and the quality of
life of college students reveals that the number of hours spent on Facebook influences both
academic performance and the quality of life among the students. The Internet and social
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 435
3

networking websites seem to bring positive influence on adolescents as it allows them to

express themselves in their own unique ways (Boyd, 2007).
Flad (2010) also adds that high school students use these sites as tools to obtain
information and resources for their academic planning as well as to enhance their artistic
and musical abilities.
However, social networking sites do bring negative impact to their users especially as
regards study habits and completion of homework and assignments (Flad, 2010). Media
conveys both positive and negative impacts towards students’ achievement in school
exams. This phenomenon depends highly on how these students utilise the convenience
and advancement of various technological devices.
Previous studies have proven that extracurricular activities are beneficial in building
and strengthening academic achievement even though these activities may not have any
obvious relationship with academic subjects (Guest & Schneider, 2003; Kamaruzaman,
Norhidayah, Syukriah, Najah, & Azni, 2009; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002; Sparkes, 2004).
According to studies done by Darling, Caldwell, and Smith (2005), and Bashir and
Hussain (2012), adolescents who participated in extracurricular activities are reported to
achieve higher grades in their academic performance. Besides, they have more positive
attitudes towards school, and have higher academic aspirations. School-related
extracurricular activities, sports for leisure purpose also provide opportunities for
initiative, emotional regulation, goal setting, persistence, problem solving and time
management (Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006).

Problem statement
The daily activities of an average student’s life are centred on school and home. Whether
the activities of the student are school- or non-school-related, they are very much
influenced by various technological devices such as computers, TV, hand phones and
game consoles. As technology continues to advance, students continue to be bombarded
by exposure to various technological media. Much research suggests that there may be
significant correlations of media exposure with academic performance. Previous studies
have explored areas such as self-esteem, violence and academic achievement when
looking at adolescents and media. All of these areas continue to be revisited as technology
continues to expand and change. Research has generally shown a negative relationship
between activities related to media exposure and academic performance. If this is the case,
in what ways are students being affected? Does it depend on the type of media or the
duration of time they are being exposed? This study seeks to investigate school-related
activities and activities that are non-school-related in relation to learners’ academic
performance.

Research questions

(1) To what extent does time spent watching TV correlate with academic
achievement?
(2) To what extent does time spent in activities associated with Internet correlate
with academic achievement?
(3) To what extent does time spent playing multimedia games (video, Xbox,
PlayStation, etc.) correlate with academic achievement?
(4) To what extent does time spent in reading correlate with academic achievement?
4436 S.F. Ng et al.

(5) To what extent does time spent in studying correlate with academic
achievement?
(6) To what extent does time spent in tuition correlate with academic achievement?
(7) To what extent does time spent in extra curricular activities correlate with
academic achievement?
(8) To what extent does time spent in homework correlate with academic
achievement?
(9) To what extent does time spent in activities associated with school-related
activities combined correlate with academic achievement?
(10) To what extent does time spent in activities associated with non-school-related
activities combined correlate with academic achievement?
(11) To what extent do gender, Form level and school type correlate with cumulative
grade point average (CGPA)?
(12) To what extent do gender, Form level and school type correlate with time spent in
school-related activities?
(13) To what extent do gender, Form level and school type correlate with time spent in
non-school-related activities?

Research hypotheses
In order to assess the relationship between time use in school-related and non-school, and
leisure-related activities with academic achievement among secondary school students in
Malaysia, the following hypotheses are formulated:
(1) There is a negative and significant correlation between time spent watching TV
and academic achievement.
(2) There is a negative and significant correlation between time spent in activities
associated with Internet and academic achievement.
(3) There is a negative and significant correlation between time spent playing
multimedia games and social networks (video, Xbox, PlayStation, Facebook) and
academic achievement.
(4) There is a positive and significant correlation between time spent in reading and
academic achievement.
(5) There is a positive and significant correlation between time spent in studying and
academic achievement.
(6) There is a positive and significant correlation between time spent in tuition and
academic achievement.
(7) There is a positive and significant correlation between time spent in extra
curricular activities and academic achievement.
(8) There is a positive and significant correlation between time spent in homework
and academic achievement.
(9) There is a positive and significant correlation of time spent in activities associated
with school-related activities combined and academic achievement.
(10) There is a negative and significant correlation of time spent in activities
associated with non-school-related activities combined and academic
achievement.
(11) Females achieve significantly higher CGPAs than males, Form 4 students
achieve significantly higher CGPAs than Form 2 students and elite school
students achieve significantly higher CGPAs than standard school students.
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 437
5

(12) Females, Form 4 and elite school students will spend significantly more time in
school-related activities than males, Form 2 and standard school students.
(13) Males, Form 2 and standard school students spend significantly more time in non-
school-related activities than females, Form 4 and elite school students.

Methodology
Research design
This study utilised a quantitative methodology. A stratified sample of 137 students from
two Malaysian secondary schools participated in the study. The sample was stratified to
ensure a balance of males and females in equal numbers from Forms 2 and 4, and type of
school attended.

Instrumentation
Participants completed the Daily Record of How I Use My Time each day for 7 days. This
survey was developed in Bahasa Malaysia specifically for the present study because while
some students also have a good facility with English or Mandarin, Bahasa Malaysia is the
common language used in the home, community and the schools. Locally, it is considered
the ‘national language’ of Malaysia. The instrument includes an array of school-related
and non-school-related activities designed to elicit responses regarding daily time used in
activities such as watching TV, Internet browsing, social media, tuition, study and so on.
Items differentiate school-related and non-school-related activities. Respondents recorded
the number of minutes they estimated they engaged in each activity during the previous
day.

Data collection
A team of teachers at the two participating secondary schools was recruited and oriented in
the processes of completing the Daily Record of How I Use My Time. One school was
considered ‘elite’, serving students who had done well academically in their pre-secondary
school and on the National Examination taken in the final year of elementary school. The
other was considered ‘standard’, serving students who had done less well academically or
on the National Examination. This was done to ensure appropriate sampling by previous
academic performance. The teachers ensured that the study participants completed the
Daily Record of How I Use My Time at the beginning of each school day, Sunday through
Thursday for 1 week. Study participants completed the Daily Record of How I Use My
Time at home on Fridays and Saturdays to be turned in to their cooperating teacher on
Sunday morning. It is felt that gathering daily samples from each day of the week for one
full week would provide sufficient data to make an initial assessment of how participants
spend their time without imposing an undue burden on the participants or their teachers.
Subsequently, cooperating schools provided a copy of the academic transcript of each
participant. This information was used to establish the overall secondary school academic
achievement, to-date, of each participant.

Data analyses
Data on gender and grade level were extracted from the transcripts. Gender was treated as
categorical data and grade level was treated as hierarchical interval data. CGPAs were
extracted in decimal form and treated as scale data.
6438 S.F. Ng et al.

Means and standard deviations of accumulated time committed to each of the items
and groups of items on the Daily Record of How I Use My Time were calculated. These
scores were subjected to comparisons with academic achievement scores using bivariate
comparison of means and t-test of comparison of means. Next, these scores were subjected
to comparisons with gender, Form level and type of school attended using bivariate
comparisons of means and t-test of comparisons of means.

Limitations
The latest census data for Malaysia and Kelantan (2011) report that Malaysia is 67.4%
Bumiputera, 24.6% Chinese, 7.3% and Indian 0.7%. Malaysia is 61.3% Islam, 19.8%
Buddha, 9.2 Christian and 6.3% Hindu. However, 95% of Kelantanese are Malay
Muslims. The remaining 5% are spread over Siamese, Chinese and Indian of Buddha,
Christian and Hindu faiths. As a political unit, Kelantan is essentially a rural, conservative
Muslim State that is near the bottom of the national economic ladder. Since the study was
done in Kelantan, there would not have been sufficient representation of separate ethnic or
socioeconomic groups of non-Malay Muslim groups to support appropriate statistical
inference. Since this was an exploratory study, it was felt that no attempt should be made
to conduct a national study at this time. Since the general literature on adolescents’ time
use often includes comparisons across language, ethnicity and religious affiliation, further
study across a wider geographic area of Malaysia that collects such data seems warranted.
The study is further limited in that it does not consider the potential influences of
family dynamics such as parents’ level of education or employment status, sibling order or
parents’ aspirations for their children. Here again, it was felt that attempts to account for
such issues would be unwarranted in an exploratory study. Further study across a wider
geographic area of Malaysia that collects such data seems warranted.

Findings
Given the method of grade assignment and CGPA calculation, the maximum (best)
possible CGPA would be 0.00. In this system, the minimum (poorest) possible CGPA is
9.00. Hence, the lower the CGPA reported in this system, the better the academic
achievement of the individual. These data were utilised in all tests of research hypotheses
related to academic achievement. Table 1 reports the CGPA descriptive statistics for all
study participants.
Table 1 reports the descriptive data for the distribution of CGPAs of all participants.
These data may be consulted as a baseline when considering all remaining comparisons of
CGPA and other demographic characteristics studied.
Table 2 reports the correlations of non-school-related activities with CGPA.
Significant negative correlations are revealed for reading, watching TV, hobbies, SMS and
total time. A significant positive correlation is revealed for sports/physical activity.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics – CGPA – all participants.

N Max (best) Min (poorest) Mean SD
137 1.95 9.00 5.59 1.58
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 439
7

Table 2. Correlation of CGPA with non-school-related activities – N ¼ 137.

Sports/
Watching physical Arts/club Phone Social
Reading TV Hobbies activities activities SMS activity

r 2 ¼ 20.199* r 2 ¼ 20.393** r 2 ¼ 20.320** r 2 ¼ 0.224** r 2 ¼ 0.132 r 2 ¼ 20.191* r 2 ¼ 20.063

p ¼ 0.020 p ¼ 0.000 p ¼ 0.000 p ¼ 0.009 p ¼ 0.123 p ¼ 0.025 p ¼ 0.467

Surfing Facebook Games Other Total

Internet video/Xbox

r 2 ¼ 20.015 r 2 ¼ 20.020 r 2 ¼ 20.012 r 2 ¼ 20.166 r 2 ¼ 20.201*

p ¼ 0.862 p ¼ 0.819 p ¼ 0.888 p ¼ 0.052 p ¼ 0.018

Note: Bold indicates significant negative correlation.

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two tailed).
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).

Table 3 reports the correlations of school-related activities with CGPA. Significant

negative correlations are revealed for studying with family members, time spent in tuition
and use of ‘other’ technology. A significant positive correlation is revealed for studying
with friends.

. Research hypothesis 1: ‘There is a negative and significant correlation between time

spent watching TV and academic achievement’ was supported. Bivariate
comparisons of means reveal a significant and negative correlation of time spent
watching TV with academic achievement (r 2 ¼ 2 0.393, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 2: ‘There is a negative and significant correlation between time
spent in activities associated with Internet and academic achievement’ was not
supported. This activity was assessed in terms of school-related and non-school-
related surfing of the Internet. No significant relationship was found in either case.
Bivariate comparisons of means for academic achievement and Internet surfing for
school-related purposes (r 2 ¼ 0.014, p ¼ 0.871) (see Table 3) and for non-school-
related purposes (r 2 ¼ 2 0.015, p ¼ 0.862) (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 3: ‘There is a negative and significant correlation between time
spent playing multimedia games (video, Xbox, PlayStation and social networks)

Table 3. Correlation of CGPA with school-related activities for all participants – N ¼ 137.
Study Study School
Study with with sports
Reading alone friends family Homework Tuition activity

r ¼ 0.087
2
r ¼ 0.180* r ¼ 0.227**
2 2
r ¼ 20.303**
2
r ¼ 20.140 r ¼ 20.240* r 2 ¼ 20.066
2 2

p ¼ 0.313 p ¼ 0.035 p ¼ 0.008 p ¼ 0.000 p ¼ 0.103 p ¼ 0.005 p ¼ 0.422

Arts/club Phone Social Surfing Other Total

activity SMS activity Internet technology

r 2 ¼ 20.129 r 2 ¼ 20.163 r 2 ¼ 20.034 r 2 ¼ 0.014 R 2 ¼ 20.203* r 2 ¼ 20.091

p ¼ 0.134 p ¼ 0.057 p ¼ 0.687 p ¼ 0.871 P ¼ 0.017 p ¼ 0.288

Note: Bold indicates significant negative correlation.

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two tailed).
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).
8440 S.F. Ng et al.

and academic achievement’ was not supported except in the case of text messaging
for non-school-related purposes. Bivariate comparison of means for academic
achievement and time spent on video games revealed a positive and significant
correlation between time spent in reading and academic achievement (r 2 ¼ 0.012,
p ¼ 0.888), and for time spent on Facebook (r 2 ¼ 2 0.020, p ¼ 0.819).
In comparisons of means for academic achievement and text messaging for
school-related purposes, no significant correlation was found (r 2 ¼ 2 0.163,
p ¼ 0.057) (see Table 3). In comparisons of means for academic achievement and
text messaging for non-school-related purposes, significant and negative correlation
(r 2 ¼ 2 0.191, p ¼ 0.025) was found as hypothesised (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 4: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in reading and academic achievement’ was not supported. Separate
comparisons were made for school-related and non-school related reading. In the
case of school-related reading, no significant correlation was found (r 2 ¼ 0.087,
p ¼ 0.313) (see Table 3). In the case of non-school-related reading, a significant and
negative correlation was found (r 2 ¼ 2 0.199, p ¼ 0.020) (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 5: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in studying and academic achievement’ was supported except in the case of
time spent studying with family members. Positive and significant correlations were
found for academic achievement and studying alone (r 2 ¼ 0.180, p ¼ 0.035) and
studying with friends (r 2 ¼ 0.227, p ¼ 0.008). However, a significant and negative
correlation was found between academic achievement and studying with family
members (r 2 ¼ 2 0.303, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 6: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in tuition and academic achievement’ was not supported. A negative and
significant correlation between time spent in tuition and CGPA of r 2 ¼ 2 0.240,
p ¼ 0.005 was found (see Table 3).
. Research hypothesis 7: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in extra curricular activities and academic achievement’ was not supported
except in the case of academic achievement and non-school-related sports activity
(r 2 ¼ 0.224, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 6). No significant correlations were found in
comparisons of academic achievement and school-related sports (r 2 ¼ 2 0.066,
p ¼ 0.422), school-related arts/clubs (r 2 ¼ 2 0.129, p ¼ 0.134) or school-related
social activities (r 2 ¼ 2 0.034, p ¼ 0.687) (see Table 3). No significant correlations
were found for academic achievement and non-school-related arts/clubs
(r 2 ¼ 0.132, p ¼ 0.123) or non-school related social activities (r 2 ¼ 2 0.063,
p ¼ 0.467). A significant and negative correlation was found between academic
achievement and hobbies (r 2 ¼ 2 0.320, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 2).
. Research hypothesis 8: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in homework and academic achievement’ was not supported. No significant
correlation was found between academic achievement and time spent doing
homework (r 2 ¼ 2 0.140, p ¼ 0.103). A significant and negative correlation was
found between academic achievement and time spent in tuition (r 2 ¼ 2 0.240,
p ¼ 0.005) (see Table 3).
. Research hypothesis 9: ‘There is a positive and significant correlation between time
spent in activities associated with school-related activities combined and academic
achievement’ was not supported. The correlation between total time reported for
school-related activities and academic achievement was not significant
(r 2 ¼ 2 0.091, p ¼ 0.288) (see Table 3).
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 9
441

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and comparison of means for CGPA of all participants by gender,
Form and school type.
Group N Mean SD Std. error t Sig.
Male 70 5.90 1.80 0.2153 2.383 0.019*
Female 67 5.27 1.23 0.1505
Form 2 64 5.25 1.62 0.2153 2 2.401 0.018*
Form 4 73 5.89 1.49 0.1505
Elite school 70 4.54 1.00 0.1195 10.867 0.000**
Standard school 67 6.69 1.30 0.1585

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two tailed).

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).

. Research hypothesis 10: ‘There is a negative and significant correlation between

time spent in activities associated with non-school-related activities combined and
academic achievement’ was supported. The correlation between total time spent in
non-school-related activities and academic achievement was significant and
negative (r 2 ¼ 2 0.201, p ¼ 0.018) (see Table 2).
Table 4 reports the descriptive data for the comparisons of means of CGPAs for
groupings by gender, Form level and type of school. Given the system used to assign
CGPAs, the lower the score the better the CGPA. Therefore, females have
significantly higher CGPAs than males ( p ¼ 0.019), Form 2 students have
significantly higher CGPAs than Form 4 students ( p ¼ 0.018) and students at the
elite school have significantly higher CGPAs than students at the standard school
( p ¼ 0.000).
. Research hypothesis 11: ‘Females achieve significantly higher CGPAs than males,
Form 4 students achieve significantly higher CGPAs than Form 2 students and elite
school students achieve significantly higher CGPAs than standard school students’
was partially supported. As hypothesised, females achieve significantly higher
CGPAs than males (t ¼ 2.383, p ¼ 0.019) and students from elite schools achieve
significantly higher CGPAs than students from standard schools (t ¼ 10.867,
p ¼ 0.000). Contrary to the hypothesis, Form 2 students have significantly higher
CGPAs than Form 4 students (t ¼ 2.401, p ¼ 0.018) (see Table 4).
Table 5 reports the descriptive data for the comparisons of means of time used
for school-related activities for groupings by gender, Form level and type of school.
The data reveal there is no significant difference in time used for school-related
activities when participants are grouped by gender or Form level. However,
participants from the standard school report spending significantly more time in
school-related activities than those from the elite school ( p ¼ 0.000).
. Research hypothesis 12: ‘Females, Form 4 and elite school students will spend
significantly more time in school-related activities than males, Form 2 and standard
school students’ was not supported. No significant differences were found by gender
or Form level. Contrary to the research hypothesis, students from the standard
school reported significantly more time spent in school-related activities (t ¼ 3.783,
p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 5).
Table 6 reports the descriptive data for the comparisons of means of time used
for non-school-related activities for groupings by gender, Form level and type of
school. The data reveal that males spend significantly more time than females
( p ¼ 0.001), and standard school students spend significantly more time than elite
10
442 S.F. Ng et al.

Table 5. Descriptive statistics and comparison of means for school-related activities of all
participants by gender, Form and school type.
Group N Mean SD Std. error t Sig.
Male 70 2862.88 1760.30 210.40 0.263 0.793
Female 67 2780.45 1908.88 233.21
Form 2 64 2721.09 1829.67 228.71 2 0.607 0.545
Form 4 73 2911.53 1834.81 214.75
Elite school 70 2270.91 1423.30 170.12 3.783 0.000**
Standard school 67 3398.93 2027.06 247.64

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).

Table 6. Descriptive statistics and comparison of means for non-school-related activities of all
participants by gender, Form and school type.

Group N Mean SD Std. error t Sig.

Male 70 3909.79 2207.22 263.81 3.560 0.001**
Female 67 2780.45 1908.88 233.21
Form 2 64 3246.32 2071.54 258.94 2 0.408 0.684
Form 4 73 3390.37 2051.90 206.61
Elite school 70 2704.65 2062.68 246.54 3.772 0.000**
Standard school 67 3969.19 1850.00 246.54

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).

school students ( p ¼ 0.000) in non-school related activities. There is no significant

difference in time used for non-school related activities when Form level is
considered.
. Research hypothesis 13: ‘Males, Form 2 and standard school students spend
significantly more time in non-school-related activities than females, Form 4 and
elite school students’ was partially supported. Male students report significantly
more total time spent in non-school-related activities than females (t ¼ 3.560,
p ¼ 0.001), as hypothesised. Students from the standard school reported
significantly more time spent on non-school-related activities than students from
the elite school (t ¼ 3.772, p ¼ 0.000), as hypothesised. There is no significant
difference in the time spent on non-school-related activities when Form levels are
compared (t ¼ 0.408, p ¼ 0.684) (see Table 6).

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of secondary students’
involvement in selected school-related activities and non-school-related activities with
their CGPA.
Studies conducted in both Eastern and Western countries have indicated a negative
relationship between watching TV and educational achievement (Chen & Lu, 2009;
Cooper, Valentine, Nye, & Lindsay, 1999; Jordan & Nettles, 2000; Schreiber &
Chambers, 2002). Similar results were found in this study: watching TV was found to be
detrimental to academic achievement. Other non-school-related activities, such as hobbies
and time spent on SMS, were also found to be negatively and significantly correlated with
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 443
11

CGPA. Likewise, time spent on non-school-related activities such as arts/club, social

activities, surfing Internet, Facebook and video games were found to be negatively
correlated with CGPA, but not significantly so. Although McAndrew and Jeong (2012)
report that females use Facebook significantly more than males, no significant difference
in the amount of time males and females spent on Facebook was found in this study.
Interestingly, non-school-related sports/physical activity was significantly and positively
related to CGPA even though school-related sports activity was not.
Anderson and Dill (2000), report that video game use is related to adolescents’
academic achievement. In that same vein, Strasburger and Wilson (2002) report
relationships between video games and aggression video games and dependency and
addiction to video games and gambling. Hence, CGPA was hypothesised to be
negatively correlated with time spent playing video games in this study. However,
this hypothesis was not supported by the results of this study, as a significant
correlation was not found. This finding is consistent with that of Swang (2011) who also
found no significant difference in the amount of time males and females spent playing
video games.
This study was designed to assess the relationships of school-related and non-school-
related reading with academic achievement. McKool’s (2007) research found that there is
a strong relationship between the amount of out-of-school reading in which an adolescent
engages and success in school (p. 111). It has also been found that adolescents’ academic
levels do not remain consistent if individuals do not read outside of school, and in actuality
their academic levels decrease (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006).
Interestingly, the results of this study found no significant relationship of school-
related reading with CGPA (see Table 3) and that CGPA is negatively correlated with
students’ involvement in reading that is non-school-related (r 2 ¼ 2 0.199, p ¼ 0.020)
(see Table 2). This may mean students who read materials such comics, storybooks, pulp
novels, magazines and other non-school subject-related material would not perform well
academically. One possible reason for this outcome is that the school examinations test
mainly on students’ knowledge of their academic subjects and thus the reading materials
of the students have less impact on their academic achievement. This finding is also in line
with Zahyah Hanafi (2008) who found reading did not correlate with academic
achievement and she reasoned that it could be due to consumption of reading resources
that are not academically inclined. Further study designed to assess the nature of non-
school-related reading materials is needed.
The correlational analyses revealed that studying alone was positively correlated with
CGPA, or academic achievement, of the students. The ability to study alone requires a
certain extent of self-regulation and discipline. In a study conducted at the middle school
level, Duckworth and Seligman (2005) found self-discipline to be a good predictor of
several achievement measures, including grades and standardised test scores. Many of the
indicators used to measure self-discipline in this study are applicable to volition and self-
regulation of learning. Similarly, studying with friends was positively correlated with
CGPA. Various studies had been done and found that peer influence does have impact on
student performance (Goethals, 2001; Gonzales, Cauce, Friedman, & Mason, 1996;
Hanushek, Kain, Markman, & Rivkin, 2002). These studies indicated that peer influence
has more powerful effects than immediate family influence. Peer support was positively
related to students’ CGPA. Giuliodori, Lujan, and DiCarlo (2006) reported that with peer
interaction, students could increase their ability with qualitative problem-solving
questions. Peer instruction also promotes students’ participation and improves students’
performance (Rao & DiCarlo, 2000).
12
444 S.F. Ng et al.

However, studying with family was negatively correlated. Battle and Coates (2004)
revealed an interesting finding of their study that parental control, including checking of
homework, was a significant positive predictor for academic achievement in 8th grade, but
by 12th grade the influence of this factor (as measured in grade 8) had substantially
declined, though it was still positive and statistically significant. Two years post high
school, strong parental control during 8th grade had a negative association with outcomes
of achievement and attainment. However, Griffith (1996) used a school-level analysis
based on parent surveys and aggregated standardised test scores. He noted a positive
relationship between parent involvement in school and academic achievement. All in all,
this study reflects that studying either alone or with friends has enhanced the academic
achievement of the students involved. On the other hand, studying with the help of parents
did not help students to perform better.
In the Malaysian context, taking tuition after school hours is a common practice. Many
schools conduct tuition for their students, especially for those who are facing national
examination. In addition, parents often send their children for tuition during the weekend
to ensure that time is spent well on purposeful activity. In this study, the results showed a
negative correlation between time spent on tuition and CGPA. That is to say, extra classes
(tuition) did not enhance the academic achievement of the students involved. Noraini and
Kong (2011) revealed that most of the respondents in their study who attended tuition
classes after school were not doing well academically. Rather they were forced to attend
by their parents. Hence, many simply followed the activities and plans arranged by their
parents and attended the tuition classes without any interest in studying or willingness to
learn. Consequently, the parents’ actions did not function to motivate the child and a
decrease in academic achievement resulted. This study reveals outcomes that may be
related to these circumstances.
Involvement in school-related sports activity, arts/club activity, cell-phone-related
activities and social activity was negatively correlated with CGPA, but they were not
significant. Even though not significantly correlated, it seems reasonable to conjecture that
the more involved students are in these activities, the lower their CGPA will be. However,
involvement in non-school-related sports activity correlates positively and significantly
with CGPA. Further research may shed light on the difference in school and non-school
contexts in which students engage sports activity. Finally, surfing Internet for school-
related learning was positively, but not significantly, correlated with CGPA. Overall, the
results failed to show significant relationships between CGPA and students involvement in
school-related activities.
It was hypothesised that CGPA is positively correlated with time spent on homework.
This hypothesis was not supported in this study. This result does not corroborate other
researcher studies involving academic performance and time spent doing homework. Lee
(1994) found that higher attendance rates, better behaviour and better grades were present
when more time was spent on homework, specifically when families were involved in the
homework. Cooper (1989), Cooper et al. (1999) and Cooper, Robinson, and Patall (2006)
reported a generally positive relationship between homework and academic achievement,
with more time spent on homework being associated with higher achievement. However,
Martin (2008) found a negative correlation between the time spent doing homework and
history grades. This research found no significant correlation between time spent doing
homework and overall CGPA.
The hypothesis that there is a positive and significant correlation of time spent in
activities associated with school-related activities combined with academic achievement
was not supported since values of r 2 ¼ 2 0.091 and p ¼ 0.288 were found. This finding
 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 445
13

appears to have been driven essentially by significant negative correlations of studying

with family, tuition and use of other technology with CGPA which are balanced somewhat
by significant positive correlations of studying alone and studying with friends with CGPA
and findings of no significant correlations for six other school-related activities with
CGPA (see Table 3). Further study is required to assess the impact of the actual behaviours
that led to the time use reports in these activities.
The hypothesis that there is a negative and significant correlation of time spent in
activities associated with non-school-related activities combined with academic
achievement was supported since values of r 2 ¼ 2 0.201 and p ¼ 0.018 were found
(see Table 2). While negative and significant correlations of reading, watching TV,
hobbies, and texting with CGPA contributed to this outcome, a positive and significant
correlation of sports activity with CGPA and non-significant findings for six other
activities assessed leads to a recommendation for further study, particularly studies that
will investigate the relationship of non-school-related reading and hobbies with academic
achievement as determined by school testing standards.
The hypothesis that females achieve significantly higher CGPAs than males, Form 4
students achieve significantly higher CGPAs than Form 2 students and elite school
students achieve significantly higher CGPAs than standard school students was partially
supported. As hypothesised, females achieve significantly higher CGPAs than males
(t ¼ 2.383, p ¼ 0.019) and students from elite schools achieve significantly higher CGPAs
than students from standard schools (t ¼ 10.867, p ¼ 0.000). Contrary to the hypothesis,
Form 2 students have significantly higher CGPAs than Form 4 students (t ¼ 2.401,
p ¼ 0.018) (see Table 4).
This finding may reflect the influences related to a change of curricular structure during
the transition from Form 2 to Form 4. Students follow a general curriculum through their
school careers until they take national examinations during Form 3. From that point on,
they are ‘streamed’ into programme alternatives that reflect their scores on the national
examination. Further study is required to assess issues that may influence academic
performance once students enter their new curricular stream.
The hypothesis that females, Form 4 and elite school students will spend significantly
more time in school-related activities than males, Form 2 and standard school students was
not supported. No significant differences were found by gender or Form level. Contrary to
the research hypothesis, students from the standard school reported significantly more time
spent in school-related activities (t ¼ 3.783, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 5). Further research
into motivations and mechanisms of how students from the two types of schools actually
engage in school-related activities should be conducted.
The hypothesis that males, Form 2 and standard school students spend significantly
more time in non-school-related activities than females, Form 4 and elite school students
was partially supported. Male students report significantly more total time spent in non-
school-related activities than females (t ¼ 3.560, p ¼ 0.001), as hypothesised. Students
from the standard school reported significantly more time spent on non-school-related
activities than students from the elite school (t ¼ 3.772, p ¼ 0.000), as hypothesised.
There is no significant difference in the time spent on non-school-related activities when
Form levels are compared (t ¼ 0.408, p ¼ 0.684) (see Table 6).
The exception to the hypothesis was a finding of no significant difference in time spent
on non-school-related activities for the Form level groups. This may be a mitigating issue
in the finding reported above that Form 2 students achieve higher CGPAs than Form
4 students. One might ask why one group or the other is not significantly involved in
non-school-related activities.
446
14 S.F. Ng et al.

Conclusion
Analyses of data collected in this study have revealed that in some important ways, the
time use activities of secondary school students in Malaysia have much in common with
adolescents from around the world. Yet, some of the findings of this study point to a need
for all concerned with maximising the educational opportunities of adolescents in
Malaysia to examine the relationships between time use patterns and academic
achievement.
Overall, non-school-related activities showed statistically significant negative
relationships with CGPA. This indicates that time spent on these activities has a negative
association with CGPA. Educational researchers should engage in further studies of time
use in school-related and non-school-related time use in order to better understand those
behaviours that enhance academic achievement and those that undermine it.
Educational planners, school administrators, teachers and parent teacher associations
should be encouraged to promulgate the findings of studies dealing with the impact of time
use on academic success to parents and adolescents. Parents and adolescents should be
encouraged to monitor individual time use and daily progress regarding completion of
study assignments and comprehension across the curricular spectrum. Such efforts may
well help parents and their children identify time use decisions that are facilitating good
academic progress and those that are undermining it.

Notes
1. Email: [email protected]
2. Email: [email protected]
3. Email: [email protected]

Notes on contributors
Siew Foen Ng holds a PhD from Universiti Putra Malaysia and is a Master Learner Autonomy
Coach. She is a Senior Lecturer at The Language Learning Academy, Universiti Teknologi Mara-
Kelantan, Malaysia. She is currently participating in several research projects in Malaysia, Singapore
and the USA
Razimi Zakaria holds an MSc from Universiti Putra Malaysia and is a lecturer at The Language
Learning Academy, Universiti Teknologi Mara-Kelantan, Malaysia. He is currently participating in
several research projects in Malaysia.
See May Lai is currently a master degree student. She is also a lecturer at the Language Learning
Academy, Universiti Teknologi MARA Kelantan, Malaysia.
Gary J. Confessore holds an EdD from Columbia University and is a master learner autonomy coach.
He is professor emeritus of higher education administration at The George Washington University
and a 2007 recipient of the Malcolm Knowles Memorial Self-Directed Learning Award. He is
currently conducting research in Malaysia, Singapore and the USA.

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