Tactical Communications For The Digitized Battlefield - Michael J. Ryan - Artech 2002

Tactical Communications for the
Digitized Battlefield
Michael J. Ryan
Michael R. Frater
Artech House
Boston • London
www.artechhouse.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ryan, M. J. (Michael J. )
Tactical communications for the digitized battlefield/Michael Ryan, Michael R. Frater.
p. cm. - (The Anech House information warfare library)
Incl udes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58053-323-x (alle paper)
1. Communications, Military. I. Frater, Michael R. II. Title. III. Series.
UA940 .R93 2002
358'.24-dc21 2002019679
British Library Cat al oguing in Publication Data

Ryan, Michael
Tactical communications for the digitized battlefield.
(Anech H ous e Information warfare library)
1. Commu n icati ons, Military 2. ElectronIcs in military engineering
I. Title II. Frater, IVlichael R.
623 . 7'3
ISBN 1-58053-323-x
Cover design by Yeleaterina Ratner
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International S tan d a rd Book Number: 1-58053-323-x

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 20020 1%79
]0987654321
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments XIX
1 The Need for an Architecture 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Operational Environment 2
1.3 Command and Control 5
1.3.1 The C2 Cycle 5
1.4 An Increased Vulnerability 7
1.5 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield 0

(J
1.5.1 Tactical Communications 8

1.5.2 The Digitized Battlefield 9
1.6 The Need for an Architecture ]0
Endnotes ]2
\1
VI Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
l An Introduction to Communications Technology 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Communications Model 16
2.3 Source/Sink 17
2.3.1 Analog Signals 17
2.3.2 Digital Signals 24
2.3.3 Baseband Digital Signals 25
2.3.4 Information Rate 26
2.3.5 Asynchronous/Synchronous Transmission 27
2.4 Source Coding 27
2.5 Encryption 29
2.6 Channel Coding 31
2.6.1 Block Codes 32
2.6.2 Convolutional Codes 33
2.7 Modulation 33
2.7.1 Analog Modulation 33
2.7.2 Digital Modulation 37
2.7.3 FSK 38
2.7.4 PSK 39
2.7.5 Modems 41
2.8 Multiplexing 41
2.8.1 FDlvf 41
2.8.2 TDlvl 42
2.9 Frequency Spreading 42
2.10 1\11 ultiple Access 46
2.10.1 FDlv1J\ 46
2.10.2 TDlv1A 46
2.10.3 CDIV1A
2.10.4 Time Hopping
2.11 Transmitters
2.12 Receivers
Contents VII
2.13 Transmission Lines 49
2.13.1 Balanced Transmission Lines 50
2.13.2 Unbalanced Transmission Lines 51
2.13.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Copper Transmission

Lines 51
2.14 Optical Fibers 52
2.14.1 Advantages of Optical Fibers 52
2.14.2 Disadvantages of Optical Fibers 53
2.15 Antennas 53
2.15.1 Antenna Size 53
2.15.2 Radiation Pattern 54
2.15.3 Gain 55
2.15.4 Bandwidth 56
2.16 Propagation 57
2.16.1 Ground Waves 57
2.16.2 Sky Waves and Scattered Waves 5S
2.17 Switching 64
2.17.1 Circuit Switching 64
2.17.2 Message Switching 65
2.17.3 Packet Switching 66
2.17.4 Cell Switching 66
2.1S Networking and Internetworking 67
2.1S.1 ISO OSI 7-Layer Reference Model 67
2.1S.2 Networks 69
2.1S.3 Network Extension 72
2.1S.4 Internetworking 72
2.1S.5 The Internet 73
2.19 75
75
75
79
Sl
viii Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
3 Introduction to land Force Structures 87
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Spectrum of Military Operations 87
3.3 Army Structure 89
3.3.1 The Infantry Squad 91
3.3.2 The Rifle Platoon 93
3.3.3 The Rifle Compa n y 94
3.3.4 The Infantry Battalion 95
3.3.5 The Infantry Brigade 97
3.3.6 The Infantry Division 98
3.3.7 The Infantry Corps 99
3.3.8 Mechanized and Motorized Infantry 100
3.3.9 Sp an of Command 101
3.4 Joint Forces 102
3.5 Dispersed Forces 103
3.6 Characteristic Distances for Communications 105
3.7 Summary 106

Endnotes 107
4 Development of Tactical Communications 109
4.1 r ntrod uction 109
4.2 Early History of Battlefield Communications 110
4.2 . 1 Early M !Iita!"), Communications 110
4.2.2 ElecrriCdI Telegr;lphy and the T clephone III
4.2.3 Radio 112
4.2.4 Between the 'V'lars 112
4.2.5 World \X/ar II 113
4.2.6 Current Doctrine 114
4.3 CNR 115
4.4 Trunk Communications

Contents IX
4.4.1 Generic Fourth-Generation Trunk Communications

Architecture 123
4.4.2 Components of Trunk Netvvorks 124
4.4.3 Trunk Subscriber Facilities 137
4.4.4 Network lvIanagement 139
4.4.5 SDS 140
4.5 Principles of Military Communications 140
4.6 Summary 144

Endnotes 145
5 A Communications Architecture for the Digitized

Battlefield 149
5.1 Introduction 14 9
5.2 Design Drivers 150

5.2.1 Principles of Military Communications 150
5.2.2 Size of the Supported Force 150
5.2.3 Communications Support for the Spectrum of
Operations 150
5.2.4 Command and Control on the Move 151
5.2.5 Communications Support Situational Awareness
at All Levels 151
5.2.6 Seamless Connectivity 153
5.2.7 Organic, Minimum-Essential Communications 154
5.2.8 Expandable Communications 154
5.2.9 Scalable Communications 154
5.2.10 QoS ISS
5.2.11 Lmv Probability of Detection 156
5.2.12 Jamming Resistance 156
5.2.13 Precedence and Preemption 157
5.2.14 Electromagnetic Compatibility 157
5.2.15 Supported Systems 157
5.2.16 Operation in All Geographic and Climatic Condi t i o ns 158
5.2.17 Range, Capacity, and Mobility Trade-off 158

x Tactical CommurlicatlOns for the Digitized Battlefield
5 ..) Opuons for a M ob i l e Tactical Communications
SY')tcm 162
5 . .3.1 Fixed Netvmrk Infrastructure 164
5.3.2 Semimobile Network Infrastructure 168
5.3.3 Mobile Network Infrastructure 169
5.4 An Architectural Framework 173
5.4.1 Supported Systems 176
5.4.2 Overlaid Communications Systems 180
5.5 Summary 183

Endnotes 184
6 Tactical Trunk Subsystem 187
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Key Architectural Drivers 189
6.2.1 Communications Support the Chain of Command 189
6.2.2 Integration 189
6.2.3 Reliability 190
6.2.4 Simplicity 190
6.2.5 Capacity 191
6.2.6 QoS 192
6.2.7 Mobility 192
6.2.8 Security 193
6.2.9 Survivability 193
6.2.10 Communications Support for the Spectrum of

Operations 193
6.2.11 Command and Control on the Move 194
6.2.12 Size of Supported Force/Organic,
Minimum-Essential Communications 195
6.3 Architectural Overview 195

6.3.1 Network Entities
6.4 Types of Bearers
6.4.1 Military Utility
6.4.2 Preferred Option

Contents XI
6.5 Nodal Topology 200
6.5.1 Military Utility 200
6.5.2 Preferred Option 204
6.6 Switching Node Composition 204
6.6.1 Circuit Switch with Embedded Packet Switch 206
6.6.2 Native ATM 206
6.6.3 Native IP 207
6.6.4 IP over ATM 209
6.7 Mobile Access for Trunk Network Subscribers 210
6.7.1 Military Utility 211
6.8 Interfaces to the Tactical Trunk Subsystem 214
6.9 Summary 215

Endnotes 216
7 The Combat Radio Subsystem 217
7.3 Multiple Access 222
7.3.1 Multiple Access Within a User Community 225
7.3.2 Multiple Access Between User Communities 226
7.3.3 Summary 226
7.4 Candidate Solutions 227
7.4.1 Data-Capable CNR 227
7.4.2 Packet Radio 229
7.4.3 Ad Hoc Networks 234
7.4.4 Repeated TDMA 238
7.4.5 Base-Station Architectures 240
7.4.6 UWB Radio 244
7.4.7 Preferred Solution 249
7.5 Squad Radio 249

XII Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
7.6 Migration of Analog CNR Systems 254
7.6.1 VHF Radio 255
7.6.2 HF Radio 256
7.6.3 Resource Implications 256
7.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 257
Endnotes 257
8 Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem 261
8.3 Multiple Access 266
8.3.1 Multiple Access \X!ithin a User Community 266
8.3.2 Multiple Access Between User Communities 268
8.3.3 Preferred Multiple Access 269
8.4 Possible Solutions 269
8.4.1 Data-Capable CNR 269
8.4.2 Packet Radio 271
8.4.3 Ad Hoc Nerworks 273
8.4.4 Repeated TDMA 276
8.4.5 Base-Station Architectures 282
8.4.6 UWB Radio 284
8.4.7 Low-Capacity TADIL 286
8.5 Preferred Solution 288
8.6 Conclusion 288

Endnotes 290
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Advantages of an Airborne Communications

Platform
9.3 Platform Height

Contents xiii
9.4 Payload Requirements 297
9.4.1 Range Extension 297
9.4.2 Additional Communications Services 298
9.4.3 Potential Noncommunications Uses 301
9.4.4 Platform Control 302
9.4.5 Example Payload 303
9.5 Some Limitations 303
9.5.1 Terrain Effects on Propagation 303
9.5.2 Effects of Weather on Propagation 304
9.5.3 Tactical Vulnerability 305
9.5.4 Technical Challenges 306
9.6 Payload Architecture 307
9.7 Potential Platforms 308
9.7.1 Piloted Aerial Vehicles 308
9.7.2 UAV 311
9.7.3 Aerostat Platforms 315
9.8 Costs 317
9.9 Conclusions 318

Endnotes 318
10 Tactical Network Interfaces 321
10.2 Basic Requirements 322
10.3 User Terminals 324
10.4 The Local Subsystem 324
10.5 Internal Interfaces 329
10.5.1 Combat Radio Subsystem: Tactical Trunk

Subsystem Interface 329
10.5.2 Combat Radio Subsystem: Tactical Data

Distribution Subsystem Interface 330
10.5.3 Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem:

Tactical Trunk Subsystem Interface 332
X/Il Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
10.5.4 Tactical Airborne Subsystem Interface 332
10.6 External Interfaces 333
10.6.1 Interface to Supported Systems 333
10.6.2 Interface to Strategic Communications System 334
10.6.3 Interfaces to Overlaid Communications Systems 336
10.7 Conclusion 340

Endnotes 34 1
List of Acronyms 343
About the Authors 353
Index 355
Preface
Early commanders were in intimate contact with their troops. Battlefields were
small-tiny in comparison with those of today-and commanders could
direct their troops by using their voice or their physical presence to influence
the outcome of the battle. & commanders embarked on more adventurous
campaigns, the size of their forces prevented close-quarter command, and
commanders had to remove themselves somewhat from the battlefield so that
they could obtain a larger view than was possible while standing among the
troops. Effective command, therefore, required commanders to occupy a con
venient hilltop from which to oversee own-force and adversary dispositions.
While this new position increased situational awareness, it also increased the
distance between the commander and subordinates, which increased the time
to convey orders and created a delay in their transmission that had to be
accommodated for by commanders in their plans.
The increased distance also required commanders to develop commu
nications systems to assist in passing orders. Early systems were courier
based, making use of messengers to carry orders between levels of command.
For a more rapid transmission of simple orders, some form of visual or acous
tic signaling was normally employed. However, as fronts became wider,
weapons became more sophisticated, military administration developed, and
logistics tails became longer, the battlefield was no longer under the view of a
single commander and better communications were required. Effective com
mand and control required that headquarters had to be informed instantly of
events on distant battlefields-more swiftly than was possible by courier.
xv
XVI Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
---- . . __ .. - . - ----,. '-
--------�-- - -- ------
With the lflvention of electrical telegraphy and telephony, battlefield com

munication,> systems quickly became electronic, which restored timely con
tact between distant commanders. This contact was only possible by line,
however, dnd it was not until the invention of the radio that commanders
were able to conduct limited command and control while on the move.
Although the introduction of electronic communications systems has
increased the ability of commanders to communicate over large distances in
real-time, there are still quite considerable hurdles to be overcome. Com
manders are often seen as having had mobility since the introduction of the
radio during World War 1, yet large-scale ventures such as brigade attacks
were still being undertaken using runners as late as the end of World War II.
Most modern armies still struggle to provide timely contact between com
manders, particularly when on the move. While all armies strive to achieve
real-time situational awareness across the levels of command, the reality is
still far from ideal with communications at the lower levels relying on single
channel, shared-access nets that are grossly inadequate to provide the band
widths required.
The Information Age and the information revolution promise to
change all that. Purveyors of Information-Age technologies offer the prospect
of ubiquitous battlefield networks through which all battlefield entities are
seamlessly integrated so that real-time data can be shared, as and when
required. To modern commanders the allure of this promise is irresistible. It
has been several hundred years since a commander has had the ability from a
convenient hilltop to survey personally the disposition of all friendly and
adversary forces. Now, in the Information Age, the modern commander,
with senses enhanced by electronic sensors and modern communications sys
tems, can stand on an electronic hilltop and once again "see" whatever por
tion of the battlefield is desired at whatever detail is appropriate.
This book analyzes the tactical communications systems required to
support modern land commanders. (The vulnerability of such systems is
addressed in Electronic Waifare for the Digitized Battlefield, also published by
Artech House.) Here, we develop an architecture to define the tactical com
munications system required to support future land warfare. The architec
ture establishes a flexible environment that will support development and
acquisition of future battle-space communications systems to support land
operations, as well as the modification and enhancement of existing systems
to migrate to the target architecture. The architecture is applicable to all
modern armies, albeit to varying degrees.
Chapter 1 describes the operational environment of the digitized bat
tlefield and examines the process of command and control that is the core
Preface XVII
business of the tactical commander. The concept of network-centric warfare

is discussed as an example of a doctrine that is emerging to harness the power
of the information revolution for application to land warfare.
Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the technologies that are perti
nent to the provision of tactical communications systems. Space restrictions
constrain the scope of the descriptions, but the intent is to provide readers
with sufficient background to follow the discussion in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of army organizational structures, aim
ing to provide a basic understanding of the size and disposition of army
units, army command structures, tactical communications structures, and
the roles of support and services. The basic army structure discussed in this
chapter applies to most modern armies. The coverage is general; we do not
discuss details of any particular army. Many characteristics of the communi
cations system are determined by the structure they support. It is therefore
useful to examine the general structure of land forces as a precursor to analyz
ing the communications systems that support them. Since we are interested
in tactical communications systems, we focus on the structure of land forces
at the tactical level, that is, at divisional level and below.
Readers familiar with communications technologies and army organ
izational structures may wish to skip to Chapter 4, which begins by briefly
examining the early history of military communications and then focuses on
the development of the two major battlefield communications subsystems
that are deployed by all modern armies. From this background, a number of
verities of tactical battlefield communications are discussed to provide a
detailed understanding that can serve as a basis for subsequent analysis of the
communications support that can be provided to modern battlefield
commanders.
Current tactical communications systems have evolved to meet users'
needs as the conduct of warfare has changed, particularly over the last sev
eral hundred years. However, if land warfare is to be revolutionized by
Information-Age technologies, the tactical communications architecture
must become an integral part of a force's ability to prosecute war. Th is
critical interdependency between communications and command and con
trol requires a reconsideration of the architecture of tactical communica
tions systems. Chapter 5 develops an architectural framework to define the
tactical communications system. It begins by outlining key design drivers
that shape the architecture of a tactical communications system. Options
for a mobile tactical communications system are then examined and i
a Sll (
able framework is developed within ,vhich architectural issues call subse

quently be considered.
Xl/"l Ta Ctl ca 1 Commu nlc allons for the DIQlllzed 8 at11 efleld
Ch�lprcrs () through 9 then address the ma j or subsystems of the tacticCll

communicarions a r c h it ec tu r e . Each subsystem is considered in terms of t h e
fundamental d esign drivers that direct the provision of tactical communica
tion.'>. A rchite c tura l options are analyzed and a preferred option is selected.
Consideration is also given to the options available for the mig ratio n of leg
acy subsystems.
Finally, Chapter 10 addresses the critical issue of interfaces. Because
there are differing requirements for mobility and capacity, it is not feasible
with current or foreseeable technology to provide the tactical communica
tions system as a physically homogeneous network. It is essential, nonethe
less, to provide a system that forms a single logical network to facilitate the
movement of data throughout the battlespace. This is in line with current
trends in commercial networking technology. The interfaces between the
different parts of the tactical communications system and between it and
other systems play an important part in this integration.
Acknowledgments
We 'would like to acknowledge the contribution of Bill Blair, Trevor

Mahoney, and Dave Rose during early stages of this 'vork.
XIX
The Need for an Architecture
1.1 Introd uction
Success on the battlefield depends on the ability of a commander and staff to

process rapidly the huge quantities of information that have been presented
to them by the vast array of sensors that may be deployed on the modern bat
tlefield. This information must be accurate and received in a timely manner
to allow the preparation of appropriate plans that can then be communicated
in a timely manner to those forces that will implement them. Command
posts must therefore be connected to their sensors and to subordinates by
reliable, survivable communications systems with sufficient capacity. The
rapid growth in sensor and weapon systems and the mobility required on the
modern battlefield severely tax tactical communications systems to be able to
meet the commander's requirements. Yet, at a time when demands on tacti
cal communications systems are increasing dramatically, these systems are
rapidly becoming critical to a modern commander's ability to command and
control; without them, commanders at all levels are deaf, dumb, and blind.
Traditionally, tactical communications systems comprise two major
subsystems. Trunk communications exist between major headquarters to pro
vide the backbone of high-capacity circuits required to pass large quantities
of information between commanders and staffs. Trunk communications are
complemented by the highly mobile and flexible combat net radio (CNR)
network, which is used for lower-capacity communications, both netted
2 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
voice and internetted data, from headquarters to combat units and within
combat units.
The greater demands of the modern battlefield have a number of effects
on communications systems, which must be more flexible and adaptable. No
longer can such systems be designed solely to support conventional opera
tions. Modern systems must be modular and expandable to support a wide
variety of operations in diverse environments. Additionally, the traditional
niches occupied by systems must be expanded. For example, CNR must not
only perform its traditional role of voice communications for combat forces,
but it must also provide an extension to the voice and data services of the
trunk network. Both networks must be seamlessly integrated to allow com
munication between any two points on the battlefield.
Most modern armies are entering a period of sustained and substantial
changes in structure, doctrine, and use of technology, particularly with the
current and planned introductions of a wide range of new communications
and information systems. In the face of considerable doctrinal and techno
logical change, communications requirements must be reassessed through
the development of a comprehensive, flexible architecture for the tactical
communications system required to support future land warfare.
1.2 Operational Environment
Arguably the most significant technological revolution in warfare will be in

the role of information, and in particular, in the degree of situational aware
ness made possible by the increasing number of communications and infor
mation systems supporting combat forces. Experience in the commercial
world has shown that the major lesson for warfare is that conflict in the
Information Age will largely be about knowledge and networked organiza
tions will be provided with a major advantage in conflict. A networked bat
tlefield force will be connected via a networked grid that allows situational
awareness data to be shared by sensors, command posts, and weapons sys
tems, regardless of whether they belong to the same unit. Information no
longer has to be shared along lines dictated by hierarchical communications
systems because the network will also facilitate lateral flow. Since the chain of
command is no longer restricted to a hierarchical communications system, it
can be adjusted quickly to present an order of battle best suited to the task at
hand. The adoption of these new technologies, therefore, not only will sig
nificantly affect the way armies are commanded and controlled, but also has
significant potential to change the way they are organized and trained.
The ATeedfor an Architecture 3
------- .--'-.'
The issue of warfare in the Information Age is addressed in a number of

books and articles [1]. For our purposes, we examine tactical communica
tions on the digitized battlefield within the context of the framework articu
lated by the U.S. Joint Vision 2020 aV2020) [2]. JV2020 builds upon the
conceptual template established in Joint Vision 2010, and has the goal of
transforming U.S. forces to create a force that is dominant across the full
spectrum of military operations such as conventional warfighting, peace
enforcement, peacekeeping, counterterrorism, humanitarian assistance, and
civil support. JV2020 also recognizes that the adoption of information tech
nologies is not sufficient to maximize the use of the opportunities made
available by the information revolution, and notes that the joint vision can
only be realized through a transformation of the necessary doctrine, organi
zation, training, materiel, leadership and education, personnel, and facilities.
Another useful elaboration of the impact of information technology is
the emerging concept of network-centric walfore (NCW), which is sometimes
also called network-enabled wa1fore (NEW). Current warfare could be termed
platform-centric because the ability to sense and engage a target normally
resides on the weapon system ("shooter"). There is therefore only a limited
capability for the weapon to engage targets because it can only use the situa
tional awareness generated by its own sensor. If a shooter is able to engage a
target that has been sensed by a remote sensor, the passage of weapon data is
normally via a direct link that connects the single weapon directly to the sin
gle sensor. In NCW, sensors and shooters are connected to a battlefield-wide
network through which weapons can engage targets based on a situational
awareness that is shared with other platforms. It should be noted that the
networking of weapons and sensors does not mean that targets can be
engaged randomly; control is still essential to ensure that targets are engaged
in accordance with the operational plan.
Alberts, Gartska, and Stein [3] define NCW as "an information
superiority-enabled concept of operations that generates increased combar
power by networking sensors, decision makers, and shooters to a chieve
shared situational awareness, increased speed of command, higher tempo of

operations, greater lethality, increased survivability, and a degree of self
synchronization." That is, the same combat power can be applied with fewer
weapons systems than are currently required.
On the modern battlefield, therefore, the network is a considerable:
force multiplier. Consequently, tactical communications systems must h<:
ubiquitous across the battlespace and must be fluid. flexible, robust. r<:dun
dant, and real-time; have integrity and security; have access and capacity: and
be joint- and coalition-capable.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the three interlocking grids of NCW (the informa
tion grid, the
sensor grid, and the engagement grid), and the three major types
of participants (sensors, command elements, and shooters). The information
grid provides the infrastructure through which information is received, proc
essed, transported, stored, and protected. The sensor grid contains all sen
sors, whether they are specialized devices mounted on weapons systems,
carried by individual soldiers, or embedded into equipment. The engage
ment grid consists of all available weapons systems that are tasked to create
the necessary battlefield effect. Proponents of NCW envisage that these three
grids will exist in space, in the air, on land, and on and under the sea.
The employment of a wireless, nonnodal tactical network allows an
army to disperse as required and then mass effects rapidly at an appropriate
time and place. Less reliance is required on large command posts, which can
be distributed to increase physical survivability without sacrificing processing
power. If the philosophy of network-centric warfare is desirable to modern
commanders, land forces must be supported by a communications architec
ture that will allow communication from any one point on the battlefield to
any other, as well as from any point on the battlefield to any point in the
strategic network. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, these considerations
provide significant design drivers for a suitable tactical communications
architecture.
r - - - - - -
Control
- - - - - - - �f ;matio� 1
I Igrid
I�- ------, I
I
Information
I I
- - - - -I- - - - -. I
Objects
I I I
I I I I
I I I I
II I
Control
i---f----, I
I I • I I
: �Sen± grid
_ _____
I
•
I •
I •
Information
: I objects
I
[------------------------�
I
l _____Engage �� rid _________ I
Figure 1.1 The grid arrangement of NCW [4],

The Needfor an Architecture 5
,i
:1 1.3 Command and Control
Command and control, and particularly its application in the Information

Age, are too broad a subject to be treated in detail here. Interested readers are
referred to the many texts that cover the field [5]. We do, however, need to
define some terms to ensure a common view of subsequent chapters.
Command is perhaps best described as the authority vested in an indi
vidual for the direction, coordination, and control of military forces. Control
is the means by which command is exercised. The two terms are inextricably
linked-there is no point in having the authority to command if there is not
an ability to control, and control mechanisms are impotent without the
authority to command. Therefore, a commander's business is commonly
referred to as command and control (C2), which can be described as the
process of and means for the exercise of authority of a commander over
assigned forces in the accomplishment of the commander's mission. U.S.
doctrine adds that command and control functions are performed through
an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and
procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinat
ing, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the
mission [6] .
1.3.1 The C2 Cycle
The processes underlying C2 are illustrated by the C2 cycle shown in Figure

1.2. Although a very simple model, the C2 cycle is useful as a framework for
the application of command and control at any level, although it should be
applied cautiously [7]. For our purposes, it is also useful to visualize the
impact that communications systems have on the modern battlefield.
The C2 cycle is also called the decision cycle, the OODA (OUDA) loop
(for the elements of observation, orientation (understanding), decision and
action), or the Boyd cycle [8] after the retired U.S. Air Force Colonel John
Boyd who pioneered the concept.
The cycle is continuous, but it can be considered to start with the
process by which data is gathered by a wide range of surveillance and target
acquisition (STA) devices deployed to act as the commander's eyes and ears.
Surveillance data from modern sensors is invariably collected and reported in
digital form, and it is the rapid increase in the number of sensors and surveil
lance systems that is predominantly responsible for the explosion in digital
transmission requirements on the modern battlefield. Surveillance data can
only reach the commander if effective, survivable communications systems
6 Tactical CommunicatIons for the Digitized Battlefield
Communications
Information
Surveillance and
processing
target acquisition
Communications Communications
Decision
Action making
Communications
Figure �.2 The C2 cycle.
are available from the sensor system through to the data processing facilities
in the command post. The commander only has eyes and ears if robust, flexi
ble communications systems with sufficient capacity can be provided.
In the next phase, information processing, the raw sensor data is pro
cessed, fused, and analyzed so that it can be turned into information. The
commander and staff could not cope with the volume of raw sensor data
coming into the headquarters. Not only would the sheer volume of it be
overwhelming, but also the raw data is unintelligible to humans and must be
filtered and displayed in an appropriate format before the commander and
staff can take action on it. Automation of this process is essential if it is to be
completed in a timely manner.
Once the sensor information has been processed into a view that pro
vides the commander with the right information in the right format at the
right resolution in sufficient time to allow the conduct of an adequate appre
ciation, or estimate, of the situation. In the decision-making phase, the com
mander makes a number of decisions and finalizes a plan, following which
orders are conveyed to subordinate units through data and voice networks,
whereupon action is tal{en on the commander's plan. Few plans last beyond
first contact with the enemy, however, so the C2 cycle must continue and
information begins to flow to allow the commander to control the action of

subordinate units and to task STA assets to monitor operations.
There are many more complex models for command and control [9],
:1
II
but the C2 cycle is adequate for our purposes here since it is evident even
from the simple model that a commander's success is heavily reliant on reli
I'
able communications systems. We should further note the heavy reliance

that communications systems have on the electromagnetic spectrum.
1.4 An Increased Vul nerabil ity
While the Information Age has produced a revolution in military operations

that provides great promise of decisive advantage on the modern battlefield
to the commander who can gather and exploit information most effectively,
there is a significant dark side to the information revolution. Although
Information-Age technologies offer the promise of enormous increases in
command capability, they also bring with them a heavy dependence on the
electromagnetic spectrum, which has the potential to create a significant vul
nerability that may offset the advantages offered.
If these Information-Age systems are destroyed, degraded, or
deceived, the commander and staff are unable to prosecute war adequately.
Without communications on the modern battlefield the commander is
increasingly unable to command. Domination of the electromagnetic spec
trum is therefore a crucial component of most modern military operations
and the capability to conduct electronic combat and dominate the electro
magnetic spectrum is now a recognized component of any modern force
structure.
Electronic warfare (EW) can be defined as "the use of the electromag
netic spectrum to degrade or destroy an adversary's combat capability
(including degrading or preventing use of the electromagnetic spectrum as
well as degrading the performance of adversary equipment, personnel and
facilities); or to protect friendly combat capability (including protecting
friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as friendly equipment,
personnel and facilities that may be vulnerable to attack via the electromag
netic spectrum)" [10] . Figure 1.3 illustrates how EW pervades all aspects of
the modern battlefield and has the potential to impact on all elements of the
C2 cycle.
It is essential that the development of tactical communications systems
take into account the extent to which the electromagnetic spectrum must be
dominated on the modern battlefield.
Communications
Surveillance and Information

target acquisition processing
Communications Communications
Action Decision
making
Communications
Figure 1.3 The potential impact of EW on the C2 cycle.
1.5 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
This book analyzes the tactical communications required to support opera

tions on the digitized battlefield.
1.5.1 Tactical Communications
The term tactical has been chosen to represent the level at which communi
cations are considered. Three broad levels of warfare are defined [6J.
Strategic level of war. The level of war at which a nation, often as a member
of a group of nations, determines national or multinational (alliance or coali
tion) security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national re
sources to accomplish these objectives. Activities at this level establish
national and multinational military objectives, sequence initiatives, define
limits and assess risks for the use of military and other instruments of na
tional power, develop global plans or theater war plans to achieve these ob
jectives, and provide military forces and other capabilities in accordance with
strategic plans.
Operational level of war. The level of war at which campaigns and major op
erations are planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objec
tives within theaters or areas of operations. Activities at this level link tactics
and strategy by establishing operational objectives needed to accomplish the

strategic objectives, sequencing events to achieve the operational objectives,
initiating actions, and applying resources to bring about and sustain these
events. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do
tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative support of tactical forces,
and provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve
strategic objectives.
Tactical level of war. The level of war at which battles and engagements are
planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical
units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrangement
and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each other and to the enemy
to achieve combat objectives.
The levels of war are rarely distinct and often overlap, particularly in
operations other than war. In this book we use the term tactical to refer to
operations at divisional level and below. In terms of the provision of commu
nications, this level is the most difficult.
Military communications systems are not unique in this regard; in fact,
they are an extreme example of the difficulty faced in commercial systems
when attempting to deliver high-capacity communications to end-users.
Large bandwidths are relatively easy to obtain in trunk links, particularly
when fiber-optic cable can be used between cities and exchanges. Distribut
ing large amounts of information below exchanges is problematic, however,
particularly when the users are mobile. In the commercial environment, the
links between users and the exchanges are generically called the "last mile"
and represents the major stumbling block to the distribution of large
bandwidth services such as multimedia applications.
As we describe in Chapter 5, the "last tactical mile" is also the major
difficulty in military communications. It is relatively straightforward to pro
vide high-capacity communications at the strategic and operational levels; in
fact, commercial systems can invariably be used with only limited modifica
tion. In the tactical environment, and in particular in the land tactical envi
ronment, there are few commercial solutions that are directly applicable. It is
this difficult area of land tactical communications systems that is the subject
of this book.
1.5.2 The Digitized Battlefield
The terms digitized battlefield and battlefield digitization have been adopted
to refer to the automation, through digital networks and processes, of com
mand and control operations across the full breadth of the battlespace. This
integration of ground, air, and space nodes (sensors, communications, com

mand and weapons nodes) into a seamless digital network requires the fully
compatible digital exchange of data and common operating pictures to all
nodes. Security, compatibility, and interoperability factors dominate the
drive toward full digitization across the entire battlespace.
The notion of battlespace is very important, as joint operations are
essential. However, the difficult issues in tactical communications are not
ones of joint operations; rather they are in solving the difficult issues of
high-capacity communications across the last tactical mile. The word battle
fieldhas therefore been retained here to emphasize the importance of the ter
restrial component of batdespace operations in driving the architecture of a
land tactical communications system. The joint environment is quite obvi
ously important, however, and we consider battlespace communications as
one of the many interfaces required for a battlefield communications system.
1.6 The Need for an Architecture
Land forces must also be supported by an organic, field-deployable tactical

communications system that meets minimum essential requirements for
communications to support command and control. This tactical communi
cations system is an organic asset that is part of the force's combat power
through which the essential communications requirements of the force can
be guaranteed in any deployment. This also requires that the network is
modular so that units and subunits are self-supporting when deployed sepa
rately from the main force and still retain communications functionality.
These requirements cannot be supported by a global, or even batde
space-wide, network [11] and can only be supported within a tactical com
mUnIcations system.
Most armies currently field trunk and CNR systems that were con
ceived some 15 to 20 years ago in a very different operational and technologi
cal environment. While users and project staff have ensured that projects
have kept pace with changes in environment and technology, both systems
will need considerable modification and enhancement to provide robust tac
tical communications to support future land warfare.
As described earlier, modern armed forces must be able to defeat adver
saries across a wide range of operations such as conventional warfighting,
peace enforcement, peacekeeping, counterterrorism, humanitarian assis
tance, and civil support. Each of these types of operations requires a different
type of deployment. Most small- to medium-sized armies cannot afford to
maintain a range of different types of force structure, each capable of con

ducting one or more of the above operations. Rather, land forces must be
flexible and be equipped and trained to cope with a wide range of deploy
ments. The tactical communications system must also be equally able to sup
port land forces in any of their roles. As is demonstrated throughout this
book, such flexibility cannot be provided adequately by existing tactical com
munications systems or by existing commercial systems.
Most armies are already planning projects to replace or enhance current
CNR and trunk capabilities. In addition, new technologies such as portable
satellite communications and theater broadcast offer novel capabilities to
support battlefield operations. To varying degrees, each of these projects is
addressing the changes discussed earlier. However, they are tending to do so
based on the traditional delineation between the different tactical communi
cations systems. It is therefore unlikely that an optimum solution will be
achieved without the development of an overarching communications archi
tecture that provides a framework within which communication projects can
progress. Management of rapidly evolving technology in the capability
development and acquisition processes requires a corporate approach if inte
grated and cohesive solutions are to be achieved. Currently, the capability
development process tends to be driven from the bottom up. Creation and
maintenance of the information edge require a top-down approach (albeit
with some bottom-up elements) where broad guidelines and policies for the
operation and design of systems will mandate functional interoperability,
upgrade and migration plans, and common equipment standards.
Therefore, defense forces cannot afford to continue to develop or mod
ify battlefield communications systems on current paths based on traditional
directions. An appreciation must be conducted into the communications
support required to support the required spectrum of operations, with the
aim of developing an architecture [12] that provides the foundation for the
seamless flow of information and interoperability among all tactical commu
nications systems operating in the battlespace to support land operations.
In the remainder of this book we develop such an architecture to define
the tactical communications system required to support future land warfare.
The architecture establishes a flexible environment that will support develop
ment and acquisition of future battlefield communications systems to sup
port land operations, as well as the modification and enhancement of existing
systems to migrate to the target architecture. The architecture is applicable to
all modern armies, albeit to varying degrees.
The architecture developed here broadly conforms to the C4ISR
Architecture Framework [13] . Chapters 3 and 4 provide an operational
architecture view by describing the concepts of operations and force struc

ture that drive the need for tactical cOlnmunications systems. The system
architecture view is provided in Chapter 5, which describes an overview of
the system architecture, whose components are described further in Chap
ters 6 through 10. These later chapters also provide a preliminary view of
the technical architecture through an introduction to the technical stan
dards and protocols that guide current and future implementations.
Endnotes
[1] Further suggested reading on warfare in the Information Age:
Adams,]., The Next World War, London: Random House, 1998.
Alexander, ]., Future War: Non-Lethal Weapons in TwentJ'-First CentUlJ' WaJfare, New
York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
Allard, C, Command, Control, and The Common Defense, New Haven, CT: Yale Uni
versity Press, 1990.
Arquilla, J., and D. Ronfeldt, (eds.), In Athena's Camp: Preparmg for Conflict in the
Information Age, Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1997.
Bellamy, C, The Future ofLand Warfore, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987.
Campen, A., and D. Dearth, Cyber\¥lar 2.0: !l1yths and ReaMy, Fairfax, VA: AFCEA
International Press, 1998.
De Landa, M., War m the Age ofIntellIgent !l1achmes, New York: Zone Books, 1991.
Gordon, A., The Rules of the Game: jutland and British Naval Command, Annapolis,
MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996.
The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IIS), Strategic Survey 1995-1996,
London, U.l<.: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 30.
Leonhard, R., The PmlClples of War for the InfonnatlOn Age, Novato, CA: Presidio Press,
1998.
Macgregor, D., Brealwlg the Phalanx: A New Design for Landpower in the 21st CentuJJ/,
Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1997.
Peters, R., Fighting for the Future: Will America Triumph? Mechanicsburg, PA: Stack
pole Books, 1999.
Pfaltzgraff, R., and R . Shultz, (eds.), War in the Information Age: New Challenges for US
Secunty, Washington, D.C: Brassey's, 1997.
Rooney, D., V. KaIlmeier, and G. Stevens, Mission Command and Battlefield Digitiza
tion: Human Sciences C07lSlderatl0ns, DERA Report DERAICHS/HS3/CR98009711.0,
March 1998.
Scales, R., Future WaJfare, Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College, 1999.
Toffler, A., and H. Toffler, War and Antl- War: Survzval at the Dawn of the 21st Cen
tU1J', Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1993.
Van Trees, H., "C3 Systems Research: A Decade of Progress," in Science of Command
and Control: Copmg wzth ComplexIty, S. E. Johnson and A. H. Levis (eds.), Fairfax, VA:
AFCEA International Press, 1989.
Waltz, E., Information Wmfare Princzples and OperatlOn, Norwood, MA: Artech House,
1998.
[2] "Joint Vision 2020," Director of Strategic Plans and Policy, J5 Strategic Division,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 2000.
[3] Alberts, D., J. Gartska, and F. Stein, Network Centrzc WaJfare, CCRP Publication
Series, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, 1999.
[4] Cebrowski, A., and J. Garstka, "Network-Centric Warfare: Its Origins and Future,"
Naval InstItute Proceedings, 1997.
[5] Further reading on command and control can be found in:
Dupuy, T., Understandmg War: HzstolJ' and Theory of Combat, New York: Paragon
House Publishers, 1987.
Echevarra, A., "Tomorrow's Army: The Challenge of Nonlinear Change," Parameters,

Autumn 1998, p. 11.
van Creveld, M., Command m War, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.
van Creveld, M., The Transformation of War, New York: Free Press, 1991.
[6] Joint Publication 1-02, "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated
Terms," Washington, D.C.: Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1994 (as amended Sept.
2000).
[7] Kallmeier, v., et al., "Towards Better Knowledge: A Fusion of Information Technol
ogy, and Human Aspects of Command and Contro!''' Journal of Battlefield Technology,
Vol. 4, No. 1, March 2001, pp. 34-43.
[8] For a good description of the Boyd cycle, see: Lind, W., The Maneuver Waifare Hand
book, London, U.K.: Westview, 1985, p. 5.
[9] See in particular: Boyes, J., and S. Andriole, (eds.), Prmclples of Command and Control
Washington, D.C.: AFCEA International Press, 1987; and Andriole, S., (ed.), Technol
ogy for Command and Control Systems Engmeering, Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International
Press, 1990.
[10] Further information on communications EW can be found in: Frater, M., and M.
Ryan, Electronic Waifare for the Digitized Battlefield, Norwood, MA: Artech House,
2001.
[11] The recent RAND report-Libicki, M., Who Runs What in the Global Information
Grid: Ways to Share Local and Global Responsibility, Rand Report, MR-1247-AF,
2000-makes interesting reading and concludes that it is generally undesirable for the
provision of operational information to be centralized.
[12J Architecture is defined as "the organizational structure of a system or component." See

IEEE 610.12-1990, IEEE Standard GLossal), o/Software Engmeering Terminology, New
York: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1990.
[13J C4ISR Architectures Working Group, C4ISR Architecture Framework, Version 2.0,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, Dec. 18, 1997.
An Introduction to Communications
Technology
2.1 Introduction
Communication can be defined in many ways . For our purposes we will

define it simply as the exchange of information, which, for humans, is nor
mally in one of three forms: verbal (spoken words), written (text), or visual
(images or sequences of images such as video). Every day, most of us will use
each of these forms. Often, however, the recipient of the information is
beyond the range of normal human visual or oral/aural processes. In that
case, we must exchange information with the aid of a communications system.
Early long-distance communications systems employed messengers or
runners, or utilized some form of visual or acoustic signaling technique. We
do not address these systems here (we discuss them in more detail in Chapter
4), except to note that courier systems still play a large role in modern com
munications, where they can often be the most cost-effective technique fo r
transferring bulky information. Visual and acoustic techniques relied o n
drums, call posts, cannon shot, fire beacons, flag drill, heliograph , and opti
cal telegraphy, to name but a few methods. Although some techniques linger
(most modern navies still use flag and light signals for short-range communi
cations), these forms of signaling were quickly replaced by electrical telegra
phy in the mid-1800s. Since then, the modern fo rms of voice, data, and
video communications have evolved , all of which rely on th e electrical signal
as the means of communication.
15
16 Tactical Com m u n ications for the Digitized Battlefie l d
This chapter p rovides a b rief overview of the communications technol

ogy that is used to convey information through the transmission of electrical
signals.
2.2 Communications Model
Figure 2.1 [lJ illustrates the major functions that are performed as p art o f a
modern digital communications system [2J. The source converts the real
world original signal into an electrical signal, which is increasingly in a digital
form. This signal is then compressed through source coding to remove any
redundancy to ensure that the signal o ccupies the least amount of the chan
nel bandwidth. EnCl],ption then ensures that the signal is encoded for p rivacy,
and channel coding prepares the signal for the noise and distortion that will
o ccur in the channel. A number of signals are then multiplexed together and
then translated in frequency (modulated) up to a frequency that is appropri
ate for the particular channel in use. Frequency spreading is used to reduce the
signature of the transmission , and multiple-access techniques are necessary to
allow a number of users to share a channel . These functions are described in
more detail in the remaining sections of this chapter.
Frequency Multiple
From other sources Modulate
spread access
Source
encode
NOlse/
Interference
Source Channel
ecrypt
decode decode
t � Frequency � Multiple
To other destinations �- Demultiplex 1.- Demodulate
despread access
Figure 2.1 Block d iagram of a ty p ical modern d igital commun ications system [1].
An Introduction to Communications Technology 17
2.3 Source/Sink
A communications system passes real-world information from the source to

the sink. The source converts the information into an electrical signal that is
passed across the communications channel and is finally converted by the
sink back into a form of information that can be digested by the recipient.
Electrical signals can be transmitted in a wide range of forms-in this
section we are concerned with the two broad forms of analog and digital sig
nals. Whatever their form, signals used in communications systems are often
complex and their analysis would be very difficult in their complete form.
Fortunately, however, all signals can be considered to be a combination of
simple basic building blocks (sine waves) that can be analyzed and from
which information about the more complicated signal can be inferred.
2.3.1 An a l o g S i g n a l s
The sinusoidal function (or sinuate or sinusoid or szne wave) IS shown In

Figure 2.2.
2.3. 1 . 1 Fre q u e n cy, Wave l e n gth, a n d Pha s e
From the sinusoidal waveform we can determine a number of basic proper
ties. It is symmetrical, varying between magnitudes of +A and -A. It is regu
lar or periodic, that is, the waveform repeats itself in a series of cycles. Figure
2.2 shows the extent of one cycle or period, T, which is measured in seconds.
The period of the waveform is perhaps best simply understood as the amount
of time after which the waveform begins to repeat itself. Another important
+A
�,
Cyc l e or
p eri o d
Figure 2.2 A s i m p l e s i n u s o i d of the form y= A sin (8).
/
,/
- �----� .. --------------- -'
\1
Ii
Ii
18 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d l)
property defined for the wave is the frequency, that is, how many cycles (or
r
periods) of the wave occur per second. The frequency, f, is therefore defined
as f= 11Tand is measured in Sl or hertz (Hz) . The frequency of the waveform
is defined by how many cycles there are per second. A high frequency wave
therefore has more cycles per second than a low frequency wave.
In the time of one period, the wave travels one wavelength, A, which is
measured in meters and is the distance between points of similar amplitude
in the propagating waveform. The wavelength of a sine wave is related to its
period by the velocity of propagation of the wave, vp' That is, vp= A T, or A =
vpT. The velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in the atmos
phere is the speed of light, c, which equals 3 X 108 ms-I• The wavelength (dis
tance) of the wave is therefore related to the period (time) of the wave by the
relationship: c=AITorA= cT. Now since T= 1/f,A = c lforf= ciA .
At the beginning of this section we noted that a complex waveform can
be expressed as the sum of a number of sine waves at different frequencies.
An example of this is demonstrated in Figure 2.3, where a complex wave is
expressed as the sum of 4-, 5-, and 6-kHz waves.
Two sine waves can have identical amplitudes and frequencies, but, as
illustrated in Figure 2.4, if one is delayed compared to the other, they
are identifiably different. This difference is called phase, which is the third
important property of a sine wave. In communications systems we need
to understand the phase of received signals because in-phase signals add to
produce a stronger signal, whereas out-of-phase signals tend to cancel each
other.
2.3. 1 .2 Fre q u e ncy Domain
It is often useful to view the waveform in the frequency domain where the
frequency is plotted against the amplitude of the signal. This is illustrated in
PvAvAv6vDvAvAVAVAV� �6kHz
rAAAAAAA
+
· kHz 5
V V VV VlJlJV
+
P /\/\/\/\/\/
VVVVVV ·4 kHz
Figure 2.3 A c o m p l ex waveform expres s e d a s a s u m of s i n e waves .
)1j
(',)
.11
An introductlOJ1 to CommumcatlOllS Techno log), 19
Figure 2.4 Two s i ne waves with identical amplitudes and frequencies but dlfierent
phases .
Figure 2.5, where a sine wave with a period of 1 ms (and therefore a fre
quency of 1 kHz) is shown in Figure 2.5(a), the time domain, and Figure
2.5(b), the frequency domain. In the frequency domain a single frequency
sine wave is depicted by a frequency spike of amplitude 17m located at 1 kHz
on the frequency axis .
This frequency-domain view is very useful for the analysis of signals
because it is difficult to represent complex signals as combinations of sine
waves in the time domain. Yet in the frequency domain, the representation
consists simply of a spike of the appropriate amplitude at the appropriate fre
quency for each component. For example, the complex waveform in Figure
2.6 can now be represented more simply in the frequency domain.
CLl
0)
C\J
� r--+ -- -r -- �--r--4 -- -+ -- � -- '--
.g Time
-r------�--��
1 kHz
Fre qu e ncy (Hz)
1 ms
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5 A l-kHz s i n e w a v e i n ( a ) t h e ti m e d o m a i n, a n d (b) t h e fre quen cy d o ma in.

Q)
"'C
:J
:!:
c..
E
«
4 5 6
Frequency (kHz)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 A complex waveform in (a) the time domain, and (b) the frequency domain.
Bandwidth. The frequency-domain representation also allows us to simplify

the view of a waveform as depicted in Figure 2.7{a) by an equivalent repre
sentation as shown in Figure 2.7{b). The collective representation is useful
when we want to consider the range of frequencies as a band and not neces
sarily bother with each individual frequency. The band is defined by the up
per and lower limits of the frequencies present and no attempt is made to
define the amplitudes of the constituent frequencies, either collectively or in
dividually. The frequency-domain representation of a range of frequencies
leads us conveniently to the measure of bandwidth, which is best considered
to be the difference between the highest frequencies that have to be passed by
the system.
2.3.1.3 Speech Signals

Humans can produce sounds ben1veen 100 and 10,000 Hz and the human
ear can hear sounds in the range of 15 to 15,000 Hz [known as audio fre
quencies (AF)]. Most of the energy for speech signals is contained in the
lower frequencies, however, and most useful frequencies are contained
Q)
"'C
:J
;!:
c..
E
«
(a)
Figure 2.7 A number of sine waves shown (a) individually, and (b) collectively as a band.
'I
� I
, I
i,1
f1
,. ).
c,
'
�; An Introduction to Communications Technology 21
between about 300 Hz and 3,400 Hz. As illustrated in Figure 2.8, the band
width of speech signals is therefore normally considered to be 3.1 kHz.
2.3. 1 .4 The E l e ctro m a g n etic S p e ctru m
Due to the size of the electromagnetic spectrum, it is convenient to break it
up into sections, which exhibit common properties. We are interested in
those portions of the spectrum that can be used for communications systems,
notably those frequencies contained in the radio frequency (RF) ranges. In
these regions of the spectrum, the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) Radio Regulations define the bands of frequencies outlined in
Table 2.1 (note that the RF range also overlaps with the AF range of
1 5-1 5,000 Hz) .
Extremely low frequency (ELF). The ELF band is of little use in communica
tions due to the extremely small bandwidth available and the enormous an
tennas required. Even these large antennas are inefficient, however, and
radiated powers are small even when very large transmitter powers are used.
Despite these disadvantages, however, ELF has one redeeming feature that
makes its use a viable proposition for communications with submarines. ELF
signals suffer very little attenuation by any medium, particularly the atmos
phere and seawater. Propagation is primarily via surface wave, and the signal
is very stable with little diurnal or seasonal variation. In addition to subma
rine communications, some of the audible frequencies are contained in this
band. Although not part of communications frequencies, electric power is
generated in this band (60 Hz in the United States) .
Voice frequency (VF). VF

frequencies are those generated by the human
voice and are therefore critical to communications systems as they will often
...
300 3,400
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2.8 The ra n g e of usefu l s p e e c h fre q u e n c i e s.

22 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itiz ed B attlefi e l d
Table 2.1
RF and AF PortIOns of the ElectromagnetIc Spectrum
Frequency Designation Wavelength
30-300 Hz ELF 10-1 mm
300-3,000 Hz VF 1-0 1 mm
3-30 kHz VLF 100-10 km
30-300 kHz LF 10-1 km
300-3,000 kHz MF 1-0.1 km !

"
l
j
3-30 MHz HF 100-10m l
"
30-300 MHz
300-3,000 MHz
VHF 10-1m
1-0 1m
I
I)
UHF
3-30 GHz SHF 100-10 mm i1·J

I�
!�
ill
30-300 GHz EHF 1O-1 mm i�
11
:1
I1)-1
be the required input and output of a system. VF frequencies do not propa

\ 1
gate very far so the communications system will not pass VF directly but will
need to transpose the band up to a higher frequency range so that it can be I
'I
II
passed across the channel.
i
j
Very low frequency (VLF) and low frequency (LF). VLF and LF suffer from
1
I
the same problems as ELF in that they have small bandwidths and antennas 1
i
1
are large and inefficient, leading to low radiated powers. However, both
bands have similar advantages as ELF and have low attenuation through the
atmosphere and seawater. VLF and LF are therefore used for some subma
rine communications and maritime radio navigation systems. These bands
have more use for communications than ELF, since they have a larger band
width. Propagation is primarily by surface wave and has little seasonal or di
urnal variation. However, communications are prone to static and to
interference from other radio frequencies.
Medium frequency (MF). The lower portion of the MF band is useful for
communications systems that require reasonably stable transmission over
'\'
moderately long distances. Antenna sizes are reasonable, but substantial

transmitted powers are required for reliable communications since apprecia
ble atmospheric noise occurs in this band. Propagation is predominantly by
surface wave, although there is a sky-wave component above 2 MHz. This
band is commonly used for commercial radio broadcasting and is also used
for fixed services, maritime mobile service, maritime and aeronautical naviga
tion, and amateur communication.
High frequency (HF). The HF band provides relatively reliable propagation

over long distances. Reasonably efficient antennas can be built requiring low
radiated power. Propagation is principally by sky wave and therefore depends
on the vagaries of the ionosphere, with fading and multipath effects often
limiting the speed of communication. Surface wave communications over
short distances (,.., 5 0 km) are also possible. The band is used for fixed services,
mobile services, amateur transmissions, broadcasting, and maritime mobile
service. Until the advent of satellite communications, the HF band provided
the primary means of long-distance radio communication.
Very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF). Both of these bands
can be used for communications systems, such as television, which require
the transmission of large bandwidths over short distances (generally line-of
sight). Small, directional antennas are economical and effective. If powerful
transmitters and high-gain antennas are used, reliable long-distance propaga
tion is possible in the UHF band by using waves scattered by turbulence in
the troposphere. The VHF and UHF bands are used for fixed communica
tions services such as radio relay, ground-to-air communications, mobile
services, and television. Other noncommunications services include radar,
space research, radio astronomy, and telemetry.
Super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF).SHF and EHF
are known as the microwave bands and their wavelengths are short enough to
be propagated by highly directional antennas and waveguides. Propagation
ranges are limited to line-of-sight, but long-distance communications can be
achieved by employing a series of radio-relay stations. These portions of the
spectrum are used for television and high-speed data services requiring large
bandwidths.
Communications frequencies other than RF and AF. The majority of the fre
quencies used for communications are contained within the RF portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Optical frequencies are also used for commu-
/
/
---.----------_ .- . . _ . __ .---- ---
nications, either in free-space laser communications or, more commonly,

confined to the optical fiber waveguide. More recently, infrared communica
tions techniques are also employed to provide the transmission medium for
wireless local area networks (WLANs) .
2.3.2 Di gita l Sig n a l s
Many sources produce analog signals, since the world is naturally a continu
ous, or analog, medium. Many modern sources, however, produce digital
signals since the message is originated by electronic equipment such as a
computer. Additionally, analog information is also often converted into a
digital form since the transmission of digital signals has a number of signifi
cant advantages over analog signals, namely:
• All digital signals have the same form (i.e., they are either "ones" or
"zeros") , easier storage, and easier multiplexing, switching, and
redirection.
• Digital signals have lower susceptibility to noise and are more easily
regenerated.
• If a communications system is all-digital, only one type of circuitry
is required.
• Security equipment is more easily implemented.
• Error correction and detection can be more easily implemented.
Digital signals do have some disadvantages in that greater bandwidth is

sometimes needed (which may be prohibitive, especially at HF) and the sig
nals are more complex. The advantages, however, significantly outweigh the
disadvantages.
Digital signals imply some coding or quantization of an original signal
to a limited number of discrete values or levels each of which can be identi
fied by a digit as one element of the code. The codes most commonly used
are binary codes and the element of the code is called a binary digit (bit) . As
an element of a binary code, the bit can take one of two values: 0 or 1 . Volt
age levels, such as + 1 5V, represent the states of the symbol, as illustrated in
Figure 2.9.
There are two ways to transmit digital signals from source to sink. In
the baseband transmission of digital signals, voltage levels are transmitted
directly. Alternatively, the digital signal can be used to modulate an analog
+1 5V
0 -----4-----r--�--�r_--_r-
-1 5V -----'
o o o o o
Figure 2.9 An exa m p l e of a d i g ita l s i g n a l .
carrier for transmission over longer distances. For the moment, consider digi
tal signals transmitted in baseband.
2.3.3 Baseba nd Dig ital S i g n a l s
Analog signals suffer as they pass along the communications channel because
they are attenuated (reduced in size) and have their amplitudes modified by
the addition of unwanted signals in the form of noise. At various points
along the channel, attenuation of the signals can be compensated for by
amplification of the signal, although the unwanted noise will also be ampli
fied. Therefore, amplifiers increase signal strength at the receiver but also
increase the level of received noise and distortion.
So why are digital signals less susceptible to noise? Surely the digital
signal is attenuated in the same way as analog signals as it passes along the
channel. The answer lies in the fact that the attenuation and noise in the
channel do have the same effect on the signal, but not the same effect on
the information contained within the signal. In analog signals the informa
tion is contained in the small variations in the signal with time. Attenua
tion in the channel and the addition of noise tend to distort the signal so
that some of the original information is lost, often irretrievably. Attenua
tion can be addressed by amplification at the sink. As we noted earlier,
however, amplification of a weak, noisy signal will tend to produce a
stronger, noisier signal.
The information in digital signals is contained in the gross value of a bit
at any point of time, not in the small variations of the signal. As the bit is
attenuated by the channel and noise is added, the information content
remains unchanged until the bit can no longer be distinguished as its original
value. Therefore, as illustrated in Figure 2. 1 0, as long as a " 1 " can be distin
guished from a "0," the information has not been lost and the signal can
be regenerated and received perfectly at the sink. For digital signals the
26 Tacti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attlefi e l d
_II� I I I II'----
D Distortio n
7' C7�
D Reg e neration
------,I I I I I II'----
Figure 2.10 R e g e n erati o n of a d i g ita l s i g n a l .
equivalent to analog amplification is regeneration and digital signals can be

regenerated as often as required, without the unwanted amplification of
noise. After each regeneration, the digital signal is a precise copy of the
original.
2.3.4 Info rmati o n Rate
In addition to defining the rate of transmission of the data or symbols, it is

also important to examine the information rate, or the rate at which informa
tion is transferred from the source to the sink, because this is most often not
the same as the signaling rate.
For example, assume a simple, hypothetical data frame in which there
are 1 00 bits to be transmitted at, for example, a transmission rate of 5 0 bps,
which will take 2 seconds. But only 76 bits of the frame contain information;
the remaining bits are required to administer the transmission link. Since this
administrative data is essential but does not contain any information, it is
called overhead In the 2 seconds that it takes to transmit the 1 00 bits of data,
only 76 bits of information will be sent, so that the information rate is only
38 bps (even though the transmission rate is 5 0 bps).
"
:1
I;
d
2.3.5 Asyn c h ronous/Syn c h ro n o u s Tra n smiss ion
Data transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous

transmission occurs without significant prior coordination between the
source and the sink. Each block of data is sent by the source, which receives
warning of each block by a start bit and notification of the end of the block
with a stop bit. Identification of the end of the block is essential since there
may be a significant idle period until the next block arrives. Asynchronous
transmission has advantages on some links, but for high-speed links, the time
spent in coordination is generally prohibitive.
Synchronous transmission relies on both the source and sink running
oscillators that are continually synchronized so that only a few coordinating
(synchronization) pulses are contained in each block of data. Generally syn
chronous transmission for direct connections is used for data rates in excess
of 1 ,200 bps.
2.4 Source Coding
Source coding involves the transformation of the information source into

some efficient description that reduces the amount of bandwidth required to
transmit the source data across the communications system [3] .
In pulse-code modulation (reM) the analog signals are first sampled to
produce pulses whose amplitudes are proportional to the amplitude of the
analog waveform at the time at which the sample was taken. The pulses are
then encoded into a binary code that is transmitted as a digital stream. At
the receiver these reM codes are decoded into pulses that are then used
to reconstruct the analog waveform. Digitized voice with a maximum fre
quency of 3.4 kHz is usually sampled at 8 kHz. If an 8-bit coder is used
(i.e., 256 quantizing levels), then the transmission rate of the channel is
8,000 X 8 64 Kbps.
=
Delta modulation can be considered to be an incremental reM system

where, rather than transmitting the absolute amplitude at each sampling,
only the changes in signal amplitude from sampling instant to sampling
instant are transmitted. This provides a simpler system and requires less
information to be transmitted. The range of signal amplitudes is divided into
a similar number of quantization levels as in peM systems. However, at each
sampling, the presence or absence of only one transmitted pulse contains the
information. The delta-modulation code is therefore a one-element code in
which a " 1 " is transmitted if the sampled signal at any sampling instant is
greater than the immediately previous sampling instant. A "0" is transmitted
28 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c atio ns fo r th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
if the sampled signal is lower. The delta modulator only requires 1 bit per
sample. However, to avoid slope overload, it is normal to sample at twice the
Nyquist rate (i.e., for speech: 1 6,000 samples per second) so that the bit rate
required to transmit delta-modulated signals is only 1 X 1 6,000 1 6 Kbps. =
Some modern systems operate as low as 9 . 6 Kbps.
Comparison of PCM and delta modulation. Delta modulation has a number

of advantages over PCM: lower bandwidth required; better resistance to
noise since an error in one bit is not serious, while an error in the most sig
nificant bit of a PCM code will make a large difference to the decoded value;
easier synchronization; and simpler equipment. Delta modulation has a cou
ple of disadvantages, however, in that it leads to a signal of poorer quality and
it has increased error due to slope overload. PCM is normally used in com
mercial telephone networks where high quality is desired. Delta modulation
has found wide application in military communications where low-bit-rate
systems are preferred at the expense of some quality.
Vocoders. A PCM or DM coder does not know anything about the signal
being coded and simply follows the signal as it is presented and codes it as a
digital bit stream. When transmission bandwidth is limited, such as at HF,
more bandwidth-efficient coding techniques can be provided by vocoding
techniques. A vocoder does not blindly follow the input waveform but uses
some knowledge of the source's characteristics to create a model of the source
(voice) waveform and send some form of description of the model's parame
ters to the receiver. The vocoder analyzes the properties of speech (excitation,
formants, pitch, and volume) and estimates the dominant characteristics and
transmits them to the receiver, which uses them to recreate the source wave
form and to synthesize the voice output. Vocoders require very low data rates
(2.4 Kbps is common in military systems) but produce lower quality output,
usually sacrificing speaker recognition. i
,
I
Adaptive prediction. Many analog signals are not best digitized using uni I
form quantization steps. For example, in speech small signal amplitudes are
more common than large ones. For these signals the quantization noise can
be reduced by using smaller steps for lower amplitudes and larger steps for
higher amplitudes. Adaptive prediction techniques include adaptive differen
tial pulse-code modulation (ADPCM) , used to provide 32-Kbps telephone
quality speech; continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSDM) , com
monly used to provide 1 6-Kbps channels in military networks; and linear
predictive coding (LPC) , which forms the basis of the regular pulse excited
(RPE) and codebook-excited linear predictive (CELP) coders used in cellular

telephone networks.
Vector quantization. The coders discussed so far are scalar in that they form
a single output sample for every input sample. Vector quantizers form a sin
gle output sample for a vector (or block) of input samples and can therefore
achieve very large coding gains.
Transform coding. In transform coding, an invertible transform is applied

to a block of original data and the transform coefficients are quantized and
then transmitted. The decoder uses the quantized coefficients to invert the
transform, and a distorted version of the original data is recovered. The
amount of distortion in the received data is controlled by the degree of
quantization applied at the encoder. Common transforms include the dis
crete Fourier transform (DFT) , discrete cosine transform (DCT) , discrete
Walsh-Hadamard transform (DWHT) , and the discrete Karhunen-Loeve
transform (DKLT) .
Entropy coders. Techniques such as block and transform coding rely on

the presence of structural redundancy in the source data. These techniques
can also be supplemented by the efficient removal of statistical redundancy
from digital data, through the selection of an efficient binary representation
of the source data. For example, in a simple system, commonly occurring
symbols in the source data could be replaced by short code words, while
symbols that occur less frequently could be replaced by long code words,
thereby reducing the entropy of the source. Examples of this type of en
tropy coder are the Huffman code, arithmetic codes, Lempel-Ziv codes,
and the run-length code (RLC) .
2.5 Encryption
An important advantage of digitization, particularly for military communica

tions, is that the signals can then be encrypted. With analog signals, only lim
ited security can be implemented through the use of scramblers. However,
sophisticated coding can be achieved through the use of ciphers or codes.
Encryption protects digital data by transforming the original data
(plaintext) into a different form (ciphertext) that can be revealed without dis
closing the original data [4] . The basic structure of a secure communications
system employing encryption is shown in Figure 2. 1 1 . Encoding (known as
30 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itize d B attlefi e l d
Mess a g e J I Tra nsmission ",J Decode

I Mess� g e
", Encode --'"
I I I
,
'1 channel
t t
S e c ret S e c ret
i nformati o n information
Trusted
th i rd
pa rty
Figure 2.11 G e n e r i c stru ctu re of a s e c u re c o m m u n i c atio n s syste m .
encryption) and decoding (decryption) involve a security-related transforma

tion. Secret information, which is distributed by a trusted third party, is usu
ally used to modify this transformation so that the security of the system can
be maintained even if the encoding and decoding algorithms are widely
known. This secret information is often referred to as a shared secret or key.
In symmetric encryption systems (also known as secret-key encryption
systems), the same key is used for encryption and decryption. In asymmetric
encryption systems, different keys are used for encryption and decryption.
Perhaps the most important class of asymmetric encryption systems are
public-key systems, in which the security of one key can be maintained even
if the value of the other is made public. Traditional military encryption sys
tems are based on secret-key technology. Public-key encryption systems are
often used in commercial applications for authentication and exchange of a
randomly generated secret key at the beginning of a transaction, and are
beginning to find their way into similar military applications. Secret-key
encryption systems tend be less computationally intensive than public-key
systems, favoring their use for large exchanges of data.
There are three main forms of encryption: bulk encryption, message
encryption, and message-content encryption. In bulk encryption, the encryption
of all data on a link on which transmission is continuous prevents both unau
thorized reception and traffic analysis. This form of encryption is used by
most trunk communications systems, and is sometimes referred to as trunk
encryption. As well as protecting against interception, this form of encryption
protects against deception.
In message encryption, individual messages on a link are encrypted
including both message header and contents. This form of encryption is used
in most CNR systems. While the contents of the messages are protected from
interception, message encryption does not prevent traffic analysis. If synchro

nization is achieved through a preamble, no protection is provided against
deception by delayed replay of previous traffic. I
, [
In message-content encryption, the bodies of messages are encrypted, I
leaving message headers in plaintext. This form of encryption is often used in

packet-switching systems. It has the advantage that intermediate switches
and routers are not required to have attached cipher equipment. The disad
vantage, however, is that detailed information that can be used in traffic
analysis is provided in plaintext. If synchronization is achieved through a pre
amble, this type of encryption does not protect against deception by delayed
replay of previous traffic.
2.6 Channel Coding
Channel coding [5J is used to enhance digital signals so that they are less vul
nerable to such channel impairments as noise, fading, and jamming. To do
this, some form of error protection, or error detection and correction is utilized.
The numbers of errors at the output of the receiver can be reduced by adding
additional information to the message to increase the receiver's decision
making ability. This additional, redundant information increases the over
head that is included in the transmission, but increases the probability that
the information will be error-free. There are two main types of channel cod
ing techniques: block codes (e.g. , parity, cyclic, Hamming, Golay, BCH, and
Reed-Solomon codes) and convolutional codes (e.g., Viterbi codes).
Once an error has been detected, it must be corrected. There are two
main error correction techniques:
• Automatic repeat requests (ARQ). This is the simplest strategy for

the correction of errors. Once an error has been detected, the
receiver requests the transmitter to retransmit the portion of data
that was in error. This can be a very powerful mechanism for the
correction of errors, but can produce very low data rates in high-
. .
nOise enVIronments.
• Forward error correction (FEe). In this method the receiver is suffi
ciently sophisticated to be able to correct errors itself without refer
ence to the transmitter. It does this by using additional information
transmitted along with the data and employing one of the error detec
tion techniques discussed in the last section. The receiver can correct a
--_._/
32 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c atio n s fo r th e D i g itiz ed B a ttlefi e l d
small number of the errors that have been detected. If the receiver
cannot correct all detected errors, the data must be retransmitted.
2.6.1 B l o c k Codes
One of the most common and simplest forms of block error detection code
is through the use of a linear block code, where additional check bits (parity
bits) are transmitted with the data at the end of an existing code. The trans
mitter places these additional bits at the end of blocks of data to help the
receiver decide whether each block has been received correctly. On recep
tion, the elements are added and an error is indicated by an output of 0 (for
odd parity) or 1 (for even parity) . The parity bit is able to detect single
errors as well as detect any error patterns that contain an odd number of
errors. Parity check bits are widely used in computer communications and
information storage.
While the use of a parity bit can detect odd numbers of errors, the
receiver does not know which bit is incorrect and therefore cannot rectify the
error. More sophisticated codes can be developed to enable the receiver to
detect and correct errors, although it can normally detect more than it can
correct. In block coding this means using more than one dimension.
A simple two-dimensional block code is the product code. In a simple
product code the data is arranged in a rectangular array and parity bits used
to check both the rows and columns. If there is only one error, the receiver
cannot only determine which bit is incorrect but can also correct it. How
ever, the scheme is more expensive in terms of overhead and the information
rate is only l�O or 60% of the transmission rate, compared to % or 75% for a
single parity bit per 3-bit code.
Multiple erro rs can be detected and corrected by expanding on the
two-dimensional product code and using multidimensional vector space,
which is divided into smaller vector spaces . However, even more overhead
is required and the information rate is even less than the transmission
rate.
Cyclic codes are an important subclass of linear block codes, where a
new code word in the code can be formed by shifting the elements along one
place and taking one off the end and moving it to the beginning. Instead of
being generated by a matrix, a cyclic code is generated by a polynomial so
that the codes are sometimes called polynomial codes. Importantly, cyclic
codes have a structure that makes it possible for the encoding and decoding
to be performed by simple feedback circuitry.
2.6.2 Convo l utiona l Codes
A convolutional code extends the concept of a block code to allow memory

from block to block. Each encoded symbol is therefore a linear combination
of information symbols in the current block and a selected number of pre
ceding blocks. Therefore, for example, if the final output is a 1 followed by a
0, then these two digits could only have been arrived at by via a certain
sequence of Os and Is preceding them. The longer the sequence, the easier it
becomes for the receiver to detect where the received sequence deviates from
a possible sequence and to correct one or more errors. Decoding of convolu
tional codes is based on the principle of the Viterbi decoding algorithm or
sequential decoding.
2.7 Modulation
The digital and analog signals we have discussed so far are baseband signals,
that is, their bandwidths extend from 0 Hz. In order to pass these frequencies
over a transmission channel, the baseband frequencies must be translated to a
frequency range that is able to pass over the channel. The shifting or transla
tion of a signal from one frequency band to another is accomplished by the
process of modulation, in which the baseband signal is impressed in some way
on a carrier signal at a higher frequency such that one or more of the charac
teristics of the carrier signal are altered.
2.7. 1 An a l o g M o d u l ation
The three characteristics of a sinusoidal carrier signal that can be altered are
the amplitude, the frequency, and the phase. This section describes the three
corresponding modulation methods: amplitude modulation (AM), fiAequency
modulation (FM) , and phase modulation (PM) .
2.7 . 1 . 1 AM
As its name implies, AM uses the modulating signal to vary the amplitude of
a carrier-wave frequency. In the simplest form of AM the carrier amplitude is
switched on and off in accordance with some agreed code sequence such as
the Morse code. Figure 2. 1 2 shows the waveform of a sinusoidally modulated
wave where a I -kHz sine wave has amplitude-modulated a 1 0-kHz carrier.
Figure 2. 1 3 shows the frequency domain representation of a carrier
frequency i modulated by a single sine wave of frequency 1m. The original
frequency 1m is translated by the modulation process to become two side
--j\_--- -- --
34 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d
(a) ( b)
Vc
Vc
Vc
H+H++H+H��H+H+�+H+H��
-Vc
-v c
c vm
-V-
( c)
Figure 2.12 T he AM wa vefo rms: ( a ) a lO-kHz c a rri e r m o d u l ate d by ( b) a l-kHz s i g n a l to

p ro d u c e ( c) th e m o d u l a te d waveform.
frequencies around the carrier, each of which is half the size of the original
1", that is, the information contained in 1" has been translated (duplicated)
to sit either side of the carrier.
The modulating signal waveform is rarely sinusoidal, but can be viewed
as the sum of a number of sinusoids, in which case each component fre
quency of the modulating signal produces corresponding upper and lower
side frequencies in the modulated wave, and the modulation envelope will
have the same shape as the modulating waveform. The result is that, instead
of a single side frequency above and below the carrier, a band of frequencies
(in side frequency pairs) is produced above and below the carrier. The band
of side frequencies below the carrier frequency is known as the lower sideband
and the band above the carrier frequency forms the upper sideband. The fre
quency domain representation of sidebands is shown in Figure 2. 1 4 (a) .
Double-sideband AM. The power consumed in the carrier transmits no in

formation and is effectively wasted. It would malze sense, therefore, to trans
mit only the sidebands, which do contain the information. When both
sidebands of a modulated carrier are transmitted without the carrier, the
transmission is called double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) or, more
commonly, DSB. The waveform for a DSB transmission is shown in
Figure 2. 1 4(b) .
Carrier
Vc
Lower Up p e r
s ide fre q u e n cy s ide fre q u e n cy
Vm
2
Figure 2.13 Fre q u e n cy r e p r e s e ntati o n of a n AM wa vefo rm w h e re a c a rri e r with fre

q u e n cy fc i s modul ated by a s i n g l e to n e of fre q u e n cy fm.
(a)
db ( b)
( c) (d)
Figure 2.14 Fre q u e n cy-do m a i n r e p r e s e ntati o n s of the ( a ) AM, ( b) D S B , ( c ) S S B ( LS B ),

a nd (d) I S B wa vefo rms.
Single-sideband AM. Suppressing the carrier in DSB will increase the effi
ciency of the transmission, since only the sidebands are amplified. Some ineffi
ciency remains, however, since the transmission bandwidth must still be twice
that of the message bandwidth due to the transmission of both the upper and
lower sidebands. These two sidebands are redundant since all the necessary
information can be conveyed by only one sideband. When only one sideband
is transmitted, as illustrated in Figure 2 . 1 4 (c) , the transmission is called single

sideband (SSB) , or upper sideband (USB) , or lower sideband (LSB). This re
duces the bandwidth of the modulated wave by half and makes it equal to that
of the baseband signal. All of the transmitted power then moves toward trans
mitting the baseband information.
Independent-sideband AM. Channels can be spaced closer together; hence,

further bandwidth economy can be achieved by the use of independent
sideband (ISB) , where two modulating signals each modulate the same carrier
frequency to occupy the upper and lower sidebands, respectively. fu illus
trated in Figure 2. 1 4(d) , the ISB waveform is similar to the DSB waveform,
except that each sideband is independent.
2.7. 1 .2 FM
The distinct disadvantage of all forms of AM is that any noise present in the
channel will have an additive effect and will appear as additional modulation
on the carrier. This noise is impossible to remove and will be demodulated as
part of the received signal. In FM, the amplitude of the waveform remains
constant, but its frequency is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, as illustrated in Figure 2. 1 5 , which shows the
effect on the carrier of modulation by the dotted sinusoidal waveform. Any
amplitude variations resulting from noise in the channel can be eliminated
before demodulation without affecting the information contained in the fre
quency vanatlOns.
An FM receiver has the ability to suppress the weaker of two signals
that are at or near the same frequency. This ability to pass the stronger signal
is called the capture effect. In AM both signals would be heard at the receiver
,
/ carrier
"/ Modul ati n g

wa veform
Figure 2.15 A sinusoida lly mod u l ated FM wave with the mod u l atin g wa veform s u p erimposed.
A n Introduction to Co mmumcatlO 7ZS Techno log), 37
as the modulation on both signals would add and the demodulated effect
would be the addition of both audio signals . In FM, only one signal (the
stronger) will be heard, which has the advantage of ignoring any interference
at or near the same frequency.
FM has a number of advantages over AM. An FM system has a much
higher dynamic range (allowable range of modulating signal amplitudes) .
The FM transmitter is more efficient since the amplitude of an FM wave is
constant and each stage in the transmitter can be operated in an optimum
way. FM systems are much less susceptible to noise since most noise in the
transmission path will be additive and most amplitude variations i n the
received signal will be ignored by the receiver. An FM receiver also has the
ability to suppress the weaker of two signals simultaneously present at its
antenna at or near the same frequency.
The main disadvantage of FM is, of course, the much wider bandwidth
(perhaps 7 to 1 5 times wider than AM) required to achieve the signal-to
noise ratio improvement. Since FM requires a wider bandwidth, higher fre
quencies must be used so that reception is normally limited to line-of-sight.
For mobile applications the capture effect may also be a disadvantage when a
mobile receiver is near the edge of the service area and it may be captured by
an unwanted signal or a noise voltage.
2.7 . 1 .3 PM
PM is very similar to FM except that, instead of the frequency, the instanta
neous phase of the carrier is at a rate proportional to the modulating fre
quency and by an amount equal to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Again, the carrier amplitude remains unaltered. Figure 2.1 6 illustrates the
phase-modulated waveform produced from a carrier and a sinusoidal wave
form. PM is rarely used in practice, except as an intermediate step in the pro
duction of FM.
11
I!
:1
[ 2.7.2 D i g ita l M o d u l ati o n
I For the transmission of data there are three versions of these modulation
I:
I methods that are the simplest forms of AM, FM, and PM: amplitude-shift
I: keying (ASK) , frequenC)'-shift keying (FSK) , and phase-shift keying (PS K) ,
I
" respectively.
I,!
I'
il
2.7 .2. 1 AS K
:1
d
AS K is the simplest form of AM, in which the carrier is turned off and on as
!i
I[ illustrated in Figure 2.1 7. ASK modulation was th e fi rst tech nique develo ped
"I
II
I
i[
l--
38 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itized B attl efi e l d
� M o d u l ated waveform
C a rr i e r
M o d u l ati n g waveform
Figure 2.16 PM i l l u strati n g th e c a rri e r, th e m o d u l ati n g waveform, a n d th e r e s u lta nt

m o d u l ated wavefo rm.
o o o o
(a )
Au
\TV V V (b)
VV
Figure 2.1 7 A S K i l l u strati n g ( a ) th e o ri g i n a l d i g ita l wa vefo rm, a n d ( b) t h e A S K ti m e
d o m a i n wa vefo rm.
for the transmission of digital information, but it is not in extensive use today
since it suffers from the same significant distortion of the carrier amplitude
which is associated with all AM systems.
2.7.3 FSK
The solution to amplitude distortion of ASK is to

immunity offered by FM systems by using the
mark and space to a
below the assigned
tion of FSK is given in
o o o o
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1 8 FS K i l l u strati n g (a) th e o r ig i n a l d i g ita l wavefo rm, a n d ( b) t h e FS K ti m e

d o m a i n wavefo rm.
2.7.4 PSK
In PSK, digital information is transmitted by shifting the phase of the carrier

among several discrete values. For a binary sequence the phase is normally
switched between 0° (logic 1 ) and 1 80° (logic 0) . A variation of PSK is called
differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) where a phase reversal takes place for
each logical " 1 " whether the symbol before was a logical "0" or a "1 . " No
phase change occurs at the incidence of a logical "0 ." This helps the receiver
and prevents it from confusing a " 0" as a " 1" and vice versa. Figure 2. 1 9 illus
trates PSK and DPSK.
Still, further increases in information rate can be achieved within the
smaller bandwidth and lower power requirements of PSK. The rate can be
doubled by using four-phase or quadrature PSK(QPSK) . In QPSK the possi
ble phase shifts are 45°, 1 35°, 225°, and 3 1 5 ° so that 2 bits of information
can be indicated for each phase. Figure 2.20 illustrates the polar diagram for
a QPSK system compared with a two-phase PSK system.
Hybrid techniques can be formed by combining ASK with PSK to pro
duce polar diagrams that have codes represented not only by varying phases,
but also by varying amplitudes. Techniques that combine phase and ampli
tude changes are called quadrature ampLitude moduLation (QAM) .
The precise bandwidth requirements for digital modulation will vary
depending on a number of factors, but, for planning purposes, ASK and PSK
require the same RF bandwidth, which is equal to the symbol rate. FSK
requires RF bandwidth that is 1 . 5 times the symbol rate.
40 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g iti zed B a ttl efi e l d
o o o o
(a)
f\ f\ f\ {\ f\ [\[\ f\ f\ OO f\ f\ f\
V W V VlJ V W V V V V �
PSK
(b)
f\ f\ A M f\ A f\ A f\ f\ � A A
V WlJ V VV WV V VVV \
DPS K
(c)
Figure 2. 1 9 P S K illu strating (a) the original d igital waveform, ( b ) the P S K, and ( c) D P S K
time-domain waveforms .
(01 ) (00)
X X
(0) (1)
�----�---�)�<---
X X
(1 1 ) ( 1 0)
PSK QPSK
(a) (b)
Fi g u re 2.20 Polar d iagrams for (a) P S K, and ( b ) Q P S K .
The
vv'idth
designed
F S K as a
bandwidth
An ImroductlOll to CommumcatlO llS Tech no log), 41
2.7.5 M o dems
The modulation and demodulation of the digital signal to be transmitted over

line or radio is conducted by a modulator/demodulator (modem) . There are
three main types of modem for use in telecommunications.
• Baseband modem. A baseband modem digitizes the analog signal and

produces direct-current (dc) pulses for direct transmission to line. Sig
naling speed and distance are limited by distortion of the pulses. B�se
band signals also cannot be transmitted through systems with amplifiers
and other devices that only operate with alternating-current (ac) signals.
For these systems, the baseband signal must be used to modulate a car
rier in a higher frequency range at either VF or RF .
• VF modem. A VF modem performs the digital modulation but uses the
dc pulses to modulate a VF carrier (in the 1 -2 kHz range) using a
modulation technique such as AS K, FSK, or PSK. Modulation up to
VF frequencies allows transmission over existing telephone lines or
radio channels, which are designed to accept voice frequencies with
bandwidths of approximately 3 . 1 kHz.
• RF modem. If transmission over other types of medium is required,
modulation is performed to other frequency ranges. For example, trans
mission over radio requires the use of an HF, VHF, or UHF modem.
2.8 Multiplexing
Multiplexing schemes combine the messages from several information sources

to be transmitted as a complete group over a single transmission facility v.,rith
provision at the receiver(s) for separation (demultiplexing) back to the individ
ual messages . Two generic forms of multiplexing are of interest: ftequenc),
division multiplexing (FOM) and tilne-division 771Ultiplexing (TOM) .
2.8.1 FDM
FOM is directly applicable to analog sources and forms a composite signal by

"stacking" several information channels side-by-side in frequencj befo re modu
lating a main carrier in some conventional manner. Recovery of the individ ual
messages after reception and initial demodulation is accomplished by bandpass
filteri ng and frequency selection of the channels.
The most common means of obtaining the channels for F O l\1 systems is
to use SSB modulation tech niques to ach ieve a m i n i m u m ban dv,ridth fo r cach
42 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c atio n s fo r th e D i g itiz ed B attlefi e l d
channel. The subcarriers for each channel are chosen so that, after modula
tion, the channels are stacked side-by-side in the frequency domain. At the
receiver, the main carrier is demodulated and each channel of the multi
plexed group individually separated out by channel filters located at the sub
i
carrier frequencies.
2.8.2 TDM
.1
;I
I:
TDM is a logical extension of pulse modulation methods and involves inter ,j

'I
leaving in time the narrow pulses of several ordinary pulse modulation sig I
I
,
nals, such as peM or delta modulation, to form one composite digital signal
for transmission. Demultiplexing of the time-multiplexed pulse streams at
the receiver is accomplished by gating appropriate pulses into individual !
channel filters. Transmission over radio links would require further analog
modulation by either an FSK or PSK modulator.
2.9 Frequency Spreading
In fi-equency-spreading, or spread-spectrum techniques the transmitted signal

occupies a bandwidth much greater than that of the message signal it con
veys. Additionally, the bandwidth is determined by a prescribed spreading
algorithm, and not by the message waveform itself. There are two main types
of spread-spectrum techniques: direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and
frequency hopping [6J .
There are a number of significant advantages to the use of spread
spectrum techniques. Transmissions are concealed since the spectral density
of a spread-spectrum transmission may be less than the noise spectral density
at the receiver. Despreading at the receiver will spread unwanted signals,
thereby "pulling" the wanted signal from the noise. This improvement in
signal-to-noise ratio due to the despreading process is called process gain. Any
spread-spectrum transmission other than the intended one will be seen by
the receiver as noise. Spread spectrum techniques are therefore of particular
interest in military communications due to their ability to share bandwidth,
reject interference and have a low probability of detection.
2.9 . 1 . 1 DSSS
A DSSS system spreads the transmitted spectrum as shown in Figure 2.2 1 by

modulating the baseband signal with the digital code sequence produced by
the pseudonoise code generator.
.1
II
Signal �
' en
c::
Q)
"C
(1J
......
S p re a d i n g +-'
U
� Signal
r
Uj
Original signal f f
Tra nsm itte d s i g n a l
-
Code
,� Signal
en
c::
Q)
"C
(1J
......
+-'
U
Q) R e c e ived s i g n a l
c..
Uj
D e m o d u l ated s i g n a l f D e s p re a d i n g
Figure 2.21 DSSS,
When a jammer or other single-channel transmitter introduces the

interference spike shown in Figure 2.22, the receiver despreads the signal
but, by the same process, spreads the interference. The result is a signal that is
harder to detect and unable to be jammed by a spot jammer.
Figure 2.23 shows that a spread-spectrum transmission is also not
affected by barrage jammers, or by other spread-spectrum transmissions.
Again, any signal not originally spread by the transmitter will not be despread
at the receiver, but will be spread to reduce its impact on the wanted signal. So,
the wanted signal will be despread and interference will be further spread,
increasing the process gain of the receiver. It should be noted that the spread
ing code is not intended to provide encryption although, if properly managed,
a degree of privacy would be provided by the DSSS system.
DSSS modulation techniques have two principal advantages: The
spreading of the transmitted signal reduces the power in any one channel
below the noise floor of conventional receivers; and unwanted earners
(spread or otherwise) are rejected by the spread-spectrum receiver.
2.9. 1 .2 Fre q u e n cy H o p p i n g
As illustrated in Figure 2.24, frequency hopping involves the periodic chang
ing of the frequency associated with a transmission. Successive frequencies
are determined by a pseudorandom sequence. A frequency-hopping signal
may be regarded as a sequence of modulated pulses with pseudorandom
44 Tacti c a l C o m m u n i c atio n s fo r th e D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d
..e- Signal ..e- I nte rfe re n c e

rn rn
c: c:
Q) Q)
-0 -0
co co
' '
......
u S p re ad i n g ......
u
Q)
CL
Q)
CL Signal
CI) CI)
Original signal f f
Tra n s m itted s i g n a l
Code
..e- Signal
rn
c:
Q)
-0
co
'
......
u
� I nte rfe re n c e R e c e ived s i g n a l

CI)
D e m odul ated s i g n a l f D e s p re a di n g
Figure 2.22 D S S S i n th e pres e n c e of s i n g l e - c h a n n e l I nte rfe re n c e .
..e- Signal .E-

rn rn
c: c:
Q) Q)
-0 -0
co co
'- '-
...... ......
u u
Q)
CL
Q)
CL
I nte rfe r e n c e
CI) CI)
O ri g i n a l s i g n a l f f
Tra n s m itted s i g n a l
C ode
.E- Signal
rn
c:
Q)
-0
co
'-
......
u
Q)
CL I nte rfe r e n c e R e c eived s i g n a l
CI)
D e m od u l ated s i g n a l f D e s p re a di n g
li m e 0 t (\ •
1
f
li m e I
(\ •
f
li m e 2 1 (\ •
f
li m e 31 (\ •
f
Figure 2.24 I l l u strati o n of fre q u e n cy h o p p i n g .
carrier frequencies. Hopping occurs over a frequency band that includes a

number of frequency channels. Each channel is defined as a spectral region
with a center frequency that is one of the possible carrier frequencies and a
bandwidth large enough to include most of the power in a pulse with the cor
responding carrier frequency. The bandwidth of a frequency channel is often
called the instantaneous bandwidth.
The effectiveness of frequency hopping against a sophisticated jam
mer depends on the randomness of the hopping pattern but these benefits
are potentially neutralized by a frequency-follower jammer. To be effective
against a frequency-hopping system, the jamming energy must reach the tar
get receiver before it hops to a new set of frequency channels. Thus, the faster
the hopping rate, the more protected the system against a follower jammer.
The main advantage of frequency hopping spread spectrum is in pro
viding interference immunity over bandwidths that are significantly larger
than direct-sequence systems (due mainly to the development of frequency
synthesis techniques) . Consequently, larger processing gains are possible with
frequency hopping. Another advantage is that frequency hopping has inher
ent flexibility in frequency allocation. It is possible to use contiguous and
noncontiguous frequency bands utilizing the frequency spectrum in the most
efficient way.
46 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g Itized B attl efi e l d
2.1 0 M u l tip le Access
A channel connecting two points can be shared by multiple users by multi

plexing and demultiplexing at each end of the channel. Multiplexing is not
an effective way to share a radio channel, however, because the users will not
necessarily be in the same location. The techniques used to serve a number of
dispersed stations are known as multiple-access techniques and are an exten
sion of the principles of multiplexing. There are three most commonly
employed multiple-access techniques: frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA) ; time-division m_ultiple access (TDMA) ; and code-division multiple
access (CDMA) . The major distinction between these techniques are that, in
FDMA, multiple users share a portion of the available channel bandwidth on
a continuous basis, whereas, in TDMA, the entire channel bandwidth is used
by each of the users, but only for a prescribed time interval. For CDMA, the
entire bandwidth is used continually by all users who are separated by the
spreading code. These techniques are discussed in more detail in Sections
2. 1 0. 1 through 2. 1 0.3.
2. 1 0.1 FDMA
In FDMA, a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is allocated to each

transmitter, which can transmit in its allocated channel all the time. Alloca
tion of frequencies can be fixed or on-demand. When used as a multiple
access technique, frequency hopping (see Section 2.9. 1 .2) is also a form of
FDMA. Each transmitter can transmit all the time by hopping to frequencies
selected by the pseudorandom code.
The advantages of FDMA are that no central control station is required
unless capacity is demand-allocated, that close to 1 00% of the available chan
nel capacity can be used, there is no loss of data due to one station overtrans
mitting another, and there is no delay introduced by the channel. The
disadvantages of FDMA are that the allocation of capacity between transmit
ters is relatively inflexible and that it is relatively difficult for one station to
receive data from more than one transmitter.
2.1 0.2 TDMA
In synchronous TDMA, a fixed-length, periodic time slot is allocated to each

transmitter. Timing synchronization requires either a central control station
or regular transmissions from all stations. Each transmitter has available the
whole channel capacity during its time slot, and must remain silent at all
other times. Allocation of time slots can be by fixed assignment or on
demand. The advantages of synchronous TDMA are that it is relatively easy
for one station to monitor transmissions in all time slots, that it is possible to
use close to 1 00% of the available channel capacity if there is either a single
transmitter or single receiver, that there is no loss of data due to one station
over-transmitting another, and that there is a fixed upper bound on delay.
The disadvantages are that timing synchronization between stations is
required, that guard intervals reduce channel capacity when multiple trans
mitters and multiple receivers are used, and that allocation of capacity
between transmitters is relatively inflexible.
Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) techniques are a form of asynchro
nous TDMA in which there are no fixed time slots. A station wishing to
transmit checks first that no other station is currently transmitting. If the
channel is free, the station transmits; if not, it waits a random period of time
and tries again. If two stations inadvertently transmit simultaneously, both
recognize the collision, cease transmission, and wait a random period of time
before trying again to access the channel. The advantages of CSMA are that
it is relatively easy for one station to monitor all transmissions on the chan
nel, that no central control station is required, and that the allocation of
channel capacity is very flexible. For the transmission of data, the disadvan
I
tages of CSMA are that the best throughput that can be achieved is approxi
' II
!i
mately 50% of the available channel capacity, that data is lost due to one
station overtransmitting another, and that there is no fixed upper bound on
delay.
2.1 0.3 C O MA
CDMA allows a wideband channel to be shared by a number of narrowband

sources by spreading their transmissions over the whole band using DSSS. By
using a different spreading sequence for each transmitter, multiple access is
achieved. The advantages of CDMA are that no central control station is
required unless capacity is demand-allocated, close to 1 00% of the available
channel capacity can be used, there is no loss of data due to one station over
transmitting another, and there is no delay introduced by the channel. The dis
advantages ofCDMA are that the near-far effect makes it infeasible to have more
than one transmitter and more than one receiver operating simultaneously, the
allocation of capacity between transmitters is relatively inflexible, and it is rela
tively difficult for one station to receive data from more than one transmitter.
2.1 0.4 Time H o p p i n g
Data can also be encoded in variations in the length of intervals between the
transmission of very short impulses. These impulses may be as short as 1 ns,
48 Ta c ti c a l C o m m u n i c a ti o n s f o r t h e D i g itize d B att l e fi e l d
- - . . _-----
l ead i n g to a total transmission bandwid th of 1 G Hz . The advan tages of time

hopping include the potential to remove any need fo r frequency manage
ment. The disadvantages include a high degree of interference between
time-hopping signals and conventional communications systems that share
the same bandwidth.
2.1 1 Transmitters
At the transmitter, the info rmation signal is used to modulate a s uitable car
rier frequency, which translates the signal to an allocated part of the fre
quency spectrum [7J . The result is then amplified to the power level required
for transmission. In an AM transmitter (Figure 2.25) the carrier is generated
by a very stable local oscillator and then amplitude-modulated before being
amplified and applied to the antenna. An FM transmitter has a very similar
block diagram except that a preemphasis network is i ncluded to artificially
boost the high-frequency components to protect them against the nonlinear
noise that is introduced in the FM demodulatio n process .
2.1 2 Receivers
At the end of the communications channel is the receiver whose function is

to receive the sign al and present it to the sink in an appropriate form. To do
this the receiver must be able to select the desired signal from all the signals
present at the antenna, amplify and demodulate, and present it to the source
�/
A nte n n a
AF P owe r
M o d u l ato r
a m p l ifi e r a m p l ifi e r
Lo c a l
o s c i l l ato r
Figure 2.25 B l o c k d i a g ra m of a low-l eve l AM tra n s m itte r.

in the appropriate format. The functions of a receiver are fairly generic, with
most receivers having the same basic form. The precise design of any particu
lar receiver will depend on what is required of it, such as the amount of
amplification and the type of demodulation [8] .
The basis of the modern superheterodyne receiver is the conversion of
the wanted signal frequency into a constant frequency known as the interme
diate frequency (IF) . It is at this IF that most of the gain and the selectivity of
the receiver is provided without affecting the bandwidth of the receiver. The
basic block diagram of the superheterodyne radio receiver is shown in Figure
2.26. The ganged-tuning arrangement ensures that the RF stage and the local
oscillator are tuned together so that they are always separated by the same
amount (the IF) . When they are combined together in the mixer, the wanted
signal is converted in frequency to the IF.
The superheterodyne receiver of Figure 2.26 is suitable for AM signals.
The FM receiver has a very similar system diagram except, of course that, due
to different demodulation requirements, the detector circuit will be different.
Additionally, an FM receiver has two further circuits: a limiter to remove
amplitude variations from the carrier before demodulation, and a deemphasis
network that redresses the preemphasis network's nonlinear amplification of
the high audio frequencies.
2.1 3 Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are used widely to connect pieces of equipment and par
ticularly to connect the transmitter and receivers to their respective antennas.
Ideally, transmission lines should be able to cope with wide bandwidths
(high capacities) , have low attenuation so that the signal reaches the end of
the transmission line at the same strength as it entered, and be matched to its
RF IF AF
sta g e a m p l ifi e r a m p l ifi e r
,
,
,
"
,
Ganged" "
tu n i n g
Figure 2.26 B l o c k d i a g ra m fo r a s u p e rh eterodyne r e c e iver.
j \ - --
I if
i
50 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d i.l
'!
II 1
termination to allow for maximum power transfer. They should also not be
affected by crosstalk or noise and interference, so that signals are not affected 11
I
:�
by signals in another transmission line, or from other sources of noise and :J
interference; and have low radiation so that signals on the line cannot be II
intercepted at any reasonable distance. Additionally, transmission lines II !'·
should have low dispersion so that all frequencies have the same velocity of
propagation and arrive together at the end of the transmission line, be able to
Il I
11
Ij
cope with the required power levels, be easily handled and installed, and I)
I)
maintain personnel safety. 1
1
There are two main types of transmission line: balanced and unbal : I
1
I
anced At any one time, balanced lines have voltages (currents) on the two
conductors that are equal and opposite relative to Earth. Unbalanced lines
have a positive or negative voltage on one conductor and the other conductor I
is earthed (at OV) .
2.13.1 B a l a n c e d Tra n s m i s s i o n lines
2. 1 3. 1 . 1 Two -Wi re Li n e
Two-wire lines consist o f two parallel conductors maintained at a fixed dis

tance apart. There are two main types: open two-wire line and insulated two
wire line.
Open t wo-wire line. In an open two-wire line, the two parallel conductors
provide the balanced transmission line. The balance is easily disturbed, how
ever, by nearby metallic objects, and large radiation losses can be obtained.
The balance is maintained by keeping the two wires apart by means of insu
lating bars, or spacers.
Insulated t wo- wire line.Open two-wire line is difficult to install due to the
requirement to maintain the spacing between conductors (and therefore
maintain the balance) . Insulated two-wire line uses a solid dielectric between
the conductors instead of air, which provides a cable that can be installed
more easily. This type of flat ribbon cable finds common application in con
necting home television antennas to the set.
2. 1 3. 1 .2 Twiste d P a i r
Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together t o main
tain the wires at a fixed distance apart. The twisting also limits radiation from
the wires by aiding in the cancellation of the electric and magnetic fields and
balances them against the effects of any induced radiation. Further reduction
Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield 51
in both effects is often obtained by placing a screen around the twisted pair
[often called shielded twisted pair (STP)]. Twisted pair has relatively high
losses, high radiation, and low bandwidth, but it has the advantages of being
very cheap and easy to install. Recent advances in technology have seen a
resurgence in the use of twisted and shielded twisted pair as a transmission
medium for local area networks in which significant data rates (IOO Mbps)
can be achieved over relatively short distances.
2.13.1.3 Multicore Cable

Multicore cable is made up of up to approximately 50 twisted pairs that are
shielded by a foil sheath. Each twisted pair is color-coded and the cable is
sometimes strengthened by the inclusion of nonconducting elements. Multi
core cables operate at low frequencies (normally megahertz), can be used to
carry moderate voltages, and can be used over limited distances (nor
mally kilometers). Because of the lack of a dielectric between the pairs, multi
core cable is very susceptible to crosstalk between pairs, particularly as the
cable ages and the insulation around each pair begins to deteriorate.
2.13.2 Unbalanced Transmission Lines
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables consist of two concentric conductors separated by a dielectric,
normally teflon or polyethylene. The majority of electromagnetic field is
restricted to the cable and most radiation losses are eliminated. The outer
conductor also shields the inner wire from any induced radiation from any
RF sources in the vicinity. The dielectric operates as a capacitor modifying
the characteristic impedance. Coaxial cables can be used for frequencies up to
3 GHz and have common characteristic impedances of 50Q, 75Q, 300Q, or
600Q.
2.13.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Copper Transmission Lines
Balanced and unbalanced copper-based transmission media have been used

for as long as communications systems have been in existence. They are
based on proven technologies and can be installed at low cost. They have the
additional advantages of being able to carry high powers and are easy to use,
join, and terminate.
However, copper-based transmission media have a number of signifi
cant disadvantages. They are heavy, particularly when deployed in large
numbers in cable ducts; the)r suffer from si�¥nificant crosstalk and large losses
52 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
when used over more than short distances. They also suffer from interference
from RF sources along the path. Transmission quality is reduced due to the
high-frequency limitations of copper cables. As bandwidth requirements
increase, so must the operating frequencies at which component specifica
tions are increasingly difficult, and therefore more expensive, to achieve.
These disadvantages become very important for medium- to long
distance communications requiring high bandwidth, and copper cable is
now rarely used due to the high cost of providing a large number of cables
and the many repeaters required. The preferred transmission medium is
based on optical-fiber technology.
2.1 4 O ptical Fibers
In transmission lines, the signals travel as currents and voltages on two con
ductors. Waveguides, as their name suggests, provide a medium for signals to
travel as electromagnetic waves inside a metal tube, which is normally rectan
gular. Waveguides of this form are usually only used at SHF and above. We
will not consider them here, but we will briefly outline a much more com
mon waveguide-optical fibers [9J .
An optical fiber is constructed by enclosing a thin glass fiber core in a
glass cladding and surrounding the result in a protective j acket. Electrical sig
nals are translated into light pulses by modulating a laser, and are detected at
the receiver by photoelectric diodes. A waveguide for the optical frequencies
is provided by the difference between the refractive indexes of the cladding
and the glass core. The size of the core and cladding can differ, but com
monly the cladding is 1 25 fl m in diameter and the core is between 8 and
62. 5 flm.
2.1 4.1 Adva nta g e s o f O pti c a l Fi b e rs
Optical fibers provide large bandwidth and can carry many times more sig
nals than copper cables. Because there is such a low loss associated with the
propagation of light in the fiber, optical fibers also provide extremely reliable
long-distance communications. The fibers are light and small in size, making
them ideal for installing in buildings and existing cable ducts. Since the
information is contained in light energy, there is no RF radiation from opti
cal fibers, nor are they affected by noise of interference in the areas through
which they are run. The lack of radiation provides very secure communica
tions, while the immunity to noise and interference makes them ideal for use
in heavy machinery workshops and similar locations. Since the signal in
the fiber is not electrical, there are no earthing problems associated with
installation.
2.1 4.2 Disadva ntages of O pti c a l Fi be rs
Although the raw material for optical fibers is plentiful and therefore cheap,
the propagation channel for the light is critical and is very hard to repair or
join. The repair process requires that the core be precisely aligned and must
ensure that the two cables abut perfectly and no dust or grime is allowed to
intrude into the joint. Multiplexing is difficult with optical fibers so they are
mainly used for high-capacity, point-to-point links. Similarly, the cables are
very hard to terminate or to split to allow switching or tapping, compared
with wire cables, which can be joined with a simple twist. If repair of a wire
cable that had a similar capacity as an optical fiber was to be considered,
however, the repair of the fiber has a similar, if not better, repair time. The
cost of fiber-optic cable can be greater for short distances, but for distances
greater than several hundred meters, fiber-optic cables are cheaper for similar
capacity since the copper cable requires many more repeaters.
2.1 5 Antennas
An antenna (or aerial) [ 1 0] is a device for radiating or receiving electromag

netic waves. It is used to connect the transmitter and receiver to the commu
nications channel, through which electromagnetic waves will propagate.
There is little fundamental difference between transmitting and receiving
antennas and the same antenna is commonly used for the both purposes. It is
relatively simple to construct an antenna since any length of conducting wire
that is carrying a current will radiate an electromagnetic wave.
As illustrated in Figure 2.27(a) , a dipole antenna is constructed by
opening the legs of a balanced transmission line. Figure 2.27(b) shows a
monopole antenna, which can be constructed by using only the upper arm of
the dipole and placing it above a reflecting ground plane so that its image
appears as the other side of the dipole. A monopole antenna is fed by an
unbalanced transmission line and has obvious attractions for mobile opera
tion since it is half the size of the dipole.
2.1 5.1 Ante n n a S i ze
Although any length of wire will radiate, to be efficient, the wire length must
be half a wavelength (or some multiple) long so that all of the energy that is
54 Tacti c a l Co m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itized B attl efi e l d
Monopole
Ground
- - - � - - - - -,
Image A
I
(a) (b)
Figure 2.27 Ante n n a c o n stru cti o n for ( a ) th e d i p o l e , a n d ( b) th e m o n o p o l e .
contained in the transmission line is efficiently transferred to the radiated

electromagnetic wave. This requirement for efficiency means that the length
of an antenna is related to the frequency of operation; the lower the fre
quency, the larger the antenna. For example, a 2-MHz transmission requires
an antenna that is one-half a wavelength, or 75-m long. Yet a 200-MHz
transmission requires an antenna that is only O.75-m long. Higher frequen
cies therefore allow the use of more mobile antennas.
It follows therefore that an antenna must be erected to be the appropri
ate frequency in use. Further, if the frequency is changed, the antenna must
be taken down, modified in length, and then reerected. In some mobile
applications changing the antenna length is not feasible and an antenna tun
ing unit (ATU) is used to change the electrical properties of the antenna so
that it always appears to the transmitter to be an antenna of the correct
length. While an ATU protects the transmitter from any power that may be
reflected from a short antenna, it must be realized that a short antenna will
only ever radiate commensurately less power than one of the correct length.
So, while the ATU has some utility, it can never compensate for having an
antenna of the correct length.
2.1 5.2 R a d i at i o n Patte rn
The radiation pattern of an antenna is an important consideration for its

application. Figure 2.28 shows the radiation pattern for a dipole. The maxi
mum radiation is broadside on to the dipole with nothing coming out the
ends. To get the three-dimensional picture, imagine the "figure of eight"
J •
l
Side view P l a n view Th ree-dimensi o n a l view
Figure 2.28 R a d i ati o n p atte rn fo r a v e rti c a l d i p o l e i n fre e s p a c e .
pattern rotating through 3600• The volume swept out by the figure would be
toroidal, which, if viewed end-on would appear circular. So, in that plane,
the dipole is omnidirectional.
The pattern in Figure 2.28 is for a dipole in free space. Radiation pat
terns of antennas are significantly affected by the proximity of the ground or
other objects. For example, Figure 2.29 shows the radiation pattern for a
horizontal half-wave dipole at various heights above the ground. Generally,
as the antenna is raised above the ground, more power is radiated upward
and communications can be achieved over greater distances.
2.1 5.3 G a i n
An antenna has gain if it radiates more power (usually in one particular direc
tion) than another antenna. Gain is normally obtained by making an
antenna directional, that is, by altering its radiation pattern so that more of
the radiation is transmitted in a certain direction. Antenna gain plays an
important part in the ultimate performance of a system and is closely associ
ated with the transmitted power and the receiver sensitivity employed. The
maximum power gain obtainable in practice is usually restricted by various
factors such as antenna size, weight, and the need for mobility.
One common method of building an antenna with gain is to use some
form of antenna array. For example, consider the half-wave dipole in Figure
2.30 (a) that has two lobes, A and B. If we redirect lobe A and add it to B, we
should double the power radiated in that direction. We can do this by adding
L _ _
h= 0. 1 0A h= 0. 1 5A h= 0.2DA
h= 0.25A h= 0.30A h= 0.40A
h= 0.50A h= 0.60A h= 0.70A
Figure 2.29 R a d i ati o n p atte rns fo r h a lf-wave d i p o l e s at va ry i n g h e i g hts a b ove the g ro u n d .
a reflector at a suitable distance as illustrated in Figure 2 . 3 0 (b) or a parasitic

director as shown in Figure 2.30 (c) . Doubling the power gives the antenna
twice the gain (relative to a half-wave dipole) .
2.1 5.4 B a n d w i dth
The bandwidth of an antenna is the frequency range over which the antenna
will perform effectively. In the case of dipoles, monopoles, and related anten
nas, the bandwidth is small. These are known as "resonant" antennas because
they respond only to one frequency, which is the frequency at which they are
A/2 10ng. So if a dipole's frequency is changed, it must be pulled it down and
recut to be A/2 at the new frequency if efficiency is to be maintained. If the
dipole length is not changed, or when using a mast or whip, the ATU must
be retuned as the operating frequency is changed.
Some antennas are broadband, and are designed to be efficient over a
wide range of frequencies. Examples include the discone and the log-periodic
type of antenna. Travelingwave antennas are another class of antenna, which
are not resonant and are efficient across a range of frequencies. Their radia
tion patterns change substantially with frequency, however, so they are not
truly broadband.
P a rasiti c
d i re cto r
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.30 D o u b l i n g the g a i n of a ( a ) h a lf-wave d i p o l e with ( b l a refl e cto r, a n d ( c l a

p a rasiti c d i r e cto r.
2.1 6 Propagation
Radio communications techniques are normally categorized in accordance

with the method of propagation used. These methods fall into three groups:
those which occur in close proximity to the Earth and are called ground
waves; those which rely on reflections from the atmosphere, called sky waves;
and those which rely on scattered energy from atmospheric turbulence,
called scattered waves. A communications system will utilize one of the above
mechanisms of propagation [ 1 1 ] .
2.16.1 Ground Waves
Figure 2.3 1 shows the RF energy transmitted by an isotropic radiator that

will be received by an antenna as ground waves [ 1 2] . Some of the energy will
travel directly to the receiving antenna in what are called direct waves. Some
of the energy will be directed toward the ground, be reflected, and then be
received by the antenna. These are called ground-reflected waves. The combi
nation of the direct and the ground-reflected waves is called space waves. The
remainder of the energy will be diffracted around obstacles and ground fea
tures and is propagated by surface waves.
2. 1 6. 1 . 1 S p ace Waves
Space-wave communications use high frequencies that tend to travel in line
of-sight. The range of these communications is therefore limited by terrain
as well as power. There needs to be sufficient transmitter power to ensure
sufficient strength signal at the receiver, but most ground-based radio sys
tems are terrain-limited rather than power-limited. That is, the curvature
I
J /
58 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d
D i re ct wave
G ro u n d - refl e cted
S u rfa c e wave
wave
Figure 2.31 G ro u n d -wave p ro p a g ati o n .
of the Earth constrains the line-of-sight that is possible between two low
antennas. The radio horizon can be stated geometrically as:
where dradzo is in kilometers and hT and hR are in meters. For example, for two
hand-held radios held waist-high (around 1 m) , the radio horizon is approxi
mately 8.24 km, even though the radios may have sufficient power to operate
over tens of kilometers in free space. If a 9-m mast is used for the antennas
for each radio, the radio horizon is extended to 24.72 km.
2. 1 6. 1 . 2 S u rfa c e W a v e s
Surface waves, as the name implies, travel along the surface of the ground,
with the ionosphere and the ground acting as two sides of a waveguide. The
wave is supported by currents flowing in the ground and follows the surface
of the terrain. Surface wave is attenuated much more than any other form of
wave and consequently has a short range. The attenuation is based on the
conductivity of the ground and the polarization of the wave, both of which
therefore have an effect on the range of surface-wave propagation.
Surface-wave frequencies are very low, extending only up to approxi
mately 5 MHz. These low frequencies require large antennas and are there
fore limited in mobile applications. Additionally, the low frequencies have
very low bandwidths.
2.1 6.2 S ky Waves a n d S c attered Waves
Communications via space waves are limited to line-of-sight distances. The

limit for surface waves is dictated by a number of considerations but is
generally around 60 to 70 km. Propagation over longer distances is due to

the atmosphere, which is divided into three zones as illustrated in Figure
2.32 and described as follows:
• The troposphere extends from the ground to a height of about 1 1 to 1 6

km. In the troposphere the air is in permanent motion and meteoro
logical phenomena take place. The influence of the weather prevails,
the temperature decreases with height, and cloud formation and con
vection predominate. There is no ionization of the air.
• The stratosphere is located above the troposphere and extends to a
height of 40 to 50 km. In the stratosphere the air is still, the tem
perature is almost constant, humidity is almost absent, and there are
almost no perturbations. The stratosphere is not used for communi
cations. The stratosphere ends with the stratopause where there is
not enough oxygen molecules to form ozone. Above the stratopause
is the mesosphere, which extends from 50 to 80 km, in which the air
cools again.
• The ionosphere is located about 50 to 60 km from the surface of the
Earth where the ionization of the air is appreciable. The lower layer,
the D layer, includes the mesosphere. The reflection properties of this
�400 km
I o n os p h e re
80 km
Strato s p h e re and m e s os p h e re
1 1 -1 6 km
Tro p o s p h e re
Figure 2.32 Laye rs of th e atm o s p h e r e .
/
. _ - --_._--
60 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itiz ed B attl efi e l d
regIOn at certam high frequencies are used for very long-distance

commUnIcattons.
Figure 2.33 shows that low-powered RF signals may be received a long

way beyond the horizon through the reflection of sky waves from the iono
sphere. Energy may also be received as scattered waves from turbulence in the
troposphere, or from turbulence in the ionosphere or the ionized tails of
meteors.
2. 1 6.2. 1 S ky W a v e s
Sky-wave communication [ 1 3J utilizes the ionosphere to refract waves back
to Earth, providing a mechanism by propagating over very large distances.
Since the height of formation of the ionosphere depends on the intensity of
ultraviolet radiation the layers will vary in height from day to night and fronl
summer to winter. Under normal solar radiation conditions the gases present
in the atmosphere allow up to four layers of ionization to exist during the day
(D, E, F I , and F2) . At night, when the solar radiation is reducing, recombi
nation of ions and free electrons predominates and when the solar radiation
is at a minimum, the D and E layers effectively disappear and the two F lay
ers combine to form one layer.
Radio waves travel in straight lines in free space, providing that the
medium through which they pass has a constant refractive index. Thus, as a
wavefront enters the D layer, its path is immediately altered and a slight
bending of the wavefront occurs. As the D layer has only a small number of
I o n o s p h e re
T_ _
--
-
� S ky wave
-- - - - - - - - - - -
Air tu rb u l e n c e
i
I
.,.
':c
-- - -
S :�:� ;� d--------�
wave
Figure 2.33 S ky-wave a n d s c atte re d -wave te c h n i q u e s .

, I
i '
Ii
"
HI i
i.i An Introduction to Communications Technology 61
\J
free electrons, only LF waves are readily affected and as a consequence, most
of the signal energy will be absorbed.
HF waves, however, are not so readily affected and will continue along
their original path up to the E layer. As the HF wavefront penetrates the E
layer, which has a greater number of free electrons, it begins to follow a grad
ual curved path. The influence of the free electrons is such that the velocity
of the wavefront is slightly reduced, thus causing a refraction of the wave. If
there is a sufficient number of electrons, the path of the wavefront is bent
back toward the Earth.
If the frequency of the radio waves being transmitted is gradually
raised, a frequency will be found beyond which the waves will not be
refracted sufficiently to curve their path back to Earth. Consequently, these
waves will continue up to the next layer, or, in the case of the F2 layer, into
space.
Sky-wave propagation depends, therefore, very much on whether the
ionosphere will refract a wave of a particular frequency. In general, the higher
the frequency, the easier it is for the wave to pass through the layers without
being refracted. At night when there is only the F layer and a weak E layer,
the transmitting frequencies must be lower to prevent the wave from passing
through both layers and out into space.
The range of sky-wave communications varies and is determined by
three main factors: the frequency used, the angle of transmission, and the
power of the transmitter. If the frequency is raised, the wave will be refracted
by a higher layer and lead to a longer range. The distance between the trans
mitting antenna and where the first useable sky wave returns to Earth is
called the skip distance. Similarly, if the propagation angle is lowered, a
greater communications range is achieved. The propagation angle is also
known as the take-offangle and sometimes as the angle ofdeparture. A single
hop HF sky wave is limited to ranges of approximately 3,500 km. If the
power of the transmission is increased, the range of the transmission is
increased due to the occurrence of multiple hops of the transmission. As the
wave is refracted back to Earth, it has sufficient power to be reflected back up
to the ionosphere where it is again refracted. Worldwide communications are
achieved in this manner and ranges of up to 6,000 km are obtained.
The ionosphere suffers a number of variations that will have a signifi
cant effect on sky-wave communications. Ionization stops at night, while
recombination continues. Daily variations are generally predictable and are
accounted for in prediction charts. There is also obviously more ultraviolet
radiation at the equator than at the poles, and there is an east-west·variation.
Additionally, winter and summer frequencies will vary due to variations in
: 1 _-
62 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
the height of the layers. This is due not only to different quantities of ultra
violet radiation but also to the expansion and contraction of the atmosphere.
Predictions also need to be for the appropriate month. Additionally, the
Sun's intensity varies with an I I -year cycle and sudden variations can occur
in solar activity in the form of solar flares and magnetic storms.
Sky-wave communications have the following advantages:
• Over-the-horizon communications are possible.

• Medium distance communications ( 1 ,000 km) are available using
man-portable and mobile equipment.
• Both net communications and point-to-point links can be established.
• Relatively low-cost antennas and terminal equipment are required.
• The transmission medium (the ionosphere) is difficult to interrupt.
• Sky-wave communications can be degraded in that the same commu
nications system can be used for voice and data at reasonable speeds
down to low-speed Morse.
Sky-wave communications have the following disadvantages:
• There is limited available spectrum, leading to a limited number of

available channels.
• Channels are available worldwide with a large number of users
possible.
• Limited bandwidth is available on each channel, leading to low data
rates.
• The transmission medium (the ionosphere) is difficult to predict
accurately and contains noise and long-range interference; channel
use therefore varies with time.
• Since use of the lower frequencies is desirable, the long wavelengths
at sky-wave communications mean that large antennas are required.
• Management is required for efficient use of the ionosphere.
2. 1 6.2.2 S c atte r e d W a ve s
Scattered-wave techniques are able to make use of the turbulence in the tro
posphere or the ionosphere or ionized meteor tails. Ionospheric scatter and
meteor burst techniques are not often used [ 1 4] . Troposcatter techniques
are, however, used in both commercial and military communications net

works [ 1 5] .
A troposcatter path can vary in length from about 1 00 to 1 5 0 km to
almost 1 ,000 km. Most of the current systems, however, use a path length of
between 1 50 km and 400 km. The maximum path attenuation including
deep fades is very high, on the order of 1 90 to 240 dB. Consequently high
transmitted powers, low-noise, sensitive receivers, and high-gain parabolic
antennas are normally required for troposcatter communications.
Although a variety ofRF power outputs have been used for troposcatter
links, normal RF power outputs are 1 00W, 1 kW, and 1 0 kW, with the cur
rent trend favoring 1 kW to provide path lengths of 1 0 to 200 km. Owing to
the variation in path loss throughout the year, the RF power can sometimes
be decreased with a consequent reduction in power consumption and
interference. The antennas are usually of the parabolic type with diameters
ranging from a few meters up to 30 to 40m. Transportable systems have
antenna sizes of 2 to 1 0m. Receivers with low-noise characteristics are nor
mally employed.
The frequency band of use in practical troposcatter systems is consid
ered to be between about 300 MHz and 5 GHz. Early troposcatter systems
provided analog FM communications in the 345- to 988-MHz band. These
frequencies cannot handle the bandwidths required for digital communica
tions, so later digital systems operate in either the 1 .7- to 2. 1 -GHz or the 4.4-
to 5 .0-GHz bands.
Troposcatter systems must accommodate the characteristics of the
propagation, which produces frequent deep fades in the received signal.
Receiving terminals use a diversity technique in which a number of inde
pendent samples of the RF signal are combined in a diversity combiner to
obtain a stable output signal. Normally two or four receivers are used to pro
vide diversity techniques incorporating frequency, space, and time diversity.
Frequency diversity provides a transmission on several frequencies simultane
ously, and the receive terminal selects the strongest signal at its multiple
receivers. Space diversity utilizes a number of separate antennas. Time diver
sity sends the same information over the same link at different times.
Both analog and digital techniques are used in troposcatter links. Digi
tal systems have the advantages of better transmission quality; better protec
tion against interference and jamming; the ability to use error detection and
correction; and the ease of interface with other digital systems. However,
these advantages may be outweighed by other features (such as wider band
widths) , and all aspects of the problem must be considered before a system is
chosen.
64 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g iti zed B attl efi e l d
Analog troposcatter systems have a traffic capacity of 6 to 1 20 tele

phone (4-kHz FDM) channels. Higher capacities are generally not recom
mended because the propagation mechanism generates nonlinear noise in the
channels, thus limiting the bandwidth that can be transmitted. Systems car
rying 240 channels have also been implemented at the cost of accepting a
lower quality. However, for television transmission the performance would
normally be rather poor. Frequency modulation is always used.
Digital troposcatter systems can transmit a bit stream of up to 8 to 1 2
Mbps. These systems are more sensitive to propagation distortions and their
bandwidth becomes too large above 2 to 3 Mbps, so that even at an accept
able path loss, transmission is impossible unless special complex modem
techniques are used. Modulation can be by either FSK or PSK.
2.1 7 Switch i n g
2.1 7 . 1 C i rcuit Switc h i n g
A circuit is a two-way path for carrying information, either digital or analog. As

illustrated in Figure 2.34, efficient use of resources is available using circuit
switching where each of the users is connected to a central switch that provides
the capability of interconnecting any two users. The path is in existence only
for the duration of the communication and is disconnected at the end.
Figure 2.35 shows how the circuit-switched network is built up. Users
are connected to a switch, and switches are interconnected using trunk links.
The terminology was developed in the commercial network, based on a tree
(since the structure was very similar) . Major links between switches were
trunk links and links from switches to users were called branch lines. Addi
tional trunk lines then interconnect each suburban switch with a major
switch in the city and these major switches are again interconnected by high
capacity trunk links between cities. The resultant network is referred to as the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) .
The advantage of circuit switching is that, once the circuit has been set
up, there are no delays and communications between the two ends can con
tinue until the circuit is disconnected. Circuit switching is the most efficient
switching technique for voice communications since, to obtain real-time
conversations, it is necessary to provide a circuit for the duration of the con
versation. Circuit switching is also a very efficient way of transferring large
volumes of data between data terminals and has the added advantage of
requiring relatively simple protocols.
A n Introduction to Com m unicatzo7ZS Techno logy 65
S witch
Figure 2.34 A s imple switched network with one switch .
Despite this efficiency for voice communications, circuit switching has

significant disadvantages for data transfer, since it makes poor utilization of
links and equipment and is generally expensive to implement. Also, the set
up and clear down times are long in comparison with the time it takes to
transmit the data; and the user must continually retry to connect if the other
subscriber is absent or engaged.
2.1 7.2 M essa g e Switc h i n g
A message is a discrete data communication. Message switching is a store

and-forward concept in which a message with an appropriate destination
address is sent into the network and is stored at each intermediate switching
point (network node) where its integrity is checked before it is sent onto the
next stage of its journey. Switches will duplicate the message if it is for multi
ple addresses. If the required link is congested or temporarily unavailable, the
- Trunk link
D Switch
Figu re 2.35 I ntercon nection of circuit switches us i ng trun k li n ks .
----- ------
-
66 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itize d B attl efi e l d
message may be stored by the node or sent by an alternate route. Due to this
storing and forwarding in message switching networks, the process is often
called store-and-forward and the network nodes are often called store-and
forward switches.
Message switching has an advantage over circuit switching in that
it makes good use of the available links and equipment. It does, however,
have long response times since messages are stored awaiting available links .
Although this i s acceptable for traffic for human consumption, the
types of delay experienced make message switching undesirable for data
commUnICatiOns.
2.1 7 .3 Pac ket Switc h i n g
Packet switching [ 1 6] provides both the response of circuit switching and the
efficient link utilization of message switching by imposing a maximum
length on the transmitted units by splitting all messages into packets up to a
few hundred bytes long. Long messages are therefore prevented from block
ing links and a system of TDM is forced onto the network. Packet switching
is the most economical and cost-effective technique for using data communi
cations links.
In principle, it is possible to pass digitized voice over a packet-switched
network. In practice, however, high link speeds are required with large proc
essing capability in the data terminals if an acceptable quality of service
(QoS) is to be provided. Packet switches are therefore not usually used for
the transmission of voice.
2.1 7 .4 C e l l Switc h i n g
Cell switching can perhaps be described best in terms of its major instantia
tion-asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) [ 1 7] . ATM is a cell-switching and
multiplexing technology designed to combine the benefits of circuit switch
ing (constant transmission delay and guaranteed capacity) with those of
packet switching (flexibility and efficiency for intermittent traffic) providing
support for applications that exchange information in many different for
mats (e.g. , data, voice, image, and video) .
ATM's use of small, fixed-length cells offers several important advan
tages. Because the cell headers are uniform, cell switching can be executed in
hardware, allowing greater switching speeds. Delay variability is also more
tightly bounded because fixed-length cells have a predictable service rate, and
bandwidth reservation is easier. Network scalability is perhaps ATM's most
desirable feature.
An Introduction to CommumcatlOns Techno logy 67
2.1 8 Networking and I nternetwork i n g
Networks that interconnect buildings (i.e., interconnect LANs) are called

metropolitan area networks (MANs) or campus networks. Normally, a
MAN is geographically confined to a group of buildings with a common
purpose such as a university campus, a factory, or a defense base. MANs (or
LANs) can be interconnected by wide area networks (WANs) , which nor
mally extend across a city or between cities. Generally, LANs, MANs, and
WANs are based on different network technologies. However, the distinc
tion between WAN, MAN, and LAN is becoming blurred as the various
technologies converge. In modern networks it is more usual to distinguish
between networks (LANs and MANs) and internetworks (WANs) .
This section examines networking techniques and looks at methods for
extending networks as far as possible. Internetworking techniques are then
examined as ways of providing wide-area, scalable networks. First, however,
the ISO OSI 7 -layer model is described.
2. 1 8. 1 I S O O S l 7-Layer R efere n c e M o d e l
Most digital communications systems use procedures arranged in accordance

with the International Standards Organization (ISO) Open Systems Inter
connection (OS!) reference model. The ISO OSI reference model arranges
the procedures for communications for data networks into seven layers or
levels. The procedures used at each layer are called protocols. The ISO OSI
reference model is illustrated in Figure 2.36.
Throughout the ISO OSI reference model each layer is transparent to
the layer above it. This is achieved by each layer receiving a block of informa
tion from the layer above it and then adding the information needed for its
protocol at one or both ends. The information block from the higher layer is
left intact. In the other direction of communication, each layer receives a
block of information from the layer below it, strips off the information it
requires for its protocol, and then sends the resultant information back up to
the next higher layer.
Layers 1 to 3 contain the network protocols. Layers 4 and above con
tain the user-to-user protocols in which the network takes no part. The net
work protocols are obviously the most important from a communications
point of view. The seven layers are summarized next.
• Layer 1: Physical layer. This layer allows the connection, mainte

nance, and disconnection of physical circuits benveen different types
68 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r the D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d
Syste m A Syste m B
A p p l i c atI O n p roto c o l
7 . A p p l i c ati o n layer 7 A p p l i c ati o n layer
Presentati o n p roto c o l
6. PresentaU o n layer 6. PresentaU o n layer
Session p roto c o l
5. SessIOn layer 5 . S e s s i o n layer
Tra n s p o rt p roto c o l
4. Tra n s p o rt layer 4 . Tra n s p o rt l ayer
N etwo rk proto c o l
3 . N etwo rk l ayer 3 . N etwo rk l ayer
D ata - l i n k p roto c o l
2 D ata - l i n k l a y e r 2 . Data - l i n k l ayer
Phys i c a l proto c o l
1 . PhYS i c a l layer 1 . Phys i c a l l a ye r
I PhYSi c a l m e d i u m
I
Figure 2.36 P roto c o l l a ye rs fo r th e I S O O S I refe re n c e m o d e l .
of devices. It provides the mechanical, electrical, functional, and

procedural characteristics that enable the data stream to be sent from
one terminal to another. This is basic electrical communications that
covers the standards associated with plugs, sockets, leads, and so on.
Examples are RS-232, RS-449 , V.2 1 , V.24, and X.2 1 .
• Layer 2: Data link layer. This layer allows point-to-point or node
to-node control. It is often called the frame level because it specifies
the formats in which transmissions are embedded in frames. It
incorporates error detection and correction and data-flow control
providing an error-free link level communications facility to higher
levels. Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) is a common method util
ized by this layer to detect errors.
• Layer 3: Network layer. This layer controls the exchange of data
between locations in the network, so that the network is transparent
to the data. Routing, flow control, and switching can be provided at
this layer. It is sometimes referred to as the packet layer as it defines
the packet format and control procedures for the exchange of pack
ets containing both control messages and user data. It multiplexes
packets on links and then across the network. X.25 and Internet
Protocol (IP) are examples of this type of protocol.
• Layer 4: Transport layer. The transport layer establishes and termi
nates connections between communicating devices, and provides
error handling and flow control. Message headers and control
An lntroductzon to Communications Technology 69
messages are added to packets by the transport layer to ensure the

integrity of the communications link.
• Layer 5: Session layer. This layer determines the rules for establishing
and ending a communication and reestablishing a connection if it is
interrupted. It determines the right of a device to interrupt another,
checks for user authenticity, and keeps track of billing details.
• Layer 6: Presentation layer. The presentation layer provides code con
version, compression, and standard layouts for devices and peripher
als. This layer's main job is to ensure that the data is "presented" to
the application layer in a way that layer can understand.
• Layer 7: Application layer. The final layer, the application layer, is
responsible for deciding the tasks that have to be performed to allow a
user to run a particular application.
2.1 8.2 N etwo rks
The way in which the devices on a LAN are connected together is called the
topology. As illustrated in Figure 2.37, there are three main LAN topologies:
bus, star, and ring.
In the most straightforward LAN topology, devices are connected to a
common linear transmission medium called a bus. All devices are attached to
the bus, providing a simple, economical method of interconnecting devices.
A failure in any one device will not affect the rest, but a single point of failure
on the bus will cause the entire network to fail.
In a star LAN topology, all devices are connected to a central device
that acts as a hub or a switch. Cables are not shared; each cable simply con
nects one device to the hub. More cable is required for this topology, which
means that star networks are generally more expensive to implement. How
ever, considerable redundancy is gained since a device failure will still only
affect that device, but now a single point of network failure will also only
affect the single device connected on that cable. This is a vast improvement
over the bus topology in which the whole network would be interrupted by
such a failure.
In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular fashion so that
data is passed around the network from one device to the next, until it
:{ returns to the transmitting device. Transmission is always in the same direc-
!1 tion on the ring so that each device always receives data from the same
il upstream device and passes it on to the same downstream device. Each device
II
i(
! 'I
acts as a receiver for data directed to it, and acts as a repeater for data to be
iI passed on to downstream devices.
,I ,j
I�
I '
!
.
j I
; i
i I
I!
j l. _ ___
70 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g itize d B attl efi e l d
Bus Ring Sta r
Figure 2.37 B u s, ri n g , a n d sta r LA N to p o l o g i e s .
However, iAN topologies are not as simple as the above physical

descriptions imply. Often a iAN technique uses a certain logical topology
(i.e., the information will travel in accordance with one of the above topolo
gies) , but the iAN will be wired physically to look like another topology.
The most common examples are networks that are either a logical bus or
ring, but are wired to be a physical star topology.
2. 1 8.2. 1 N etwo rk E l e m e nts
A iAN will normally comprise a number of elements including a network

server (more traditionally called a file server), which manages the network and
the network file system and provides a number of functions such as printers,
disk space, application programs, backup tape drives, and the network oper
ating system; a network operating system (NOS) , which runs on the server and
provides the basis for resource sharing by the other devices on the network;
devices (e.g. , workstation, printers, and disk drives) ; and network intelface
cards (NICs) , which provide the interface between the network device and
the network.
2. 1 8.2.2 LAN M e d i a
The LAN medium is the physical transmISSIOn medium used to connect

devices together. iAN media are traditionally cable-based although wireless
links are increasingly popular.
Coaxial cable is used in Ethernet LANs, but is more commonly
replaced in modern networks with twisted pair cable due to its light
weight, low cost, and ease of deployment. Both UTP and shielded twisted
pair (STP) are used. Fiber optic cables can be used for all elements of a
LAN, including to the desktop. More commonly, however, fiber is used in
the backbone and twisted pair or coaxial cable is used to connect devices.
This takes advantage of both media: Optical fibers provide the high
j\
capacity for the backbone, and twisted pair provide the light weight and
ease of termination required for each workstation. Wireless networks use
electromagnetic radiation as the medium, either in the RF bands or the
infrared band. The use of radio or infrared frequencies does not affect the
LAN topology, although a different interface method is required.
2.18.2.3 Media-Access Techniques
Media-access techniques allow the devices on the LAN to gain access to the
shared media. All devices cannot access the LAN simultaneously; there must
be some protocol by which an orderly, timely access is available to all devices.
There are two main baseband protocols employed: carrier-sense multiple
access/collision-detect (CSMAJCD), utilized by the Ethernet; and token
passing, utilized by the token ring.
• Ethernet: Carrier-sense refers to the way in which a device that wants

to transmit checks the LAN for a signal to see if any other device on
the network is transmitting data. If the LAN is busy, the device will
wait until the other device is finished. When no signal is present on
the LAN, the device can transmit. A problem will still occur,
however, if two devices simultaneously check that the network is
quiet and decide to transmit data. If that happens, the data arriving
at the receiving station will be corrupted. Thus, a protocol is
required to prevent transmissions in those circumstances. CSMAJ
CD uses a collision-detect protocol. Collision detect requires a trans
mitting device to monitor the LAN while it is transmitting. If the
device detects a collision, it will stop transmitting, wait a predeter
mined time, and then sense the LAN before attempting to
retransmIt.
• Token ring: The token passing media access method is more orderly
than CSMAJCD. Access control is provided by a small frame of data
called a token, which circulates around the LAN until a device wishes
to transmit, in which case it takes the token and transmits a data
frame. Each device on the LAN looks at the data frame to see if it is
the addressee. If so, it copies the frame and allows it to pass once it has
changed the last field in the frame to signify that the frame has been
copied. Finally, the frame arrives back at the originating device, which
can check if the receiving device has copied the frame. The originating
device then releases the token to signify that the LAN is idle. At any
moment, therefore, either a token or a data frame is traveling around
. the LAN .
72 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g itiz ed B a ttl efi e l d
The Ethernet is cheaper than the token ring but is less efficient in its
use of the channel. The token ring provides an orderly access technique,
while the Ethernet is far less orderly. The token ring has higher overheads at
low levels of traffic but is better under a heavy workload than the Ethernet
and is therefore better at transferring large files, particularly on a busy LAN.
The differences are hard to quantifY, although, generally, if the network will
be operating at a medium workload, the Ethernet would be preferred. If a
heavy workload is expected, the token ring would be preferred.
There are four ways in which these networks can be interconnected:
repeater, bridge, router, and gateway. These devices operate at different levels
of the OSI reference model and are also illustrated in Figure 2 . 3 8 . As
described in the following sections, repeaters and bridges extend networks;
routers and gateways are genuine internetworking devices.
2.1 8.3 N etwork Exte n s i o n
The repeater is a device that operates at layer 1 and simply retimes and regen
erates the signal to transfer data from a network of one type to a network of
the same type. Repeaters therefore allow cable lengths to be extended,
increasing the coverage of a particular network. Media access techniques such
as the Ethernet and the token ring are constrained in their length, however,
and there is maximum length for a particular network that constrains those
techniques to the local area.
A bridge is slightly more intelligent than a repeater and operates at layer
2 and therefore can only interconnect LANs of the same type. Bridges read
the destination and source addresses in the packets or frames and forward
them on to another LAN depending on the address. This simple rule means
that the bridge acts as a filter, only sending frames onto a segment if they are
destined for a device on that segment. On Ethernet LANs this is a very desir
able feature since the segments can effectively operate as independent LANs
until frames need to be sent from one to another. This reduces the potential
collisions on each segment and, unlike repeaters, allows the design rules for
the maximum number of segments to begin again. A bridge could therefore
be used to join two maximum-length Ethernet segments.
2.1 8.4 I ntern etwo rki n g
Routers are configurable, multiport devices that forward data based on the
destination address and the information contained within their configura
tion. The network manager can set the configuration to route traffic by dif
ferent paths depending on a number of parameters such as priority, required
An Introductzon to Co mmunications Techno logy 73
7 7 7
6 6
G ateway
5 5
4 4
3 3 3
R o uter
2
2 B ri d g e 2
1 1 1
R e p e ater
I
I
LAN A
II I
I
I
I
I
LAN B
I
I
Figure 2.38 I nte rc o n n e ction of two networks using a re pe ate r, b n d g e , ro ute r, a n d g ateway.
response time, or cheapest path. Unlike bridges that extend networks, routers
are used to interconnect LANs and to provide segmentation of a larger net
work rather than forming one. Routers provide similar filtering and bridging
functions as bridges, but they offer more sophisticated capabilities such as
network management and the ability to share network information with each
other using routing protocols running at layer 3. They also offer limited
security at this low level through the ability to control access lists and proto
cols. Bridges have no ability to share layer 3 information and therefore can
not perform the same load balancing and other network functions.
Two totally different networks can be connected by a gatewa),. A gate
way operates at layer 7 (the application layer) and translates between two
different protocol stacks. The gateway runs both protocol stacks-corre
sponding to the two stacks in the two disparate networks being connected.
At layer 7, the gateway can be considered to be a translator between host
machines on the two networks. In addition to protocol conversion, the gate
way routes data and therefore it is by far the slowest interconnection device.
If protocol conversion is required, however, this lower speed is normally
accepted gladly as the cost of performing protocol conversion in each device
is prohibitive and a gateway can perform the translation on behalf of a com
plete LAN.
2.1 8.5 Th e I nternet
The best modern example of an internetwork is the Internet, which is made

up of wide a variety of computer networks, including those of government
74 Tactical Com m u n ications for the Digitized Battlefield
departments, universities and colleges, commercial and nonprofit organiza

tions, and individual home computers. Each of the millions of computers
connected to the Internet can send or retrieve information to or from any
other computer on the network, allowing users to access information from
across the world. Computers can be connected to the Internet either directly
through a server, or through a local network, which is then connected to the
Internet through a gateway. To gain access to the Internet, individuals must
first subscribe to an Internet service provider (ISP) , which will act as the gate
way to the Internet. The Internet itself is formed by the interconnection of
routers, which creates a unique communications system in which there is no
central point of control.
The Internet operates on the principle of packet switching. For individ
ual access, the information is sent from the computer's modem, along the
telephone line to the ISP server, where it is broken down into packets. Each
packet is labeled with the address of the recipient. The nature and speed of
the packets that can be sent and received depend on the memory capacity of
the computers involved and the bandwidth capacity of the lines, trunks, and
connections linking them.
Within the Internet, each router reads each addressed packet and sends
the data in the right general direction to the next server. None of the routers
has a map of the whole Internet. They only relate to their own immediate
area and find the best pathway to get to the next point. When computers are
on the same network, the information flow is direct, but when computers are
on different networks, the information is routed through a gateway. Most
gateways are dynamic in that if a packet is incorrectly forwarded to a gate
way, it returns the packet. The preceding gateway then remembers where to
route future packets carrying that particular destination.
Protocols are sets of rules that control transmission between compo
nents in a network. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) [ 1 8] , developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1 972, is the
model used on the Internet. Depending on the traffic flow, different parts of
the same message may be sent by entirely different routes, only to be elec
tronically stitched back together at the final destination. TCP lIP's role is cru
cial in deciding how the data will get to its destination and checking it for
errors and conformity at the receiving end.
TCP provides services to applications. For example, it breaks an e-mail
message down into packets, marks each packet with the information needed
for reconstruction, retransmits lost datagrams, and reconstructs messages. IP
provides datagram transmission services for TCP and other applications,
including deciding upon the route through the network.
'1
'1
Ii
I '.
,(
:1
,
A n In troductIO n to Co mm umcatlO 71S Techn% gy 75
Every computer that connects to the Internet is given its own discreet
address, which is necessary to provide a unique identification fo r each co m
puter. The identification is known as an Internet address, or IP address. Com
puters connected to the Internet through a network will generally have a
permanent IP address. A home computer, or a mobile user, will not normally
be assigned a permanent IP address but, on connection, will be allocated one
from a pool belonging to the user's I S P .
2.1 9 Types of Systems
2.1 9.1 Types of Transmissi o n
Communications systems normally utilize o n e of three basic types o f trans

mission: simplex transmission, in which a transmission path can carry infor
mation in only one direction; half-duplex transmission, in which a
transmission path can carry information i n both directions but in only one
direction at a time; and duplex transmission, in which a transmission path
can carry information in both directions simultaneously. The distinction is
not always made between simplex and half-duplex, with common commer
cial use referring to simplex and duplex as a way of delineating whether infor
mation is being carried simultaneously on the link. In military systems,
however, it is common to distinguish between the three types of transmis
sion, particularly since half-duplex is a very common form of military
transmISSIOn.
2.1 9.2 Sate l l ite C o m m u n ications
In satellite communications [ 1 9] the transmitted energy is directed in a

line-of-sight path at a satellite, which is normally in geostationary orbit.
The satellite then translates the transmission frequency and retransmits the
energy, in either a wide or a narrow beam, back to receiver stations on the
Earth . In essence, a communications satellite is a relay or rebroadcast sta
tion in the sky. Its function is to intercon nect Earth stations so that infor
mation may pass between them. However, it is limiting to think of a
satellite as nothing more than a cable in the sky linking two Earth stations.
The signal received by the satellite is amplified, translated in frequency, and
retransmitted to Earth over a wide area. By the use of multiple-access tech
niques discussed later, it is possible for a large number of ground stations to
communicate on a net basis , with each transmission being received by a
number of stations.
Figure 2.39 illustrates the three basic types of satellite orbit. \X1h en the
satellite rotates in an orbit above the equator, it is called an equatorial orbzt.
76 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itiz e d B a ttlefi e l d
When the satellite rotates in an orbit that takes it over the north and south
poles, it is called a polar orbit. Any other orbital path is called an inclined
orbit. The altitude selected for the satellite above the Earth directly deter
mines both the period of the orbit (time to complete one cycle around the
Earth) and the velocity that must be imparted to the vehicle to achieve that
orbit.
In addition to orbit shape, orbits are normally grouped by their alti
tude. Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites have altitudes of 1 50 to 1 ,5 0 0 km.
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites have altitudes of 1 , 500 to 3 5 ,786 km.
Geosynchronous satellites have a period of rotation that is synchronized to that
of the Earth or some multiple of it. The geostationary orbit is a unique geo
synchronous one, located over the equator with a 0° inclination. The satellite
in geostationary orbit has a height and velocity such that it appears stationary
to earth-bound observation and the satellite is said to be in geostationary
Earth orbit (GEO) . The height above the Earth's surface required for geosta
tionary orbit is 35,786 km with a velocity of 3.073 kms-1 • At that height,
three satellites can provide worldwide coverage.
2. 1 9.2. 1 GEO
As we have seen, geostationary satellites have a rotation period of 2 4 hours,

so that they remain in a fixed position with respect to a given Earth station
and have a 24-hour availability. Once maneuvered into their "parking orbit,"
satellites must be carefully placed into predefined "slots," or parking places,
to ensure that they, and the signals they receive and emit, do not interfere
with the many other satellites nearby. When satellites are no longer usable,
usually because they are running low on maneuvering fuel, they are often
moved into a much higher "disposal orbit" and shut down. International
agreements have defined 1 80 satellite slots (providing 2 degrees of separation
between satellites in GEOs) , but improvements in technology have now
made possible the sharing by several satellites of some more desirable orbital
slots, such as those over Western Europe.
GEOs are the most commonly used communications satellites. How
ever, the high altitude of the GEOs results in round-trip transmission times
of 0.5 second (0. 5-second delay before each speaker hears a response) . This is
much longer than telephone users experience in typical terrestrial connec
tions and can be somewhat annoying. Furthermore, the error detecting and
correction (EDC) methods that have been developed for terrestrial systems do
not operate efficiently in the presence of such long transmission times. How
ever, special EDC methods have been developed specifically for GEOs.
,i
i
t!
A n Introduction to Communications Technology 77
I n c l i n e d o r b it
E q u ato r i a l orbit
Figure 2.39 P o l a r, I n c l i n e d , a n d e q u ato ri a l o r b its.
The advantages of GEOs are as follows:
• The GEO satellite remains almost stationary with respect to a given

Earth station. Consequently, expensive tracking equipment is not
required at the Earth stations, which can use simpler antennas and
therefore are significantly cheaper.
• There is no need to hand over from one satellite to another as they
orbit overhead. Consequently, there are no breaks in transmission
because of the handover times.
• Satellites in inclined orbits require an acquisition operation and
sometimes involve handover from an orbiting satellite leaving the
area to a new satellite entering the area.
• High-altitude geostationary satellites can cover a much larger area of
the Earth than their low-altitude orbital counterparts and global
coverage can be achieved with just three satellites.
• Inclined orbits usually require multiple satellites to be spaced along
the orbit in order to provide continuous coverage to a particular Earth
stanon.
I
}.L _
78 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attlefi e l d
There are, however, a number of disadvantages of GEO orbits:
• Points on the Earth beyond about +75 to 80° latitude are not visible
from the satellite. Inclined orbits, however, can provide visibility to
the higher northern and southern latitudes, although they require
Earth stations to continually track the satellite.
• The higher altitudes of GEO satellites also introduce much longer
propagation times.
• The round-trip propagation delay between two Earth stations
through a GEO satellite is 5 0 0 to 600 ms, which is a bearable delay
for a telephone conversation over a single satellite hop, but a two
hop telephone conversation is very difficult.
• GEO satellites also require higher transmit powers and more sensitive
receivers because of the longer distances and greater path losses.
2 . 1 9.2.2 M EO
In the early days of satellite communication, the lower altitudes of MEOs (up
to 1 0,000 km) were the only ones that could be reached with the launch vehi
cles available at the time. As greater payloads became possible, GEOs became
used almost exclusively for communications, despite the drawback of long
delay. More recently, however, MEOs have experienced a resurgence of inter
est because their transmission path loss is much less than GEOs, and the
round-trip time is reduced to 67 to 200 ms. Circular MEOs have periods of 8 i
I
to 1 2 hours. As a result of the lower orbit, they do not travel at the same speed
as the Earth and several MEOs are needed to provide continuous coverage. I
,I
111'1
Although GEOs seem likely to continue their domination, the lower
transmission path loss of MEOs makes them particularly attractive for
mobile satellite systems because hand-held terminals with much lower power 1I!\
II
and simple omnidirectional antennas can be used. II
!)
iI l,
'j
2. 1 9.2.3 LEO 1
An LEO provides a further reduction in transmISSIOn path loss and in

round-trip delay (on the order of 13 ms) . This allows the use of even lower
power, handheld terminals in mobile satellite service (MSS) systems. The
altitude of an LEO should be high enough to avoid substantial deceleration
due to the atmospheric friction, but low enough to avoid the more intensive
levels of proton bombardment in the inner Van Allen belt. For communica
tions, altitudes between 780 and 1 ,400 km are favored, corresponding
with orbital periods between 1 00 and 1 1 3 minutes. Thus, LEO systems
An Introduction to Co mmunicatlO71S Technology 79
require slightly more satellites than MEO systems to provide continuous

coverage. For example, the Iridium system uses 66 satellites.
2. 1 9.2.4 Ad va nta g e s a n d D i s a dva nta g e s of LE O/M E O O rb its

The lower-orbit satellites have the following advantages:
• Less transmitter power is required.

• There is minimal propagation delay.
• Smaller antennas are required.
• LEOs are less subject to shadowing than GEOs.
However, LEO/MEO satellites have the following disadvantages:
• Larger numbers of satellites are required,

• There is an increased requirement for handover.
• Satellites tend to have a shorter lifetime due to orbital decay.
2.1 9.3 Perso n a l Comm u n i cati ons System
A personal communications system (peS) provides communications serv

ices to mobile terminals. pes operates in the UHF band, with frequencies
typically lying between 800 MHz and 3 GHz. All communications in a
pes occur between a mobile station and one of a number of base stations,
which are in a fixed location. Each base station is connected to a fixed
communications network that provides switching between mobile stations
and connection to the public telephone network. In fact, it should be
remembered that the subscriber is the only mobile element in a mobile
communications system. While pes allows great mobility for subscribers,
that mobility comes at some considerable infrastructure cost for the net
work provider.
The basic elements of a pes system are shown in Figure 2.40. The
mobile subscriber units may be mounted in a vehicle or carried as a portable.
Subscribers are assigned a duplex channel with which to communicate to
a designated base station, which communicates simultaneously with all
mobiles within its coverage area (called a cell) . Base stations are connected to
mobile switching centers, each of which controls a number of cells and han
dles connections with the fixed PSTN. Each base station is allocated a differ
ent carrier frequency with which to communicate with subscribers. Because
only a limited portion of the radio spectrum is available for cellular systems,
the number of carrier frequencies available is limited. This means that the
available frequencies must be reused many times in order to provide suffi
cient channels to cope with a large number of subscribers.
Each base station has allocated to it a number of channels that can be
used for voice communications or for control and signaling traffic. When a
mobile is active, it registers with an appropriate base station and the mobile's
cellular location is stored in the mobile switching center responsible for that
base station. When a call is established either from or to the mobile, the con
trol and signaling system instructs the mobile to use one of the base-station
channels through which it can obtain access to the fIxed network. When the
call is completed, the mobile releases the voice channel that can then be real
located to other users.
As the mobile moves around the cell, the quality of its allocated chan
nel will vary as the signal path varies and as the mobile gets further away from
the base station. Throughout the call, the quality of the radio channel is
monitored so that if it falls below a set threshold (most probably because the
mobile is about to leave the cell) , the mobile can be instructed to hand o ver
(or hand off) to the base station that has the strongest signal. In this way, a
continuous service can be provided to mobiles as they travel around the
network.
The capacity of a base station is provided by sharing the carrier fre
quency between communications channels on a frequency division basis
(typically in fIrst generation analog systems) , on a time division basis (typi
cally in second-generation digital systems) or on a code division basis (also
typical of digital systems) . Most modern systems employ a combination of
access techniques.
Most services of current PCS are based on circuit switching. Maximum
data capacities per circuit are between 2.4 and 9.6 Kbps. There are four
classes of PCS :
• Cordless communications systems;

• Terrestrial cellular communications systems [20] ;
, ,
• Satellite cellular communications systems, such as Iridium, Global i

star, and Teledesic [2 1 ] ; I:
I
i
• Trunked radio (also known as private mobile radio) , such as TETRA

[22] and APCO-25 [23] , both of which are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 7.
An IntroductlO77 to Co m m umcatlOJlS Techno logy 81
Fixed netvvork
i
Mobile
switching
center ( M S C)
i
Ii Subscriber
BS Base station
Figure 2.40 Bas ic elements of a cellular syste m .
The major difference between cordless and cellular systems is that cel
lular systems provide more support for mobility, including handoff of a
mobile station from one base station to another.
It is currently possible to purchase a user terminal that can access more
than one type of pes , although handoff between different types of pess is
not supported. Third-generation cellular systems [24] will go further and
provide a single logical network, with handoff benveen satellite and terres
trial systems being supported.
Endnotes
[1] This fi gure is based o n the model p resented I n S klar, B . , DIgital C0 711 I71Ull lcatlol7S. FU Il
damen tals and Apphcatlol7S, Englewood ClIffs , NJ : P rentice H al l , 200 1 , p. 5 .
[2] There are a number of excellent sources fo r those wishing to examine fu rth er the asp ects
of commun ications technology that are presented In this chapter:
H ayki n , S . , Co m m U771catlO77 S)'stems, New Yo rk: \Xlj]ey, 20 0 1 .
Roddy, D . , and ] . Cool e n , Electro 771c C0771i77Umcatlol7S, Englewood Cliffs , N] : PrentICe

H al l , 1 9 9 5 .
S klar, B . , DIgItal C0 7!17!1If771 Cfltlom: Fundamellfa/s and App llCfltJOilS, Englewo o d Cl I ffs ,
NJ : P rentice H al l , 200 1 .
82 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g iti zed B a ttl efi e l d
Tomasi, W. , Electronic Communications Systems: Fundamentals Through Advances,

Englewood Cliffs, N] : Prentice Hall, 200 1 .
Young, P . , Electronic CommunIcation Techniques, Columbus, O H : Merrill Publishing

Company, 1 99 0 .
Ziemer, R. , and R . Peterson, In troduction to Digital Communications, Englewood Cliffs,

N] : Prentice Hall, 200 1 .
[3] Further details on source coding can be found in [2] as well as:
Luther, A. , Prmciples ofDigital A udio and Video, D edham, MA: Artech House, 1 9 8 5 .
Salomon, D . , Data Compression, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000;
[4] Sources of information on encryption techniques include:
Denning, D. E., Clyptography and Data Security, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1 9 8 3 .
Schneier, B . , Applzed Clyptography: Protocols, Algo rithms, and Source Code i n C, New
York: Wiley, 1 9 94.
Singh, S., The Code Book: The Science ofSecrecy j7-om Ancient Egypt to Quan tum Clyptog
mphy, New York: Anchor Books, 1 9 9 9 .
S inkov, A . , Elementmy Clyptanalysls: A MathematzcalApproach, New York: The Mathe

matical Association of America, 1 9 66.
Stallings, S., Network and Intel7letwork Secunty, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N] : Pren
tice Hall, 1 9 9 5 .
Torrieri, D . J . , Prmczples of Secure Com m u III ca tzo ns, Dedham, MA : Artech House,
1 985.
[5] Funher details on channel coding can be found in [2] as well as :
O berg, T., Modulation, Detectzoll, and Coding, New York: Wiley, 200 1 .
Purser, M . , IntroductlOn to Error- Correctmg Codes, Norwood, MA: Artech House, 1 99 5 .
[6] Frater, M . , and M. Ryan , Electronic Wmfare fo r the Digitized Battlefield, Norwood,
MA: Artech House, 200 1 .
[7] For more details, see: Shakhgildyan, V. , RadlO Transnutter Design, Moscow: MIR Pub
lishers, 1 9 87.
[8] For more details, see: Rohde, U . , and T. Bucher, Communications Receivers: Principles
and Design, New York: McGraw-Hili, 1 98 8 .
[9] For more details, see: Hoss, R. , Fzber Optic Communications: Design Handboo/c, Engle
wood Cliffs, N] : Prentice Hall, 1 9 90.
[ 1 0] For more details, see: Collin, R., Antennas and Radio wave Propagation, New York:
McGraw-Hili, 1 9 8 5 .
[ 1 1 ] For more details, see: Rohan, P . , Introduction to Electromagnetic Wave Propagation,

Norwood, MA: Anech House, 1 99 1 .
[ 1 2] For more details, see: Maclean, T., and Z. Wu, Radiowave Propagation over Ground,
London: Chapman & Hall, 1 993; and Collin, R. , Antennas and Radiowave PropagatlOn,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 8 5 .
[ 1 3] Further details o n sky-wave communications can be found in:
Betts, J., High Frequency CommunicatlOns, London: The English Universities Press Ltd,
1 967.
Braun, G . , Planning and Engineermg of Shortwave Links, Berlin: Siemens Aktienge

sellschaft, Wiley, 1 9 86.
Goodman, J., HF CommunicatlOns: Science and Technology, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1 992.
Maslin, N., HF CommunicatlOns, London: Pitman, 1 9 87.
[ 1 4] For more details, see: Schanker, J., Meteor Burst Communications, Norwood, MA:
Artech House, 1 990.
[ 1 5] For more details, see: Roda, G . , Tropospheric Scatter RadlO Relay Links: Guzde to Design
and Implementation, Castallanza, Italy: Applicazioni Radio Elettroniche SPA, 1 9 86.
[ 1 6] Black, u . , Internet Architecture: An IntroductlOn to IP Protocols, Upper Saddle River, NJ :

Prentice Hall, 2000.
[ 1 7] Further details on TCP/IP can be found in [2] as well as:
De Prycker, M . , Asynchronous Transfer Mode: Solution for Broadband ISDN, New York:
Ellis Horwood, 1 99 3 .
Goralski, W. , Introduction to A TM Networking, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 99 5 .
[ 1 8] Further details on TCP/IP can b e found i n [2] as well as:
Stevens, W. , TCPIIP Illustrated, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1 996.
Wilder, F., A Guide to the TCPIIP Protocol Suite, Norwood, MA. : Artech House, 1 99 8 .
[ 1 9] Further details on satellite communications can be found in:
Elbert, B., Introduction to Satellite CommunicatlOn, Norwood, MA: Artech House,

1 99 9 .
Elbert, B . , The Satellite Communication Applications Handbook, Norwood, MA : Artech

House, 1 997.
Gagliardi, R. , Satellite Communications, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1 9 84.
Ha, T., Digital Satellite Communications, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1 986.
Jansky, D., Communications Satellites in the Geostationary Orbit, Dedham, MA: Artech
House, 1 98 3 .
Kadish, J . , and T. East, Satellite Communications Fundamentals, Norwood, MA : Artech

House, 2000.
--- - ---- --- -- -- -- - - - --

84 Tacti c a l C o mm u n i c ations fo r the D i g itized B attlefie l d
Maral, G . , and M . Bousquet, Satellite Communications Systems, 3rd ed. , New York:
Wiley, 1 99 8 .
Martinez, L. , CommunicatlOn Satellztes: Power Politics in Space, D edham, MA : Artech

House, 1 9 8 5 .
Matos-Gomez, ] . , Satellite Broadcast Systems Engineering, Norwood, MA : Artech

House, 2002.
Pratt, T., and C. Bostian, SatellIte Communications, New York: Wiley, 1 986.
Pritchard, W. , H . S uyderhoud, and R. Nelson, Satellite Communication Systems Engi

neering, Englewood Cliffs, NJ : P rentice H all, 1 99 3 .
Richharia, M . , SatellIte Comm U711CatlOns Systems: Design Principles, New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1 99 5 .
Roddy, D . , SatellIte CommU711CatlOllS, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 996.
[20] Further details on mobile communications systems can be found i n :
Doble, ] . , Introduction to Radio PropagatlOn for FLY."ed and Mobzle Communications, Nor
wood, MA : Artech House, 1 9 96.
Garg, V. , and ] . Wilkes, WIreless and Personal Co mmunicatiollS Systems, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall, 1 996.
Hess, G., Land-Mo bzle RadlO Sptem Engll1eenng, Norwood, MA : Artech House, 1 99 3 .
Hernando, ] . , and F . Perez-Fontan, IntroductlOll to Mo bzle CommunicatlOns Engmeering,

Norwood, MA: Artech House, 1 9 9 9 .
Lee, W. , Mobzle Cellular Telecommul1lcatio71S Systems, New York: McG raw-Hill, 1 99 0 .
Rappaport, T. , WIreless Com mullicatio71S, Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice H all, 1 9 96.
[2 1 ] Further details on satellite-based mobile communications can be found in:
Jamalipour, A. , L o w Earth Orbital Satellites for Personal Communication Networks, Nor

wood, MA : Artech House, 1 99 8 .
Ohmori, S . , H . Wakana, and S. Kawase, Mobile Satellite Communications, Norwood,

MA : Artech House, 1 9 9 8 .
Pattan, B . , Satellite-Based Cellular Co m m unicatlO JZ, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 996.
Ryan, M . , "Satellite-Based Mobile Communications , " in L. Godara, (ed.) , Handbook of

Antennas 17l Wireless Com m unicatIOns, Boca Raton , FL: CRC Press, 2002.
[22] TETRA specifications are contained in:
ETS 300 392- 1 , " Radio Equipment and Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trunked
Radio (TETRA) ; Voice plus Data (V+ D ) ; Part 1 : General Network Design , " Sophia
Antipolis: ETSI , 1 996.
An IntroductlOil to Co m m Uillcatzo ilS Techn o log y 85
ETS 3 0 0 3 9 2-2, " RadIo Eq uIpment and Systems ( RES ) ; Tran s-Europcan T r U Il kcd
Radio (TETRA) ; Voi ce p l us Data (V+ D ) ; Part 2 : Au I n terface (AI ) , " S o p h I a An t I p o l i s .
ETS I , 1 9 9 6 .
ETR 300 - 1 , " Radio Equipment a n d Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European T run ked Rad I O
(TETRA) ; Voi ce p l us D ata (V+ D ) ; DesIgn ers G u ide; Part J : OvervI ew, Tec h n I ca l
D escription a n d Radio Aspects , " Sophia An tipolis: ETS I , 1 9 9 7 .
ETR 300-2, " Rad io Eq uipment a n d Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trun ked Rad I O
(TETRA) ; Voice p l u s D ata (V+ D ) ; Designers G u i d e ; Part 2 : Traffic Aspects , " S o p h I a
Antipolis: ETS I , 1 9 9 7 .
ETR 3 0 0 - 3 , " Radio Equipment a n d Systems (RES) ; Trans-European Trunked Rad I O

(TETRA) ; Voice plus Data (V+ D ) ; Designers G u i d e ; Part 3 : D I rect M o d e Operation
(DMO ) , " Sophia An tipolis: ETS I , 1 9 9 7 .
ETS 3 0 0 3 9 3 - 1 , " Radio E q u i p m e n t and Systems (RES) ; Trans-European Trun ked

Radio (TETRA) ; Packet D ata Optimized ( P D O ) ; Part 1 : General Network DesIgn , "
Sophia An tipolis: ETS I , 1 9 9 8 .
[23J S tandards fro m APeo P roj ect 2 5 are published b y the Teleco m m u n icati ons I n d ustry
Association i n their 1 02-series.
[24J Further details on thi rd-generation m o b i l e communicati ons can be fo und i n :
Ko rhonen, ] . , Introduction to 3 G Mo bde Co m m UI2lCatlOJ1S, N o rwood, MA : Artcch

H o use, 200 1 .
P rasad, R. , W. Mohr, and \Y/. Ko n hauser, (eds . ) , ThI rd GeneratlOll Mo bde Co m m llJ1 lca
tion Systems, Norwood, MA : Artech House, 2 0 0 0 .
P rasad, R. , (ed. ) , To wards a Glo bal 3 G System: Advanced Mo bde C0 771771 lfJ1lCatlOl1J lJ7
Europe, Volu me i, N o rwood, MA: Artech H o use, 20 0 l .
Introduction to Land Force Structures
3.1 Introduction
Effective communications is vital to the command and control of any army.

Many characteristics of tactical communications systems are determined by
the structure of the forces that they support. It is therefore useful to examine
the general structure of land forces as a precursor to analyzing the communi
cations systems that support them. Since we are interested in tactical com
munications systems, we focus on the structure of land forces at the tactical
level.
This chapter provides an overview of army organizational structure,
aiming to provide a basic understanding of the tasks that armies are called
upon to perform, the size and disposition of army units, the army command
structure, tactical communications structure, and the role of support and
services. The basic army structure discussed here applies to most of the
world's armies. The coverage is general; we do not discuss details of any par
ticular army.
3.2 Spectrum of Military Operations
While waging war is often seen as the principal task of an army, in practice an
army's tasks are much more varied and include a range of protective and
humanitarian activities that the civilian agencies of government (such as
police and emergency services) are often unable to undertake. Peacekeeping,
87
Ii1
88 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield I
'I
I.)
!j
often under a United Nations mandate, is one such example. While some I
:1
commentators see this as a post-Cold War phenomenon, there is in fact II1
nothing new about this variety of tasks for military forces. The armies (and i
1
'I
even navies) of European colonial powers, for example, were used for centu
ries to suppress local uprisings by natives of various colonies, or as guards for
I�
i
prisoners in penal colonies (e.g., in Britain's American, and later Australian,

colonies).
The breadth of tasks that can be undertaken by an army is often
referred to as the spectrum ofoperations, which would typically include large
scale combat operations; lower-level combat operations (often designed to
prevent higher-intensity conflict), such as peace enforcement, counterinsur
gency, and counterterrorism; and peacekeeping and humanitarian opera
tions. In most countries, troops are also used to support the civil government
in emergencies. These support tasks m ight include disaster relief (following
flood, fire, earthquake, or another natural disaster), provision of essential
services during strikes, and riot control. Sometimes, particular parts of an
army may have special responsibilities in support of the civil government, as
is the case for the u.S. National Guard.
]V2020 divides military operations into two classes: combat (i.e., war) and
noncombat [also known as military operations other than war (MOOw)J,
incorporating all the other roles of a military force [1].
As indicated in Table 3.1, the boundaries between different types of
operations are often blurred and an army must often be able to transition
quickly from one different type of operation to another. A peacekeeping
operation, for example, may require that a force maintain a high level of visi
bility as a sign of good faith and a deterrent to potential opponents. If
attacked, however, the force must be able to react quickly, possibly taking
action more typical of combat operations.
Many characteristics of these operations differ. One of the most obvi
ous is the rules of engagement (i.e., the rules dictating the circumstances
under which it is acceptable to use particular levels of force). Generally, the
rules of engagement are more restrictive for operations listed in the lower
part of Table 3.1 than for those listed in the upper part. In recent NATO air
operations in Kosovo, for example, attacks against individual targets were
sometimes required to be authorized at the political level in up to 19 differ
ent countries. Even within the NATO military organization, it is reported
that the air commander (General Short) personally oversaw the search for
three tanks [2], and in many cases was required to personally authorize
attacks [3J. This type of restriction would not normally be applied III a
higher-intensity conflict (e.g., the Gulf War).
Introduction to Land Force Structures 89
Similarly, the density of troops in the area of operations also varies with
the type of operation, once again being lower for operations in the lower part
of Table 3.1 than those in the upper part. This is driven by a trade-off between
the cost of an operation and the level of threat; where the level of threat is low
(i.e., for operations listed toward the bottom part of Table 3.1), the cost of an
operation can be reduced without introducing unacceptable risk by using a
smaller size of force than would be used for a higher threat operation.
At the tactical level, any army is required to be able to undertake a
number of tasks. These include patrolling, defending ground, protectlllg
vital facilities, and capturing either ground or facilities.
3.3 Army Structure
Key differences between the capabilities of an army in carrying out the vari
ous types of operation and those of civil agencies (such as the civil police) are
the power of the weapons available, the level of force that may be considered
acceptable, and the availability of a high level of integral support. One of the
key characteristics of an army that separates it from other types of organiza
tion is that it can deploy to a remote location and support itself in a hostile
Table 3.1
Range of Military Operations Outlined In JV2020
Type of Operation General U.S. Goals Examples
Combat Fight and Win Large-scale combat operations
Attack/defend/blockade
Noncombat Deter war and resolve conflict Peace enforcement
Counterterrorism
Show of force/rald/stnke
Peacekeeping
Countennsurgency
Promote peace and support Freedom of navigation

U.S. civil authontles
Counterdrug
Humanitanan assistance
Protection of shipping
U S CIVil support
environment. This support typically includes providing its own communica

tions, being able to construct roads and bridges, and maintaining the supply
of food, water, ammunition, and equipment to troops.
Firepower is provided by infantry (foot soldiers), armor (such as tanks),
aviation (such as helicopter gunships), and artillery. These units cannot oper
ate without support, including communications and electronic warfare, pro
vided by signals units; construction and demolition support (such as
bridges), provided by engineers; information on adversary intentions and
actions, provided by intelligence assets; transport, provided by transport
units as well as armored and aviation units; supplies, provided by various
supply units; and medical support, provided by field ambulance and field
hospitals.
Traditionally, the functions of land forces are broken into the following
areas: com bat (infantry and armor), com bat support (signals, engineers, artil
lery, and aviation), and services (transport, medical, and support). Here, we
are concerned primarily with infantry units and the signals support that is
integral to them or provided externally.
Armies are typically organized into strongly hierarchical structures,
similar to that shown in Table 3.2.
The symbols shown in Figure 3. 1 are often used to represent the size
and type of different units. Infantry units are denoted by a box with a cross
inside. Signals units are denoted by a box with a diagonal zig-zag line. Other
types of units have symbols of their own. The size of a unit is indicated by the
symbol above the box. A headquarters is distinguished from its unit by the
addition of a mast to the flag symbol.
Table 3.2
TYPIcal Army Units
Size (Personnel) Maximum Frontage in Defense
Squad/section 6-9 200m
Platoon/troop 30 500m
Company/squadron 100 1 2 km
BattalIOn/regIment 600-800 4km
Bngade 3,000 12 km
DivIsion 10,000 25 km
Corps 30,000 50 km
• Infantry unit:
• Section
C8J
• • •
• Platoon
�
B
• Signals unit:
• Company
~
F
• Headquarters:
•
Battalion
~
• Area:
C) •
Brigade
~
• Division
~
• Corps
~
Figure 3.1 Symbols representing army units of various sizes.
This section describes the characteristics of the various levels of an

army's hierarchy in conventional high-intensity combat operations. The dif
ferences in operating characteristics for other types of operation are discussed
in Section 3.3.4.
3.3.1 The Infantry Squad
3.3.1.1 Organization
The infantry squad [4] (or rifle section) consists of approximately six to nine
members, usually commanded by a sergeant (U.S. army) or corporal (British
army). Its weapons normally include at least one light machine gun and
might include rocket-propelled grenades or antitank weapons. The remain
ing soldiers in the squad are equipped with automatic rifles. In most armies,
the infantry squad is organized internally into two or three smaller groups. In
the U.S. army, for example, the squad is divided into two fire teams of four
members. As described later in Section 3.3.4, the size of squads may decrease
when infantry units have integral transport.
Figure 3.2 shows a representation of an infantry squad in defense. The
ellipse represents the area occupied by the squad. The dot in the boundary
indicates that the area is occupied by a squad-sized force. The circles inside
represent notional locations of weapons pits that are used to provide protec
tion from an adversary's fire. The area covered by a infantry squad when
patrolling or in defense is determined by a number of factors. Vulnerability
to an adversary's indirect firepower (such as mortars and artillery) is mini
mized by maximizing the spacing between squad members. The maximum
separation is limited by tactics, communications, and logistics. Tactical con
siderations require mutual support between the squad's weapons and the
requirement to provide all-around defense. The terrain also has a significant
impact on the area: It is usually required that each soldier can see those other
soldiers closest to him or her. The range of communications also limits sepa
ration within the squad. If communications is by voice, then the separation is
limited to shouting distance. Finally, the ability to move supplies around the
squad area (usually on foot) limits the separation.
3.3.1.2 Communications
Communications within a squad is usually face-to-face, either by voice or

hand signals, or by hand carriage (runners). Squad radio (UHF) is sometimes
A dversary
Notional boundary
\...
� "Goose egg"
-----_ /
Mutual support
o o
Depth
Max - 200m It
Figure 3.2 Infantry squad in defense.

!I
II
!I
I
\!
used. Communications cord is sometimes used in defense to relay very sim
I
I.
I
ple messages.
Ii 3,3.2 The Rifle Platoon

II
I
I;
I[
II A rifle platoon consists of a headquarters, usually containing a platoon com

Ii mander of lieutenant rank and a second-in-command (2IC) of sergeant rank,
'i
I possibly a support section supplying additional (heavier) weapons, and three
I or four infantry squads.
I Figure 3.3 illustrates a platoon in defense. The ellipse indicates the area
Ii
II
occupied by the platoon. The three dots in the boundary indicate that the
area is occupied by a platoon-sized force. Squads are laid out to provide
mutual support, all-around defense, and depth. The platoon headquarters is
positioned to provide effective command and control of the platoon. As was
the case for the squad, maximum protection from an adversary's indirect fire
is obtained by maximizing the area over which the platoon is deployed. This
maximum area is limited by tactics, communications, and logistics. Larger
separations are possible in the platoon because mutual support between
squads is provided by the squad machine guns, as opposed to mutual support
within the squad, which is provided by the soldier's personal weapons. Like
the squad, the platoon does not have any integral support assets and relies
heavily on higher levels for these.
Adversary
"
Mutual support
o • • • •
o
o
o
o �XJ
•
••
• �-----�
Max - 500m
Figure 3.3 Rifle platoon in defense.
/
Communications within a rifle platoon employ face-to-face communications

and hand carriage (runners). VHF radio or point-point telephone means are
sometimes used for communications between platoon headquarters (HQ)
and squads.
3.3.3 The Rifle Company
A rifle company usually consists of [5]:
• A headquarters, usually containing a company commander (with the

rank of major or captain) and 21 C and company sergeant major;
• Probably a support section supplying additional weapons, especially
if platoons do not have such a section;
• Three or four rifle platoons.
Like lower levels, the company does not have integral support assets. It
therefore relies heavily on higher levels. A rifle company in defense is repre
sented in Figure 3.4. The structure is the similar to that of the platoon, still
employing the basic principles of depth and mutual support. Each of the pla
toons is deployed in accordance with these same principles, as outlined
above. Once again, separation between elements of the company is key to
defense, but is limited by tactics, communications, and logistics. Tactically,
the company is able to deploy over a wider area than a platoon or squad
because of the availability of heavier weapons from the support section to
provide mutual support between platoons.
Company communications use the following means: face-to-face, VHF

radio, line (telephone), and hand-carriage (runners). In most armies, the
company is equipped with radio to provide communications for the com
mand and control of its platoons. Each company has one radio net, with a
primary and at least one alternate frequency, and approximately 10 RF emit
ters. These numbers are multiplied by three to four if a platoon radio net is
used.
Adversary
"
a=D
1><1 @� •••
�-+-71
···C�� I
•• •
.. Max - 1,200m
Figure 3.4 Rifle company in defense.
3.3.4 The Infantry Battalion
The battalion differs from lower levels both in size and in the range of inte
gral support assets. This increased range of integral support provides greatly
enhanced flexibility. A typical infantry battalion consists of [6]:
• Battalion headquarters, including a commanding officer (CO) of

lieutenant-colonel rank, 2IC (major rank), and an operations officer
(major rank);
• Three or four rifle companies;
• Support assets of platoon strength, often including mortars, engineer
support (sometimes known as assault pioneers), machine guns, sig
nals, antiarmor, transport, technical maintenance, and medical.
Figure 3.5 shows an infantry battalion in defense. The boundaries are

shown as straight lines for illustrative convenience; in practice they would usu
ally follow terrain features such as roads, rivers, or contour lines. Each bound
ary is marked with a symbol indicating the level of the command -hierarchy
associated with the boundary. The battalion headquarters would usually be
..
II
! "'-
"'-
E
�
.q
I
><
co
2!
A dversary
"'-
--�---
�---- II
Figure 3.5 Infantry battalion in defense.
deployed somewhere to the rear of the battalion area. Sometimes, the com
mander may deploy an additional tactical HQ further forward.
Because of its integral support, the infantry battalion is much more
capable than a group of rifle companies. These support assets provide it with
a range of weapons not usually available at lower levels (e.g., mortars and
heavier machine guns)) communications, and engineer support, as well as a
range of logistics assets that enable the battalion to sustain itself for a short
period of time.
Communications for command and control within the battalion is provided

by the battalion signals platoon, if present. The battalion is therefore the low
est tactical level at which specialist communicators are available. Battalion
communications is based primarily on VHF radio and simple telephony.
VHF radio is used where possible, with HF being used for subunits
employed on tasks beyond the range of VHF, as might be the case on some
reconnaissance and patrolling tasks. UHF radio may be used for ground-air
communications. Traditionally, the battalion has only a manual telephone
switchboard, which is not connected to outside communications. More
recently, it has been usual for the battalion commander to have a single direct
connection into the higher-level trunk network.
Each battalion has a total of up to 10 radio nets, each with its own pri
mary and alternate frequencies, and a total of up to 100 RF emitters.
3.3.5 The Infantry Brigade
An infantry brigade [7] consists of a headquarters, a signals squadron, and

attached units. Often, these attached units are actually owned by the division
and allocated to the brigade for particular tasks. The brigade headquarters
typically includes the commander, an operations command post [ops CP, or
tactical operations center (TOC)], a personnel and logistics command post
(pers/log CP or TOC), and a defense platoon. The brigade signals the squad
ron that provides the communications requirements for the brigade, includ
ing communications to the units under command. Attached units would
usually include three or four infantry battalions, a regiment of armored per
sonnel carriers (APCs) , an artillery regiment, an engineer regiment, and a
supply squadron and other logistics units.
Figure 3.6 shows a brigade in defense. At the coarse level of detail
shown, the structure is similar to the battalion. One important addition is
the brigade maintenance area (BMA), also known as the brigade support area
(BSA) in the rear. This maintenance area is used by the brigade for moving
�
r
E
'\--
X
co
X
�
'\--
Adversary
!III
�------ X ----�---
Figure 3.6 Brigade in defense.

stores and reinforcements through to its units. It is also used by member

units for various administrative functions.
Brigade communications are provided by the signals squadron, which con

sists of specialist communicators whose primary role is to support the brigade
commander's command and control of the brigade. In some armies (such as
the British), the brigade signals squadron is also responsible for providing
administrative support to the brigade headquarters.
Brigade communications use VHF and HF radio, as well as UHF for
ground-air communications, line (extensive telephone systems with auto
matic switchboards within headquarters), trunk communications linking the
brigade H Q telephone system to higher H Q and possibly to battalion com
manders), and hand carriage (vehicle-based).
Each brigade (including attached divisional units) has approximately
50 radio nets, and 600 RF emitters. These numbers assume radio is used only
at the company level and above. In areas where radio is used at the platoon
level, the number of nets and emitters would be multiplied by a factor of
three to four.
3.3.6 The Infantry Division
The infantry division is a formation that includes the support units

required to enable sustained operations without external support [8]. A
typical division has a headquarters with similar structure to a brigade head
quarters. This headquarters is often split into two parts, known as main and
rear. Its communications are provided by a signals regiment. A division
usually possesses sufficient units of various types to support three brigades,
each with a full complement of infantry, armor, engineers, artillery, and
supply.
In most traditional armies, the division is the lowest level formation
with sufficient integral support and services to conduct sustained operations
without additional external support units. This ability to sustain itself gives a
division capability well beyond that of three brigades. Figure 3.7 represents a
division in defense. The structure is very similar to a brigade and includes a
large divisional maintenance area (OMA) , also known as the division support
area (OSA), housing logistics facilities, in the rear.
r
�----- XX ---r----
Adversary
•
><
_-..L.
'-----
XX ___________
Figure 3.7 Division in defense.
The communications within a division are provided by its signals regiment

[9J. The majority of division-level communications are handled by trunk
systems, providing a range of high-capacity communications services. This
is due to the very large volume of data and telephony that is required by a
modern division, especially for logistics. Single channel radio communica
tions is also provided (both VHF and HF) and primarily used for
command.
Each division has approximately 160 radio nets and 2,000 RF emitters.
These numbers assume that radio is used only at the company level and
above. In areas where radio is used at the platoon level, the number of nets
and emitters would be multiplied by a factor of three to four.
3.3.7 The Infantry Corps
The infantry corps consists of a headquarters, two signals regiments, three

infantry divisions, and a number of corps assets such as an EW regiment.
Figure 3.8 represents a corps in defense. Like the division and brigade, the
corps sets aside an area in the rear for its logistics, known as the corps mainte
nance area (CMA) or corps support area (CSA).
1 00 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
xxx
r
E
�
CI)
u
'.p
.� ctJ
0)0,)
o
--l
"-
ctJ
><
><
Adversary
!III
0
Ln
!
X ><
ctJ ><
>< xx
2
---
><
><
xxx -.-.-----
Figure 3.8 Corps in defense.
Corps-level communications rely almost exclusively on high-capacity trunk

communications systems; single channel combat radio would provide only a
backup means. Large amounts of data would often be transferred, requiring
high-bandwidth communications systems. Long range may also be required,
especially in communicating with higher headquarters.
Each corps has approximately 500 radio nets and 6,000 RF emitters.
These numbers assume radio is used only at the company level and above. In
areas where radio is used at the platoon level, the number of radios and radio
nets would be multiplied by a factor of three or four.
3.3.8 Mechanized and Motorized Infantry
In modern warfare, speed of maneuver is critical. On foot, infantry can move

only approximately 4 km/hr. Higher speed of maneuver can be obtained by
providing transport in the form of trucks or APCs. Flexibility of maneuver is
maximized by making these transport assets integral to units and formations.
The term motorized infant7J' refers to infantry units with integral truck
transport of sufficient capacity to uplift the whole unit. Mechanized infantJy
refers to infantry units with integral armored transport (APCs) with suffi
cient capacity to move the whole unit [10].
The size of an infantry squad in mounted infantry units may be smaller

than described above. One possible reason for this is the provision of fire sup
port provided by a gun mounted on the vehicle.
For both mechanized and motorized infantry, it is usual that each
troop-carrying vehicle would carry a radio. This results in a multiplication of
the number of RF emitters in a given unit of formation by a factor of
approximately two to three.
3.3.9 Span of Command
The span of command of the typical army is illustrated in Figure 3.9. This
hierarchical structure, with a span of command of approximately three at
each level, is a product of thousands of years of military experience. In prac
tice, commanders at most levels also have integral combat support and serv
ices, making their effective span of command up to approximately seven,
which is approximately the typical capacity of human short-term memory
[11]. This structure also provides flexibility in the number of different-sized
groupings that are available for tasking.
Compared to civilian organizations, the number of levels of hierarchy
in a military organization appears large, and the span-of-command low. The
apparent difference between military and civilian organizations is exagger
ated by an eagerness by management in civilian organizations to see struc
tures as flatter than they really are. The lowest level of manager in a civilian
organization may, for example, be directly responsible for a group of 20 to 30
Usual span of command : 3
Brigade
Battalion
Company
Platoon
Section
Figure 3.9 Typical army command structure, excluding combat support and services.
people. It is common, however, for this manager to be supported by two or

three individuals with the title of "team leader," each of whom is responsible
to the manager for supervising a portion of the group. In other words, while
there may be no formal equivalent of the squad in this civilian hierarchy,
in reality there are individuals who are assigned the role of the squad
commander.
Another important difference between military and commercial
organizations is the need for flexibility. The crew members of a commercial
airliner, for example, are carefully trained to carry out all tasks in a particu
lar way and set out in detail in the airlines' operational procedures. This
maximizes the flexibility of crew rosters, allowing a crew to be formed from
any group of qualified individuals, and removing the need for crew mem
bers to train together before they work together. A military organization
trained in this way would be very predictable in its operations, making it
extremely vulnerable against any adversary that understood its procedures.
It is more usual, therefore, for an army to adopt doctrine that sets out the
general principles by which it operates, but retain significant flexibility at
all levels of the command hierarchy. This approach requires, however, that
troops train in the same groups in which they will operate, and provides a
large range of modular units that can be allocated to tasks of different sizes.
A task appropriate for a company-sized force cannot normally be per
formed by three platoons without the addition of a company headquarters
and the organization training as a company. Removal of one or more levels
of the command hierarchy can be seen, therefore, to reduce significantly
the flexibility of a force.
3.4 Joint Forces
Historically, the different branches of the armed services (navy, army, air
force, and, in some countries, marines) have operated largely independently
of one another at the tactical level. Coordination of support between the
services, such as naval gunfire support or close air support for land forces, has
therefore been carried out at a very high level. This is seen as placing unnec
essary barriers to the provision of support between the services and reducing
the effectiveness of the support that is provided, including reducing the com
bat power that can be brought to bear on an adversary.
Integration of elements from all three services into a joint force at the
tactical level is seen as an important enabler for future operations, both high
and low intensity, combat and noncombat. Such a joint force would consist
of elements from two or more services, but not be confined to traditional

force structures that assign particular capabilities (such as fire support) to
forces of a particular size. For example, a joint force might include only one
battalion of infantry, but be assigned naval gunfire support and a land-based
fire support capability traditionally associated with a division.
Integration into a joint force implies a certain level of integral support
within each element of the force. For the land element, this typically does not
exist at levels below battalion, suggesting that direct integration of lower lev
els (such as company) into a joint force would not commonly occur. Issues
associated with the training of commanders for joint operations also suggest
that integration below this level is likely to be difficult. It may be that even
battalion is too low a level for many types of operation, with integration
occurring only at the formation (i.e., brigade or division) level.
Because the issues of span of command discussed in Section 3.3.9 are
related primarily to the capabilities of human commanders and their human
staffs, the fundamental principles of span of command should not be expected
to change as a result of the use of joint forces.
3.5 Dispersed Forces
The high density of forces described in Section 3.3.3 is necessary in

current-generation armies for conventional, high-intensity conflict (i.e.,
the operations at the top of Table 3.1) . The dispersal of a force over a larger
area creates distances between its various elements too great for them to
provide mutual support, thereby increasing their vulnerability. In opera
tions where the level of threat is lower, such as peacekeeping or low-level
conflict, it is often desirable to disperse a force over much larger areas, often
as a means of cost reduction. When operational requirements force disper
sal of forces over large areas, defense of the whole area is not feasible. In
defense, units and formations rely on intelligence and reconnaissance data
to position its forces at critical locations. This might include protection of
key assets, such as the civil telecommunications infrastructure. Figure 3.10
illustrates the layout of a widely dispersed brigade, in which the three bat
talions under command are spread over an area with diameter of 1,000 km.
Within this, one of the battalions is itself dispersed over a wide area in three
company locations.
A comparison of deployments in the Gulf War and for peacekeeping in
East Timor illustrates the difference between the dispersal of forces in combat
and peacekeeping operations. In the Gulf War, four corps were deployed
II
Up to 1,000 km
Figure 3.10 Layout of widely dispersed forces.
across a front of approximately 300 km on the northern border of Saudi Ara

bia. This is roughly in line with the maximum expected for high-intensity
operations, allowing for each corps having a frontage of approximately 50 km,
and with gaps of several kilometers between corps. In East Timor, however, a
single Australian battalion was deployed on the border between East Timor
and West Timor with the task of preventing infiltration of armed militias,
across a front of approximately 70 km.
Increasing the distances between the various elements of a force has
important consequences for all types of support, including engineers, logis
tics, and communications. For engineers, dispersal increases the amount of
road requiring construction and maintenance. For logistics, dispersal
increases traveling times between units, thereby increasing the transport
assets required to service a particular force. For communications, especially
those operating at VHF and higher frequencies that are limited to line-of
sight operation, dispersal increases the requirement to provide relays to
extend range. The use of relays itself increases the dispersal of signals units,
creating another source of additional logistics load. The impact of altering
the range of communications is discussed in Section 3.6.
Introduction to Land Force Structures 1 05
3.6 Characteristic Distances for Communications
One of the important ways in which the army structure influences the char
acteristics of military communications is through the distances involved.
Table 3.3 shows characteristics distances for communications within the
various levels of the army hierarchy.
The range over which a force must communicate is strongly related to
the means of communications used, as illustrated in Figure 3.11. At the low
est levels, the primary means of communications is face-to-face, and the
required range is within shouting distance. Once the size of a force becomes
large enough that means other than direct face-to-face contact are required,
VHF combat radio is commonly used to provide a single voice channel for
command and control. At the highest levels, where the required range of
communications exceeds the line-of-sight range of VHF combat radio and
higher capacity is required, trunk communications systems are used to pro
vide long-range, high-capacity communications.
One major implication of dispersal of a formation over a very large area
is the increased distances over which it is required to communicate. At bri
gade and possibly even battalion, these distances will exceed the range of
ground-based VHF equipment, requiring the use of (possibly airborne)
relays. Similarly, logistics units are strained by the longer times taken to drive
between units deployed in the area of operations. Forces that are very fast
moving can create similar difficulties, as was the case for the British division
in the Gulf War. In support of one division, consisting of only two brigades,
Table 3.3
Characteristic Distances for Communications Within Units and Formations
Conventional Dispersed
Squad 200m 200m

Platoon 500m 500m
Company 1 km 1 km
Battalion 4km Up to 600 km
Brigade 12 km Up to 1,000 km
Division 25 km
Corps 50 km
Section 11
D.l
-------- ------------ - ------ - n
CD
,
r+
o
Platoon ,
.......
D.l
n
co
n
Company o
-------------------------------------------- 3
cr
D.l
r+
Battalion ....,
-------------------------------------------- D.l
Cl..
o
Brigade
Division �
c:
------------------------------------------------------------ ::l
"
Corps
Figure 3.11 Typical army communications structure.
most of the communications resources of a corps were allocated, and these

were stretched to the limit [12].
The requirement to be able to conduct different types of operations
raises issues for both equipment and training. For modern armies, large
scale, high-intensity, combat operations tend to drive most equipment pro
curement. Most armies cannot afford to purchase different equipment for
use in lower-intensity operations. Even if they could afford two (or more)
sets of different equipment, these would likely require different training,
suggesting that they would be operated by different specialist troops, a
situation that is unlikely to be acceptable. As discussed in more detail in
Chapter 5, it is generally required that the differences in equipment and
specialist communications personnel used by a force for different types of
operation are minimized.
3.7 Summary
Military organizations around the world are called upon to perform a large
variety of tasks, ranging from the warlike to humanitarian. The ability to
carry out this range of tasks is supported by the ability of armies to deploy to
a remote location and provide their own support and logistics, including
communications. The wide variety of tasks, and the associated need to
operate in a traditional high-intensity, high-density environment, as well as
operations in a widely dispersed mode pose special challenges for communi

cations. An effective, modern architecture for military communications,
therefore, needs to support command and control across the spectrum of
operations, and the associated range of high- and low-density deployments.
This architecture is the principal concern of the remainder of this book.
Endnotes
[1] "Joint Vision 2020," Director of Strategic Plans and Policy, J5 Strategic Division,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 2000.
[2] Short, M. c., quoted in Proc. AFA Air Warfare Symposium 2000, Arlington, VA: Aero
space Education Foundation, Feb. 24-25, 2000.
[3] Ripley, T., "UAVs over Kosovo: Did the Earth Move?" Defense Systems Daily, Cirences
ter, U.K.: Defence Data Ltd., Dec. 1, 1999.
[4] Relevant U.S. doctrine is contained in U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-8, "Infantry
Rifle Platoon And Squad," April 1992.
[5] U.S. doctrine pertaining to the rifle company is contained in U.S. Army Field Manual
FM 7-10, "The Infantry Rifle Company," Dec. 1990, amended Oct. 2000.
[6] See, for example, U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-20, "The Infantry Battalion," April
1992.
[7] U.S. doctrine for the infantry brigade is found in U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-30,
"The Infantry Brigade," Oct. 1995, amended Oct. 31, 2000.
[8] Relevant U.S. doctrine can be found in U.S. Army Field Manual FM 71-100, "Divi
sion Operations," Aug. 1996.
[9] See, for example, U.S. Army Field Manual FM 11-50, "Combat Communications
Within the Division (Heavy and Light)," April 1991.
[10] U.S. doctrine for mechanized troops is contained in:
U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-7, "The Mechanized Infantry Platoon and Squad
(APC)," March 1985.
U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-7J, "Mechanized Infantry Platoon And Squad (Brad
ley)," May 1993.
[11] This rule was originally suggested by Miller, and has been empirically verified by many
researchers since. See Miller, G. A., "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two:
Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information," The Psychological Review,
Vol. 63, No. 2, 1956, pp. 81-97.
[12] Rice, M., and A. Sammes, Command and Control: Support Systems in the Gulf War,
London: Brassey's, 1994, p. 25.
4
Development of Tactical
Communications
4.1 Introdu cti o n
Early commanders were constrained in their sphere of influence by how far

they could move away from their troops and still remain in physical contact.
This restriction on their ability to command and control placed a limit on the
number of troops that could be placed under their command. A larger number
of troops could be commanded through the development of a chain of com
mand that provided a hierarchical structure within which orders could flow up
and down between superior and subordinate commanders. Each commander
still had to remain in physical contact with superior and subordinates, how
ever. To embark on large-scale military endeavors, commanders needed to
communicate effectively over distances larger than shouting distance and some
form of communications system was required. Early systems were rudimen
tary, utilizing visual and acoustic signaling as well as messengers. The introduc
tion of telegraphy and telephony saw the beginnings of a major change in
command and control capability, and tactical communications systems have
grown in complexity and scale to become an indispensable component of a
commander's warfighting capability [ 1] .
This chapter begins by briefly examining the early history of military
communications and then focuses on the development of the two major tacti
cal communications subsystems that are deployed by all major modern armies.
From this background, a number of fundamental principles of battlefield
109
1 10 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for t h e D i g itize d B a ttlefi e l d
communications are identified to provide a detailed understanding that can

serve as a basis for subsequent analysis of the communications support that can
be provided to modern tactical commanders.
4.2 Early Hi story of Battlefield Commu n i c ati o n s
4.2.1 Early Military Communications
It made sense for early commanders to extend their controlling capability by

using some extension of their physical means of communication. Early com
munications systems therefore took one of two simple forms: the relay ing ofa
message by runner or courier, or signaling by some visual or acoustic means.
For several thousands of years messages between commanders have
been carried by runners, either on foot or mounted on horseback. Messen
gers provided one of the major means of communications throughout both
world wars and still provide an essential service today in transmitting bulky
information around the battlefield. The means of transport has changed con
siderably, however. The horse was used until the end of World War I and
was gradually replaced from the early 1900s by motorized transport in the
form of the motorcycle and motorcar and, more recently, by aircraft.
Apart from human couriers, a number of animals have also often been
used to transport messages [2]. For thousands of years, pigeons have been
used to carry a message in a small tube attached to one leg. The British made
the first large-scale use of pigeons during World War I with tens of thou
sands of birds in service. Although the birds were also used in World War II
by infantry, armor, and aircrew, pigeons have not been used seriously since
[3]. During World War 1, the Germans and the British also briefly used dogs
as messengers.
Early communications systems also extended ranges by relaying a mes
sage by shouting it between men stationed every hundred yards or so. Can
non shot, trumpet blasts, and drumbeats were also used to transmit simple
messages over longer ranges . However, most early communications systems
made much more use of visual signals than acoustic due to the longer ranges
possible. Fire, smoke, rockets, flags, mirrors, and windmills were all used as
simple signaling systems, and signaling range was often increased by building
towers. Longer ranges were also possible after the invention of the telescope
in the early seventeenth century.
In the late seventeenth century, a number of optical telegraph systems
[4] were developed to transmit signals by placing mast-mounted beams or
Development of Tactlcal CommUnICatIOns 111
discs in different positions. For example, the French Radiated Telegraph

machine could transmit 196 different signals (letters, code words, or
phrases). Incidentally, communications were secure, since a codebook was
required to decipher the signal. Optical telegraphs rapidly became obsolete in
the early eighteenth century with the invention of electrical telegraphy,
although some relatively sophisticated optical systems such as the heliograph,
signaling lamp, and semaphore flags continued in service until the end of
World War I [5]. Mter the invention of the electric telegraph, almost all
:1
other forms of communication were quickly replaced by systems that made
II
I use of electrical signals.
4.2.2 Electrical Telegraphy and the Telephone
The first major tactical and strategic use of the electrical telegraph was during
the Crimean War ( 1853- 1856). Strategically, a submarine cable laid from
Varna to Balaclava assisted in connecting the British and French command
ers with London and Paris, respectively. The cable provided great frustration
for both commanders as, for the first time, both were in intimate contact
with their political masters. Tactically, the Crimean War saw the first
deployment of a telegraph troop with two telegraph wagons, a cable cart, a
plough, and 24 miles of copper wire. By the end of the Crimean campaign,
some 2 1 miles of cable had been laid, interconnecting eight headquarters.
In 1859, the Spanish and French armies made use of electrical telegra
phy, albeit with civilian equipment and civilian operators. In 1860 the Ital
ian Army made the first use of purpose-built military telegraph equipment
and military operators. D uring the American Civil War, both the U.S. Army
Signal Corps and the Confederate Signal Corps made use of electrical
telegraphy.
In addition to telegraphy, staff officers began to demand telephones,
which had become more common in civilian life. The first use of telephony
by the U.S. Army was during the Geronimo campaign in Arizona in 1886.
Although the telephone was also adopted by other armies in the late nine
teenth century, it did not develop into the important tool it is today until the
early twentieth century. The Japanese made the first extensive tactical and
strategic use of the telephone during the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905).
During World War I, line telegraphy provided the major means of com
munication. Most lines were buried well below the surface to protect them
from artillery. The immobility of the buried cables and the sheer number of
them forced better cable planning, and a grid system of main arteries into
which units and formations could connect was developed. Each divisional area
/\..� 0 ________ _
112 TactIcal CommunIcatIons for the DIgItIzed BattlefIeld
had a main artery with switching and testing centers connected to the main
arteries of the division on either flank, thereby forming the grid system. H un
dreds of miles of cables were deployed to support any advance until the grid
system could be extended to cover the new positions. Tactical circuits were
then connected to strategic telegr aph circuitsto allow the transfer of orders and
information fro m he adq uarters to field c omm anders .
Telegraphy w as the m aj or means of communication during World

War I, although telephony also grew in popularity since it gave s taff officers
tim ely personal contact. So, in addition to line testing centers, telephone
,
switchi n g centers sprung up all over the battlefield.
4.2.3 Rad io
At the beginning of the twentieth century, line communications were aug

mented by the new technology of wireless communications. Although the
British Army introduced a reasonably reliable set in 19 15, radio telegraphy
was not readily accepted throughout WorId War 1, as the technology was still
immature and radio telegraphy was sometimes inefficient, mostly due to a
poor understanding of the physical processes involved and the low frequen
cies used. Despite that, radio telegraphy was much more flexible than line
telegraphy and it was not long before tasks such as gun registration were
being conducted by radio instead of line. For most tasks, however, radio was
not well accepted in a static war where the telephone worked well.
At the beginning ofWorId War I, all communications were via line from
Army HQ down to company level. Radio communications were very limited.
Communications followed the chain-of-command and had the same hierar
chical structure. Communications from division to battalion levels were pro
vided by the divisional signal company. Communications from battalion to
company and below were provided by regimental signalers. By the end of the
war equipment had improved, but not much had changed doctrinally except
that the use of radio had increased to provide alternative means to line, par
ticularly in communications below brigade where mobility was important.
Line, however, remained the primary means of communication, with tens of
thousands of miles of cable being laid by all sides. Line was still unreliable in
some theaters and heavy use of dispatch riders or runners was made.
4.2.4 Between the Wars
Between the wars there were a number of developments in technology. The

perfection of the vacuum tube allowed the consistent amplification required
for AM. This allowed the first voice radio sets, or radiotelephone sets, to be
Development of Tactical Communications 1 13
introduced in 1918. Another important advance between the wars was the
teletypewriter, or the printer telegraph. The teletypewriter required more
power and was more complex to maintain than the Morse telegraph, but it
was more accurate, faster, and relatively simple to use. The field telephone set
was also developed between the wars and the Germans developed a small
switchboard, which was rapidly copied by most armies.
During the 1930s, radio sets were developed to meet the needs of the
infantry, artillery, armor, and aviation corps to provide the necessary mobil
ity, range, and reliability. In 1934, the United States developed the 25-
pound radio that became the first walkie-talkie. Between the wars radio sets
became smaller and were carried on a number of platforms. The horse was
finally replaced by the motorcar, leading to the mechanization of both radio
wagons and cable wagons.
4.2.5 World War II
During World War II radio become ubiquitous across the battlefield, used
extensively at the tactical level for the first time. The first armored command
vehicle appeared and radios provided the necessary communications within
highly mobile forces, often widely dispersed. FM radio was developed to pro
vide noise-free communications. The infantryman was issued with a man
portable radio, which greatly enhanced operations. At the beginning of the
war, only a few radios had been provided for catering to the main command
links of formations, for divisional artilleries, and for internal use in armored
and artillery units. By the end of the war, radio was used to conduct all essen
tial tactical and administrative communications. The main reason for this
was the inability of the line to keep up with highly mobile, widely dispersed
forces often operating in inhospitable terrain. Headquarters required at least
two operational command links, one for telegraph traffic and the other for
voice. In addition to command, independent radio systems had developed
for intelligence, air support, artillery, engineers, supply, and other services.
Line communications continued during World War II, although
mostly for telephony work. World War II saw the integration of all forms of
line and radio communication into high-quality links, regardless of the
medium. Multichannel trunk radio made its first appearance in during the
war, albeit in a simple form with up to eight duplex channels being provided
by the British No. 10 set, one of the few World War II radios to operate in
the UHF range. During the rapid advance eastwards from Normandy toward
the end of the war, the line could not keep up and radio relay began to pro
vide its utility on the support of fast-moving operations.
/
----------------- - " - ""---
1 14 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itized B a ttlefi e l d
Although there were very few advances in communications technology

in World War II, at the end of the war the face of military communications
had changed considerably. While line was still utilized as an important
medium, the mobility and dispersion of the battlefield had reversed the
World War I situation so that radio had become the prime means of commu
nication and line was only used as a secondary means when time allowed it to
be laid. The communications provided by divisional signal units were
higher-capacity radio and line links from division to brigade and brigade to
battalion. Below battalion, lower-capacity radio and line links were provided
by regimental signalers.
4.2.6 Current Doctrine
Two distinct b attlefield communications systems have therefore developed

to support the tactical commander. The first, above battalion, required
high capacity links provided by the formation to interlink supported units
with headquarters. The links were usually duplex and were limited to b e
from o n e unit t o another. For example, a headquarters had a link to each o f
its subordinate units . These types of infrastructure links became known
as trunk communications in line with their commercial equivalents. More
commonly, as the links became more radio than line, they b ecame known
as trunk radio. S till, line is an important medium on the modern battle
field, and is laid within headquarters by hand reel and over larger distances
by vehicle.
The second type of communications developed to allow units at bat
talion and below to perform tactical tasks . These links were flexible and
responsive, under the direct control of the commander. Links were estab
lished using single-frequency, half-duplex, all-informed radio nets allowing
the commander maximum flexibility to command a number of subunits .
These types of communications have become known as single channel radio,
or more commonly as combat net radio.
Overlying both of these services was still the requirement to send and
receive bulky communications. These needs were still being met by dispatch
riders of the signal dispatch service (SDS) or postal service. As we saw earlier,
S DS is provided by a wide variety of forms of military transport: motorcycle,
vehicle, and aircraft.
So, two broad types of communications service have evolved: combat
net radio, or single channel radio, and trunk communications (including
line, radio, and SDS). Doctrinally these divisions still exist on the modern
battlefield, albeit in more sophisticated forms.
Development of Tactical Communications 115
• CNR subsystem. The CNR subsystem is a ruggedized, portable radio

(HF, VHF, and UHF) network carried as an organic communica
tions system for combat troops (brigade level and below). Radios are
invariably interconnected to form single-frequency, half-duplex, all
informed, hierarchical nets, providing tactical commanders with
effective support to command and control.
• Tr unk communications subsystem. This subsystem provides high
capacity communications links down to brigade level. The subsystem
traditionally comprises multichannel radio equipment, line, switches,
and terminating facilities to provide voice, telegraph, facsimile, and
data communications, as well as a messenger service.
These two subsystems are described in more detail in the following sections.
It should be noted that in U.S. doctrine, a third subsystem, the Advanced
Data Distribution System (ADDS), is provided-the need for this third ele
ment is discussed in Chapter 5, and a more detailed description is provided
in Chapter 8.
4.3 CNR
All CNR stations on a particular net operate on the same frequency in a

shared channel, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. Each station can transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. CNR systems are therefore often referred
to as single-frequency, half-duplex in nature. To access the net, all stations
operate using a simple CSMA-like procedure. When the net is free, any sta
tion can initiate a call. However, since the communications channel is shared
in a half-duplex manner, users must use a protocol to determine the right to
talk at any particular time. In traditional voice communications, this proto
col [called voice procedure or radio telephone (RA TEL) procedure, or radio oper
ating procedure] [6], is based on the use of call signs for the beginning of
conversations and keywords for handing over the right to speak, and for the
termination of conversation. Additionally, a higher level of control is nor
mally forced on the network by one of the stations called the net control sta
tion (NCS), which is responsible for running the net, including net discipline
and control of frequency changes.
The significant military advantage of such a net is that it is all-informed
in that each station receives all transmissions from all other stations whether
they are intended for it or not. This configuration is essential for command
1 16 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attlefield
Figure 4.1 Si n g le-frequ e nc y, h a lf-d u plex net.
and control because it allows commanders to pass orders efficiently to a

number of subunits without having to repeat calls. Similarly, commanders
can monitor activities by monitoring the net traffic without specifically hav
ing to request a report. The all-informed nature of the CNR net does have a
limitation, however, due to the requirement for all stations to be able to hear
the transmissions from all other stations. The range that the net can cover is
therefore limited, although stations can be used to pass on transmissions if
one of the stations can only hear a limited number of transmissions.
Extended ranges can also be obtained by the use of manual or automatic
rebroadcast stations, which can provide coverage into other areas .
Single-frequency, half-duplex operation is the most suitable for CNR
since it provides the maximum flexibility and survivability. To provide these
qualities, however, in addition to the other military requirements of reliabil
ity, security, and capacity, individual military radios designed for CNR sys ii
tems are generally expensive, heavy, and bulky and will normally constitute
almost a full load for one individual. i
CNR is normally provided in three frequency ranges: HF, VHF, and Ii
UHF . HF CNR is normally provided with a frequency range of 2 to 30
MHz. Voice is transmitted in a 3-KHz channel using SSB. VHF CNR in
:1
I'
,1
most armies is capable of operating in the frequency rage of 30 to 88 MHz, 1

although greater ranges are sometimes encountered. Channel spacing in i
older analog systems is 50 kHz, but is now commonly 25 kHz providing FM
voice. Data is transmitted using a form of FSK, to provide a signaling rate of
16 Kbps in the available 25 -kHz channel.
i
, !
I
Ii
! :
I �
, I
Although CNR nets are single-frequency, all-informed nets, they are

operated in a hierarchical manner and are generally used to reinforce the
chain-of-command. That is, the NCS is normally collocated with the com
mander and the net is normally viewed as having the architecture shown in
Figure 4.2.
When nets are employed to support a military command structure,
commanders are invariably on at least two nets to remain in contact with
their superior as well as their subordinates. Figure 4.3 illustrates a simplified
version of the command nets for a division. Note that each commander
requires access to two radios, which are not necessarily connected. The impli
cations of this hierarchical net structure are discussed further in Chapter 5 .
Use of the RF spectrum on the battlefield is dictated by a trade-off
between capacity, mobility, and range. These issues have a considerable
impact on the use of radios on the battlefield and are discussed in much more
I.
: I detail in Chapter 5 [7]. For the moment, Table 4.1 lists the traditional appli
cations of the RF bands to use in CNR nets.
As discussed in Section 4.2, radio was first used on the battlefield for
trunk communications as an alternative to line. Soon, however, radio was
used for previously difficult tasks such as connecting forward observers to
I i:
artillery batteries, which avoided the laying of hundreds of miles of cable to
support major offensives. As sets and antennas reduced in size, they began to
be employed to form artillery-infantry nets and infantry-armor nets. By the
end of World War II, the United States had deployed CNR to most elements
of the infantry and other arms.
Admin
Ste p u p Armor
Battalio n 3 Commander
Battalio n 2 Po o l
Battalio n 1 Po o l
NCS
Figure 4.2 CNR n e t d i a gra m for a n otio n a l bri g ad e c o m m a n d n e t.
- -.---� ------.-- " ---- -- ------ -.- �-�-"'-,-..---....�....--...��-

...
"
.�... . ,.-" ....�.-"I�.-,,\�-'"'., ..... - ...--...--- - _ . ____
J'/
. ____ ... _ . . . ___. _ ,�___ . - - 0 •• __ .' _ •.• _ . . • • .• • • • '_._ • • • _
(SIN) d B
�
1 d B ==
(C/N) dB
'
Thre
Figure 4.3 CNR net hierarchy for a notional division's command nets.
Since CNR was first deployed, there have been a number of advances in
technology. Electronic design has improved dramatically and modern CNR
makes use of frequency synthesizers, integrated ATU, and more efficient
antennas. Synthesizer design, in particular, has allowed radios to be capable of
tuning across a number of bands. Sets have become lighter, smaller, and more
reliable due to smaller integrated-circuit components, which require less space,
power, and maintenance. There have been some improvements in battery
technology that reduces the overall weight of the radio, although the battery
remains the heaviest component of the system. Cryptographic equipment has
become smaller, and is now commonly integrated into the set or handset.
Over-the-air rekeying has eased considerably the burden associated with cryp
tographic key management and distribution across the battlefield. Finally, bet
ter modems have allowed CNR to operate at higher data rates, although the
radio is still fundamentally a terminal on a voice network and is therefore not
ideally suited to acting as a data network node.
Despite these evolutionary developments, the doctrinal use of CNR has
remained largely unchanged since World War II. The major difference is in
the ability to pass data over most CNRs, although most in-service CNRs are
still analog radios and are not well placed to cope with the expansion in the
Development o/Tactical Communications 1 19
Table 4.1
Application of RF Bands to CNR Nets
Band Application 1:0 CNR Net Advantages Disadvantages
HF Company, battalion, Cheap, man-portable, Short surface-wave range

bngade, command, and long-range from man-pack and vehl-
administration nets cle whips
Graceful degradation of
Rear links commUnications Relative Immobility for
sky-wave
Strategic Interfaces
communications,
Armored, engineer,
artillery, and Limited number of
reconnaissance nets frequencies and small

bandWidth avaliable
SpeCial forces patrols
VHF Platoon, company, Represents optimum Weight, particularly

battalion, bngade, trade-off between including encryption
command, and bandWidth, power, Range limited to radio
administration nets weight, and size honzon because of low
Armored, engineer, SuffiCient bandWidth antennas
artillery, reconnaissance available for encryption
nets Higher quality
UHF Squad and platoon nets Lightweight, hand-held lIne-of-slght limits range
Artillery between guns Short-range, which Not easily Interfaced to

reduces probability of VHFCNR
Ground-to-alr nets
Intercept
SpeCial forces patrols
From [8]
volume of data expected to support concepts such as network-centric war

fare. These issues associated with CNR on the digitized battlefield are dis
cussed in more detail in Chapter 7.
4.4 Trunk Communications

Within a major headquarters or logistics installation, commanders and staff
officers are connected by means of local links to a central headquarters hub.
The links may comprise a LAN (for data), local loops (for telephony) or
perhaps a single converged system. The hubs provide subscribers with con
nections to other subscribers within the headquarters using the local
120 Ta cti c a l Co m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itized B attl efi e l d
network; as well as with remote access to the combat radio network and
access to the trunk network. The following sections provide a brief descrip
tion of the development of trunk networks from rudimentary chain-of
command networks providing voice and telegraph, to modern area trunk sys
tems providing the full range of subscriber facilities.
As illustrated in Figure 4.4, first-generation trunk networks provided
communications links that followed the chain-of-command. This arrange
ment made sense, as it provided communications links that supported the
flow of information, which was between commanders. Commanders also
saw this as a natural arrangement as the doctrinal flow of information was up
and down the chain-of-command. In fact, doctrine generally prohib
ited-and in most armies still prohibits-any communications outside the
chain of command.
Direct chain-of-command networks had the serious disadvantage, how
ever, that each headquarters was required to act as a tactical base as well as a
communications node. These two roles are mostly in conflict. A communica
tions node requires access to sufficiently high terrain to provide the range nec
essary to reach the superior headquarters as well as to the headquarters of
subordinate units. In a tactical environment, in contrast, the commander must
I
• I
i i
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
XXX Corps
XX D ivi s i o n
X Bri g a d e
C h a i n of c o m m a n d
C o m m u n i c ati o n s
Figure 4.4 D i re ct c h a i n -of-c o m m a n d tru nk n etwork.
i ;
conceal the location of the headquarters since it is too vital an asset to have
perched on a hilltop. The collocation of the communications equipment with
the headquarters also constrained the mobility of the headquarters and
increased its vulnerability to both visual and electronic detection. Additionally,
any movement of the headquarters or damage to the network caused a dis
proportionate disruption to communications. For example, if the communica
tions are lost to brigade headquarters, there is no mechanism for communica
tions between the divisional headquarters and that brigade's battalions.
Figure 4.5 provides an example of a second-generation tr unk network,
which alleviated earlier difficulties by taking the logical step of displacing
communications from the chain of command. By creating a physically sepa
rate communications site (often known in the British system as a communi
cations center) that communicated to the headquarters over short cable or
radio links, a separation of the tactical and communications roles of the
headquarters was achieved. As a result of this separation, tactical headquar
ters and communications sites could be planned with a higher degree of inde
pendence, although the headquarters was still constrained by having to be
. . .
near Its commUnICatIOns center.
-
--
--
-
--
-
--
--
--
--
-
--
-
XXX /
C]:::, ,, ,
,
,
",
" , CJ XX
----
---
'��
---
-----
- --
-
---
-- --
---
-- --
X
-
....
-
...
...
V COMCEN
Figure 4.5 D i spl a c e d c h a i n-of-c o m m a n d tru n k n etwork.

122 Ta cti c a l C o m m uni c ati o n s for t h e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
Examples of this type of network include the early networks deployed

after World War II, particularly the British Army's BRUIN network deployed
in northwest Europe from the 1960s until 1985 when it was replaced by
PTARMIGAN.
Although the siting difficulties were alleviated in the displaced chain-of
command network, any movement of the headquarters (or communications
center) or damage to the network still caused a disproportionate disruption to
communications. The next logical step was to improve the reliability of the net
work of the headquarters, providing a second communications center, which
provided a second communications link into each headquarters and allowed
one of the communications centers to be destroyed or moved without disrupt
ing communications. The network could then be reconfigured without dis
rupting communications, thereby improving reliability. Figure 4.6 illustrates
an example of this third-generation, expanded chain-of command network.
The second communications center also allowed the headquarters to
move using a process called step-up in which one-half of the headquarters
deployed to the new location with one of the communications centers, set
up, and established communications with the old headquarter location and
the superior and subordinate headquarters. Command was then transferred
to the new headquarters location and the old location was packed up with its
,
,
,
,
I,
Figure 4.6 A Simple expa n d ed cha i n -of-comma n d tru n k network.

Development o/Tactical Communications 123
associated communications center and moved to the new headquarters loca

tion. Perhaps the best example of a third-generation network is the U.S.
Army's Army Tactical Communications System (ATACS), which was
deployed until the mid- 1990s when it was replaced by the Mobile Subscriber
Equipment (MSE) trunk system.
4.4.1 Generic Fourth-Generation Trunk Communications Architecture
The logical extension of these developments is the fourth-generation area

trunk network illustrated in Figure 4.7. Most modern trunk communica
tions systems have been developed as fourth-generation networks. An area
trunk network provides a grid (or mesh) of switching centers deployed to
provide coverage of the area of operations. Nodes are interconnected by bear
ers, which are traditionally multichannel radio-relay links in the UHF or
SHF band. Headquarters connect to the nearest trunk node by radio relay
and can then have access to any other headquarters that is also connected to
the network.
I
I
Ii --
-
\1 --
- --
-
Iili
,i
II
II
Ii
'I
II
Ii -- -
-
- .. _--
--
XXX C o rps V Tru n k n o d e (swit c h )

XX D ivisi o n
X B ri g a d e D Ac c e s s n o d e
Tru nk be a re r -
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
C h a i n of c o m m a n d
Figure 4.7 A s i mpl e m e s h e d a re a trunk n etwo rk.
�/
J
. -- -- ---_/�
An area network contains significant redundancy and can sustain con

siderable damage, or cope with substantial movement, because of the
alternative routes available. A key advantage of this network topology is its
capability to automatically cope with traffic routing changes resulting from
movement of subscribers or network outages. Nodes can be moved rapidly to
reconfigure the network as required by the tactical situation. Commanders
are no longer constrained by their communications links and can deploy as
required by the tactical situation with the only siting constraint that the
headquarters location must be able to communicate to at least one of the
trunk nodes.
The obvious disadvantage of an area network is the significant amount of
equipment and manpower required to establish the large number of redundant
nodes. A first-generation network for a deployed corps required approximately
12 nodes for the major units; a fourth-generation corps network typically
deploys 40 or 50 nodes. This disadvantage is by far outweighed, however, by
the greatly improved flexibility, reliability, survivability, and capacity provided
by an area trunk system.
4.4.2 Components of Trunk N etworks
While each nation implements their trunk networks in slightly different

ways, there are many common elements. The tr unk n ode is the basic building
block of the trunk network architecture. Nodes are connected together by
multichannel radio relay links to provide a meshed infrastructure of trunk
nodes . Headquarters and command posts connect to the network, and hence
to each other, through access nodes. Single channel radio access (SeRA) pro
vides full network access to mobile subscribers, and combat-net radio users
are able to have a relatively limited interface to the network through a CNR
inte7face (CNRI). Other trunk networks are accessed through a tactical
inte7face installation (TIl). Each of these components is discussed in more Ii
detail in the following sections. Components are discussed in generic terms,
not related to any particular one of the national trunk networks listed in
Table 4.2 [9].
4.4.2.1 Trunk N odes
As described earlier, the trunk node is the basic building block of the trunk
network. Nodes are deployed and maneuvered to provide an area trunk net
work that allows combat units to deploy and maneuver as the tactical situa
tion allows. Figure 4.8 illustrates the deployment of a trunk network in a
generic deployment. Note that, as required by convention, the network
Table 4.2
NatlonaI Trunk Networks
Country Trunk Network Designation
Australia PARAKEET PARAKEET
France/Belgium Reseau Integre de Transmissions RITA

Automatlque
Germany Automatlslerte Korps-Stammnetz AUTOKO
Italy SOTRIN SOTRIN
I'
The Netherlands Zone Digital Automatic ZODIAC
Communications
United Kingdom PTARMIGAN PTARMIGAN
United States Mobile Subscnber Equipment MSE
provides an interface to the network on the right, and has interfaces provided
by the higher formation and the formation on the left flank.
Of course, Figure 4.8 does not accurately reflect the number of trunk
nodes likely to be deployed in each area. Typically there are approximately
40 trunk nodes in a corps network, with approximately four allocated to each
division and the remainder allocated as corps assets. Figure 4.8 also shows
a physical grid pattern of deployment. While the network is invariably
deployed with a logical-grid connectivity, the location of the trunk nodes is
dictated by the terrain and the tactical situation.
Nodes are deployed and redeployed by the network managers to adj ust
to the needs of combat forces as dictated by the tactical battle. Nodes can be
redeployed to facilitate an advance or withdrawal, or movement to a flank.
The density of the network can also be modified to provide sufficient capac
ity to cope with any changes in force composition and location. Figure 4.9
illustrates the basic components of a trunk node:
• Switch. The nucleus of each node is the switch vehicle, which contains
a processor-controlled digital switch. In most modern networks the
switch is currently an automatic circuit switch that incorporates an
embedded packet switch. Current switches typically provide 16 or 32
Fro m a d ja c e nt c orps
------�--+_-- XXX ------,_--
r---ool-- X _
To strate g i c
��-..lr-- X ---
n etwork
I'---+_X
V Tru n k n o d e
To a d ja c e nt corps
Figure 4.8 Ge n eric deployme nt of trun k n odes In a corps a re a .
internodal trunk channels. One channel is generally allocated to engi

neering and the remainder are bulk-encrypted and as internodal
trunks. The meshed area network is created by connecting each node
to at least three others through radio relay bearers.
• Node operations center (NOe). The NOC contains an operator inter
face to assist in engineering the switch and trunk encryption equip
ment as well as to allow some limited patching between trunk
channels. The NOC would normally be located in the switch
vehicle.
• Network managementfacilit), (NMF). The NMF performs link man
agement for the radio relay links connected to the switch, including
engineering of the links and frequency management. Normally
some functions are also performed on behalf of the next level of
management in the network. The NMF is normally a separate vehi
cle manned by the trunk node commander.
• In most modern networks, four or five radio
Radio-rela), detachments.
relay detachments are typically deployed with each trunk node. Each
detachment can terminate radio links from approximately three other
radio relay detachments at either another trunk node, an SCRA radio
To:
An oth er tru nk n o d e
R a d i o-re l a y
ve h i c l e
;:;
ve h i c l e
I av r�
, An oth er tru nk n o d e
RAP �� . .
Fl a nk i nterfa c e 7' SHF
RAP
Fl a nk i nterfa c e
----:b.�� /
Ac c e ss n o d e Ac c e ss n o d e
C a bl e r
No d e operati o n
c e nter
Network m a n a g e m e nt
fa c i l ity
Figure 4.9 Th e ba s i c c o m po n e nts of a typi c a l tru nk n o d e s ite .
access point (RAP), a flank interface, or an access node. Detachments

are normally sited on a suitable nearby hill and are connected to the
node switch by a cable "tail" or, when the terrain does not allow cable
to be laid, by SHF "down-the-hill" radio. Each node switch is nor
mally connected through radio relay to other node switches to ensure
a robust, survivable network, as illustrated in Figure 4.7.
4.4.2.2 Be a re rs
Any wideband communications medium could potentially provide the mul

tichannel, digital links between trunk nodes. Although sufficient bandwidth
is available from coaxial cables, waveguides, and optical fibers, line of any
type is very time-consuming to deploy and recover. Radio systems are far
more flexible and are therefore normally the preferred method of linking
trunk nodes.
4.4.2.2.1 Radio Relay
Frequency of operation. The most favored radio-relay systems operate in the

VHF /UHF and SHF bands in order to provide the necessary bandwidth to
interconnect trunk nodes. Within those bands, the frequency of operation of
radio relay for a particular trunk network is selected as a trade-off between
the need for high capacity (and therefore high frequency) and ease of antenna
alignment (and therefore low frequency). At the high-frequency end, SHF
systems are constrained by line-of-sight and limited to less than 12 GHz due
to strong absorption by rain and other precipitation. For radio-relay applica

tions, SHF systems therefore require careful selection of sites, high masts,
and highly directional antennas, which require a long time to erect and align.
These requirements normally prohibit S HF systems from meeting tactical
mobility constraints that demand a short time into and out of action. SHF
does have application, however, for short-range applications in down-the-hill
shots from radio-relay vehicles to trunk nodes. For radio-relay applications,
the VHF/UHF band is favored as a reasonable military compromise between
adequate channel capacity and tactical mobility. Three bands are commonly
utilized: Band I (225-400 MHz); Band II (6 10-960 MHz); and Band III
( 1,350- 1,850 MHz).
Antennas. Radio-relay links are point-to-point, and directional antennas

are used to make the best use of available power and maximize gain in the in
tended direction. Directional antennas are also very useful because they re
duce the radiation in unwanted directions, which in turn minimizes the
possibility of interception as well as reduces interference on radio systems in
the near vicinity. For the receiver, a directional antenna minimizes the inter
ference from other transmitters, including hostile j ammers. The gain of these
antennas is limited to about 10 to 25 dB so that the alignment and conceal
ment are straightforward and the antenna is robust and light enough to erect
quickly.
Siting. Radio-relay terminals located on high ground will give the best pos
sible radio path. For tactical reasons, headquarters and trunk nodes are usu
ally sited in more concealed positions. S ince the two sites may be some
distance apart, the radio-relay site is normally connected to the asset it is serv
ing by a cable or, for longer distances, an SHF down-the-hill radio link. Sites
are normally selected from a map reconnaissance and confirmed by a path
profile analysis. This produces a short list of possible sites that are then sub
jected to a physical reconnaissance considering such factors as local obstacles
not shown on the map; possibilities for concealment and camouflage; access
for vehicles; and whether the site has already been occupied, since high fea
tures are always attractive for many other force elements, including radar,
surveillance, EW, and communications detachments (noting that they are
also attractive to adversary artillery units).
Radio-relay range extension. As noted earlier, although UHF and SHF fre
quencies provide sufficient bandwidth, they have the planning difficulty of
requiring line-of-sight between antennas. Additionally, to maintain the re-
qui red signal-to-noise ratios, particularly for data links, radio paths are lim
ited to planning ranges on the order of 20 to 30 km. Often, therefore, two
trunk nodes cannot be connected by one link and, as illustrated in Figure
4. 10, an intermediate relay station, called a radio-relay relay station, is in
serted in the link to extend range. This relay is sited so that there is a good
line-of-sight path to both radio-relay terminals so that signals received from
each terminal can be automatically retransmitted to the other. Where long
internodal links are required to support widely dispersed forces, there may be
several relay stations, although satellite or troposcatter links are generally pre
ferred on long paths.
4.4.2.2.2 Tropospheric Scatter

From an application point of view, the most interesting characteristic of tro
poscatter radio links is the great distance over which reliable communications
can be obtained without the need for intermediate repeaters. For example,
troposcatter ranges would be on the order of 150 to 200 km, as opposed to
tens of kilometers for radio relay. This feature is particularly useful for cases
in which the terrain is difficult such as in connection between remote sites
such as those in the desert or j ungle; connection of a remote island to the
mainland or another island, or across uncontrolled territory or geographic
obstacles; and networks in which the possibility of sabotage at unattended
repeater stations should be avoided.
The possibility of avoiding repeater stations, with their equipment, anten
nas, buildings, roads, and problems of accessibility and maintenance, may lead
to a more economical solution with a troposcatter link instead of a traditional
line-of-sight link. Troposcatter radio systems have particular application in less
t
Ra dio- elay re la y
j
To node switch deta chment
To node switch
Figure 4.10 R a n g e exte n s i o n u s i n g a ra d i o-re l a y re l a y stati o n .

130 T a c ti c a l C o m mun i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attlefi e l d
conventional military operations where the security of repeater stations is an

Issue.
Advantages of tropascatter systems. The main advantages of troposcatter sys

tems can be summarized as follows:
• They permit a long path. A single hop can have a length of hundreds
of kilometers (five or six times the usual length of a line-of-sight link) .
They therefore fit neatly between line-of-sight communications sys
tems and satellite communications systems, providing much more
bandwidth than HF systems.
• They can be used on difficult terrain, which has little influence on
the system design. This is particularly useful when the terrain has
not been secured or, for example, when repeaters would have to be
located above the snow line.
• Coverage of very large areas can be obtained with a small number of
hops.
• Only a few repeaters are required because of the long hop-length.
• Fewer frequencies are required because of the reduction in the
number of stations.
• Security against sabotage or catastrophic failure is easier to achieve,
as there are fewer stations to protect.
• Procurement and operating costs are reduced because of the lower
number of repeaters .
• There is a high immunity to interception because of very narrowbeam
antennas.
Disa dvantages of trop ascatter systems. The main disadvantages are as follows:
• The cost per station is high. However, this factor may be superseded
by the advantages given above and the troposcatter solution may be
the most cost-effective choice as the overall costs (investment, opera
tion, and maintenance during the life of the link) may be less than any
alternative solution.
• High-gain antennas are difficult to orientate accurately.
• Antennas must have an unobstructed view of the horizon.
• There is a high RF hazard from the high power output at the antennas.
Development of Tactlcal CommU71lCatlO7lS 131
• There is a risk of interference over a wide area if the same frequencies

are used at other stations.
Troposcatter was used in a combat environment for the first time by

U. S. forces in 1 962 to provide a backbone communications system that
extended the length of South Vietnam [ 1 0] . Interestingly, the only U.S.
National Guard communications unit deployed to the Gulf War was
equipped with the TRC- 1 70 troposcatter equipment [ 1 1 ] . Troposcatter
remains a useful bearer system as part of a trunk communications system.
4. 4. 2.2. 3 Sa tellite Ne twork Links
Fourth-generation trunk networks were developed to provide reliable, surviv

able communications across a corps area within a high-intensity deployment.
With the demise of the Cold War, a broader spectrum of operations has placed
greater demands on meshed-network architectures. The first major change
came in the Gulf War, where despite supporting corps deployments, trunk
networks had great difficulty in providing a meshed architecture while keeping
up with the rapid rate of advance. In fact, networks were invariably deployed
in a linear fashion, requiring switch software to be reengineered to cope with
the increased length of the networks from one end to another. Radio-relay
bearers are ideal for a high-density deployment, but do not provide a good
bearer system for rapid movement of supported forces over large distances.
As U. S. and U.K. forces were investigating solutions to this issue, a
similar problem had arisen for slightly different reasons in the various
deployments in the former Republic of Yugoslavia. The provision of an area
network had proven very difficult due to the inability to find secure sites for
relays between widely dispersed units and formations.
The solution to both of these problems has been the introduction of
satellite trunk links to extend the range of connections between nodal, which
does not affect the logical layout of the area netvilork, but dramatically
increases the range of internodal links. As illustrated in Figure 4. 1 1 , area n et
works are provided locally where possible and satellite links are provided to
link these network " enclaves" or "islands" together.
4. 4. 2. 2. 4 Commercial Communic a tions Ne tworks
In addition to satel l ite links, con n ections benveen nodes can also be
extended by connections through commercial commu n i cations n e nvo rks .
However, commercial systems are not always availabl e o r su rv i v a b l e e n o ugh
132 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for t h e D i g itize d B attl efi e l d
Figure 4.1 1 A s i m ple a re a n etwork a rc h ite cture e mployi n g s a te l l ite i ntern o d a l l i n ks .
for inclusion in trunk networks. Satellite trunk links are therefore preferred
to span large distances between nodes .
4.4.2.3 Acc e s s N o d e s
An access node is a processor-controlled digital switch capable of handling the

number of fixed subscribers at the access point. The access node can switch
calls between these subscribers or switch them to an outgoing trunk line
through the trunk switch. Normally, two levels of access nodes are provided:
a small access node for brigade headquarters and a large access node for divi- �
II�'II
sional headquarters . In some networks, access nodes are provided down to
lower levels to serve subscribers at regimental or battalion command posts. In
most networks, however, access to these levels is provided through S eRA,
because the users are mobile and fixed subscriber access to the network tends 1\
Ij
to b e inappropriate. As illustrated in Figure 4. 12, subscribers are connected
to the access node, which is connected to the network (to a trunk node)
through radio-relay bearers. Large access nodes (for divisional headquarters
and above) are normally connected to two trunk nodes; small access nodes
(for brigade headquarters and below) are normally only connected to one
trunk node, with a standby link engineered to a second trunk node in case of
failure of the first.
Small access nodes normally serve approximately 25 subscribers and
the large access nodes provide for approximately 150 subscribers. As well as
the ability to interface to radio-relay bearers, both types of nodes have the
facilities to interconnect to satellite or troposcatter links, or to commercial
carriers. Figure 4. 13 shows a simplified layout of a small access node.
As illustrated in Figure 4. 14, the large access node has a similar layout
as the small node. In addition to the ability to cope with a larger number of
subscribers, the large access node is connected to two trunk nodes. The large
1 !
(� i
-------,--�- xxx --------�--
V Tru n k n o d e
D A c c ess n o d e
Figure 4.1 2 C o n n e cti o n of a c c e ss n o d e s to th e tru n k n etwork.
access node also contains an NOC and an NMF, similar to those found in
the node center of a trunk node.
4.4.2.4 S e RA
Access nodes provide access for fIxed network subscribers. Access for mobile or
isolated subscribers is provided through the duplex VHF-radio access of the
SCRA subsystem. The SCRA subsystem comprises subscriber terminals that
provide mobile users with network facilities (e.g., voice, data, telegraph, and
facsimile) equivalent to those available to static subscribers of an access node,
and RAP through which subscribers access the trunk network. As illustrated in
Figure 4. 15, an RAP is normally connected to the network by connecting to a
trunk node via cable, SHF down-the-hill radio, or UHF radio-relay link. A
standby link is engineered to another trunk node to be used if the primary link
fails. RAPs are deployed like PCS base stations to provide overlapping areas of
coverage to provide continuous coverage for a mobile user.
RAPs. In most in-service networks, each RAP can accommodate approxi

mately 50 affiliated mobile subscribers (i.e., 50 subscribers who are within the
RAP's operating area). Not all affiliated subscribers can communicate at once,
however, and an RAP can normally only cope with simultaneous calls from a
dozen subscribers. While the RAP will have a planning range of 15 km,
R a dio- rel a y
veh i c le
------z-
To a nother
�
tru n k node
� / To a com merc i a l c a rrier

�
------z-
Sta ndby l i n k SHF
_ Dr- To s atel l ite/tropos c a tter
C a b le
To a p p rox i m a tely
25 s u bs c r i be rs
Figure 4. 1 3 S imp lified layout of a small access nod e.
��
To a nother
tru n k node
To a com mer c i a l c a rrier
�
/
�
/
To a nother SHF
tru n k node =
l':==;�=!tr=i= To s a tel l ite/tropos c atter
C a b le
Network m a n a gement
fa c i l ity To a p p roxi m ately
1 50 s u bs c ri bers
�jD;J
Node operation center
Figure 4.1 4 S im plified layout of a l arge access node .
the actual range between the RAP and subscriber will depend on the terrain
and the heights of the RAP and mobile antenna. Figure 4. 16 shows a
simplified layout of an RAP site, which comprises an RAP vehicle containing
transmitters and receivers connected to an omnidirectional antenna. RAPs
-------.--�-- xxx --------�-
ij
lhi
n V Tru n k n o d e
/1
1. 1
1 i
o Acc ess n o d e
� ,: o S C RA RAP
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II Figure 4.1 5 C o n n e cti o n of S C R A R A P s to th e tru n k n etwo rk.
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are normally able to operate on a range of power settings so that the lowest
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power level can be chosen for each user to reduce the electronic signature of
the RAP.
Subscriber terminals. To connect to the network, a mobile subscriber is re

quired to go through a process of affiliation, during which the subscriber's
identity is validated. Each network conducts its affiliation process slightly
differently, but normally the subscriber is required to perform some deliber
ate action to affiliate for the first time. In some networks the subscriber must
continue to affiliate each time connection is required to a new RAP. If the
subscriber does not know the number of the closest RAP, a search can be ini
tiated to find the most suitable RAP. In more modern networks, reaffiliation
is automatic as the subscriber is handed over from one RAP to another while
moving through the network. Upon affiliation, the power output of the ter
minal is normally reduced to the minimum possible power level to ensure
similar power levels at the RAP from all subscribers, and to reduce adjacent
channel interference
Direct access. In the more modern networks, mobile subscribers in close

proximity within the same RAP area do not have to communicate through
ii
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136
- - - -_ . _ _ . _ _ . . .- ._-
Ta cti cal Commun i c ations fo r the D igitized Battlefiel d
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Figure 4. 1 6 Simplified layout o f an RAP . .1

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the RAP and can contact each other directly. This not only reduces traffic
load on the RAP, which is only used to relay the call if the direct connection
cannot be made within a specified time, but it allows communications when
the network is not present.
4.42.5 CNRI
SCRA i s an extension of the trunk network i n that subscribers have access to

the same network facilities as static subscribers in command posts. In addi
tion to SCRA, most networks provide an additional form of access to lower
level commanders who are not network subscribers but who can use their
CNRs to have temporary access to the network. This CNRI provides a semi
automatic, voice interface between VHF and HF CNR users and the net
work. The range of CNRI depends on the CNR frequency band. In each
frequency band, the CNRI vehicle has a hailing channel through which
CNR users can contact the operator who sets up the call through one of the
VHF or HF traffic radios. In the other direction, calls made from the net
work are automatic and do not require operator intervention. While it is pos
sible for a CNR user to access the network in this way, CNR nets are
single-frequency, half-duplex so that CNRI only provides rudimentary access
to network facilities. RATEL and CNR net procedures must be observed by
CNRI users, even those who are trunk subscribers.
4.4.2.6 T a cti c a l I nte rfa c e I n sta l l ati o n s
For NATO i n Western Europe during the Cold War, i t was important that
each corps was able to provide communications to flanking formations from
other nations. While the Cold War deployments are less likely, multinational
alliances are essential in almost all modern deployments and it is perhaps
\)
Development of TactIcal Commumcatlom 1 37
even more important for modern networks to be able to i n terface to those of

other nations. There are therefore a large number of stan dards and a.gree
ments that cover the interface of trunk networks. For example, wi t h l Il
NATO, the internetwork interface for analog signals, voice, and telegraph is
arranged through the standard agreement STANAG 5040 [ 1 2 ] , a.nd
interoperability between digital EUROCOM [ 1 3] systems using 1 6-Kbps
modulation is provided by STANAG 4208 [ 1 4] . It is unlikely, however, that
national procurement programs will ever be completely synchronized and
most networks arrange to support the interface through a specific installation
called the TIL
4.4.3 Tru n k Subscriber Fa c i l ities
Traditionally, trunk networks provide static and mobile subscribers with

secure voice, data, telegraph, and facsimile services. In the future, these serv
ices might also include video. The following gives a brief overview of the
equipment and facilities provided to subscribers in most current networks.
Subscrib er equipment. Subscribers mal{e voice calls through the digital circuit
switched network using a digital or analog telephone. Data, facsimile, and tele
graph facilities are provided through the attachment of a ddta addptor. The sub
scriber equipment performs analog-to-digital conversion to provide an output
data rate, normally at 1 6 Kbps using a form of delta modulation.
Se c urity. Trunk network security is provided through bulk encryption o f

the trunk links so that the network i s normally treated as a SECRET-high
network. That is, it is assumed that any subscriber at any point in the net
work is cleared at least to the S ECRET level, and that there are physical secu
rity measures in place to ensure that only appropriately cleared personnel can
receive the information. If higher classifications are desired, links between us
ers can be individually encrypted once a circuit has been established. Th i s
form of double encryption i s commonly used for intelligen ce a n d electron i c
warfare users.
Voic e se rvic es. Subscribers can move about within the network and m al'
not n ecessarily remain near the same subscriber equipm e nt all the ti m e. Jvf ost
modern networks therefore give each subscriber a unique number cal l ed a di
rectOl]' n u m ber that they can e nter on any phon e i n the netwo rk to tel l t h e
nct\vork where they can be found so that a cal l can b e p l aced t o them. A s u b -
138 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r the D i g itize d B a ttl efi e l d
scriber can be located at any time through affiliation and flood search. It does
not make sense to have to issue a phone directory for an organization whose
staff is changing constantly, so most networks also use the NATO 7 -digit de
ducible directory (STANAG 5046 [ 15]), in which the subscriber's directory
number is deducible from the parent unit and appointment. Trunk networks
provide the normal network voice facilities such as call waiting, transfer, and
call forward, along with the more modern facilities of compressed dialing,
abbreviated dialing, and conference facilities. Particular military require
ments are met by the precedence and preemption facilities. Preemption allows
selected subscribers to manually override other callers for access to outgoing
trunks (or if the called extension is busy), providing the caller's precedence is
greater than that of the subscribers involved in the busy conversation.
Subscribers are free to access the network from any point where
A ffilia tion.
there is a subscriber terminal. To do so, however, the network must know
where each subscriber is located so that incoming calls can be routed to the
correct location. Each subscriber is therefore required to affiliate to the net
work by entering an affiliation sequence into the nearby terminal, which tells
the local switch where the subscriber is currently located.
Floo d search. When a call is placed, the subscriber is located by the net
work through a flood-search mechanism in which the switch to which the
calling subscriber is connected calls all other switches until the called sub
scriber's parent switch responds. Once the subscriber's location has been
identified, the connection can be made.
Data s ervic es.Data services can be provided by a number of methods, but

are normally provided by a packet-switched network integrated into the
circuit-switched network. Chapter 6 provides more detailed discussion on
the provision of voice and data services across modern networks. In current
networks, however, there are two main methods available to integrate circuit
and packet switching within the same trunk network:
• Common tru n king. The most obvious approach is through common

trunking, where the circuit and packet switches share the common
transmission facilities via multiplexing equiprpent. However, inte
gration at this level does not really provide much for improvement
in transmission efficiency and utilization, or the exchange of traffic
between different communities or terminal types.
I I
\j
Development of Tactlcal CommumcatlOns 1 39
• Embedded network. In most modern networks, the packet-switched

network is embedded in the circuit-switched network. Each switch
still has its own community of users, but the packet switches act as
user terminals within the circuit-switched network. Using the connec
tions through the circuit-switched network as bearers, each packet
switch connects to others to form the packet-switched network. The
allocation of trunk channels to the packet-switched network is nor
mally predetermined, although many networks allow the allocation of
additional capacity, should the amount of traffic between any pair of
packet switches begin to increase.
4.4.4 N etwork Manag ement
As trunk networks have matured and have become more independent of the
chain of command, network management has also had to evolve as a separate
function. As networks have become more complex, the management task has
become an indispensable component of modern networks .
4.4.4. 1 Th e M a n a g e m e nt Ta s k
The principal role of network management is to ensure that the network pro
vides and maintains effective and reliable communications . A number of
management tasks must be conducted: assessment of the requirement,
including identification of subscriber communities for voice, data, SCRA,
and CNRI; formulation of a plan for network connectivity, including the
radio path planning for bearers; planning for the location of key network ele
ments such as radio-relay detachments. and RAPs; allocation of resources to
meet the plan; preparation and issue of orders; assignment of frequencies;
management of changes to the network, both planned and unexpected; sys
tem performance analysis; traffic engineering; cryptographic management;
system maintenance; and implementation of EP plans.
: l
The impact of the role of network management cannot be understated.
;I
I ,
Although modern area networks are inherently flexible, they can only remain
so if they are well managed. The network must redeploy, and key network
elements will be moving, or may even be destroyed. The continual configura
tion and reconfiguration of the network must be tightly controlled if the net
work is to remain available to users. The trunk communications system is a
critical element of the commander's combat capability and must be able to
,
withstand the demands of the tactical environment. While the meshed area
I
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network provides great flexibility, it also introduces a significant overhead in
terms of network management.
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--- - " - -- , , . '
1 40 Tactical Communications for t h e Digitized Battlefield
4 4.4.2 Fu n cti o n a l Le v e l s of M a n a g e m e nt
The evo l u tion o f tactica l co m m unications systems has seen a disassociatio n
o f co m m u nications elem ents from the units a n d formations they support .
Similarly, it is n ot common for network management elements t o have a
close affiliation with formations. In a modern area network, the management
structure is centralized to ensure the optimum usage of system resources and
the provision of maximum availability to users. That does not mean to say,
however, that there is not a hierarchy of management. Rather, there are a
number of functional levels of management and management elements are
normally associated with logical, geographical groupings of network assets to
provide the redundancy necessary for a survivable management system. The
number and the nature of functional levels of management will depend to a
large degree on the type of trunk network employed.
4.4.5 SDS
The SDS is a service provided by specialist signal units or logistics units to

physically carry messages from one location to another on the battlefield.
Much of the information that needs to be transferred between headquarters
would take far too long to transmit over the sparse bandwidth available in
tactical communications systems. Other information is of relatively low pri
ority and can be passed by hand, releasing communications links for more
urgent traffic. Messengers can be mounted in vehicles or on motorcycles or
may make use of permanently allocated aircraft on permanent allocation or
other aircraft when available.
Compared to other trunk bearers, the main advantages of SDS are that
it has an enormous capacity when compared to radio bearers, is relatively
easy to secure as it is vulnerable only to physical threats, and is error-free
(barring accidents, of course). Unfortunately, messenger services require con
siderable staff numbers, can take some time compared to radio transmissions,
and can lack control while the messenger is in transit.
4.5 Pri n c i p l es of M i l ita ry Co mm u n i cati o n s
The doctrine of most modern armies contains a number of principles for

the provision of tactical communications. These principles have been devel
oped over many years to provide guidance for the provision of tactical
communications systems to support land operations. While each principle
articulates an important factor, it is rare that any one principle can be pursued
vigorously without detriment to some other, and some compromise must gen
erally be met.
Communications support the chain of c ommand. Tactical communications sys

tems are essential elements of a command system. The communications sys
tem must facilitate the chain of command and not constrain the ability of
commanders and staffs to implement the C2 cycle. Similarly a commander's
tactical plans must not be constrained by the range and capability of support-
. . .
mg commUnIcatlons systems.
Integra tion. A tactical communications system comprises a number of sub

systems that must be integrated together efficiently. The provision of com
munications must therefore be controlled at the highest level of the deployed
force, through the use of an integrated network management structure that
supports the chain of command and can exercise tactical and technical con
trol over the whole communications system.
Relia bility. Reliability is a critical property of tactical communications sys

tems since commanders are so heavily reliant on them and their loss is likely
to cause significant tactical disadvantage. Reliability is so important on the
battlefield that commanders often prefer equipment that is less capable but
more reliable since it is generally much better to have a simple system that
can be depended on than a sophisticated one that fails at critical points.
Good planning, employment of equipment with a high mean-time-between
failure, and high standards of training reduce the risk of breakdown and
increase the reliability of communications systems. System availability can
also be increased by providing redundancy through the use of both standby
equipments and alternative systems.
Simplicity. As tactical communications systems become more complicated

and sophisticated, communications planners must resist the temptation to
have equally complex plans. A simple plan is more likely to be flexible and to
survive the stresses and strains placed on the network by the tactical environ
ment. Communications equipment should also be easy to operate and simple
to repair.
A communications system must be able to cope with traffic peaks

Cap a c ity.
and permit all communications within the desired time frame and priorities.
However, communications capacity will always be a scarce resource on the
modern battlefield and measures must be devised to regulate the use of com-
/
142 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r t h e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
munications systems. There are three aspects of the provision of a tactical

communications network with sufficient capacity: sufficient capacity of indi
vidual bearers, adequate coverage, and adequate access.
Quality. There are considerable differences in the requirements for quality

(including accuracy) between the military and commercial user. At one ex
treme, the military user will accept intelligible voice, whereas most commer
cial telephone systems provide a high quality of reproduction with a very
good level of speaker recognition. At the other extreme, while the require
ments for errorless data transmission from terminal to terminal are the same
in both environments, the commercial expectation of high-quality transmis
sion media (error rates of certainly less than 1 in 10 [5]) may be unacceptably
high in the military. This leads to difficulties when adopting commercial
standards. Modern communications standards have generally been devel
oped for transmission media such as fiber optic cables, which expect that few
or no errors are introduced during transmission. Adoption of commercial
data communications protocols within military networks therefore tends to
require that additional error detection and correction is incorporated into the
standard or especially provided by tactical communications protocols.
Flexibility. Tactical communications systems must be able to adapt quickly

to any changes in the tactical environment and to continue to provide com
munications coverage as the deployed force maneuvers. Additionally, the
same communications equipment must be able to be used for as many mili
tary tasks as possible. Equipment must therefore be flexible in the way it is
deployed to meet the wide variety of tactical circumstances, as well as being
able to carry different sorts of traffic such as voice, data, telegraph, and video .
It is unlikely that any single communications equipment can provide all the
needs of all users in all tactical situations . A communications system is flexi
ble by providing a mix of equipment and combining the strengths of each.
The main factors in the provision of flexible networks are: good planning, al
ternative routing, reserve equipment, personnel, and capacity on circuits,
good standing operating procedures (S OP) and drills, and a high standard of
training to reduce planning and deployment times .
Antic ipation of requirements.The requirement for flexibility can be miti

gated in some regard by anticipating the requirements of the deployed force.
Commanders must therefore ensure that communications staff are kept in
formed throughout the C2 cycle, so that communications infrastructure can
be deployed in anticipation of future plans.
!}
: I
(1�)
Development o/ TactIcal C0i71777 UmcatiOilS 1 43
Mobility. At all levels, the mobility of communications equip ment must

meet that of the user. For combat troops this means that radio sets m ust be
portable or able to be fitted into fighting vehicles. For headquarters, a com
munications network should be able to cope with a considerab le degree of
movemen t by combat elements without needing to redeploy. The communi
cations system must also allow commanders to command and control on the
move (previously, commanders have been required to step up headquarters
to achieve continuity of command). However, when required to move, the
components of a communications system must have the ability to change lo
cation as rapidly as the combat elements that they serve.
Se c urity. Due to its crucial role in support of the C2 cycle, the tactical
communications network will be a prime target of adversary intelligence
gathering. Protection of the information carried by the tactical communica
tions system is therefore of prime importance. Security is a major factor in
the provision of an adequate tactical communications system, and a compre
hensive security architecture must be developed to provide guidance to the
q development of a communications architecture. There are three aspects of a
'. ,
n secure network: physical security, personnel security, and electronic security

r
\
(encryption as well as transmission and emission security) .
Ec onomy. In the commercial environment, the provIsIOn of fixed infra

structure means that there is ample bandwidth available to meet the require
ments of all users. On the battlefield, communications resources will always
be scarce because of the high cost of the resources themselves, as well as the
personnel and materials needed to establish, operate, and maintain them. For
example, while the provision of sufficient bandwidth is not generally a prob
lem in the commercial and fixed environments, bandwidth will always be a
scarce resource on the modern battlefield [ 16]. Communications systems
must therefore be used economically and users must accept that facilities \vill
invariably have to be shared. To maintain the principle of economy, users
must ensure that: the appropriate means of communications are utilized, de
mands for communications are kept to a minim um, sole-user facilities are
demanded only when absolutely necessary, plans are based on a realizable
scale of communications, and contingency plans are available to accom mo
date operations if communications are disrupted for any period of time.
Economy also requires individual communications eq uip ment to be sp ec
trally efficient to maximize the usage of limited spectrum.
: I
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Sur vivability. The modern battlefield represents a harsh electromagnetic en

vironment within which the tactical communications system must survive. A
communications system is survivable if it has: sufficient capacity to handle
traffic levels, an ability to manage existing capability through techniques such
as dynamic bandwidth management, the necessary levels of security, low
probability of intercept, resistance to j amming and interference, mobility, al
ternative routing, alternative means, redundancy, and sufficient reserves.
Interoperability. The systems and networks within the tactical communica

tions system must be interoperable with other tactical networks, strategic
networks, unclassified commercial networks, as well as networks and systems
of other services and allies. This interoperability is essential if information is
to be able to flow seamlessly between any two points in the battlespace, and
between any point in the battlespace and the strategic communications sys
tem. Additionally, new equipment will invariably need to interoperate (be
backwards compatible) with current in-service equipment.
4.6 Summary
In almost all modern armies, the tactical communications system has

evolved to comprise two major components : the trunk communications
subsystem and the CNR subsystem . The trunk communications subsystem
provides high-capacity links (terrestrial radio relay, satellite, fiber optic, or
line) that interconnect headquarters at brigade level and above. The net
work is provided by a number of trunk nodes interconnected by trunk links
to form a meshed area network. Access is normally gained through access
nodes that connect to one or more trunk nodes. Voice, telegraph, data, fac
simile, and video facilities are provided to staff officers and commanders .
The CNR subsystem is a ruggedized, portable radio network carried as an
organic communications system for combat troops (brigade level and
below). Radios are invariably interconnected to form single-frequency,
half-duplex, all-informed, hierarchical nets, providing commanders with
effective support to command and control . In U . S . doctrine, a third subsys
tem, the ADDS, is p rovided-the utility of this third element is discussed
in Chapter 5 .
These subsystems have developed over time to meet the particular
needs of battlefield commanders. Similarly, doctrine has evolved to articulate
a number of principles of military communications. It is essential that this
background is used as a starting point for an analysis of a suitable architecture
\:
u
for future tactical communications. While the Information Age has the
promise to revolutionize warfare, it is not likely to obviate the requirement
for every element of the current tactical communications system, nor invali
date all of the extant principles for military communication. Cognizant of
this background, therefore, Chapter 5 conducts an appreciation of the com
munications support required to support tactical commanders on the digit
ized battlefield.
Endnotes
[1] Further details on the history of military communications can be found III the
following:
Harfield, A. , The HellOgraph, Royal Signals Museum, Blandford Camp, u.K., 1 986.
Nalder, R. , The History ofBntish A nny Stgnals in the Second World War, London: Royal
Signals Institution, u.K., 1 9 5 3 .
Nalder, R., The Royal Corps ofStgnals, London: Royal Signals Institution, U.K., 1 9 5 8 .
Royal Signals Institution, Through to 1970, London: Royal Signals Institution, 1 970.
Scheips, P., MilitmJ Stgnal CommunicatlOns, Vol. 1, New York: Arno Press, 1 980.
Scheips, P . , Militaryl Stgnal CommunicatlOns, Vol. 2, New York: Arno Press, 1 980.
[2] Further details on the use of animals in military communications systems can be found
� in the following:
;' �i
\�
Ii
Harfield, A. , Pigeon to Packhorse, Chippenham, u.K. : Picton Publishing Ltd, 1 9 8 9 .
, I Osman, A. , and H. Osman, Pigeons in Two World Wars, The Racing Pigeon Publishing
1 \
It i:
Co. Ltd., London, 1 976.
[3 ] There has been some interesting use of pigeons in more recent times-the Swiss Army
only decommissioned their pigeons in 1 994, and Major General John Norton, com
f
I mander of the 1 st U.S. Air Cavalry, initiated a small (abortive) communications experi
I ment to revive use of carrier pigeons during the Vietnam War (see Meyer, c . , Division
Level Communications, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., 1 982, p. 4 5 ) .
[4] For more details, see Wilson, G . , The Old Telegraphs, London: Phillimore & Co. Ltd.,
1 976.
[5 ] The use of heliograph, signaling lamps, and signaling flags provided early commanders
with useful systems for extending communications ranges. They quickly lost favor on
the static battlefield of World War I, as the operator had to be exposed to obtain any
reasonable ranges and they have not been used since in battlefield communications sys
tems. It should be noted, however, that each of these forms of communications persist
I
'j )
,
,i l/-
�� ------'
146 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s f o r t h e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
in modern navies, where they are very useful for low-capacity line-of-sight communica
tions links when the operational environment requires radio silence.
[6] FM 24- 1 8 , Tactical Single-channel Radio Com m unications Techniques, Washington,

D . C : Headquarters D epartment of the Army, S ept. 3 0 , 1 987.
[7] Further details on in-service CNR can be found in the following:
Jane 's C4I Systems, 2000-2001, Surrey, England: Jane's Information Group, 2000.
Jane 's MilitarJ' Communicatwns Systems, 2000-2001, S urrey, England: Jane's Informa
tion Group, 2000.
Witt, M., "Tactical Radios: A Never-Ending Saga, " Milltmy Technology, J uly 1 99 9 , pp.
22-32.
[8] Ryan M . , Battlefield Command Systems, London: B rassey's, 2000, p . 1 39 .
[9] Further information on trunk networks can be found in the following:
Blair, W. , and S. Egan , "A Common App roach to Switching in Tactical Trunk Com
munications Systems , " Joumal ofBattlefield Technology, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 1 7-2 1 .
Hewish, M . , "Tactical Area Communications Part 1 : European Systems, " Intemational

Defense ReVIew, Vol. 5 , 1 990, pp. 523-526.
Hewish, M . , "Tactical Area Communications Part 2: Non-European Systems, " Intema

tlOnal Defense ReVIew, Vol . 6 , 1 9 90, pp. 675-678.
Jane 's C4I Systems, 2000-2001, Surrey, England: Jane's Information Group, 2000.
Jane 's Mz!J tmJ' CommumcatlOns Systems, 2000-2001, Surrey, England: Jane's Informa
tion Group, 2000.
[ 1 0] Meyer, C , DI VISIOn-Level CommU1l1CatlOns 1962-1973, Department of the Army:

Washington, D . C , 1 9 82, p. 7 .
[1 1] The u s. A nn)' SIgnal C0 1pS 171 OperatIOn Desert Shield/Desert Storm, U . S . Army Signal
Center H istorical Monograph Series, Office of the Command Historian , United States
Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon : Fort Gordon , Georgia, 1 994, p. 4 .
[ 1 2] S TANAG 5 0 4 0 , NA TO A u tomatIc and SemI-Automatic Interfoces Between the National

Switched Telecommunications Systems of the Com bat Zone and Between these Systems and
the NA TO Integrated Communicatzons System (NICS}-Period From 1979 to the 1990s,
NATO, B russels, Oct. 23, 1 9 8 5 .
[ 1 3] EUROCOM DI l Standard, Tactical Communications Systems-Basic Parameters,

NATO, B russels, 1 9 8 6 .
[ 1 4) STANAG 420 8 , The NA TO Multi- Channel Tactical DIgital Gateway-Signalling Stan

dards, NATO , Brussels, Nov. 1 5 , 1 99 3 .
Development of Tactical Com1J1.unications 1 47
[ 1 5 ] STANAG 5 046, The NA TO MilttalJ' Commumcations DirectolJI System, NATO, Brus

sels, Aug. 8, 1 99 5 .
[ 1 6 ] As described i n Chapter 5 , this bandwidth paucity o n the battlefield is mainly caused

by the limitations of the physics associated with the methods of propagation available to
tactical communications systems.
5
A Communications Architecture for the
Digitized Battlefield
5.1 Introduction
Current tactical communications systems have evolved to meet users' needs

as the conduct of warfare has changed, particularly over the last several hun
dred years. However, if land warfare is to be revolutionized by Information
Age technologies, the tactical communications architecture must become an
integral part of a force's ability to prosecute war. While the success of a com
mander has always been contingent upon the provision of reliable communi
cations and information systems, the success of a modern commander relies
heavily on the domination of the electromagnetic spectrum. This critical
interdependency between communications and command and control
requires a reconsideration of an appropriate architecture for tactical commu
nICatIOns systems.
This chapter develops an architectural framework [1] to define the tac
tical communications system. It begins by outlining key design drivers that
shape the architecture of a tactical communications system. Options for a
mobile tactical communications system are then examined and a suitable
framework is developed within which architectural issues may be subse
quently considered.
149
150 Ta cti ca l Comm u n i cati o n s fo r t h e D i g itized Battl efi e ld
c
5.2 Design Drivers
The following issues represent key design drivers for the development of
architecture for the tactical communications system.
5.2.1 Principles of Military Communications
As described in Chapter 4, the doctrine of most modern armies is based on a

number of principles for the provision of tactical communications. Briefly,
the major principles are: communications support the chain ofcommand, inte
gration, reliability, simplicity, capacity, quality, flexibility, anticipation of
requirements, mobility, security, economy, survivability, and interoperability.
These principles have been developed over many years to provide guidance
for the provision of tactical communications systems to support land opera
tions. While the modern digitized battlefield is different in many respects to
those of the past, the principles of communications are verities of warfare
that must also be considered as design drivers for a tactical communications
archi tecture.
5.2.2 Size of the Supported Force
At the strategic and operational levels, the provision of high-capacity com

munications is relatively straightforward and can quickly be implemented
using commercial technologies and networks. Headquarters at this level are
relatively static and can be well served by high-capacity systems such as satel
lite and PSTN. Tactical elements are not so well served by commercial tech
nologies, however, and military tactical communications systems suffer from
the last-mile difficulties that plague commercial networks.
In the analysis that follows, therefore, attention is focused at the level of
the division-sized group, that is, on division and below. While the architec
ture of the tactical communications system is developed with cognizance of
larger formations, the most difficult problem is the provision of sufficient
communications capacity to tactical combat forces at division and below.
5.2.3 Communications Support for the Spectrum of Operations
The communications architecture must be able to support a force in a range

of operational deployments. The spectrum of operations varies from conven
tional, high-density motorized or mechanized operations to low-density
operations, or in peacekeeping or peace-enforcing operations. The tactical
\,--'
A Communications Architecture for the Digitized Battlefield 151
communications system must therefore provide similar interfaces, regardless

of the type of operation. This concept produces two main design drivers:
1. User equipment must be similar in all types of operations. The user

should not be expected to have to adjust to a different communica
tions interface in different operational circumstances. This means
that command posts, vehicles, and weapons platforms must be con
figured with a flexible internal communications network that can
interface to the range of available communications systems.
2. Specialist communications equipment must be similar in all types of
operations. All specialist signal units should therefore be similarly
equipped. While the vehicles may differ between units that support
motorized, mechanized, and armored forces, the basic equipment
configurations should remain similar, which will greatly ease pro
curement, logistic support, and training.
5.2.4 Command and Control on the Move
On the future battlefield it is essential that commanders can command and

control on the move. A commander should be able to control force elements,
regardless of location. This includes relatively simple activities such as main
taining continuity of command and control while deploying from the bar
racks, as well as the much more difficult task of staying in contact while
moving around the battlespace in a variety of tactical environments. The
requirement for command and control on the move provides one of the most
significant design drivers because it impacts on the power available for trans
mitters and the antenna size that can be supported. These issues are discussed
in more detail in Section 5.3.
5.2.5 Communications Support Situational Awareness at All Levels
Communications must support situational awareness to commanders at all

levels (in real time or near real time) to provide accurate knowledge of adver
sary, friendly, neutral, and noncombatant entities. Situational awareness is
the knowledge of the operational environment required to gain the level of
understanding necessary to achieve decisional superiority over an adversary.
Most modern commanders would expect near-real-time situational aware
ness at their headquarters, which provides a significant design driver for the
tactical communications system because it implies a battlefield-wide network
152 Ta cti ca l Comm u n i cati o n s for t h e D i g itized Battl efi eld
that can support the transfer of information from any point to any other
POInt.
Traditional hierarchical communications architectures are not well
suited to the provision of a modern battlefield network, particularly for the
transfer of data. To illustrate this point, consider a notional mechanized bri
gade, the basis of which is a mechanized platoon that has four vehicles. Real
time situational awareness would require that the location of every vehicle is
known at any instant. This is an unrealistic expectation. Near-real-time
situational awareness requires that the location of each vehicle be reported to
an accuracy within at least 10m (for battlefield identification and to prevent
significant errors on sensor-to-shooter target sharing). A location report is
likely to require at least 100 bytes (800 bits) of data, which, with the added
overhead of EDC, would be at least 200 bytes.
Assuming that the platoon is advancing at its maximum cross-country
speed of 40 km/hr [11 meters per second (mls)], each vehicle must transmit a
location report at least every second (at least) so that its location is known
within 10m. The platoon net would have therefore have to have sufficient
capacity to cope with 4 X 200 X 8 6.4 Kbps, the company net would
=
require capacity for 25.6 Kbps, the battalion net would require 102.4 Kbps,
the brigade net would require approximately 500 Kbps, and the divisional
net would require at least 2 Mbps.
However, the current tactical communications systems are poorly
placed to provide the capacity required. Figure 5.1 illustrates the problem. At
the platoon level, vehicles will generally be in sight of each other and can use
UHF communications, which can provide ample capacity for the needs at
this level. However, between platoon and company, VHF radio is required;
between company and battalion, VHF radio is required, with HF required
for longer ranges; and between battalion and brigade, VHF radio normally
has insufficient range and HF radio is used. Currently, the throughput of
most analog CNR is restricted to approximately 8 Kbps at VHF and 300 bps
at HF.
Thus, the data rate required increases as the situational awareness data
is passed back to brigade and divisional headquarters. Unfortunately, in most
dispersed deployments, the available capacity is significantly smaller between
higher headquarters than between lower command elements.
To avoid the aggregation of data as it is passed up the chain of com
mand, CNR nets must change in architecture from a hierarchical to a net
worked structure. Even so, the constraints of physics mean that there will not
be sufficient capacity available for more than low-capacity data rates (i.e., low
by fixed network standards). While future technological advances may allow
A CommumcatlOlZS Arclntecture for the Digitized Battlefield 153
Tru nk
102.4
i/
D ata rate req u i red
UHF/
Trunk CNR CNR CNR
LAN
C ap a c ity av a i l ab l e
25.6
6.4
�
I
D iv Bde Bn Coy PI Sq u ad
Figure 5.1 Data rate req u i red v e r s u s c ap a c ity av a i l abl e.
some increase in data rates across CNR, it is unlikely that such nets will ever
carry the volume of traffic required to support situational awareness. This is
particularly true when it is recognized that these CNR nets will also be
required to carry voice data, significantly reducing the bandwidth available
for data. It should also be noted that information will need to be passed from
higher to lower levels, making the situation even worse.
: I
, I
Ii
I '
Clearly, traditional hierarchical architectures are unsuited to the provi
I '
sion of a battlefield network across which users can share large amounts of
data. Additionally, if the data rates necessary for near-real-time situational
awareness are to be provided, the CNR and trunk subsystems are unable to
cope and a higher capacity network that is dedicated to the transfer of situa
tional awareness data must be provided.
I !
5.2.6 Seamless Connectivity
If concepts such as network-centric warfare are to be implemented on the

future battlefield, the communications architecture must support seamless
connectivity betvveen any t\VO points in the battlespace, and between any
154 Ta cti ca l Comm u n i cati o n s fo r th e D i g itized Battl efi e ld
point in the battlespace and any point in the strategic communications sys
tem. While it will not always be desirable to support such extremes of con
nectivity, the possibility of such connections must be supported in the
architecture if the full power of network-centric warfare is to be realized.
5.2.7 Organic, Minimum-Essential Communications
The deployed force must have an organic, field-deployable tactical commu

nications system that meets minimum essential requirements for communi
cations to support command and control. This minimum-essential system
must provide guaranteed, robust, flexible communications that support the
force whether deployed on foot, motorized, mechanized, or armored. An
organic tactical communications system is part of the force's combat power.
Since the commander owns the minimum-capacity network, the essential
communications requirements of the force can be guaranteed in any deploy
ment. This also requires that the network is modular so that units and
subunits are self-sufficient in communications functionality when deployed
separately from the main force.
5.2.8 Expandable Communications
Since its organic communications will invariably be limited, the deployed

force must be able to make use of other battlefield and strategic communica
tions systems when available. While essential requirements are provided by
organic communications, additional capacity, redundancy, and reliability
can be provided by using overlaid communications systems such as the com
mercial PSTN, satellite communications, and theater broadcast. These sys
tems must be seamlessly integrated with the tactical communications system.
5.2.9 Scalable Communications
Within all available assets the brigade must have the ability to provide scalable
communications. That is, a small advance party must be able to deploy taking
with it sufficient communications for its task. As the force builds, the commu
nications system must be able to grow to accommodate the size of the force.
The tactical communications system must be able to support the force
when it is deployed in any one of its roles. In the extreme, the communica
tions system must be able to provide communications in conventional high
density deployments where brigades might be deployed with a 25-km front
age, as well as support widely dispersed deployments where a single brigade
may be spread over an area with a 500-km radius.
The second aspect of range is the ability to reach back from the tactical
communications system to the strategic communications system. The tacti
cal communications system must therefore be able to support high-capacity
communications from the area of operations back into the strategic environ
ment, which may require communications around the world.
5.2.10 OoS
The requirement to support both voice and data communications on the

battlefield is often characterized as a voice-versus-data debate, which tends to
belie the fact that both have relative advantages. Voice has long been the pre
ferred means of communications on the battlefield because:
• Voice conveys the imperative of the situation.

• Voice carries the personality of the speaker.
• Voice is user-friendly in that it is a familiar interface to the user,
allows for conversational interchange, only requires the use of one
hand, and can be conducted while the user is running, bouncing
around in a vehicle, or stationary.
• Voice does not require off-line preparation.
• Voice is interactive and immediate.
However, data messaging has a number of considerable advantages:
• Terminals do not need to be manned permanently.

• Messages can be acknowledged automatically, preformatted, and
prepared off-line.
• EDe techniques ensure that messages have more chance of being
received correctly under poor telecommunications conditions.
• Encoding in digital form allows the efficient transfer of information
through networking, particularly the integration of networks to allow
the seamless transfer of information between any two points in the
battlespace.
• The bandwidth required for a message is much smaller when passed as
a data text message compared to a digitized voice message. The
reduced transmission time also assists in reducing the probability of
detection.
156 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for the D i g itized B attl efi e ld
While warfare ever remains a human endeavor, commanders will want to

communicate using voice. However, concepts such as network-centric war
fare cannot be force multipliers unless the communications architecture can
support the rapid transfer of data across the battlefield. Since the tactical
communications system must serve both types of users, both voice and data
communications must be supported.
In addition to data messaging, battlefield entities need to transfer other
forms of data, including video and database transfers. With the proliferation
of battlefield information systems, these types of data have the potential to
dominate over the more traditional data messaging. In fact, since most mod
ern battlefield communications systems are increasingly digital, all forms of
traffic are invariably digitized before transmission. Since there are many dif
ferent types of data on the modern battlefield, it does not necessarily make
sense to distinguish them by their source. Rather, it is more useful to charac
terize them by the requirements that each type of data has for services across
the network. In that regard, there are two main types of traffic: those that
require real-time services (predominantly video and voice) and those that
require non-real-time services (computer-to-computer transfer).
5.2.11 low Probability of Detection
Low probability of detection (LPD) is critical to tactical communications

systems. Survival on the modern battlefield requires the protection of com
munications systems as the first step in protecting the command systems that
they support. LPD techniques include short-duration transmission, spread
spectrum (direct sequence spread spectrum as well as frequency hopping),
directional antennas, low power settings, terrain screening, and the use of air
borne relays so that ground terminals can direct their power upward, away
from a land-based adversary.
5.2.12 Jamming Resistance
Jamming resistance is also critical to the protection of communications links.

Operation in a harsh electromagnetic environment requires the ability to
implement measures to provide resistance to jamming. Techniques listed in
Section 5.2.11 for LPD are also relevant to increasing jamming resistance.
Other techniques that may conflict with LPD requirements include increased
power, strong error coding, jamming-resistant modulation, and adaptive
antennas with steerable nulls.
i
A Communications Architecture for the Digitized Battlefield 1 57
5.2.13 Precedence and Preemptiori
The requirements for precedence and preemption are unique to military

communications systems. Precedence implies some priority to a conversation
or message. Originally a service provided to commanders in the circuit
switched networks, the concept extends to packet-switched networks where
some data has a higher priority because of its information content rather than
its QoS requirements. To ensure that higher precedence communication can
occur, lower priority traffic can be preempted. That is, lower priority users
may have communications terminated or delayed to make way for higher
precedence users.
These requirements do not exist in commercial networks, which are
more egalitarian (although parental precedence over teenagers and modems
may be desirable in many homes) in both voice and data networks. Prece
dence and preemption are essential for tactical communications systems,
however, if sparse bandwidth is to be used effectively. This places significant
constraints on the military use of commercial systems where military users
must compete on an equal footing with civilian users (and possibly even an
Ii adversary) for access to channels.
ii
!: !I
i1
5.2.14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
;I i
\ Mobile users need to be connected to the network by a radio link. A large
,1
1 number of mobile users therefore requires a large number of radio channels,
which leads to difficulties in frequency allocation and management, as well as
cositing difficulties due to the installation of equipment in close vicinity
within a vehicle. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is therefore an
important consideration in equipment specification, design, and operation.
Military forces are not alone in this regard and EMC is an important
consideration in commercial networks. However, the tactical communica
tions system provides perhaps the harshest environment due to the large
number of equipment and users in a small area. For example, a single U.S.
heavy division may have up to 10,700 RF emitters in an area of approxi
mately 45 km by 70 km [2] .
5.2.15 Supported Systems
The tactical communications system architecture must support a wide vari

ety of battlefield, joint, and combined systems, including command ele
ments, maneuver elements, logistic elements, sensors, weapons platforms,
158 T a cti c a l C o m mun i c ations fo r th e D i g iti z e d B attl efi e l d
information systems, information services, and network management. Each

of these elements is discussed in more detail in Section 5.4.
5.2.16 Operation in All Geographic and Climatic Conditions
Tactical communications equipment is required to operate in a range of con

ditions beyond those normally expected for commercial equipment, includ
ing immersion in water, a temperature range of -20°C to +70°C, and to
withstand extremes of vibration, shock, pressure, and humidity. These
requirements relate to individual equipment but can be reduced, however, if
equipment can be protected in other ways. For example, vehicle-mounted
equipment may be able to be protected at the vehicle-system level; com
monly, the operating temperature range may be reduced if air conditioning is
provided within the vehicle.
5.2.17 Range, Capacity, and Mobility Trade-off
The tactical communications system must be able to support the force when
it is deployed in any one of its roles. In the extreme, the communications sys
tem must be able to provide communications in conventional high-density
deployments where brigades might be deployed with a 25-km frontage, as
well as support widely dispersed deployments where a single brigade may be
spread over an area with a 500-km radius.
The second aspect of range is the ability to reach back from the tactical
communications system to the strategic communications system. The tacti
cal communications system must therefore be able to support high-capacity
communications from the area of operations back into the strategic environ
ment, which may require communications around the world.
Communications systems provide ranges that vary from several meters
to thousands of kilometers, with capacities from hundreds of bits per second
to more than 1 Gbps, and with degrees of mobility varying from hand
portable systems that are operable on the move to large fixed installations
that must be shut down before moving. An ideal communications system
would provide long range, high capacity, and high mobility. However, as dis
cussed in Chapter 4, the delivery of all three of these characteristics is prob
lematic, and a communications system with ground-based terminals may be
able to exhibit two of them, but not all three at once.
High-capacity communications. The capacity of a communications channel

depends on the bandwidth of the channel and the signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver. Channel capacity can be increased, therefore, either by increasing
the channel bandwidth or increasing the transmit power. High capacity can
be achieved by the use of a cable, optical fiber, light through air (usually a
highly directional beam generated by a laser), or wireless RF connection op
erating in the VHF or higher frequency band. RF propagation in the VHF
and higher bands is by direct wave (implying line-of-sight). Over-the
horizon ranges can be achieved by scattered-wave communications. High
capacity channels are not usually available in the HF and lower frequency
bands due to the limited bandwidth available, although HF has also been
used to provide overflow capacity when VHF nets became overcrowded [3].
Long-range communications. Communications range is a function of the

frequency of operation and the heights of the transmit and receive antennas.
Long range can be achieved by using a frequency in the HF or lower band,
utilizing surface-wave or sky-wave propagation, by using either high transmit
power and an elevated antenna or one or more (probably elevated) relays
with direct-wave propagation at VHF or higher frequencies, by using
scattered-wave communications, or by using a cable or optical fiber, possibly
involving one or more relays.
High-mobility communications. Mobile forces require communications sys

tems that are based on RF wireless communications, that is, high mobility
cannot be achieved using either cable or optical fiber. High-mobility wireless
communications requires the use of small antennas. It is not possible to use
large antennas because they require support from a mast (as in the case of ef
ficient sky-wave antennas) or elevation on a mast (for long-range line-of
sight communications or scattered-wave communications). Using currently
available technology, high mobility is normally only possible with omnidi
rectional antennas, although further development of antenna arrays may
make ground-based, directional antennas feasible with a limited capability
for communications on the move. It is unlikely in the short term, however,
that technology will be available to enable directional antennas to be used
from a ground vehicle while it is moving, particularly cross-country. Man
portable communications systems also impose restrictions on transmit power
in order to extend battery life.
High-capacity/long-range communications. High capacity and long range

can be achieved by the use of cable or optical fiber, scattered-wave wireless
communications, or line-of-sight wireless communications with directional
antennas or high transmit powers. All of these solutions limit mobility.
I
I
_,
I
c�
160 Ta cti c a l C o m mun i c ati o n s f o r th e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
High -capacity/high-mobility communications. High capacity and high mobil

ity can be achieved by line-of-sight, wireless communications using low, om
nidirectional antennas. Range is limited by the line-of-sight available from
low antennas. For man-portable communications, range is also limited by
the use of low transmit powers.
Long-range/high mobility communications. Long range and high mobility are

achieved by the use of surface-wave wireless communications or by the use of
an elevated relay with line-of-sight wireless communications. The capacity of
surface-wave wireless communications is limited by the small bandwidth
available. The capacity of long-range, highly mobile line-of-sight communi
cations systems is limited by the use of omnidirectional antennas and the
limitations on transmit power imposed by the requirement for mobility.
This trade-off between range, capacity, and mobility is illustrated in Figure
5.2. Also shown is the trade-off choice commonly made for a number of
communications systems, which are described in further detail next.
Optical fiber. Optical fiber can provide capacities in excess of 100 Gbps over
ranges of many kilometers. It is time-consuming, however, to lay and recover,
allowing network terminals essentially no mobility during communications. In
tactical communications systems the utility of optical fiber is therefore limited
to providing high-capacity links within vehicles and command posts. In some
cases, for example, when at the halt, vehicles can be interconnected with fiber
to create a high-capacity LAN. Optical fiber would usually be avoided on
longer links due to the long setup and teardown times required.
WLAN. WLAN technologies (such as IEEE 802.11 [4]), including personal

network technologies (such as Bluetooth [5]), provide full operation on the
move and very high capacities (up to 1 Mbps for Bluetooth and 54 Mbps for
IEEE 802.11). These high capacities and degrees of mobility are provided at
the expense of very short ranges (on the order of tens of meters). Again, the
uses of wireless LANs in tactical communications systems are limited to the
provision of high-capacity LAN. Additionally, the technologies themselves
are not scalable and are therefore not suitable for creating WANs.
Trunk communications systems. For terrestrial radio-relay links, long range

(in excess of 10 km where line-of-sight exists) and high capacity (up to ap
proximately 2 Mbps) are provided by the use of elevated directional anten
nas, usually mounted on masts at least 10-m tall, and by the use of transmit
powers up to approximately 100W.
Low c ap a c ity
•
pes
• Trunk n etwo rk
Low S h o rt
H i g h c ap a c ity
m ob i l ity ra n g e
Figure 5.2 R a n g e- c ap a c ity- m o b i l ity tra d e-off.
CNR. The main role of CNR is to provide communications for the com
mand and control of combat troops, which requires high mobility, with full
operation on the move. VHF CNR, therefore, sacrifices capacity compared
to terrestrial radio relay to provide moderate range with high mobility. HF
CNR can provide longer range while still maintaining mobility, through the
use of surface-wave propagation. The capacity of current analog VHF CNR
(usually 16 Kbps per channel) is higher than HF CNR (usually less than 3
Kbps per channel) because of the larger channel bandwidth used for VHF
CNR (25 kHz for VHF versus 3 kHz for HF).
Cellular telephones. Cellular telephone systems provide moderate capacity

and a range (between mobile terminal and base station) of up to several tens
of kilometers. The mobility of the mobile terminal is very high, while the
base station is invariably fixed with antennas mounted on hills, tall masts,
or buildings. Directional antennas are usually employed at the base station
to reduce intercell interference. The effective channel bandwidth for most
16 2 T a c ti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
second-generation cellular systems (such as GSM) is 25 to 30 kHz for each

uplink and downlink. Data capacities are approximately 10 Kbps per
channel.
Satellite communications systems. Satellite communications systems are de

signed to provide long-range communications. Systems vary, however, in
their choice of the trade-off between capacity and mobility. Small, handheld
terminals with omnidirectional antennas (such as an Iridium handset) pro
vide a capacity of approximately 2.4 Kbps, a military tactical satellite system
with a 2.4-m parabolic antenna mounted on the back of a truck may provide
up to approximately 2 Mbps, while a large, fixed ground station whose
highly directional, parabolic antenna may have a diameter in excess of 60m
may be capable of more than 10 Mbps.
5.3 Options for a Mobile Tactical Communications System
As discussed in Chapter 4 and illustrated in Figure 5.3, the current tactical

communications system has evolved to comprise two major components.
The trunk communications system provides high capacity links (using radio
relay, satellite, optical fiber, or line bearers) that interconnect headquarters at
brigade level and above. The CNR subsystem is a ruggedized, portable radio
network carried as an organic communications system for combat troops (at
brigade level and below).
There are a number of major problems with the current tactical com
munications system if it is to support command and control in future land
warfare:
• Due to its hierarchical, analog voice net structure, the CNR subsys
tem is poorly placed to provide a network to transfer data between
combat units.
• The networks are not seamlessly integrated to allow the transfer of
information between any two points in the batdespace.
• Information cannot be passed between CNR nets, or between the

CNR and trunk subsystems (except for the rudimentary interface of
CNRI).
• The tactical communications system is not seamlessly integrated

with the strategic communications system to allow the transfer of
'ii
'I
1\
.
..__ CNR ----1.�..f_------ Tru nk
subsystem subsystem
Figure 5.3 The c u rrent ta cti c a l c o mm u n i c ati o ns system.
information between any point in the battlespace and any point in

the strategic communications system.
• There is not sufficient capacity below brigade to cope with future
levels of data traffic required to provide commanders with near
real-time situational awareness.
• Neither the current CNR subsystem nor the trunk communications
subsystem provides enough range to allow the dispersal of divisional
elements when required to meet the tactical situation.
Philosophically, support for command and control in future land warfare

requires the tactical communications system to be a single logical network (as
shown in Figure 5.4) to provide connectivity between any two points on the
battlefield. The tactical communications system is an organic asset that pro
vides the minimum essential voice and data communications requirements to
support situational awareness within the brigade and to allow for the transfer
of command and control information. An interface is required with the strate
gic communications system to provide seamless connectivity between any two
points in the battlespace and between any point in the battlespace and any
point in the strategic communications system.
The development of a suitable architecture for the tactical communica
tions system can draw on the considerable body of knowledge available in
164 T a cti c a l C o m m u ni c ati o n s f or t h e Digitized B att l efi e ld
Strategic
Tactical communications system communications
system
Figure 5.4 Tactical communications system and strategic communications syst e m.
existin g commercial and military net\vorks that provide mobile communica

tions. However, in so m e respeers. iJlobile conlJi1lmi({7ti071S is a misnomer when
used in the commcrcial environmcnt bccausc o nl" the user is mobile in such
systems� rhc y as r m ;1 j orir y of rhe communicuions system (the communications
ne m ' o rk) is \'e !':' much l�xcd. with mobile access to this fixed infrastructure
being prm'ickd b)' a \\'ircless connl'erion, In the m ilit a r) ' em'ironment, the pro
\'ision o f a mobile i
commun car ons s 'srel1l i ) normall)' implies rhat both the user
an d the nl ' r or k infrasrruccure
w ;He mohile, i\lohilir\'
,
therefore means markedlv
.
difTercnr things in rhl' commercial and milil:lr)' environl1lenr s. Consequently,
while m;lll\'
, commcr ci;11 comIlllln cn ons i i r e chnolo'-gi e s ;1I'C use u f l in the mili-
" cm'ironment . rhe l11ohilin' or rhl' Ill'l\\'ork in fr as t ru c tu r e l�)r milir;1n'
ran' ,
COI1)-
municuions S)'Sll'ms rel1 ds [() requirl' unique l

so lll ol1s, i
[\'en within miliL11Y mohile l1el\\'or l.: s, ;1 disrinction must hc madc
herwecn networ ks prm'ickd \\'irh mohile infraslTuuurc and rL1I1sporrahic in frJ
srrUClure, I t is thnd()J'(':' llse u f l to cons i d n pot ent ial mohile nctwork architec
tures un cl e r rhe ldlowing three cnegorie.<;. not ncc('ss;nily in t e r m s of the
mohilit\' of the nLTwor k. hur r;Hhn in tnms
�'
o r the moh il i ty of the ne(,vork
,.
infr;lS(J'uCtLJrc: f;xer! i/{'/l{l()il i)�F{ls/m(ff!r(', S('iJli))loIJlic lIef/II())-/.' i;�F(/.I/J'/{(llIi'C,

and iJ/o!Jilc i/Cf/(Jo;/' i)�F(1.i/m(//(i'{' Ie)]. Sl'ctio[1s 5.3.1 ro 5.3 ..� briefly examine
rhe c omme r c i a l ;md miliLlr\' mohile i i
COI11I11llI1 Cll O!1S svs[cms avaibble within
e a ch or rhese cllcg()rics,
5.3.1 Fixed Network Infrastructure
C ommerc i a l Jllohile c()ml11u!1icniol1s sy.<;lcms ;lJT based on a fIxed n c rw o r k

infrastructure wirh Illohilitv !)rovidecl hV;1 w i reless il1terl�1ce bcrwccn the lIscr
/ ,
and rhe Jl Clw o rk. M:1jor s\'stems in c l u d e terrestrial mobile telephony and
wir cl ess nCl\vorking.
\.;1
5.3. 1 . 1 Te rre strial Mo bile Tele p h o ny

Mobile telephone systems provide wireless access to users who can have vary
ing degrees of mobility. There are two main types of mobile phone systems:
cellular and cordless phones.
Cellular phones. In cellular phone systems, mobile telephone users are con
nected by wireless telephone handsets to one of a number of base stations,
each of which serves a number of mobile users within an area called a cell.
Bases stations are then interconnected using high-speed trunk lines provided
by fixed infrastructure, normally that of the PSTN. A group of base stations
is controlled by a mobile switching center, which supports the handover of a
mobile user as that user moves from one cell (base station) to another. Users
are therefore able to make calls as they roam throughout the network. Cellu
lar telephone networks are designed predominantly for voice, but can also
pass data at rates of up to 9.6 Kbps (although the introduction of third
generation systems promises to increase data rates considerably).
Cordless phones. A number of applications do not require the complexity

of cellular telephone systems, particularly the arduous (and expensive) re
quirement to hand over users. These simpler mobile telephone techniques
(e.g., CT2 and DECT) allow a mobile user to be supported by a single base
station for the period of a call. Handover is generally not supported, al
though as an exception to this, DECT does support a limited form of hand
Q over. Range is therefore limited to line-of-sight between the user and the base
t�
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1< station. Cordless phone systems are generally designed for voice calls only.
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5.3. 1 .2 Wirele ss N etwo rkin g
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Ii detach and attach quickly to a network, or for networks-such as those pro
i!\ I vided in classrooms-where users move in and out of the network on a regu
\ ! lar basis. WLANs can be based on IR or RF bearers. IR WLANs have very
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pheric attenuation. RF WLANs have longer ranges but are still too short for
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! wide-area coverage. While wireless networking has great utility within com
mand posts and other locations where computers are deployed on the battle
field, ranges are too limited to participate in the broad-area coverage required
of the tactical communications system.
I, "
I;
166 Ta cti c a l C o m muni c ati o n s fo r th e DIgiti z e d B attl efi e l d
5.3 . 1 .3 Military Utility

Although they may have the potential to provide the highest capacity and
QoS to deployed forces, frxed-infrastructure (commercial) mobile communi
cations systems have limited utility as the basis for the tactical communica
tions system:
• Provision of infrastructure. In mobile communications systems, only

the user is mobile; the considerable network infrastructure is fixed.
Terrestrial mobile communications systems require the provision of a
significant amount of infrastructure in the form of base stations every
20 or 30 km. In addition, base stations are connected by the fixed
infrastructure of the public telephone network. Since the provision of
this infrastructure cannot be guaranteed within any potential area of
operations, the necessary equipment and personnel would need to be
provided by the tactical communications system. Significant infra
structure would be required to support the force over a widely dis
persed area.
• Range. Calls in terrestrial mobile communications systems cannot be
placed outside the range of the network-not only are communica
tions ranges to base stations limited by terrain but in systems such as
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), range is limited
to 35 km due to the power balancing required at the base station.
• Flexibility. Since they are connection-oriented, mobile cellular com
munications systems lack flexibility. A user can only make a call to
another user, while some systems may support, or may be able to be
adapted to support, broadcast or conference calls. All-informed com
munications are therefore not easily obtained. In addition, while the
service provider can provide connection to a data network, it is very
difficult to provide the type of network required to support the seam
less transfer of data between any two points in the battlespace, since
any such network would be essentially circuit-switched. This is ade
quate if the mobile user is the initiator and the connection is simply to
a server-problems ensue if contact with the mobile user is sought
from a server on the fixed network (or another mobile user through
the fixed network).
• Capacity. Cellular telephony systems have limited capacity-cur
rently about 9.6 Kbps. While there is promise that these rates will
increase somewhat in the near-to-medium term [7], they will still
only serve single military users because only a single connection is
Ii
A CommunicatlO71S Archztecture for the Dzgitzzed Battlefield 167
provided. It should also be noted that higher-capacity cellular sys

tems are possible with a limitation on the number of simultaneous
. ,
actlve connectlons.
• Cost-effectiveness. Significant quantities of infrastructure are required

to provide base stations that cover a population of users. First, in
regions that have high populations, a large number of base stations
are required to accommodate possible calls. Then, in regions of low
population, a significant number of base stations are still required as
communication is terrain-limited to tens of kilometers. The provi
sion of this infrastructure on the battlefield is not cost-effective to
provide complete coverage.
• Security. Both terrestrial mobile telephony and wireless networking

are very limited in their ability to provide security services to appli
cations. There are few mechanisms for voice security, and those digi
tal networks that do provide encryption use short keys that can be
easily broken.
• Precedence and preemption. Commercial systems do not recognize

that there are users with different precedence and military users will
have to compete for channels with commercial users and perhaps
even adversaries.
• Mobility. Commercial PCS systems support mobile users with small

handsets. High-capacity data systems such as Teledesic require larger
il terminals that are semimobile.
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• Resistance to jamming. PCS systems do not support any techniques
e'
11 that would provide resistance to jamming. Individual cells are there

. ,
ii fore very vulnerable, as the base station can be attacked easily by

physical and electronic means.
These limitations mean that fixed-infrastructure systems have little utility for
inclusion in the tactical communications systems because they cannot pro
vide the minimum, organic, flexible communications required to support
voice requirements. Additionally, such systems do not easily support the pro
vision of a data network. However, mobile telephone systems provide a very
useful adjunct to the tactical communications systems and must be able to be
used when available.
I
1
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168 Ta cti c a l C o m mun i c ati o n s f o r th e D i g iti z e d B attlefi e l d
5.3.2 Semimobile Network I nfrastructure
In these networks, mobile users connect to semimobile infrastructure, which

can deploy and redeploy to meet changes in the operational requirement.
Some degree of infrastructure mobility is essential to support military
operatIOns.
5.3.2. 1 Tru n k C o m m u nicatio n s N etwo rks

Most modern armies currently employ trunk communications systems that
provide semimobile infrastructure to support communications between
headquarters. The mobility of these trunk networks is constrained by their
size and deployment times. However, they are sufficiently mobile to allow
combat forces, and particularly command elements, to be fully mobile within
the area of operations. In particular, trunk communications networks pro
vide high-capacity point-to-point links between transportable switching
nodes. The network deploys to cover an area of operations and command
elements connect into a convenient node.
5.3.2.2 C e l l u lar C o m m u nicatio n s Syste m s

As outlined in Section 5. 3. 1, mobile communications systems tend to rely on
too much fixed infrastructure to be of any great use in a tactical communica
tions system. However, with reduced functionality, a mobile base station
could be deployed to support isolated communities of users, such as in com
mand posts, logistics installations, and airfields. If the tactical situation
allows, mobile base stations could be interconnected by high capacity radio
links. This becomes particularly feasible when base stations are collocated
with (or integrated into) trunk network nodes. In fact, SCRA provides such a
service and has been in service with trunk networks since the mid-1980s,
quite some time before cellular communications systems became as readily
available as they are today.
5.3.2.3 Military Utility

While modern trunk communications systems may one day become fully
mobile, they are currently constrained in their mobility by their size, power
requirements, and the need to orientate the high-gain antennas required to
support high data rates over useful distances. Some research is currently
being conducted in this area, but planned high-capacity radios (45-155
Mbps) have very limited ranges (tens of kilometers only). Current trunk
communications systems architectures are therefore likely to remain for the
next 10 to 15 years.
Additional systems, such as semimobile cellular communications sys

tems, will continue to find applications as adjuncts to trunk communications
systems. However, they are unlikely to develop the functionality to replace
them.
Therefore, the high-capacity backbone of the tactical communications
system must still be provided by a system similar in design to current modern
trunk communications systems. A number of changes are required, however.
In particular, trunk communications must be extended to below brigade
headquarters and the trunk network must be seamlessly integrated with other
battlefield networks.
5.3.3 Mobile Network Infrastructure
Mobile networks provide the greatest flexibility and mobility to support

military operations-all users are mobile, as is the network itself. These types
of networks, apart from satellite communications systems, tend to be unique
to the military environment.
5.3.3.1 CNR
CNR is the traditional means of providing communications on the move.
Small, robust radios are combined into a flexible tactical system providing
single-frequency, half-duplex, all-informed communications in support of
the command and control of combat troops. Radios are mounted in vehicles
or are carried in soldiers' packs. Radios provide both user terminals and net
work nodes. Mostly voice communications have been provided, although
data communications are increasingly available in modern radios. The major
disadvantage of CNR is that it is generally terrain-limited, rather than
power-limited, which causes additional difficulties in establishing and main
tammg commUnIcations.
5.3.3.2 Pac ket Rad i o

Packet radio systems were developed as an extension of CNR systems. Their
main design driver was to be able to handle the requirement to send data over
\ : tactical mobile links. Radios are digital and exchange information by break
i
I ing messages up into packets and then routing them around the network.
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I Packets are stored at each radio and then forwarded when the next link is
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available. Packets may take a number of hops to reach their destination.
I
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While packet radio systems can have fixed infrastructure, they are most use
ful for military use when mobile. Packet radio networks provide one of the
! few architectures available for providing a data network on the battlefield
I
\,
170 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s f o r th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
that could support mobile users with mobile network infrastructure. Like
CNR, however, they are terrain-limited, which causes difficulty in maintain
ing network connectivity between mobile forces that naturally keep low in
the terrain.
5.3.3.3 Sate l lite C o m m u nicatio n s

Mobile communications can also be provided by satellite communications
systems. While the network infrastructure is not mobile in the sense that we
have considered other infrastructure, it is generally ubiquitous over all possi
ble areas of operations. Since the infrastructure itself does not place any con
straints on the mobility of the users, satellite communications have been
included in this mobile-infrastructure category.
GEO communications systems. GEO satellites orbit the Earth at approxi

mately 36,000 km above the Earth's surface. Because of this long range, mo
bile users need to have reasonably large antennas, and the phones are
considerably larger than cellular phones (normally small briefcase-sized ter
minals). Users connect to a terrestrial gateway that is connected to the
PSTN. If one mobile satellite user wants to talk to another, connection is
made through the terrestrial gateway, requiring two uplinks and two down
links. However, the user is provided much greater mobility than in terrestrial
cellular networks, since the coverage of the system is far greater. It should be
noted that the use of UHF satellite-based CNR systems may simplify com
munications by using bent-pipe architectures.
LEO communications systems. LEO communications satellites have a much

lower orbit than GEO-approximately 800 km above the Earth's surface.
LEO mobile communications systems therefore require much smaller termi
nals (slightly larger than a modern cellular phone) than GEO systems. In sys
tems such as Iridium, users communicate directly to each other without
using terrestrial infrastructure (after gaining approval from a terrestrial gate
way), supported by intersatellite links. Other systems such as Globalstar pro
vide communications between terminals by switching through base stations
on the ground. If a sufficient number of satellites has been provided, LEO
based mobile communications system potentially covers the entire surface of
the Earth, providing users with complete mobility and the ability to make a
call anywhere at any time. I
, I
In the near future, satellite-based mobile communications systems are ,. II

i I
likely to be integrated seamlessly with terrestrial cellular systems through the
work being conducted in the development of third-generation mobile commu I!
:!
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niCatIOns systems.
5.3.3.4 Fu "y M e s h e d and R e p eate r- Bas e d N etwo rks

Fully meshed architectures such as Joint Tactical Information Distribution
System QTIDS) (see Section 8.4.4.1) have been developed for air-to-air and
air-to-ground communication providing up to 30 nets, each of which is
shared on a TDMA basis. Communications are broadcast to the net provid
ing considerable survivability since there are no critical nodes. Communica
tions are line-of-sight, although JTIDS has a relay capability to support
communications beyond line-of-sight. However, setting up a relay requires
manual configuration by an operator and the use of relays also significantly
degrades overall system performance.
Fully meshed networks are inherently inefficient, however, because each
transmitter can make range (timing) and Doppler corrections for only one
receiver in the network (or rather, it can only make the same corrections for all
receivers). The network is inefficient, therefore, because sufficient guard time
has to be allowed for stations at the full extremity of the network (300-500 nm
for JTIDS). Guard times can be much smaller in repeater networks because
transmitters can adjust their transmit times to correct for range differences to
the repeater, and guard times need only be as long as required to accommodate
the uncertainty in propagation time to the repeater (plus timing errors).
Additionally, meshed networks cannot reuse frequencies because all
nodes are considered to belong to the one community. If more than one base
station is used in a repeater-based network, frequencies can be reused, allow
ing for significant increases in capacity over fully meshed and single-repeater
networks. Some terrestrial networks such as Enhanced Position Locating and
Reporting System (EPLRS) provide a compromise solution with limited
meshed networks controlled by a base station. EPLRS stations are also capa
ble of automatic repeating between stations.
5.3.3.5 Air b o r n e R e p eate r

An airborne repeater would be particularly useful because it would be able to
accommodate a user community across a much larger area than a terrestrial
repeater. With accurate position and time information available at each node
through GPS, it should be possible to virtually eliminate guard-time over
head. Using multiple-access protocols to an airborne repeater would allow
high (UHF or X-band) frequencies to be used providing up to 500 MHz of
spectrum. The net effect of these factors might be a hundred-fold increase in
system capacity relative to a system such as JTIDS. With multiple relays and
frequency or code reuse, even larger capacities might be realized [6].
Additional advantages would accrue if the airborne platform was to be
used for other communications functions, such as an airborne cellular base
: i
, L __ _
172 Ta cti c a l C o m mun i c ati o n s fo r th e D i g it i z e d B a ttlefi e l d
station, HF, VHF, or UHF rebroadcast, UHF theater broadcast, or even as a

surrogate satellite. In other words, the platform could be used with existing
terrestrial terminals to extend their limited ranges. An airborne repeater
therefore has the advantages of providing range extension to terrain-limited
nets as well as opening up new opportunities in multiple-access communica
tions that can provide coverage of the entire area of operations. These issues
are discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.

While all of the previously mentioned communications systems have the
potential to provide tactical mobile communications architecture, the follow
ing apply.
Architecture. Satellite-based PCS communications systems are point-to

point and are therefore not well suited to all-informed voice nets or data net
works providing seamless connectivity. They are, however, ideally suited to
employment as an overlaid communications system.
Range. CNR and packet radio solutions are difficult to provide and main
tain because the radios are terrain-limited in range, rather than power
limited. This is a function of low antennas mounted on low-profile vehicles
or on soldiers' backs. Range limitations are even worse for fully meshed sys
tems such as ]TIDS, where it is unlikely that one terminal can see any more
than a few others at any one time when deployed in ground-based units. Due
to their significantly greater heights, satellite and airborne systems are able to
cover the area of operations and be visible to all ground terminals. UHF
CNR can have very long-range extensions offered by satellite-based systems.
Capacity. CNR and packet radio solutions have capacities limited by the
transmission techniques and modulation schemes as well as the possible mul
tiple access techniques. GEO systems are limited in capacity by the size of an
tenna that can be mounted on the mobile platform-significant rates can
only be sustained by semimobile terminals. Mobile terminals can be used
with LEO systems, but data rates are constrained to 9.6 Kbps in the near
term. UHF satellite communications also have limited capacity, particularly
for a reasonably large number of terminals.
Cost-effecti veness. CNR and packet radio systems provide cost-effective

solutions to the voice communications requirements of combat troops since
they provide relatively cheap, flexible communications to support the full
range of deployments. Data rates are generally very low, however, and only
able to support limited transfer of situational awareness data. Unfortunately,
the cost of satellite PCS systems tends to preclude their widespread use, al
though they are very effective forms of communications for limited use by
reconnaissance teams and advance parties. Airborne systems provide high
capacity, long-range, flexible communications at some significant cost (al
though aerostat solutions are an order of magnitude less than uninhabited
aerial vehicles (UAVs) [8]).
Flexibility. CNR (and its packet radio variant) has evolved to provide very
flexible communications to combat forces in a wide variety of deployments
and operational environments. All-informed communications can be pro
vided across the deployed force enhancing the coordination of complex tasks.
The additional range extension provided by airborne platform increases the
usefulness of such systems. Satellite-based systems are constrained by their
circuit-switched nature-the only thing a user can do with a satellite phone
is make a phone call-this limits the usefulness of such systems in support of
military operations as it is difficult (i.e., expensive) to form an all-informed
voice net or a robust data network using circuit-switching.
Security. All forms of mobile communications can be secured by the use of

cryptographic equipment. Additional security is provided within the CNR
nets by the fact that the users carry and own the equipment and that ranges
are limited, reducing the opportunity of intercept. Satellite-based systems are
very vulnerable to intercept and jamming and rely on infrastructure that is
not owned by the tactical user, or even the service or defense force in most
cases, which makes their availability very doubtful in times of crisis.
5.4 An Architectural Framework
The ideal tactical communications system architecture would provide a

mobile infrastructure to support mobile users. It would therefore be a single
homogeneous network supporting all communicating entities within the
batdespace. As identified earlier, however, there are a number of difficulties
in providing such an architecture.
A mobile infrastructure (CNR) provides ideal flexibility for voice and
limited data communications between combat troops. However, this flexibil
ity is gained at the cost of capacity and range. Therefore, CNR cannot pro
vide the capacity required for useful data communications or for voice and
data communications between command posts. In addition, ranges beyond
174 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s for t h e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
those required for conventional deployments cannot be supported by CNR

systems. The trunk communications system provides significant capacity to
support the transfer of data between command posts. Trunk communica
tions systems are not, however, sufficiently mobile to provide directly the
intimate support required by conlbat troops.
While the tactical communications system can be provided as one logi
cal network, it cannot be provided as one single physical network. At the
lower level, combat troops carry a device that must be a network node as well
as the access terminal. Battery power and the need for small omnidirectional
antennas mean that ranges and capacities are limited. At the higher level, the
large capacities required of trunk communications systems mean that they
will remain semimobile for the foreseeable future. Large power requirements
force the use of generators, and high-gain antennas must be deployed on
guyed masts to provide reasonable ranges.
Neither the CNR subsystem nor the trunk communications subsystem
is able to cover the large ranges required for dispersed or fast-moving opera
tions. The only solution to providing high-capacity, long-range communica
tions is to elevate the antennas. In the extreme, the provision of a
satellite-based or an airborne repeater or switch will greatly increase the
ranges between network nodes. A satellite-based solution is not considered
desirable due to its inability to meet the requirements of a minimum organic
communications system. An airborne subsystem is therefore required to sup
port long-range operation. In addition, an airborne subsystem will increase
the capacity of lower level tactical communications by removing the range
restriction on high frequencies that can provide additional capacity from
small omnidirectional antennas.
Current CNR nets and trunk communications systems do not provide
an architecture that supports a large number of mobile voice and data
users-the transfer of real-time situational awareness data is therefore corre
spondingly limited. The data-handling capacity of the trunk communica
tions system will be sufficient (with some modification to the architecture) to
cope with the volumes of data that must be transmitted between major head
quarters. However, the CNR system's ability is severely limited, especially as
it will still be required to transmit voice information. Therefore, an addi
tional, purpose-designed, data distribution system is required to provide suf
ficient capacity to transfer situational awareness data across the lower levels of
the battlefield. However, CNR must still be voice and data capable to allow
organic communications of both types within subunits, should they be
deployed individually or beyond the range of the tactical data distribution
subsystem. The additional (albeit limited) data capacity in the combat radio
subsystem would also provide an overflow capability, should the tactical data
distribution subsystem be unable to meet all the data needs.
A minimum organic tactical communications system will be able to pro-
�f; vide a basic level of service and must be able to be augmented where possible
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satellite-based communications systems, and PCSs. These overlaid systems
II cannot be guaranteed to be available and cannot therefore be included in the
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minimum organic system. However, if they are available, great advantage is to
be gained from their use.
In order to simplify the user interface to these subsystems, a local com
munications subsystem (most probably containing a level of switching) is
required. This local subsystem could take a number of forms, from a vehicle
harness to a LAN around brigade headquarters.
To support command and control in future land warfare, the tactical
communications system is therefore required to evolve from the two subsys
tems of Figure 5. 5 to five subsystems [9] . The combat radio subsystem pro
vides the mobile infrastructure to carry voice and data communications to
support the command and control of combat troops. The tactical data distri
bution subsystem provides high-capacity data communications to support the
situational awareness required for the command and control of combat
troops. The tactical trunk subsystem provides the transportable infrastructure
to support communications between command elements and other large
volume users. The tactical airborne subsystem extends communications ranges
and provides additional capacity when the tactical situation allows. Finally,
the local subsystem simplifies the user interface to the other communications
subsystems and to overlaid communications systems.
The architecture of Figure 5. 5 illustrates the major architectural com
ponents of the tactical communications system. It recognizes that, while the
tactical communications system is to be considered as one logical network,
for practical deployment reasons, it will be provided as a number of physical
networks (at least in the short term). It is also a convenient starting point
since it broadly coincides with the current deployed architecture, requiring
the addition of a tactical data distribution subsystem as a high-capacity data
system and a tactical airborne subsystem to increase capacity and range.
However, the concept of a single logical network must remain paramount, as
it is a crucial aspect of the architecture in Figure 5. 5.
The tactical communications system does not exist in isolation; it exists
to support a number of battlefield, joint, and combined systems. These sup
ported systems interface to the tactical communications system as illustrated
in Figure 5. 5. As also illustrated in Figure 5. 5, the minimum-essential
1 76 T a cti c a l Co m m u n i c ati o n s for th e D i g itized B attl efi e l d
O v e r l a i d c o m m u n i c ati o n s syste m s
P u b l i c vO i c e a n d d ata n etworks
PCSs
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Sate l l ite c o m m u n i c ati o n s syst e m s
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( B a ttlefi e l d , J O i nt, a n d c o m b i n e d ) i1
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Figure 5.5 E l e m e nts of th e ta cti c a l c o m m u n i c ati o n s syste m a n d i nt e rfa c e s to oth e r

syste m s .
tactical communications system is augmented where possible by a range of

overlaid communications systems such as the commercial telephone net
work, satellite communications, theater broadcast, and PCSs. These overlaid
systems should be seamlessly integrated with the tactical communications
system.
5.4.1 Su p p orted Systems
The tactical communications system architecture must support a wide range

of ban Iefield, joint, and combined systems.
5.4. 1 . 1 C o m man d , Man e u ve r, an d Log istic Ele m e nts

Arguably, the principal purpose of the communications system architecture is
to support the C2 cycle and the transfer of information between command,
I '
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maneuver, and logistics elements. Interfaces betvveen these elements and the
tactical communications system are provided by the local subsystem, which is
described in more detail in Chapter 10.
5.4. 1 . 2 S e n s o rs
In NCW, it is highly desirable for a user at any point in the battlespace to be
able to access information provided by any sensor. However, this does not
imply that raw sensor data is transferred across the tactical communications
system, which simply cannot be provided with enough capacity to cope with
large volume sensors connecting into the netvvork at any point. What is
required is a transfer of information, which does not necessarily require the
transfer of the original sensor data. Each sensor system must be examined in
the context of the architecture of the tactical communications system, with a
view to determining the most effective way of interfacing that sensor to the
netvvork.
5.4. 1 .3 Weap o n s Platfo rms

Weapons platforms must be able to connect to any point in the tactical com
,
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munications system and subsequently be able to access information from any
r
sensor, the supported command element, and their own command post. Bat
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i tlefield, joint, and combined weapons platforms exist in a variety of forms
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i and in a variety of locations. Battlefield weapons platforms will be equipped
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with a local subsystem to allow access to a range of subsystems of the tactical
communications system. The local subsystem will provide the range of inter
II
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faces required to allow the weapons platform to communicate to any other
point in the battlespace, or to any point in the strategic communications sys
tem. Joint and combined weapons platforms must also be able to communi
cate to any point in the tactical communications system. For any particular
army, further study is required to identify the range of weapons platforms,
type of data required to be transferred, locations to which data/information
is required to be transferred, and recommended types of links.
5.4. 1 .4 I nfo rmation Syste m s

Information is provided to commanders by many different information sys
tems, whether they are tactical, operational, or strategic systems. These sys
tems extend from the tactical level to the joint level. In addition, access in the
field is required to a wide range of administrative systems. The number of
disparate systems is of great concern here. Before a more detailed architecture
can be developed for any particular army, further study is required to
address:
178 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s fo r t h e D i g itiz e d B attlefi e l d
• Those information systems that intend to transfer data across the tac
tical communications system, either between systems within the tacti
cal environment, or from outside the tactical communications system
to an information system within;
• The nature of information transfer between systems;
• Suitable database architectures for tactical information systems;
• Limitations of the tactical communications system to support infor
mation transfer;
• Recommendations for the development of future information systems
to be more suited to the transfer of information within the tactical
enVIronment.
5.4. 1 . 5 I nfo rmatio n S e rvic e s

The tactical communications system must support the provlslOn of vital
information services throughout the battlespace. These services include secu
rity, messaging, video teleconferencing, data replication and warehousing,
distributed computing, and search engines .
Security. The tactical communications system must have a security archi

tecture that protects information sufficiently to allow information processing
at a range of security levels, distributed processing, connectivity via unclassi
fied networks, and interconnection of users whose security levels range from
unclassified to the highest support classification. An appropriate security en
vironment would allow users to exchange information in the safe knowledge
that the data is authentic, originated from valid users, and is not available to
those who do not have authorized access. The security architecture should
define features that protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information that is created, processed, stored, and communicated. In par
ticular, the following major security services must be provided: data integrity,
identification and authentication, nonrepudiation, data confidentiality, and
access control.
Messaging. The success of modern command systems depends on the effi

cient transfer of information. In an ideal world, all communicating entities
would have the same databases, operating systems, and computing platforms.
This is rarely the case within the same service, however, let alone within a
joint or combined environment. Interoperability between disparate systems
can be assured through the use of messages, which are the primary means of
transferring information between battlefield locations. Message text formats

(MTF) are defined by a number of standards, including the NATO standard
Allied Data Publications Number 3 (AdatP-3), Australian Defense Format
ted Message (ADFORM), and U.S. Message Text Formats (USMTF) stan
dards [10]. MTFs have a structured format based on a well-defined set of
rules and every message type is constructed from the basic set of rules. There
are several hundred message formats within each standard including situa
tion reports, intelligence reports, and air tasking orders. Importantly, for in
teroperability between systems with different levels of automation, MTFs
have been designed to be readable by both computers and human recipients.
Although AdatP-3 and ADFORM standards were originally derived from
USMTF , there are a number of differences between the standards and con
siderable time and effort are spent by the United States, the Australian De
fense Force (ADF), and NATO to ensure the consistency and availability of
the MTF standards. In many armies there is often little interoperability be
tween information systems due in part to the use of proprietary communica
tions formats. This situation must be addressed. When it is, the question of
\14.� an appropriate message format arises. The use of bit-oriented messaging is es
{I sential within the tactical communications system if near-real-time situa
, :
fi tional awareness is to be feasible. Further study of this important area is
required to address suitable message formats for use within the tactical com
Ii
I ' munications system, techniques for retaining interoperability with command
I I
i ' systems at theater level and above (including systems within the strategic
I :
I i
t II communications system), and joint and combined systems [particularly in
I
I '
light of U.S. use of tactical data link (TADIL-J) series of standards].
Videoconferencing. Battlefield videoconferencing is a service that is consid

ered by the modern commander to be very important, if not essential.
Through video teleconferencing, commanders can effectively disseminate or
ders and can conduct collaborative planning and white-boarding with subor
dinate commanders and key staff elements. However, there have been few
cost-benefit analyses to support the introduction of such a bandwidth
hungry application into the tactical environment. It is unlikely that there will
ever be sufficient bandwidth available within the combat radio subsystem to
support videoconferencing. Given that commanders at battalion level have
only mobile access to the tactical trunk subsystem, videoconferencing from
brigade to battalion will not be possible without the provision of a dedicated
system. Sufficient bandwidth should be available for videoconferencing for
fixed subscribers to the tactical trunk subsystem. Further study is -required
into the cost benefits of videoconferencing in the tactical environment
1 80 Ta cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s f o r t h e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
through the tactical communications system. The following issues need to be

addressed:
• The operational requirement for battlefield videoconferencing;

• The ability of the tactical trunk subsystem to carry videoconferenc
ing between fixed subscribers;
• The ability of the tactical trunk subsystem to carry videoconferenc
ing between mobile subscribers;
• The requirement for a dedicated videoconferencing system, perhaps
utilizing the tactical airborne subsystem.
5.4. 1 .6 N etwo rk Manag e m e nt

As trunk networks have matured and become less aligned with the chain of
command, network management has also had to evolve. Indeed, the manage
ment task has become more complicated as the networks have evolved. The
move away from the chain-of-command network has meant that network
management must be conducted separately, and, in the case of area net
works, it must also be conducted centrally. The underlying theme of the
development of the tactical communications system is the provision of a
seamless network of networks that provides rapid and efficient transfer of
information between any two points in the battlespace and between any
point in the battlespace and any point in the strategic network. Since the ter
minals and the nodes of the network move at very frequent intervals, it is
essential that the network is kept in good working order and that it does not
fragment, or that bottlenecks do not appear. This requires a network man
agement infrastructure that can plan, install, monitor, maintain, and trouble
shoot the network to support a wide spectrum of operations.
5.4.2 Overlaid Communi cati ons Systems
The tactical communications system provides the minimum essential com

munications for a deployed force, using equipment and personnel that are
organic to that force. Additional communications capacity can often be
obtained from a variety of systems that are either of commercial rather than
military design or are provided by external sources. In this book, these addi
tional communications resources are referred to as overlaid communications
systems.
Overlaid systems augment tactical capability as rapidly as possible. For
example, during the Vietnam conflict, nearly every U.S. division-sized force
depended on external communications support to augment internal resources,

particularly to support base camp areas while integral assets were concentrated
on operational requirements [11]. Additionally, separate brigade-sized units
were frequently deployed with minimal organic communications support,
which needed augmentation if they were given any extensive combat missions.
During the Gulf War, tactical communications systems were quickly inte
grated into strategic systems (including two commercial satellite terminals and
15 microwave systems) and corps-level systems including the Defense Com
munications System (DCS), long-range single-channel radios, and tactical sat
ellite assets [12]. In particular, the number of satellite systems employed was
far beyond expectations and satellite communications were judged the ideal
distance and terrain-independent communications solution [13].
An overlaid communications system is a communications system that
is not organic to the deployed tactical force, generally designed and manufac
tured to meet commercial rather than military needs, or managed, operated,
and maintained by an external organization rather than directly by the
defense force by which it is being used. There are a number of key differences
between the tactical communications system and overlaid communications
systems.
Electronic protection (EP). EP techniques, such as frequency hopping, are

normally considered to be an essential component of the design of modern
military communications systems. Commercial systems, however, are not de
signed to operate in a hostile electromagnetic environment. Overlaid commu
nications systems involving wireless links are therefore vulnerable to adversary
EW. EP features offered by typical military communications equipment in
clude frequency hopping and DSSS. Overlaid communications systems may
sometimes appear to offer similar features. One example is the use of DSSS to
provide multiple access in a CDMA mobile telephone system. A crucial dif
ference, however, from a military implementation of DSSS is that the spread
ing sequence in a CDMA mobile telephone system is much shorter than
would be found in a military system and is provided as a multiple-access tech
nique rather than as an EP measure. Commercial spread-spectrum systems are
also not secure and therefore do not have any advantages over other commer
cial systems in terms of EP. In some circumstances, such as a military
communications satellite, the overlaid communications system may be spe
cifically designed for military applications, and may incorporate EP. The lack
of EP in some overlaid communications systems leaves them vulnerable to
jamming and other effects of electromagnetic radiation and may restrict their
use in hostile electromagnetic environments. This applies to all systems, not

just those involving wireless connections.
Control. An overlaid communications system is most likely to be operated,

managed, and maintained by an organization external to a deployed force.
This may be a commercial organization, often based in a foreign country,
which raises a number of issues related to the reliability of service that will be
offered by the overlaid communications system. These issues cannot be over
come through confidentiality measures such as encryption. In some circum
stances a force may provide its own overlaid communications system, which
may occur where the force deploys commercial equipment to supplement the
tactical communications system. This may be an attractive option where
there is a low electromagnetic threat due to the lower cost of these commer
cial systems compared to military-specific systems of the same capacity.
Security. Current commercial communications equipment does not incor

porate military-grade encryption. Additionally, some electronic surveillance
threats are difficult to counter when communications pass via commercial
switching centers. Secure communications over an overlaid communications
system may be achieved by provision of bulk encryption at the interface be
tween the overlaid communications system and the tactical communications
system, or procurement of military terminals that incorporate encryption for
direct access to the overlaid communications system.
Ruggedization. Because of its commercial origin, equipment in an overlaid

communications system is typically not ruggedized to military standards. It is
therefore more vulnerable to effects of immersion in water and extremes of
temperature, vibration, shock, pressure, and humidity. This major disadvan
tage may be overcome in some circumstances by the procurement of rug
gedized systems capable of accessing overlaid communications systems. This
may be achieved by provision of an interface between the overlaid communi
cations system and the tactical communications system that enables user ter
minals attached to the tactical communications system to access the services
of the overlaid communications system, or provision of special ruggedized
terminals that access the overlaid communications system directly (e.g., a
ruggedized GSM handset).
User interface. Commercial user terminals are typically not operable with
nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) gloves/hood. This is exemplified
by commercial cellular telephones, whose keypads are now so small as to be
A Communzcations Architecture for the DzgItIzed Battlefield 183
difficult to use for those with large fingers. This difficulty can be overcome
by the procurement of military terminals for direct access of the overlaid
communications system (e.g., a ruggedized G SM handset) , or the provision
of an interface between the tactical communications system and the overlaid
communications system that enables user terminals attached to the tactical
communications system to access the services of the overlaid communica
tions system.
Physical security of infrastru cture. Much of the infrastructure of an overlaid

communications system will often be outside the area that is secured by a de
ployed force. In some circumstances, such as a microwave retransmission
site, it may be possible for the deployed force to provide protection for this
infrastructure. In others, such as optical fiber cables running over long dis
tances, this may not be possible.
5.5 Summary
This chapter has discussed the key design drivers for the development of an
architecture for the tactical communications system. These design drivers
include the traditional principles of military communications as well as a
number of important issues governing the way in which the tactical commu
nications system is to be employed.
The tactical communications system must be organic to the supported
force and must support communications between any two points in the bat
tlespace and between any point in the battlespace and the strategic commu
nications system. Communications support must be provided to a range of
battlefield, joint, and combined systems. Access must also be gained to a
range of additional overlaid communications systems to increase the capacity
of the minimum organic network.
While it is essential that the tactical communications system provide a
single logical network, it is not possible to provide a single physical network.
The range of candidate technologies available to provide access to mobile
users constrains the physical architecture to the provision of two major sub
systems-the tactical trunk subsystem and the combat radio subsystem. To
extend the range of these t\vo subsystems in dispersed operations, a tactical
airborne subsystem is required. Additionally, there is not sufficient capacity,
in the combat radio subsystem in particular, to cope with the high volume of
data transfer required to support real-time situational awareness for com
manders of combat forces-this need is met by the tactical data d i stributi on
j
I
!
1 84 T a cti c a l C o m m u n i c ati o n s f o r th e D i g itiz e d B attl efi e l d
subsystem. The local subsystem simplifies the user interface to the other
communications subsystems and the overlaid communications systems. Each
of the subsystems of the tactical communications system is considered in
more detail in Chapters 6 through 10.
Endnotes
[1 ] Here we define the upper-level view of the systems architecture in the context of the
C4ISR Architectures Working G roup, C4ISR Architecture Framework, Version 2 . 0 ,
Washington, D . C : U . S . Department o f Defense, Dec. 1 8 , 1 9 97.
[ 2] "Joint Spectrum Center Eases Foxhole Frequency Allocation , " Signa� Vol . 5 1 , No . 6 ,
1 9 97, p . 5 9 .
[3] For example, see U . S . use of HF in Vietnam War as described in Bergen, ]., MilitaJY
Commumcations, A Test for Technology, Washington, D . C : Center for Military History,
United States Army, 1 9 86, p. 2 8 0 .
[4 ] ANSI/IEEE Std 802. 1 1 , "Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHy) Specifications , " Piscataway, NJ : IEEE, 1 99 9 .
[5 ] "Specification of the Bluetooth System, " Bluetooth SIG, Version 1 . 1 , Feb. 200 1 .
[6] The classifications provided here are sufficient for our discussion of a suitable architec
ture. A more detailed analysis in a similar vein can be fo und in Feldman , P . , Emerging
Commercial Mobzle Wireless Technology and Standards: Suitable for the Army? RAND
Corporation Report MR-960-A, 1 9 9 8 .
[ 7] Third-generation mobile communications systems promise up to 2 Mbps in the small

est cells (picocells) .
[ 8] Edwards, T . , "More Than J ust Hot Air," Communications Internationa� Sept. 1 999,
pp. 42-4 5 .
[9 ] Ryan, M . , and M . Frater, "An Architectural Framework for Modern Tactical Commu
nications Systems," IEEE MilitaJ)' Communications Conference (MIL COM 2000), Los
Angeles, CA, Oct. 23-25 , 2000 .
[ 1 0 ] For a good overview of message fo rmats, see: Peach, W. , "Message Text Formats-A
Solution to the Problem of Interoperability, " Journal of Battlefield Technology, Vol . 2,
N o . 1 , March 1 9 9 9 , pp. 1 1 - 1 6 .
[ 1 1 ] Meyer, C , Division-Level Communications 1962-1973, Department of the Army:

Washington, D . C , 1 9 82, pp. 27-2 8 .
A Communicatioi1S A rchitecture foi' the Digitized Battlefield 1 85
[ 1 2) The U s. A rm)' Signal Co rps m OperatIon Desert SIJleLdIDesert Storm, U . S . Arm : ' S i g n a l
C e n ter H i s to ri cal M o n ograph S e ries, O ffice of t h e C o m m a n d H i s t o f l a n , U n i t ed S t ates
Army S i gnal Center and Fort Gordo n : F o rt G o rd o n , GA, 1 9 94, pp. 5-6 .
[ 1 3) The U s. A rm)' Szgnal Co rps m Operatzon Desert SIJleLdIDesert Storm, U . S . Arm y S i gnal
Cen ter H i s t o ri cal M o n ograph Series, O ffice o f the Command H istorI a n , U n i ted S ta tes
Army S i gn al Center and Fort G o rdo n : Fort Gordo n , GA, 1 9 94, p . 1 4 .
Tactical Trunk Subsystem
6.1 Introduction
Traditionally, the tactical trunk subsystem is the principal means of commu

nication down to formation/unit and logistic installation level. The sub
system comprises multichannel radio equipment, line, switches, and termi
nating facilities to provide voice, telegraph, facsimile, video, and data com
munications as well as hand carriage.
The tactical trunk subsystem provides high-capacity communications
to a wide range of types of communications. Traditionally, the successful
negotiation of the C2 cycle has relied on voice communications that allow
commanders and staffs to speak to each other. Networks have also facilitated
the exchange of documents and text via facsimile and telegraph messages.
While interpersonal voice communications are still essential, facsimile and
telegraph are increasingly being replaced by the exchange of data between
information systems. These intersystem communications are becoming more
important as computing power increases and more computers and other
data-oriented systems such as sensors are deployed on the battlefield.
The position of the tactical trunk subsystem in the range/ capac
ity/mobility trade-off is shown in Figure 6.1 . Reliable, high-capacity links
require the use of high frequencies with high-gain antennas. Longer ranges
also require the use of higher powers than can be obtained from batteries and
some form of generator-based power supply is necessary in the communica
tions detachment. Since tactical communications are more often terrain-
187
1 88 Tactical Comm unications for the Digitized Battlefield
Low capacity
Low Short
High capacity
mobility range
Figure 6.1 Position of the ta ctical trunk s u bsystem In the range/capacity/mobility

trade-off.
limited than it is power-limited, long-range communications also requires

the use of mast-mounted antennas. In all, therefore, trunk communications
systems must have mast-mounted antennas and generator-based power sup
plies, which means that they are semimobile at best since mobility is traded
off to achieve capacity and range.
Despite rapid advances in technology, there are still many battlefield
communications that are too large or not in a suitable form to be transmitted
over radio or line links. These communications are transferred between head
quarters by the SDS. While S DS remains an important battlefield communi
cations means that will most probably always exist on any future battlefield,
it is not discussed further in this book.
This chapter provides a brief examination of the design drivers from
Chapter 5 to determine their impact on the tactical trunk subsystem. Discus
sion then centers on architectural options to provide a tactical trunk subsys
tem that is able to meet the spectrum of operations.
\1
Tactical Trunk Subsystem 189
6.2 Key Architectural Drivers
Chapter 5 described the design drivers of the tactical communications sys

tem. This section considers the impact of those key drivers on the tactical
trunk subsystem.
6.2.1 Communications Support the Chain of Command
As discussed in Chapter 4, modern area trunk networks have evolved to pro

vide a topology of meshed nodes to ensure that communications support the
chain of command. The trunk network deploys to cover the area of opera
tion, and headquarters can move about within the coverage of the network to
meet the demands of the tactical situation, connecting by radio relay to the
nearest node. Commanders can therefore deploy as required by the tactical
situation and are almost completely unfettered by their communications.
Additionally, command relationships can be changed quickly without need
ing to redeploy communications elements between headquarters and units
under command. These capabilities become even more important on the
modern battlefield. As discussed in Section 6.3, a key concept within modern
trunk systems is the separation of the network's trunk-interconnection func
tion and the communications-access function that is integral to the head
quarters and is logically (if not physically) separate.
6.2.2 Integration
� The tactical communications system must operate as an integrated network

: i
i Ii offering seamless connectivity between battlefield elements as well as between
j : battlefield elements and the strategic communications system. The require
ment for integration has a number of impacts for the design of the tactical
trunk subsystem.
Interfaces. The tactical trunk subsystem will take the major responsibility
for the provision of seamless connectivity within the tactical communications
system. In general, the terminals in the combat radio subsystem will be too
small to be able to incorporate additional components for interfaces. Similarly,
the interfaces required for the tactical data distribution subsystem, the overlaid
communications system, and the strategic communications system will also
need to be contained within the tactical trunk subsystem. Detailed discussion
on the interfaces required between subsystems and systems is contained in
Chapter 1 0.
-------------_ . . . . __ __.
._._ ... _. _ . . . . ---.----� --- - . . . -� --_. __ . .
Support for rea/-time and non-real-time communications. The tactical commu

nications system is required to support both real-time communications (e.g.,
voice and video) along with near-real-time or non-real-time communications
(e.g., messaging and file transfer). Consequently, the trunk system is required
to cater to the valying needs of each of these types of services. This will
particularly impact the r eq uire men ts for swit chin g and the types of se rvic es
pr o vi ded .
Network management. One of the most critical elements required for

seamless integration is an appropriate network management system. Com
munications must therefore be controlled at the highest level of deployed
force, through an integrated network management structure that supports
the chain of command. Complementary tactical and technical control must
be exercised throughout the whole communications system. As a central
component of the overall network, the tactical trunk subsystem must play a
key role in the provision of network management facilities. This crucial area
is very often overlooked in the design of a system and is often not fielded un
til well after the trunk network enters service.
6.2.3 Reliability
While all communications hardware must be reliable, reliability for a tactical

trunk network is more driven by the network topology. In fourth-generation
networks the mesh topology significantly reduces the potential for networks
to be vulnerable to single points of failure and to allow individual network
components to move as required by the tactical situation. Further reliability
is provided by the provision of redundancy in the switching nodes, and
through the use of alternative transmission means for the bearer services.
6.2.4 Simplicity
While the elements of the trunk network do not need the mobility of those
in the combat radio subsystem, they must be able to deploy and redeploy
rapidly. Therefore, the various discrete components of the network (i. e.,
bearers, switches, and node control centers) must be designed to allow the
network to adj ust to fluid changes in tactical situation. While the functions
required of modern trunk networks become more complex, their architec
ture must remain easy to deploy and operate and simple to repair.
f\
:, \I
I,
Tactical Trunk Subsystem 1 91
6.2.5 Capacity
The trunk system provides the interconnection between headquarters staff at

various levels and the capacity required to serve each headquarters is a key
design driver of the trunk subsystem, particularly in light of the increasing
deployment of modern command-support and high-volume sensor systems.
Traditionally, only headquarters from brigade and above had sufficient
demand for capacity to warrant interconnection by an access node to the
trunk network. Indeed, the lowest level of trunk subscriber has normally
been the battalion commander through seRA. In recent years, however, the
deployment of large numbers of information systems and sensors has gener
ally meant that the demands for wide-area connection between lower-level
headquarters are well in excess of the capability of the combat radio subsys
tem. The tactical trunk subsystem must therefore cope with higher capacities
to more headquarters, which increases the overall capacity of the network.
The need for high capacity has the following impacts on the tactical trunk
subsystem.
Switching. Network switches must be able to cope with large volumes of

traffic with both real-time and non-real-time requirements. The backbone
switching architecture must also be able to be scaled easily to cope with wide
variations in network capacity as well as types of deployment.
Bearers. The higher capacities required between nodes force the use of
bearers in higher frequency bands with higher signal-to-noise ratios. In turn,
these requirements force the use of higher-gain antennas that are more diffi
cult to deploy and orientate. In all, these factors result in the reduction of the
range of terrestrial trunk radio bearers, at a time when networks are required
to cover wider areas of operation. Long-range bearers are difficult to provide
for a number of reasons:
• HF radio provides long ranges but with bandwidths that are far too
low to be useable in trunk networks, except perhaps for last-ditch
commUnIcatIons.
• Troposcatter systems can provide high-capacity long-range commu
nications (up to 200 km for tactical systems). The terminals are
large, however, and require large parabolic antennas that are not very
mobile.
• Longer ranges are possible using satellite communications, although
there is only a limited capacity available from these systems (limited
mostly by the platform's ability to carry the transponder), Therefore,

in the tactical trunk sub�ystem, the use of terres trial systems must be
maximized, res e rvi ng satellites for those links for which terrestrial
comm unications are not possible .
• Range can also be extended by airborne repeater systems, although

capacity also tends to be limited by the platform's ability to carry and
power repeaters.
Bandwidth management. Since capacity will always be limited by the prac

tical provision of the network, there is a need for intelligent management of
this resource. Staff officers and network managers must be equipped with ap
propriate automated tools to allow for bandwidth management.
6.2.6 OoS
The radio bearers of the trunk network carry large volumes of data commu
nications. Whereas voice communications is generally very robust and effec
tive communications can be maintained over quite noisy links, data
communications requires the addition of significant levels of overhead to
provide the error protection required to accommodate noisy channels. This
error protection overhead consumes b earer bandwidth and should be as low
as possible and only applied when necessary. Additionally, some services
impose tight controls on transmission delay, which must be supported by the
trunk network, yet other services can cope with quite significant delays. The
selection of appropriate data communications protocols is therefore particu
larly important and the requirement of providing varying QoS requirements
is perhaps the most significant design driver in modern networks.
6.2.7 Mobility
The support for mobility could philosophically be provided III one of

two ways.
1 . The users' mobility could b e supported b y providing a ubiquitous

network that surrounds all the users and is available to terminate
any radio connection as required. This is the approach taken with
commercial pes networks, where a large fixed infrastructure is
always available to the users who are free to roam within it.
2. The network can be given sufficient mobility to be able to keep up
with the mobile users and provide a network that supports user
connectivity within the area of operations. This latter approach is

the one taken by military trunk communications networks as the
most cost-effective way of serving a combat force across a wide spec
trum of operations.
The tactical trunk subsystem must therefore be as mobile as the forces it sup
ports. The components of the subsystem must therefore not only be flexible,
modular, and easily reconfigured, but they must be able to support forces
with varying degrees of mobility-from foot-mounted, to motorized to
mechanized/ armored formations.
6.2.B Security
A key concern is that the security architecture in the tactical domain may be
driven by different imperatives than those in the strategic domain. Care must
be taken in developing the trunk system technical architecture to ensure that
interoperability with other communications and information systems (bat
tlefield, joint, and combined) is not prej udiced by incompatible security
archi tectures.
6.2.9 Survivability
Since command and control on the modern battlefield are heavily reliant on
electronic communications, the survivability of the tactical trunk subsystem
is paramount if interheadquarter communications are to be maintained. Pro
vision of a robust survivable network traditionally relies on a significant level
of redundancy in network components to ensure that loss of a number of
nodes does not significantly affect network performance. It would be reason
able to expect a trunk network to be designed to continue to provide a 1 00%
grade of service with only 50% of its nodes available.
n
( ,
l:
i! 6.2.10 Communications Support for the Spectrum of Operations
i:
[i Current network topologies were developed to suit conventional high
intensity deployments, notably in northwest Europe during the Cold War.
I:
Within these environments, a corps network would be expected to have
some 40 trunk nodes to guarantee coverage of fast-moving forces within an
)!
i area of operations that could be as small as 50 km by 70 km. In dispersed
operations, however, it would not normally be feasible to provide the signifi
cant numbers of trunk node assets across the entire area of operations to
allow commanders to redeploy without significantly affecting the network
1 94 Tacti cal Commu nications for the Digitized Battlefield
structure. As a measure of comparison, nearly 1 ,000 trunk nodes would be

required to cover an area of operations with a SOO-km radius. For example,
when the British Army deployed to the Gulf War, although o nly a reduced
size division of two brigade groups were deployed, the distances involved
were so great that it required almost all of 1 (BR) Corps' communications
assets to meet the requirement. Even so, Ptarmigan trunk nodes were so
overstretched that they could not have provided a network without the
deployment of satellite bridges to link nodes together [ 1 ].
Trunk networks will therefore have to be provided with more sparsely
populated topologies in dispersed operations, and supported headquarters
and users may be somewhat restricted in their ability to move compared to
high-density operations. Nevertheless, it is still important to discriminate
between the communications-access function, which is integral to the head
quarters, and the trunk-interconnection function, which is logically (if not
physically) separate.
The tactical trunk subsystem must continue to be able to support
high-intensity operations, which will call for quite short ranges and a densely
populated trunk network, as well as be able to deploy with minimal changes
to support widely dispersed operations, which will tax the subsystems to pro
vide a resilient network topology. While remaining cognizant of the need to
minimize the number of communications vehicles in headquarters, the trunk
system architecture therefore needs to be modular to provide the flexibility to
deploy in different configurations.
6.2.1 1 Command and Control on the Move
There are three distinct needs for mobile communications on the battle
field. The first, directly between combat commanders, is served by the
highly-mobile combat radio subsystem. The second need is to provide com
munications between this level of command and higher levels, which is
"
served either by extending the combat radio subsystem or by the intercon ",
t'
11
nection of combat radio nets via the trunk subsystem. The third require
ment is between a mobile user and a fixed trunk user, either by allowing the ii
,\
Ii
Ij
use of a combat radio as the mobile terminal operating through a gateway
q; �
(currently CNRI) or as a direct trunk interface using technology such as Ii
il
S CRA or the commercial PCSs. ;1
:l
If
The major difficulty with supporting command and control on the I
move is the ability to provide continuous network access to a mobile com !\

I:
mander. In commercial networks, users are supported by the provision of a !I
massive amount of fixed infrastructure within which the user may move at
TactIcal Trull!? Subsptem 195
will without losing the ability to communicate. The military equivalent is

much harder to engineer due to the inability to provide fixed infrastructure,
and the lack of coverage of the forward regions of the battlefield that is forced
by the inability to deploy infrastructure within the adversary's portion of the
area of operations.
6.2.12 Size of Supported Force/Organic, Minimum-Essential Communications
Traditionally, trunk communications are provided as a corps-level network,

covering the corps area. Of the 40 or so trunk nodes deployed, each brigade
would deploy with one or two. However, the relationship between brigade
headquarters and trunk node is normally only for the practical deployment
of the network. The technical control of the node is retained by the corps sig
nals organization. For many modern deployments, the trunk network must
be viewed from a different perspective-the tactical trunk subsystem is
required to provide organic, minimum-essential communications for the
supported force, whether it is of brigade, division, or corps size. This requires
the concept of a division-level and brigade-level trunk nenvork-a concept
that is only beginning to emerge in most modern armies.
6.3 Architectural Overview
6.3.1 Network Entities
A tactical trunk subsystem comprises four main entities: access nodes to provide
local switching for a community of users and to connect that community to
trun!, nodes, which provide backbone switches that are interconnected by b ea r
ers to interconnect nodes into a network. Finally, RAPs provide single-channel
radio access to mobile trunk subscribers. (Note that the term switch is used
here as a generic label for a device that enables interconnection between
users/user applications-possible switching architectures are discussed in Sec
tion 6.6.) In principle, a user or group of users should be able to connect to the
communications system at any point on the battlefield and have seamless
access to any other user or group of users who are similarly connected without
needing to know precisely where any other user might be located. Addition
ally, while the network of trunk nodes may need to reconfigure to accommo
date the tactical plan, the movement of users or switching nodes should not
impact on the performance of the nenvork.
The separation of the user community and the switch nenvork is often
depicted as a cloud (see Figure 6.2) to emphasize that the user community i s
not necessarily aware of the network topology or of the location of nodes

within the cloud. Fourth-generation trunk networks separate users from the
communications backbone through the use of access nodes and trunk nodes.
The access node provides local switching to its community of users and then
aggregates their use to present this community to the trunk network. The
trunk nodes are then meshed to provide the communications infrastructure
through which the access nodes (user communities) are connected. In such a
system, the physical separation of access nodes and trunk nodes reflects the
logical separation of user and communications infrastructure.
In most major armies brigade headquarters is the lowest level to which
access nodes have been provided. Access at lower levels is normally only avail
able through the mobile subscriber facilities provided by seRA. For most
modern deployments, however, the trunk network must extend to lower levels
to increase the capacity available between lower-level headquarters. So in addi
tion to serving corps- and divisional-level headquarters, modern trunk net
works must support major communications nodes (access nodes) below
brigade level at battalion headquarters, logistics installations, and headquarters
of other major units in brigade areas of operations. Minor communications
nodes may also be required at company headquarters and below, although suf
ficient service can generally be provided at this level by mobile access.
There are a number of architectural options for the provision of a tacti
cal trunk communications network. In particular, there are design options
for types of bearers, nodal topology, node composition, and mobile user
access.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Figure 6.2 A fou rth-generation trunk network represented as a cloud.

\J
6.4 Types of Bearers
In consideration of suitable architectures for tactical trunk networks, bearers

are considered first because the limitations of various bearers will affect the
other architectural options. To provide wide area communications, there are
a number of bearer options: HF radio, fiber-optic cable, VHF/UHF radio
relay, tropospheric scatter, and satellite. Several of these systems can have
their communications ranges extended by the use of the tactical airborne
subsystem (as discussed in more detail in Chapter 9) .

Each of these bearers has different military utility.
Capacity. High data rates are required between trunk nodes. Based on ex
perience with most trunk networks, data rates of at least 2 Mbps are required
to support communications between trunk nodes. Future requirements are
likely to increase the necessary data rates by an order of magnitude. HF radio
does not have sufficient capacity to support communication between trunk
nodes, and is really only useful for last-ditch communications at very low
data rates. Fiber-optic systems are able to provide many times more than this
capacity. VHF/UHF radio relay and tropospheric scatter systems have suffi
cient capacity to support these rates. S atellite communications can also sup
port these rates, although, as a system, satellite capacity is constrained by the
capability of the transponder and a number of technical parameters. It does
not all follow, therefore, that a large number of 2-Mbps links could be sup
ported by a single satellite, particularly when the ground terminals are widely
dispersed.
Reliability. Apart from HF communications,· which is generally too un

reliable for use as a primary trunk bearer, all types of bearers have high
reliability.
Quality. HF system link performance will impact on quality, as bandwidth

constraints will force the use of lower-quality voice-coding schemes. All other
bearers can be engineered to provide acceptable quality.
Communications support for the spectrum of operations. Deployment within

a wide spectrum of operations will call for a variety of operating ranges from
communications bearers. Short ranges are relatively easy to obtain with all
1 98 Tactical Commu nications for the Digitized Battlefield
types of bearers, with radio relay representing the best compromise between
system complexity and capacity. The longer ranges required to support dis
persed operations, however, cannot be totally supported using line-of-sight
bearers (even using two or three hops). For longer ranges, HF or satellite
communications are required.
Command and control on the move. Clearly, fiber-optic cables are totally
unsuitable for mobile communications. Each of the other systems can sup
port mobile operations-but only by moving between bounds-and they
typically cannot operate in a high capacity mode when totally mobile. In that
regard, most bearer systems are generally considered to be semimobile. The
exceptions are with HF and low-capacity (small antenna size) satellite appli
cations, as well as the S CRA interface to trunk networks.
Organic, minimum-essential communications. Satellite systems inevitably de

pend on the satellite transponder, which cannot be considered to be organic to
the deployed force. For this reason, satellite communications are not consid
ered suitable for inclusion in the tactical communications system, but are in
cluded in the overlaid communications system. All of the other bearers are able
to be included as part of organic systems.
Jamming resistance. Jamming is not an issue for optical fiber systems due
to the difficulty of the j ammer in gaining access to the channel. HF commu
nications are also relatively difficult to j am due to the powers required by the
j ammer and the management systems that are employed by the communica
tions systems to accommodate variations in the ionosphere. VHF/UHF ra
dio relay bearers are possibly easier to j am because the j ammer can be
deployed closer. However, the use of high-gain antennas in these systems al
lows them to be deployed so that they can largely ignore potential jammers
[2J. Troposcatter communications are inherently resistant to j amming due
the propagation mechanism and their narrow beamwidth. Satellite systems
are inherently much more vulnerable to j amming than any of the other sys
tems, largely because a j ammer can be located anywhere in the footprint of
the transponder. The provision of j amming resistance on satellite links is
possible, but significantly reduces the bandwidth available. In particular,
most commercial FD.MA satellites will provide little or no protection against
. .
Jammmg.
Economy. In the tactical environment, optical-fiber communications are

too expensive to deploy and recover over any distances longer than 1 km,
which means that fiber optics is of little use in wide-area networking for mo-
I'
, r
, I
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)
Tactzca! Trunk Subs)'Stem 199
bile communications. HF communications are relatively very cheap, but lack

bandwidth. The relative order of costs for the other systems will depend on
the architecture chosen and the extent to which the network can expand to
cover large areas. Traditional radio relay is cost-effective when ranges are rela
tively short. In widely dispersed operations, however, too many trunk nodes
are required. Troposcatter links provide longer ranges and fewer nodes, al
though the cost of owning and operating each node is considerably higher
than radio relay. Satellite communications are much better suited for provid
ing high-capacity communications over long ranges, but it is the most expen
sive of the systems when the costs of the satellite are included in the system
costs. Relay through the tactical airborne subsystem also has the potential to
be expensive when the airborne platform is included. No single bearer system
remains cost-effective while meeting all deployment scenarios. For example,
for conventional operations, radio relay is most suitable. For widely dispersed
operations, range extension is required through the use of troposcatter, the
satellite overlaid system, or the tactical airborne subsystem.
HF communications are unsuitable because of the low bandwidth and poor

quality, although a role may be possible if a last-ditch backup communica
tions system is required, particularly over long ranges. Optical fibers are
unsuited to wide-area networking and are only able to be used in short runs
(less than 1 km).
Satellite communications are not suitable for inclusion as part of the
organic minimum-essential communications system because the satellite
cannot be considered organic to the deployed force, even in cases where the
interface (i.e., the satellite terminal) is organic. However, the use of satellite
communications in the overlaid communications system is very useful to
extend ranges of internodal links when required in dispersed operations.
Troposcatter communications do not have the setup and teardown
times required to support the deployment of trunk nodes. However, tro
poscatter communications can provide high bandwidths (up to 2 Mbps) over
long ranges (150-200 km for tactical systems). The utility of troposcatter is
such that it would be a very useful adjunct to the organic assets of the tactical
communications system. �>'hile troposcatter systems do not necessarily have
to be provided on a scale to cover links between all trunk nodes, a small
number of troposcatter terminals should be able to be provided within each
deployed force so that at least one troposcatter link can be established as \vell
as an additional terminal to anchor a link to a higher formation.
The most suitable bearer for the organic minimum-essential trunk

communications is VHF/UHF terrestrial radio relay. Even so, the range of
these systems is limited to line-of-sight and needs to be extended for dis
persed operations by the organic tactical airborne subsystem, organic tro
poscatter commUnIcations, or satellite communications (as an overlaid
communications system).
6.5 Noda l Topo l ogy
The tactical trunk subsystem is required to provide a high-capacity trunk

communications network to support access nodes at brigade headquarters,
battalion headquarters, major logistics installations, and hea�quarters of
other major units within the brigade area of operations. Mobile access is
required for battalion headquarters and below. There are two broad options
for the provision of such a network: meshed or hub-spoke.
• Meshed. As illustrated in Figure 6.3, in a meshed topology the nodes

are connected together such that each node is connected to at least
three other nodes to provide a number of alternate routes through
the network. The number of nodes in the network and degree of
meshing dictates how many internodal links are required between
any two points of the network, as well as the number of alternate
paths that could provide the same end-to-end connection. The
larger the number of nodes, the more flexible and survivable the net
work becomes.
• Hub-spoke (or star). As illustrated in Figure 6.4, the hub-spoke topol
ogy has a number of spoke nodes, each of which is connected to a
common hub. The topology requires only that each node can com
municate with the hub. There are only ever two internodal links
between any two users in the network.
Capacity. The capacity of each type of topology is similar, although the

switching nodes in each network would b e optimized differently. The major
constraint on capacity would depend on the type of bearer chosen to inter
connect each node. For radio-relay bearers, the meshed network can provide
the greatest capacity because of the redundancy in bearers and switching. For
r------ X
E
1
.::.t:.
N
V Trunk node
Figure 6.3 An example of a meshed network in a conventional brigade area.
satellite-based bearers, however, the hub-spoke configuration can provide

greater capacity from a given satellite if small mobile satellite terminals are
connected to a large dish station at the hub, rather than to another small dish
as they would in a meshed network. If both terrestrial and satellite bearers are
required, concurrent use of terrestrial mesh with hub-spoke elements would
if.!
clearly provide maximum network capacity.
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A meshed network provides the highest reliability due to the ex
i:
Reliability.
(I
istence of a number of alternative routes between any two points in the net
work. This advantage tends to diminish, however, as the network is strained,
11
II
either by losses of nodes or by rapid movement that may prohibit the com
plete meshed network from being available continuously. The hub-spoke is
II
tI
generally less reliable due to a potential single point of failure, although this
I: can be addressed by the provision of alternative hubs. If the hub is located
I:
1\
,I II
out of the area of operations (perhaps within the strategic domain), this vul
I: nerability is further reduced and can be addressed mostly by equipment re
i i
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dundancy. The hub-spoke configuration may also be more reliable in widely
i I
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dispersed or fast-moving deployments where the meshed network planners
! i struggle to maintain the interconnectivity between nodes .
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11
x
---
x --��---
V Trunk node
Figure 6.4 An example of a hub-spoke network in a conventional brigade area.
Flexibility. Fourth-generation trunk networks have evolved as meshed net

works because they are extremely flexible and can accommodate the move
ment, or destruction, of any one node without significant disturbance of the
network. In a well-planned network, a number of nodes can be moving with
out disrupting service. However, the hub-spoke topology constrains the flexi
bility of a network based on radio-relay bearers because the hub cannot move
without disrupting the entire network. Hub-spoke topologies are therefore
not favored for use with organic terrestrial bearers. For satellite bearers, how
ever, the situation tends to be reversed as the hub-spoke topology does not
suffer at all when one node moves or is destroyed. Additionally, the topology
can cope with movement or destruction of a satellite-based hub because
transferring communications from one hub to another redundant hub
within the satellite footprint is straightforward. If a strategic hub is em
!�
ployed, then no movement of the hub is required. In addition, meshed to I,
i1
ij
pologies are not preferred for satellite bearers because the uplink and II
downlink delay normally limits internodal links to two hops, which creates a i!
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sparsely meshed network that has few of the advantages of such topologies. 'I
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Integration. The two main requirements for integration for the trunk sub
system are the internal aspects of integration with the combat-radio tactical I
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Tactlcai Trun/? Subs),stem 203
data distribution and tactical airborne subsystems, and the external aspects of
integration with overlaid and strategic communications subsystems. For
meshed networks, these issues generally relate to the location of suitable in
terfaces within the network to these other subsystems and systems. The ad
vantage of a meshed network is that the mesh provides a robust way to
interconnect any point of the network with the appropriate interface, no
matter where that interface is located. Within the hub-spoke topology, inter
faces are naturally best supported at the hub, which can increase the difficul
ties with flexibility, reliability, and survivability. These difficulties may be
eased if the hub is located in the strategic domain, where the support of inter
faces is easier, particularly in terms of integration between the tactical com
munications system and overlaid and strategic systems. If the hub is located
in the strategic environment, however, internal interfaces with the combat
radio, tactical data distribution, and tactical airborne subsystems will be diffi
cult to arrange, as these will have to be supported at each of the spoke nodes.
Communications support for the spectrum of operations. The meshed topol

ogy based on radio-relay bearers is the most suitable for high-density opera
tions and almost all modern trunk networks have evolved in that form.
Radio-relay bearers are not suitable for all modern deployments, however.
For dispersed operations, range extension must be provided by organic assets
(tactical airborne subsystem and troposcatter) or overlaid communications
system assets such as satellite links.
Organic, minimum-essential communications. Organic bearers include radio

relay and troposcatter. The meshed topology is the best topology for these
bearers, for the reasons outlined above. However, in some circumstances
(particularly when terrain is not controlled in dispersed operations), a hub
spoke topology may be the most suitable. Of course, the hub-spoke topology
is the most suitable when satellite bearers are used for range extension.
Survivability. Meshed networks are very survivable as each node is con

nected to a number of other trunk nodes. Hub-spoke suffers from the hub
being a potential single point of failure. The hub can be made more surviv
able, however, if it is located in some form of safe haven away from the tacti
cal area of operations, even if it is only used as a backup to a deployed hub.
The meshed topology is best from a jamming resistance point of vieiv be
cause most links are point-to-point, which can be relatively easily deployed
so that the directional antennas do not point towards prospective jammer lo
cations. For satellite bearers, hub-spoke is the better topology for resisrance
r "- -
to jamming, because the hub can operate in a very tight beam while the
spokes operate in the best spot beam available, avoiding the jammer if possi
ble. A jammer in the spot beam provides a significant threat, however, par
ticularly to an FD MA transpo nder that is fairly easily captured by the
Fmmer.
Economy_ The meshed network is the most expensive in trunk nodes and
bearers, although redundancy and survivability result. The requirement to
deploy nodes so that there is connectivity between the desired nodes places a
significant burden on network planners, unlike the hub-spoke network that
only requires each spoke node to be able to communicate to the hub. Hub
spoke can be significantly more economical, especially for satellite bearers,
providing that survivability issues can be addressed.
Although the meshed topology is the most expensive in trunk nodes and
bearers, it provides the greatest redundancy, capacity, survivability, and flexi
bility using organic bearers (radio relay and troposcatter). When satellite
bearers are required for range extension, however, the hub-spoke topology is
more appropriate to restrict internodal connections to a maximum of two
satellite links. The preferred option, therefore, is to use a meshed topology
for organic radio relay and troposcatter bearers and to overlay a hub-spoke
topology for satellite bearers.
6.6 Switching Node Compos iti o n
Carrying communications services with differing QoS requirements has

j
I
I
always been one of the greatest challenges for telecommunications systems, I
I
i I
and is arguably of growing importance. The traditional solution has been to
provide a QoS appropriate to one class of traffic (e.g., voice), and force other I!I
types of traffic (e. g., non-real-time data) to accommodate what is, for them, a Ii
I[
less-than-optimal QoS. Examples of this include the use of packet switches
embedded in a circuit-switched architecture in fourth-generation trunk com
munications systems, and the embedding of data into CNR transmissions in
the same manner as voice. The tension created by these differing QoS I
. j
requirements is at the heart of many key issues for modern networks, such as
Ii
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debates over the relative merits of ATM versus IP technology and the use of : i
voice over IP (VoIP). I
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Since World War II, voice users have generated the major part of the
traffic carried by the tactical communications system. Until recently, the
requirement for data was limited to a small number of low-capacity links
used to carry text-based message traffic between major headquarters and
logistics installations. Therefore, the trunk and CNR subsystems have
evolved to support voice traffic, but are not necessarily well suited to carrying
the extensive data traffic associated with digitization.
I;
, , Voice can be carried efficiently by a circuit-switched network and
:I requires low transmission delay (usually less than 150 ms) and low transmis
J f
sion delay jitter, but is relatively tolerant of loss and errors introduced during
transmission. Most computer data (including text-based messaging), in con
trast, is very inefficiently carried by a circuit-switched network and is intoler
ant of loss and errors introduced in transmission, but is tolerant of large delay
(up to several seconds) and delay j itter. The key to mixing voice and data in
the tactical communications system is to be able to provide simultaneously
two different qualities of service. For real-time services (e.g., voice and video
Ii conferencing), low delay is required; while for non-real-time services (e.g.,
data for message traffic), low loss is required.
The aim is to provide appropriate qualities of services for both real
time and non-real-time services across links with capacities ranging from 1
Kbps (CNR) up to 1 00 Mbps (optic fiber) . The tactical communications sys
tem should provide a single logical network (i.e., be seamlessly integrated),
I
I supporting both connection-oriented and connectionless services. The archi
I! tecture should aim to use a single network-layer protocol within the network.
, I
: I User data terminals will mostly be configured to use IP as the network-layer

protocol. If a different protocol is chosen for the backbone network, transla
tion at the interface is required.
For the purposes of this discussion, we treat the tactical communications
system as a network consisting of nodes (capable of performing switching) and
bearers (predominantly wireless in the tactical environment) that interconnect
the nodes. The keys to the architecture of the network are the means of switch
ing at the nodes and the multiple access techniques on the bearers.
Many options exist-and indeed are implemented in different coun
tries' networks-for efficiently supporting both voice and data, including:
• Providing a circuit-switched voice network with an embedded packet

switch to carry data;
• Providing a native ATM network in which all traffic is switched in
ATM cells;
-- . -- - -------- -------
• Providing a native IP network in which all traffic (including voice) is

routed in IP datagrams;
• Providing an ATM network that carries voice traffic and provides a
virtual data-link layer between routers allowing IP data to be embed
ded in ATM cells (usually known as IP over ATM) .
6.6.1 Circuit Switch with Embed ded Packet Switch

Tactical trunk systems of the 1 9 8 0s and early 1 9 90s, such as the U.K. Ptar
migan and U.S. MSE systems, typically provide a digital circuit-switched
network, with each circuit having a capacity of 16 Kbps, with trunks having
capacities up to 2 Mbps. Each voice channel occupies a single circuit. Data is
carried using a secondary packet switch, as illustrated in Figure 6.5, with the
circuit-switched network providing the physical layer for the data network.
Higher data capacities can be achieved in some systems by the use of channel
aggregation, in which a number of circuits connecting two packet switches
are combined to provide a single logical channel whose data rate is a multiple
of the b asic circuit capacity, allowing some additional capacity for engineer
ing and signaling.
The network-layer protocol used in tactical data networks of the 1980s,
including Ptarmigan, is X.25, which is suitable for carrying low-rate data that
is not delay-sensitive, such as text-b ased message traffic. It is not suitable, how
ever, for providing the high-rate services required by digitized command posts
and logistics installations. Switching in X.25 networks is based on virtual cir
cuits. This provides good support for connection-oriented services, but poor
support for connectionless services. Furthermore, the protocols used in mod
ern information systems are based on those used in the Internet, which means
that the use of IP as the network-layer protocol for data is a more practical
solution for modern information systems that are usually configured to use the
protocols of the Internet, primarily IP. High-speed, high-capacity IP routers are
commonly available, and could be readily deployed to replace X.25 switches.
The primary disadvantage of aggregating packet data in a circuit
switched network comes from the lack of flexibility in reallocating capacity
between voice and data traffic. It is not usually possible to reassign circuits
dynamically between voice and data traffic, which can be unacceptably inef
i
ficient, particularly where bandwidth is very scarce.
Ii
6.6.2 Native ATM i
!
ATM was developed in the late 1 9 80s as a very fast packet-switching proto
col. By restricting packets to a fixed length, and establishing virtual circuits
�
10
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X.25: X.25 switch

CS: Circuit switch
Figure 6.5 Circuit-switched network with em bedded packet switch.
for all data to be carried, very efficient, high-speed switching is possible. A

major advantage of ATM is that it is capable of carrying both real-time and
non-real-time services simultaneously, while providing an appropriate QoS
to both. Furthermore, ATM switches have been available with much higher
throughput than for IP routers. ATM's major drawbacks are that a connec
tion must be established before data can be transferred, complicating the use
of connectionless services common on the Internet, and that modern infor
mation systems are not routinely equipped with suitable interfaces for an
ATM network. The architecture of this solution is illustrated in Figure 6.6.
6.6.3 Native I P
One means for overcoming some of the drawbacks of ATM is to use IP to
provide both voice and data services, running directly over the data-link lay
ers associated with the network's bearers. This approach has some difficulty
providing QoS for real-time services, especially in large networks. Systems
providing VoIP are an example of this approach.
208 Tactical Comm uni cations for the Digitized Battlefield
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ATM : ATM switc h
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Figure 6.6 N ative ATM sol ution to providing m ultiple Go S .
A simple implementation of this concept is shown in Figure 6. 7. Each

terminal, regardless of the QoS class it suppo rts, is connected to a local
router. All datagrams, whether they contain real-time services (voice) or
non-real-time services (data) are routed through the network. A number of
methods can be used to overcome the fact that IP itself does not support
QoS, including connection-oriented prioritization of datagrams, although
the difficulty of providing QoS is the major disadvantage of this approach.
An alternative method for using IP in the provision of multiple QoS is
shown in Figure 6. 8. All data, whether real time or non-real time, is carried
in IP datagrams, allowing efficient network support for all traffic. Non-real
time services are routed through the network in largely the same way as for
the simple implementation of Figure 6. 7. QoS for real-time services is pro
vided by multiplexing these real-time services onto trunks between multi
plexers, and providing switching for them in each node.
This dual switchinglrouting architecture overcomes the difficulty of pro
viding QoS in an IP network, but at the expense of increased complexity in
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ffiIJl
R: I P ro ute r
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Figure 6.7 Native I P solution to providing multiple GoS ,
equipment. This increase in complexity may be minimized by the integration

of routers and multiplexers into a single device.
6.6.4 IP ove r ATM

Combining IP and ATM is seen by some as a means of obtaining the advan
tages of both, and is usually achieved by carrying IP datagrams inside ATM
cells . ATM virtual circuits are established to connect IP routers, effectively
providing a virtual data-link layer between the routers, as illustrated in Figure
6.9. This arrangement allows a suitable QoS to be provided for all users, with
ATM switches and IP routers often integrated into a single device.
Embedding non-real-time IP traffic in ATM cells that are switched
between routers overcomes the inflexibility of embedded packet switch,
allowing a flexible reallocation of resources between voice traffic (carried
directly in ATM cells) and data traffic (IP datagrams embedded in ATM
cells) . This approach also supports both real-time QoS (directly in the ATM)
with non-real-time QoS (for IP-routed data), in formats that are suitable for
21 0 Tacti cal Com munications for the Digitized Battlefield
R: I P router
M/S: I P multiplex/switch
Figure 6.8 Alternative use of I P , in whi ch vO i ce IS switched rather than routed.
user terminals . Some inefficiency is incurred in the embedding of data into

two layers of packetization, each imposing its own overhead for packet
headers.
The preferred approach is to make use of the solutions provided in Figures

6. 8 and 6. 9. The choice will depend largely on the nature of legacy systems
and some preference for particular technology.
11
it
'1 11
6.7 M o b i l e Access for Tru n k Network S u b scri b e rs
Mobile remote access is required for trunk network subscribers so that com
manders are not confined to their command posts and can command and
control on the move. The functionality of the remote access should include
full-duplex voice telephony as well as data connectivity at substantial data
R: I P router
ATM : ATM switch
Figure 6.9 I P over ATM solution for providin g multiple OoS .
rates. The remote access channel should be secured to the same level as the
remainder of the trunk links in the network. In most major trunk networks
this access is currently provided via SCRA access to RAPs that are connected
to trunk nodes as described in Chapter 4.
A specialist subsystem to support mobile trunk users might comprise a full

duplex system using any of the three major multiple access mechanisms dis
cussed in Chapter 2 and could utilize any of the current commercial (PCS)
or military (SCRA) implementations. It should be noted, however, that cur
rent systems are primarily circuit-switched networks that are voice-focused,
although commercial systems are rapidly providing data services using packet
switching. Wireless LAN technology has too short a range to be seriously
considered at this time, although it may be ideal for mobile access for data
users within a confined area such as a headquarters.
21 2 Tactical Com m uni cations for the Digitized Battlefield
One of the major limitations with mobile access is the ability to provide
ubiquitous coverage of the area of operations . Commercial networks have a
considerable investment in fixed infrastructure to provide coverage, and even
then there are normally considerable gaps in which it is not cost-effective to
provide coverage due to the low density of subscribers. MilitalY networks will
always struggle to provide the same extent of coverage, primarily because the
forward edge of troops may often only be able to be supported by a base sta
tion located within the adversary's area. Additionally, network planners must
continually move the base station infrastructure if continuous coverage is to
be provided to mobile subscribers moving in accordance with the tactical
plan. These issues are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7 .
Another major limitation with terrestrial infrastructure for mobile
subscribers is the effect of terrain in limiting coverage, and it is likely that
comprehensive coverage will only be possible over a force deployed in high
density formations (and even then a significant number of base stations is
required to bring mobile coverage down to a company level) . More widely
dispersed operations will require the range extension of an airborne base sta
tion, or use of overlaid (satellite-based) PCS systems .
Capacity. The mobile access system must have sufficient capacity to sup
port digitized voice and reasonable data rates . Since the subscriber's interface
is via a radio channel, the available battlefield spectrum will constrain capac
ity. Longer ranges (and fewer base stations) will be possible for lower fre
quencies, so it makes sense for mobile access to operate in the VHF band.
Since it also make sense to allocate bandwidth for mobile access on the same
basis as other battlefield RF users, 25-kHz channels are appropriate, which
will support 1 6 Kbps encrypted voice or data. It should be noted that the de
cision to implement mobile access to lower tactical levels will further exacer
bate the difficult issue of frequency management in the congested VHF
spectrum.
Reliability. A significant number of base stations is required to provide the

overlapping coverage necessary for reliability of coverage, particularly as the
supported force disperses. While global coverage of the entire area of opera
tion is not required, planners must have intimate knowledge of tactical plans
to ensure that there is sufficient coverage of those areas likely to be required
by mobile subscribers . To ensure continuity of coverage, it is also likely that
base stations will requi re the ability provide handoff from one base station to
another as the user moves between them, al though the user may be satisfied
i I
with the much simpler system that requires the user to manually affiliate to
the best base station.
Integration. If the tactical mobile subscriber subsystem is a seamless exten

sion of trunk subscriber services, then integration of these users into the
wider networks will be provided by the interfaces of the parent tactical trunk
subsystem.
Oos. The tactical mobile subscriber subsystem should provide a service of

similar quality for real-time and non-real-time services to that which is avail
able to a fixed trunk subscriber.
Communications support for the spectrum of operations. The tactical mobile

subscriber subsystem has traditionally provided coverage for mobile users
down to battalion level (to company level in some networks) within a rela
tively dense high-intensity environment. These subsystems become rapidly
stressed as the supported force disperses, which will require the range exten
sion of an airborne base station, or use of overlaid (satellite-based) pes sys
tems. Much greater flexibility is obtained if the mobile access system provides
direct access for mobile subscribers. That is, mobile subscribers do not need
the base station and can communicate directly when in range of each other.
This is a very useful feature for vehicles traveling in convoy during deploy
ment, or when a subunit needs to deploy out of range of the main network.
It is also useful because, if two stations are in line-of-sight of each other, they
do not have to take up base station bandwidth to communicate. Figure 6. 1 0
illustrates the concept of direct access.
Command and control on the move. A mobile access capability is essential to

facilitate command and control on the move. For high-density operations,
the base station infrastructure will allow the subscriber to move freely within
the coverage of the trunk network. As the force disperses, however, network
planning becomes much more difficult and the users may have to accept that
there will be instances when coverage is not available. Again, a direct-access
facility will greatly ease this issue as mobiles can communicate with any other
mobile that is within range, regardless of whether the base station is available
or in range. While access to the trunk network is not available during direct
access, at least communications would be possible between nearby units, or
from a commander to subunits.
j ,. -
21 4 Ta ctical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield
RAP
Cable
M o b i l e s u b s c r i b ers
Figure 6.1 0 Direct a c cess fo r mobile subscribers.
Organic, minimum-essential communications. Base stations should be organic

to the tactical trunk subsystem. For movement and administration, base sta
tions may also be considered to be organic to various elements of the deployed
force.
Security, jamming resistance, and economy. Adoption of commercial PCS

standards may provide a more economical solution, although the use of PCS
terminals may be a cause for concern from the point of view of security and
j amming resistance-see Chapters 4 and 7 for more detailed discussion.

Mobile trunk network access is essential for headquarters down to company
level. Additionally, direct access is a critical requirement of any mobile access
solution. Current SCRA systems support these requirements to varying
degrees and all systems will be improved by the incorporation of the tech
nologies developed within commercial PCS systems. The most significant
changes will be in the larger number of base stations required to support the
lower level of access and in the addition of range extension provided by the
tactical airborne subsystem or satellite-based PCS from overlaid systems.
6.8 I nte rfa ces to the Tacti c a l Tru n k S u b system
The tactical trunk subsystem is required to interface to other components of

the tactical communications system as well as to the strategic communica
tions system and to the overlaid communications system. These generic
interfaces are illustrated in Figure 6 . 1 1 . Detailed descriptions of the inter
faces are provided in Chapter 1 0.
j"!
.I I,
\!
Mobile trunk Combat radio

users users Combat radio
subsystem
Tactical data
distri bution Tactical trunk subsystem
subsystem
Figure 6.1 1 Tactical trunk subsystem interfac es.
6.9 Summary
The architecture of the tactical trunk networks of most modern armies is well
placed to accommodate the requirements of the digitized battlefield. The
architectural components of switching nodes, access nodes, bearers, and
mobile subscriber facilities are still required in future systems. The internal
structure of these components must be modified, however, with the most
change needed to the switching fabric within the subsystem. Additionally,
the components must be modified to accommodate the greater mobility
required by users, as well as the dispersion necessary to support the spectrum
of operations.
Perhaps the largest architectural change is in the interface requirements
for the subsystem. Currently, the trunk subsystem is only required to inter
face to other trunk subsystems as well as provide limited interface to CNR
users (CNRI). Future trunk subsystems will take the prime role in integrat
ing all of the other subsystems in the tactical communications system-these
issues are discussed in much more detail in Chapter 1 0. Chapters 7 through
1 0 continue to take a more detailed look at the combat radio, tactical data
distribution, and tactical airborne subsystems.
Endnotes
11 J Ricc, M . and /\. Sammcs, CO"l1Illlilf/alld CrJlJtro/: SlIpport ,)J'.ltclII.i iii til(" (,'u(( \r�li',
.
London: Brasscy's, 1994, p. 25.
12J Frater, M., and M. Ryan, Electrollic Vll7lforc fiJi' thc Digitized BflttlljiCIrl. Norwood,
MA: Ancell HOllse, 2001, Chapter 3.
7
The Combat Radio Subsystem
7.1 Introductio n
Military requirements for communications with fully mobile infrastructure

have been met traditionally by CNR, which is the primary means of exercis
ing command and control at brigade level and below. CNR combines the
advantages of simplicity and flexibility with the ability to provide the all
informed communications that are essential for the close coordination of
all-arms tactics in mobile operations.
The use of radio on the battlefield began in World War I as an alterna
tive to line as a part of trunk communications, which avoided the laying of
hundreds of miles of cable to support major offensives. Examples included
the connection of observation posts to artillery batteries. Radio sets-and
particularly their antenna systems-were initially too large to be of any great
use to the infantry. However, as sets and antennas reduced in size, they began
to be employed to form artillery-infantry nets and infantry-armor nets and
became more useful in mobile operations.
By the end of World War II, CNR had become an important means of
communications for infantry and other arms. Technical developments since
that time have been evolutionary rather than revolutionary, and the tactical
use of CNR has remained largely unchanged. The major difference is in the
ability to pass data, although most CNR systems are still analog radios and
are not well placed to cope with the expansion in the volume of data expected
in the next few years.
717
The main advantages of CNR are that it is simple, flexible, robust, and
easily deployed, providing the fully mobile infrastructure that is required for
the command and control of combat troops. The position of the CNR sub
system in the range/capacity/mobility trade-off, sacrificing capacity to maxi
mize range and mobility, is shown in Figure 7.1.
The requirement to provide a b attlefield communications system with
a fully mobile infrastructure will continue for the foreseeable future, espe
cially at battalion and below, where it will continue to provide the primary
means of command and control, and to a lesser extent at higher levels where
it is required to supplement the array of trunk communications systems
available to commanders and staff. This fully mobile system, which we call
the combat radio subsystem, is the subj ect of this chapter. We begin by
Low capacity
pes
• Trunk network
Low Sh ort
High capacity
mobility range
Figure 7.1 The place of the combat radio subsystem in the range/capacity/mobility
trade-off.
The Combat Radio Subsystem 21 9
examining the basic requirements for the combat radio subsystem, and use
this analysis to compare a range of currently available mobile communica
tions technologies.
The basic requirements of the combat radio subsystem are based on the
requirements for the tactical communications system detailed in Chapter 5,
but with refinements to meet the need for a battlefield communications sys
tem with fully mobile infrastructure.
Range/capa city/mobility trade-off. Each user community supported by the

combat radio subsystem must be provided with a minimum of one shared
voice channel. Simultaneous transmission of voice and data may not be pos
sible. Having met this minimum capacity, increased mobility and range have
higher priority than increased levels of capacity, as shown in Figure 7.1.
Command and control on the move. The primary purpose of the combat radio
subsystem is to support command and control of combat troops. User termi
nals and network infrastructure must be capable of operation while on the
move without stopping. This requires that either there is no ground-based in
frastructure or that this infrastructure is fully mobile. The requirement for
command and control on the move makes line unsuitable as a sole means of
communications; it favors, however, the use of radio with omnidirectional an
tennas. Radios and terminals must also be small and robust with low power
requirements if they are to provide integral support to motorized and mecha
nized forces and especially light-scale forces. Requiring users to type all infor
mation into a computer is not acceptable; voice communications must be
provided as a primary means, with data supported when required.
Multiple acc ess. The spectrum available for military use is not likely to ex
pand, while the number of systems that make use of the electromagnetic
spectrum increases constantly. Sharing of the electromagnetic spectrum
among users is required. Possible multiple access techniques include FDMA,
synchronous TDMA, CSMA, and CDMA or some combination of these ba
sic techniques. In current systems, multiple access is achieved by grouping
stations into nets. Each net operates in a single-frequency, half-duplex mode,
with different nets being assigned different frequencies.
Support for the chain of command. Support for the chain of command re
quires that communication between a commander and subordinates is
achieved with maximum efficiency, and that each level of the command hier
archy (at least from brigade down to platoon) is provided with integral com
bat radio communications assets and the capability to manage these assets.
This is achieved in current systems by hierarchical nets that follow the chain
of command. Support for the chain of command also requires that ground
based equipment used for communications within a unit or subunit is inte
gral to that unit or subunit. The combat radio subsystem should not con
strain the locations of headquarters or other elements. This applies both
while on the move and in static locations. A commander should also be able
to alter command arrangements within his or her formation or unit without
having to fundamentally restructure the combat radio subsystem.
OoS. The combat radio subsystem is required to carry a wide variety of

traffic. Traditionally, voice is the major form of traffic; however, the demand
for various types of data is increasing. In modern networks, it is more useful
to characterize them by the requirements that each type of data has for serv
ices across the network. There are two main types of traffic: those that re
quire real-time services (predominantly video and voice) and those that
require non-real-time services (computer-to-computer transfer). Both voice
and data communications are required, therefore, although not necessarily at
the same time or using the same equipment. Ideally, real-time and non-real
time (i.e., voice and data) communications should be seamlessly integrated,
using a single piece of equipment. In practice, a data network that falls back
to a group of hierarchical chain-of-command voice nets may be acceptable. A
major disadvantage of separate equipment for voice and data may be addi
tional weight.
Multicast capability. Traditional CNR provides an all-informed voice capa

bility that is ideally suited to the coordination of all-arms tactics. This re
quirement for all-informed voice capability is not likely to decrease. With the
introduction of a data capability into the combat radio subsystem, a corre
sponding multicast capability for data is also required.
The combat radio subsystem should support infantry, motorized

Fl exibility.
infantry, and mechanized infantry operating over the spectrum of operations
ranging from high-level conflict to dispersed peacekeeping and low-level
1
counterinsurgency operations. Requirements for training of operators, net
work managers, commanders, and staff will dictate that there should be II
1\
The Combat Radio Subsystem 221
minimal differences between the equipment used for different types of opera
tions. Any controls must be able to be used while the operator is wearing
gloves, either for protection from the cold or in an NBC environment.
Seamless connectivity. Seamless connectivity should be provided both

within the combat radio subsystem and between this subsystem and the tacti
cal trunk subsystem. This may require the rebroadcast of data within the
combat radio subsystem or carriage by the tactical trunk subsystem of some
data whose source and destination both lie in the combat radio system. In
practice, seamless connectivity is a higher priority for data than for voice and,
in fact, may be feasible only for data. Typically, the interface to the tactical
trunk subsystem would be part of that subsystem.
Se curity. In the past, the use of secure communications has been limited by
the weight and bulk of encryption devices, and procedural restrictions on the
circumstances under which such devices could be used. With the increased
use of secure communications equipment in the commercial world and the
availability of low-cost, integrated communications security for combat ra
dio, secure communications should now be provided by the combat radio
subsystem at all levels.
EP. EP is required to provide LPD and resistance to jamming. This might

include passive EP, such as terrain shielding or the use of directional anten
nas, and active EP, including DSSS and frequency hopping. Increasingly
high levels of integration of EP are becoming possible due to advances in
integrated-circuit technology.
Minimal mutual interferen ce. Equipment forming the combat radio subsys
tem should be capable of operation in close proximity with other equipment
of the same or similar type. The major practical implication is that frequency
management is required to ensure that closely spaced frequencies and certain
harmonic combinations are not used in the same location.
Power source. Many types of operations, such as dismounted infantry, will

require operation of the combat radio subsystem on battery power for ex
tended periods. A requirement for regular replenishment of batteries de
creases the flexibility of a force, and also increases the burden on logistics.
U.S. doctrine, for example, suggests that a combat radio should be capable of
continuous operation for 24 hours without replenishment of batteries. While
this is not achieved by current systems, recent advances in battery technology

and power management techniques, both largely due to the commercial cel
lular telephone, have the potential to provide such extended operations.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. Combat radio equipment

is required to operate in a range of conditions beyond those normally expected
for commercial equipment. This includes immersion in water, a temperature
range of - 20°C to +70°C, and withstanding extremes of vibration, shock,
pressure, and humidity [1].
7.3 Multiple Access
In the combat radio system, many stations transmit RF energy onto a single
channel. A multiple access technique is required to share the electromagnetic
spectrum between these stations.
The requirement for seamless connectivity means that the combat
radio subsystem should operate as a single logical network. This requirement
does not, however, dictate that there should be a single physical network. An
examination of traffic flows in a typical network will show that users tend to
form groups within which large amounts of data are exchanged, but with
much smaller amounts of external traffic. It is for this reason that the concept
of a subnet is commonly used in computer networks. The nets typically used
in the combat radio subsystem also have this property.
For the purposes of this discussion, we define a user community as a
group of stations among which the combat radio subsystem allows direct
communications, assuming that the radio operating range permits, without
passing through a bridge or router. We do not impose any particular struc
ture of these user communities; indeed, they need not follow current doc
trine of CNR nets. In the extreme of aggregation each station in the network
may be part of a single, all-encompassing, user community. This definition
can also encompass a circuit-switched cellular telephone system, for which a
user community is formed by a base station and the set of mobile units that
can communicate directly with it.
The implementation of a multiple-access scheme requires the resolu
tion of two key issues: the mechanism for controlling access by users to the
bandwidth assigned to the user community and the mechanism for limiting
the interference between different user communities. The utility of the vari
ous multiple-access techniques is discussed next.
I'
�j
, I
Synchronous TDMA. In synchronous TDMA, a flXed-length, periodic time

slot is allocated to each transmitter. Timing synchronization requires a com
mon time reference (e.g. , GPS time) , a central control station, or regular
transmissions from all stations. Allocation of time slots can be by fixed as
signment or on-demand, the latter method providing much greater flexibility
but requiring a central control station. The advantages of TDMA are that it
is relatively easy for one station to monitor transmissions in all time slots, it is
possible to use close to 1 000/0 of the available channel capacity if there is ei
ther a single transmitter or single receiver, there is no loss of data due to one
station overtransmitting another, and there is a fixed upper bound on delay.
The disadvantages are that timing synchronization between stations is re
quired, guard intervals reduce channel capacity when multiple transmitters
and multiple receivers are used, and allocation of capacity between transmit
ters is relatively inflexible.
GSMA. CSMA techniques are a form of asynchronous TDMA, in which

there are no fixed time slots. A station wishing to transmit first checks that no
other station is currently transmitting. The advantages of CSMA are that it is
relatively easy for one station to monitor all transmissions on the channel, no
central control station is required, and the allocation of channel capacity is
very flexible. The disadvantages of CSMA are that the best throughput that
can be achieved in a typical operation is approximately 500/0 of the available
channel capacity, data is lost due to one station overtransmitting another,
and there is no fixed upper bound on delay. The efficiency of CSMA can be
improved by the introduction of a control station that assigns channel capac
ity to stations on demand.
FDMA. FDMA allocates a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to each

transmitter, which can transmit in its allocated channel all the time. Alloca
tion of frequencies can be fixed or on-demand. The advantages of FDMA are
that no central control station is required unless capacity is demand
allocated, close to 1 00% of the available channel capacity can be used, there
is no loss of data due to one station overtransmitting another, and there is no
delay introduced by the channel. The disadvantages of FDMA are that the
allocation of capacity between transmitters is relatively inflexible and it is
relatively difficult for one station to receive data from more than one trans
mitter. While FDMA is employed to separate user communities, it ·is rarely
used as a multiple-access technique within a user community.
Frequen cy hopping. As a multiple-access technique, frequency hopping is a

form of FDMA. Each transmitter can transmit 1 000/0 of the time. As the
number of transmitters is increased, the proportion of hops on which over
transmission occurs also increases. The advantages of frequency hopping as a
multiple-access technique are that no central control station is required, the
allocation of capacity is very flexible, and the total transmitted data rate can
be in excess of 1 000/0 of the available channel capacity, as long as a high error
rate can be tolerated. The disadvantage of frequency hopping as a multiple
access technique is that some data is lost due to overtransmission.
CDMA. COMA-also known as DSSS-allows a wideband channel to be

shared by a number of narrowband sources by spreading their transmissions
over the whole band. By using a different spreading sequence for each trans
mitter, multiple access is achieved. The advantages [2] of COMA are that no
central control station is required unless capacity is demand-allocated, close
to 1 00% of the available channel capacity can be used, there is no loss of data
due to one station overtransmitting another, and there is no delay introduced
by the channel. The disadvantages of COMA are that the near-far effect
makes it infeasible to have more than one transmitter and more than one re
ceiver operating simultaneously, the allocation of capacity between transmit
ters is relatively inflexible, and it is relatively difficult for one station to
receive data from more than one transmitter.
Tim e hopping. Data may be encoded in variations in the length of intervals

between the transmission of very short impulses. These impulses may be as
shon as 1 ns, giving a total transmission bandwidth of 1 GHz. This approach s:
is used in ultra-wideband radio (UWB), also known as impulse radio. The ti
advantages of UWB radio are that it has the potential to completely remove
the need for frequency management as it is now practiced, it allows for very
flexible allocation of channel capacity to a transmitter, and it makes possible
extremely simple digital receivers. The major disadvantage is the high level of Ii'
;]1
interference caused to all conventional communications systems whose

bandwidth is shared by the UWB system.
As well as providing multiple access, frequency hopping, time hopping,
and COMA may also be used to provide LPD .
For conventional CNR, each user community forms one net. Each net
operates on a single frequency, with FOMA being used to share the electro
magnetic spectrum between nets. Within a net, a form of CSMA is used to
share the channel capacity between stations on the net. For voice networks,
CSMA takes the form of voice procedure [3] .
I I
I!
,
�I
I
'::',�)1
The Combat Radio SubsJ,stem 225
7.3.1 Multiple Access Within a User Community
Synchronous TOMA. As long as a common time reference is available (possi

bly transmitted by a central control station) and the flexible allocation of
channel capacity is not required, synchronous TOMA can be a very effective
means of providing multiple access within a net. TOMA is used by GSM cel
lular telephone networks, EPLRS [4] and TAOIL-J (Link-16). The major
disadvantage of TOMA for the combat radio subsystem is the power con
sumption resulting from transmissions required to maintain synchroniza
tion. With current battery technology, it seems likely that at least the central
control station must be vehicle-mounted.
CSMA. CSMA is the access technique used by current CNR, for both ana
log and digital voice. By shortening transmissions through digitization,
throughput in a CSMA system may be significantly increased. The major re
maining drawback of CSMA is that it is unlikely that a throughput higher
than approximately 50% of channel capacity can be achieved for data.
FOMA. As long as the flexible allocation of channel capacity is not required,

FOMA can be used to provide multiple access within a net. The major draw
back is the difficulty of monitoring more than one channel at a time, which
works against the requirement for all-informed communications.
COMA. Because of the near-far effect, COMA is not suitable for use as a
multiple-access technique except where there is only a single transmitter or a
single receiver. This is achieved in mobile telephone networks because all
transmissions either emanate from or are destined for a base station. In many
military applications, it is usually the case that all stations are required to be
able to transmit and to receive transmissions from all other stations.
Frequency hopping. The use of frequency hopping to provide multiple ac

cess within a net leads to an inflexible allocation of channel capacity and usu
ally makes monitoring of more than one transmitter infeasible. For this
reason, frequency hopping is not usually used for multiple access within nets.
Time hopping. Time hopping provides a very flexible allocation of capacity

to transmitters. It is likely, however, that the complexity of a receiver that at
tempts to monitor n transmissions is likely to be n times that of a single chan
nel receiver, making time hopping unsuitable for providing multiple access
within a user community.
7.3.2 Multiple Access Between User Communities
Synchronous TDMA. The requirement for a synchronization of timing usu

ally makes the use of TDMA for providing multiple access between user
communities infeasible. This is because it would be unusual for all stations to
be able to monitor the transmissions of all other stations and because large
guard intervals would be required to compensate for the difference in trans
mission path lengths. Where the total number of users in a group of user
communities is not too large, TDMA may be used as an adjunct to another
multiple-access technique (such as FDMA) .
CSMA. Efficient operation o f CSMA requires a small number o f transmit

ters and that all transceivers can hear all other transmitters. This is rarely the
case across a wide area, making CSMA infeasible as a multiple-access tech
nique between user communities.
FDMA. FDMA is commonly used for providing multiple access between

communities. In fact, it is a useful way of separating user communities.
CDMA. The near-far effect usually makes the use of CDMA for providing
multiple access between user communities infeasible.
Frequ en cy hopping. Frequency hopping can provide an effective means of

multiple access between user communities, as long as deletions due to over
transmissions can be tolerated. This is usually acceptable for secure voice,
where up to one-third of the data can be lost before speech becomes unintel
ligible. These deletions may be acceptable for data if suitable error protection
is provided. In this case, however, error-correction data leads to a loss of
overall throughput.
Time hopping. The provision of multiple access between user communities

can make use of all the advantages of time hopping, providing for very flexi
ble allocation of capacity, the removal of the need for frequency manage
ment, and the possibility of using simple, digital receivers.
7.3.3 S u mmary
Of all the technological options for the provision of multiple access, only a
relatively small number are suitable as part of the combat radio subsystem.
Within a user community, synchronous TDMA, CSMA, CDMA, or time
hopping may be used. Between user communities, FDMA and time hopping
are likely to be the only feasible options.
7.4 Ca ndidate Solutions
In this section, candidate solutions for the provision of a fully mobile tactical
communications system are examined. The following technologies are candi
date solutions: CNR with a capability to pass digital data, packet radio, a
repeated TDMA system, cellular telephone/PCS , and trunked radio.
7.4.1 Data-Ca pable CNR
Traditional CNR provides a single voice channel. Multiple access is provided

within nets by CSMA, and between nets by FD MA. CNR is used in the
HF (2-30 MHz) , VHF (30-8 8 MHz) , and UHF bands. The modulation
scheme for HF CNR is usually SSB, with a channel bandwidth of 3 kHz; for
VHF and UHF, FM is commonly used with a channel bandwidth of 25 kHz
or 5 0 kHz.
Data modems have been available for CNR for more than 20 years. A
single HF CNR channel can carry up to approximately 2.4 Kbps, while a
VHF or UHF CNR channel can carry 1 6 Kbps with a channel bandwidth of
25 kHz. CSMA is used to control multiple access. In areas where automatic
control is provided, an operator can prepare a message and have this message
transmitted asynchronously. Many in-service analog VHF radios provide a
1 6-Kbps data channel, principally to meet the requirement to transmit
encrypted voice.
Most in-service CNRs have been designed to participate on a single
frequency, half-duplex voice net. To provide a data net using such radios
requires external equipment in addition to the data-capable CNR to provide
for the switching or routing of data. Most current-generation combat radio
equipment uses this approach.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. High mobility is possible, especially where

radios are fully integrated with cryptographic equipment and data modems.
The major limitation is the throughput that can be achieved for data, which
is typically no more than 4 Kbps for VHF CNR and 300 bps for HF CNR.
The throughput is limited by both the properties of CSMA and the require-
ment to use a high level of forward error correction to obtain an acceptable

error rate.
Command and control on the move. Command and control on the move are
supported by VHF and UHF CNR, and HF CNR using ground-wave
propagation. Voice is the primary mode of operation. HF sky-wave propaga
tion is not usually possible without the erection of large, fixed antennas. Effi
cient operation for data requires that direct communications be possible
between all stations on the net, that is, the net must not be fragmented. This
depends strongly on terrain. Retransmission stations can be used to minimize
the impact of fragmentation, although this can be difficult on the move.
Multiple access. Multiple access is achieved by a combination of CSMA

within a net and FDMA between nets, providing a high level of flexibility.
Support for the chain of command. Communications follow the chain of

command. The location of headquarters is constrained to some extent by the
requirement for direct communications between all stations on the net. This
is accentuated by the use of data communications.
DoS. Voice and data can be supported with a single piece of equipment.
This is common for VHF CNR, al though a separate modem is often re
quired for carrying data on HF CNR. A net can operate in either a data
mode or voice mode. A data net may drop back to voice operation when an
operator presses the pressel switch, providing an appropriate QoS to each
servICe.
Multicast capability. All-i nformed voice and a multicast capability for data
are to be supported.
Flexibility. Similar equipment can be used to support troops across the spec
trum of operations. Ancillary equipment, such as RF amplifiers and antenna
tuning units, is used to provide increased functionality for vehicle-mounted
systems. Weight can be a limitation for foot-mounted operations, especially
where separate equipment (and therefore separate batteries) is required for se
cure operation and EP.
Seamless connectivity. External equipment is required to provide connec

tivity between nets, or to other subsystems of the tactical communications
system. Voice connectivity to the tactical trunk subsystem may be provided

by a CNRI.
Security. Secure operation for voice and data has traditionally been pro
vided by external cryptographic equipment such as the KY-57 VINSON and
KY-99A MINTERM. However, more recent designs, including recent ver
sions of SINCGARS , have an integral cryptographic capability.
EP. Frequency hopping and DSSS may be supported, either by external

equipment or internal options (e.g. , in recent versions of SINCGARS) .
Minimal mutual interference. As long as proper frequency management is

carried out, preventing the use of closely spaced frequencies and certain har
monic combinations in the same location, CNR equipment provides immu
nity to interference from closely spaced transmitters.
Power source. CNR can be powered for extended periods by batteries. In

areas where external ancillary equipment is used, such as for secure commu
nications, this equipment usually requires separate batteries.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. CNR systems are typi
cally designed to meet the full range of battlefield conditions.
7.4.1.2 Current Availability

Since the need for networked data-capable radios is common in most mod
ern armies, a number of systems are available off-the-shelf.
7.4.2 Pa cket R a d i o
The major disadvantage of data transfer over CNR is that there is no support
for automatic rebroadcast of data in fragmented nets. This can be overcome,
at the expense of added complexity, by the use of packet radio [5] .
A packet radio system uses the same net structure as conventional
CNR, as illustrated in Figure 7.2. Because of the presence of the left-to-right
links and the collocation of stations on multiple nets within headquarters,
this net structure is highly meshed, which can provide a high level of redun
dancy as long as procedures exist for taking advantage of this meshing.
Packet radio takes advantage of the collocation of stations by providing an
internet bridge between nets at each of these locations. These internecbridges
allow automatic delivery of messages addressed outside a particular net and
/
--- -"
o Location with
stations on
two or more nets
)<.,
�:�: ----- -':\-,�,---
,
r - - - ----
� � _.- -
.. ...
.. ..
"
"
..
...
Net
....
Figure 7.2 Illustration of the operation of the tactical internet, showing locations of pos
sible internet bridges.
alternate routes around parts of the network that are unavailable. The overall
structure of the network is called a tactical internet.
Within a net, messages are automatically relayed if the net becomes
fragmented. This process is known as intranet rebroadcast. This is illustrated
in Figure 7.3. With a raw capacity of 16 Kbps for each net, it is likely that a
throughput of approximately 1 to 3 Kbps will be achieved. In reality, inter
net rebroadcast may be limited to two or three hops before the throughput of
the network becomes unacceptably low.
The internet bridging and intranet rebroadcast functions of packet radio
are applicable only to data. Voice traffic is accommodated by allowing the
packet radio network to drop back to a chain-of-command, hierarchical net�
work when an operator depresses the press-to-talk switch. The secure-voice
mode therefore has priority over the data mode. In the voice mode, operation
of nets is identical to that of conventional secure-voice radio nets. The data
mode is resumed immediately when transmission of voice ceases. Voice opera
tions in fragmented nets are similar to those of conventional CNR nets.
Secure communications can be provided using on-line, military-grade
encryption. By the implementation of partially programmable encryption
systems, new algorithms can be supported side-by-side with those from the
previous generation of secure communications equipment. Packet radio may
be used in conjunction with frequency hopping and free-channel search to
reduce vulnerability to interference and jamming in a hostile electromagnetic
enVIronment.
The Combat Radio Subsystem 23 1
V Station on net
V Station acting as
intranet relay
v
Message source
V T
or destination station
Figure 7.3 Illustration of operation of the tactical intranet, showing relay stations.
The advantages of the tactical internet are:
• Data can be passed automatically between any two locations on the

battlefield, without manual retransmission at net boundaries.
• CNR operates without support of external network devices .
• Messages can be routed around failed parts of the network, because
the transmission path is not fixed.
The disadvantages of the tactical internet are:
• Because of the low data rates available ( 1 -3 Kbps) , the network can
easily become congested.
{j • It may be necessary to limit the number of intranets across which a
;1
rI
message is passed to prevent the whole network becoming congested
Ij in the event of failure of one part of it.
I!
i I
rI The advantages of the tactical intranet are:
II
I
• Efficient operation of a fragmented net is possible.
r
• Rebroadcast is provided with a single radio at each site.
• Adversary intercept of transmissions is hindered by use of lower
power levels than would be required for direct communication
between all stations on a net.
• Traffic analysis of a net may be made more difficult, with many trans
missions being rebroadcasts rather than new messages.
----� ---
The disadvantages of the tactical intranet are:
• An operator has less control over the transmission a radio than in tra
ditional hierarchical nets.
• Because of the low data rates available ( 1-3 Kbps) and the require
ment for a multiple access protocol, the network can easily become
congested.
e Operation with highly fragmented nets does not appear to be feasi
ble, with intranet rebroadcast limited in practice to one or two hops.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. Mobility is similar to conventional CNR.

Each net supports a single voice channel. In data mode, a total capacity of 1
to 3 Kbps is possible on each net. This capacity is similar to what can be
achieved with conventional CNR and may not be sufficient for some future
digitization requirements, such as real-time situational awareness .
Command and control on the move. Command and control on the move are
supported in a similar manner to data-capable CNR. Provision of intranet
rebroadcast simplifies the maintenance of connectivity in a net. Data com
munications on the move may be limited by the ability of soldiers to operate
terminals while moving.
Multiple access. Mul tiple access is provided in the same way as for tradi
tional CNR; FDMA separates nets, while CSMA is used to share a single
channel between stations on a net.
Support for the chain of command. The net structure for packet radio would
typically be identical to that used for traditional CNR. Constraints on the lo
cations of headquarters are reduced by the removal of the requirement for di
rect communications between all stations in an intranet and by the ability to
have a station other than a headquarters act as the bridge to another net.
Oos. Voice and data are usually provided as separate modes of operation,
providing different QoS to each.
1'1
I'
fJ
The multicast capability is essentially the same as for

Multicast capability.
data-enabled CNR, but with the added reach offered by the intranet re
broadcast.
Flexibility. Packet radio operates effectively across the spectrum of operations.
Seamless connectivity. Seamless connectivity is provided for data commu

nications within the packet radio system by means of intranet rebroadcast
and internet bridging. External interfaces are still required for interface
to external communications systems, such as the tactical trunk subsystem.
These interfaces would not usually be provided as part of the combat
radio subsystem because of their associated weight and management
reqUIrements.
Security. Encryption for both voice and data is usually provided using inte
gral cryptographic devices. This is advantageous in terms of the performance
offered at the reduction in weight compared to the use of separate crypto
graphic equipment, but may impose significant procedural and administra-
. .
tlve constramts.
EP. Intranet rebroadcast permits lower transmission power to be used in

some applications, reducing the probability of detection and interception.
Because packet radio equipment is of more recent design than CNR, EP
(e.g. , frequency hopping) is often built-in rather than requiring separate ap
plique equipment.
Minimal mutual interference. As long as proper frequency management is

carried out, preventing the use of closely spaced frequencies and certain har
monic combinations in the same location, packet radio provides immunity
to interference from closely spaced transmitters.
Power source. Packet radio can be powered by batteries, although exten

sive use of the intranet rebroadcast is likely to reduce battery life significantly.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. Packet radio systems, be
ing specifically designed for military applications, are typically designed to
meet the full range of battlefield conditions.
,/

The S INCGARS ASIP radio, used with the external internet controller to
provide the packet radio capability, is in service with some units of the U.S.
Army and has recently also been procured by the New Zealand Army. The
British Army is aiming to procure a similar capability as part of its Bowman
program.
7.4.3 Ad Hoc Networks
In simple terms, an ad hoc network uses techniques similar to the intranet

rebroadcast of a packet radio network to provide connectivity throughout the
network. The use of ad hoc networks in the combat radio subsystem has the
promise of removing the need for communications to follow the chain of
command, reducing the requirement for detailed planning of the combat
radio subsystem, and potentially greatly easing the task of providing commu
nications to fast-moving forces. Traditionally, the effective planning for the
provision of rebroadcast to such forces has been very difficult to achieve. For
example, despite new doctrine to make use of available assets for the advance,
U.K. forces in the Gulf War found it impossible for rebroadcast vehicles to
keep up with main battle tanks and APCs [6] .
In an ad hoc network, stations cooperate to build the network. S tations
communicate using a common wireless channel. Each station can communi
cate directly with one or more of the other stations in the network, but it is
unlikely that any one station can communicate directly with all of the other
stations. Stations on the network are therefore required to act as relays. Data
is carried through from source to destination by being passed from one relay
to the next. Each station maintains a list of the stations to which it can
directly communicate. Connectivity information is built up and distributed
by each station [7] .
In the example network shown in Figure 7.4, B can communicate
directly with A and G. B may send data to E via the path BGE or the path
BA CE. Each of these paths would have an associated cost, which may be as
simple as the number of hops involved. B would choose the least-cost path,
transmitting the data over the first hop. The relay station (say, G) then trans
mits the data over the next hop, with this process continuing until the data
reaches its destination.
In larger ad hoc networks, stations may form themselves into clusters.
A small number of stations may then take on the role of communicating
between clusters, possibly using higher transmission power to do so. The
forming of clusters helps to maximize frequency and battery life reuse by
u
Figure 7.4 Example of connectivity within an ad hoc network.
minimizing transmission power. In the example in Figure 7. 5 , E and Fhave

taken on the role of intercluster communication.
An ad hoc network may be integrated with a wider network by one of
the stations on the ad hoc network acting as a gateway. In the context of the
tactical communications system, this interface point must be defined. This
issue is addressed further in Chapter 1 0 .
The major utility of an ad hoc network in the tactical communications
system is the fact that the network is formed by the terminals, without the
requirement of a specific infrastructure to be deployed.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. The ad hoc network provides very high

mobility by removing the need for each station in a user community to stay
within range of all other stations. This is only achieved where a sufficiently
high density of emitters is available.
�\
,�)
i:l Command and control on the move. The ad hoc network is likely to be ori-
II ented toward data. Support for command and control on the move probably
requires that the system be able to fall back to a chain-of-command, voice
iI network.
iI
i
i'
I
Multiple acc ess. Multiple access is controlled by the ad hoc networking
protocols. The efficiency of multiple access is likely to be lower than for a
planned system, such as CNR or packet radio. This reduced efficiency may
not be acceptable in a congested electromagnetic environment.
<C .. Intracluster communications
+- �� Intercluster backbone
figure 7.5 Example of clustering in an ad hoc network.
Support for the chain of command. The structure of the ad hoc network adapts
to the physical disposition of a force. So long as the connectivity of the net
work is maintained, communications supporting the chain of command are
possible. Maintenance of the structure of the network in dispersed operations
may be difficult without additional network infrastructure. B ecause the com
bat radio subsystem must be provided as integral assets at a number of levels of
hierarchy, relevant network management assets must also be provided at each
level.
OoS. Provision of a suitable QoS for data is easily achieved in an ad hoc net
work; provision of QoS for real-time voice is unlikely to be possible except
for stations that can communicate directly. This difficulty may be overcome
in the same manner as for packet radio, allowing operation to drop back to a
hierarchical, chain-of-command, voice network when the operator depresses
the press-to-talk switch.
Multicast capability. An ad hoc network naturally supports multicast, using

similar techniques to packet radio. The provision of multicast, however, is
only efficient where all destination stations are in direct communication with
the transmitting station.
Flexibility. The ad hoc network relies on having a sufficient density of sta

tions for its operation. This is likely to be problematic in dispersed opera-
The Combat Rildio Subsystem 237
tions, unless some form of planned, rebroadcast infrastructure is supplied.

The use of the airborne subsystem greatly reduces these difficulties.
Seamless connectivity. An ad hoc netvvork provides seamless connectivity as

a natural part of its operation, at least for non-real-time services. For real
time services, the ad hoc netvvork has the same difficulties with efficiency of
operation as data-enabled CNR and packet radio .
Security.An ad hoc netvvork is likely to have an integral security architec

ture. However, the quality of encryption provided in commercial ad hoc net
works may not be acceptable.
EP. An ad hoc netvvork provides some protection from adversary intercept

by removing the direct connection betvve en netvvork structure and chain of
command. Commercial ad hoc netvvork standards are likely to be very vul
nerable to j amming.
An ad hoc netvvork should provide its own fre

Minimal mutual interference.
quency management, minimizing the need for planning in this area.
Power source. The life of batteries for man-portable systems in an ad hoc

netvvork is likely to be a major concern, especially for stations providing in
tracluster backbones. This problem may be partially overcome by the desig
nation of specific stations (perhaps those mounted in vehicles) to carry out
this role. The drawback of this is that it limits the flexibility of the system by
effectively requiring data betvveen clusters to pass through a base station. The
disadvantages of this solution are discussed further in Section 7.4. 5 .
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions.Commercial ad hoc net

working equipment may require ruggedization before being suitable for use
across the full range of geographic and climatic conditions.

While it is the subj ect of much research and, indeed, funding from organiza
tions such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) , the
ad hoc netvvork technology is not yet sufficiently mature to appear in fielded
systems.
-- - - -----
7.4.4 R e p eated TDMA
A repeated TDMA network overcomes the inefficiency of packet radio by

requiring all stations to transmit in allocated time slots. All network timing
and operation are controlled by a common time reference, usually transmit
ted by a net control station. A number of repeated TDMA radios are cur
rently in service in the United States, including the EPLRS radio and
TADIL-J (Link 1 6) . A repeated TDMA system is usually intended to operate
with much larger user communities than a typical CNR net, possibly includ
ing all of the vehicles in a brigade in a single user community. The capacity
of the system, which may be up to 5 0 0 Kbps, is shared between these users .
Under the direction of the net control station, rebroadcast is provided
between stations needing to communicate, but who are out of direct com
munications range. The maximum range over which a repeated TDMA sys
tem can operate is limited by the requirement to provide guard intervals
between TD MA slots.
Repeated TDMA systems are discussed in more detail in Chapter 8 ,
dealing with the tactical data distribution subsystem.
7.4.4.1 M ilitary Utility
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. While . the total capacity of a repeated

TDMA system is likely to be mt:ch higher than that of a CNR net, this ca
pacity tends to be shared among a larger user community. It is therefore un
likely for a repeated TDMA system to have sufficient capacity to support the
voice communications requirement of its user community. The range of in
dividual stations is limited by their mobility, but this is offset by the ability to
provide automatic repeating for stations outside the range for direct commu
nIcatIons.
Command and control on the mo ve. Repeated TDMA systems are capable of
operating at full capacity while stations on the net are moving. Manpack op
erations may be limited by current requirements for the network control sta
tions to be vehicle mounted.
Multiple access. To the user, a repeated TDMA system appears like a I I

I '
circuit-switched network that permits some circuits to be used for all

informed nets. This is achieved using a combination of TDMA, FDMA and
CDMA, and provides efficient use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Support for the chain of command. A repeated TDMA system provides a

meshed network in which each radio set is able to provide retransmission for
stations that are beyond line-of-sight. This retransmission is usually con
trolled by a net control station, and can be used to ensure that connectivity is
provided where it is required.
Oos. Typically, repeated TDMA systems support only data. While some
capacity could be allocated to provide sufficient data rates for voice, insuffi
cient capacity is available to support all the required voice nets in a brigade
sized force.
Multicast data is typically supported, allowing some

Multicast capability.
TDMA time slots to be used in the same manner as CNR all-informed nets.
Seamless connectivity. A repeated-TDMA network can support seamless

connectivity, providing bridging between the nets is available. Provision of
seamless connectivity provides an important mechanism for supporting com
mand and control communications.
Se curity. Integral, military-grade encryption is typically provided.
i
I EP. Protection against j amming as well as LPD can be provided through the
: I
! I use of CDMA, TDMA, and FDMA. In addition, frequency hopping can be
i
used. Typical hop rates are in excess of 1 ,000 hops per second.
Minimal mutual interference. The use of CDMA aids in minimization of in

terference between repeated-TDMA systems and with other parts of the tac
tical communications system.
Power source. Manpack repeated-TDMA equipment can be run for ex

tended periods on batteries.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions.Military communications

systems are typically designed to meet the full range of conditions.
I
I Deployment of a repeated-TDMA network is limited by both
Flexibility.
the maximum area that can be supported on a single net (up to approxi
mately 47 X 47 km for EPLRS) and by the density of stations required to
Ij
, I
i- --- - - - - --- _
- - _. - . _ ..... --.-' �- -- . . _- ... _. _ - - . - --
--
maintain connectivity. Weight can be a limitation for foot-mounted opera

tions, with the weight of the radio set being approximately 1 2 kg.

EPLRS is an example of a repeated-TDMA system currently in service with
the U. S . Army. The cost of radio sets is approximately $27,000. A similar
capability is also provided by TADIL-J (Link- 1 6 ) , although this system has
been designed primarily to support sea and air operations and its terminals
are more expensive by approximately a factor of 1 0 .
7.4.5 B ase-Stati o n Arch itectures
The potential solutions for the combat radio subsystem discussed so far have
not required the support of any network infrastructure. A range of options
exists, however, that make use of a base station in their architecture. These
are cellular telephones (or more generally, peS) , trunked-radio systems, and
two-frequency, half-duplex radios. Note that we consider satellite-based PCS
as overlaid systems, and therefore do not include them as part of an organic
tactical communications system.
7.4.5.1 Cellular Tele p h o ne/ P CS

Cellular telephone/PCS systems provide a circuit-switched communications
network. A base station is required for network control, including affiliation
of users. All traffic from a mobile station is passed directly to a base station,
from where it is routed to its destination. Direct mobile-to-mobile commu
nications is not usually possible. Data rates of up to 9 . 6 Kbps are possible
with current systems such as GSM. Higher data rates, up to approximately
300 Kbps, can be achieved with packet-based extensions of GSM such as
GPRS and EDGE and wideband CDMA systems.
The maximum distance between mobile users and the base station is
limited to line-of-sight, largely because of the use of UHF and higher fre
quencies . In a tactical environment, low antennas will significantly reduce
communications ranges from base stations. This range could be extended by
an elevated base station, which could be carried on an airborne platform or
satellite. In the case of TDMA systems, such as GSM, there is a further limi
tation imposed by the requirement to synchronize all transmitters to a com
mon slot timing. In the case of GSM, this limits the distance between base
and mobile stations to approximately 3 5 km .
Deployment o f commercial cellular telephone systems requires exten
sive path profile planning and measurement to ensure that effective area
I
I:
Ii
IIll
The Co m b at RadlO Si! b�)IJ tc7i7 24 1
-------_ . - - . _ - - - -- _ .
(! cove rage i s ach i eved . I t i s d o u b tful i f effective coverage co u l d b e ach i c\"(:,d b:'
() a m ovi ng base stati o n , al t h o u gh th i s m ay be ove rco m e by a step- u p p ro c e
!1 dure. Res tri cti o n s o n th e l o cati o n o f b ase s tat i o n s , especi al ly i n fo rward are,1 S ,
m ay also m ake area coverage very d i ffl cu l t t o ach i eve .
II
' 1
Wh i l e curre n t tech n o l o gy perm i ts co n s tructi o n of rob u s t , l i gh t-wei gh t
11
f 1\
\ '
,
m o b i l e han dsets , base s tati o n s are b u l ky and vlo u l d be e i t h e r fi xed o r
;1
!j
veh i cl e - m o unted .
I,
7.4.5.2 Tru n k e d R a d i o Syste m s
D i gi tal trunked-ra d i o systems are a i m ed at a range of vo i ce a n d data a p p l i ca
ti o n s that h ave b een met p revi o usly by th e a l l o cat i o n o f ded i cated rad i o
I chan n e l s . App l i cati o n s i nclude a range o f p u b l i c safety com m u n i cati o ns sys
: I
I: tems (including p o l i ce , am b u l ance , and fl re) an d co m m ercial com m u n i ca
i i tions systems, such as those used by taxi s . The p r i m ary mode of operati o n fo r
I
tru n ked- radio systems u s u ally req ui res that all com m u n i cati o n s pass t h ro u g h
a b as e stati o n , altho ugh some sys tems s u p p o rt a di rect m o b i le-to- m o b i l e
m o d e . D i gi tal trunked radi o systems p rovide typ ically a co m b i n ed v o i ce/data
n e twork. A user term i n al typ ically s u p p orts a s i ngle vo i ce chan n e l and a d a ta
capab i l i ty wi th capaci ties s i m i lar to o r greater than fo u n d i n typi cal P C S
systems.
:!
I ; The two m aj o r digital trunked- radi o systems In use are TETRA ( a n
, I
I abb revi ation fo r Terrestrial Trunked Rad i o ) , wh i ch was deve l o p ed by t h e
I :I Europ ean Teleco m m u n i cati o n s S tandards I nstitute (ETS I) [8] , and APCO
, I
:
I II
2 5 , which was developed by the Asso c i ati o n o f P u b l i c-Safety Com m u n i ca
I ,
I '
tions O ffl c i als (APCO) I n ternati o n al [9] .
I
I
I 'I
7.4.5.3 Two - F re q u e n c y H a lf- D u p l e x R a d i o
I;
, ; A two-freq u e n cy, half-duplex rad i o system i s i l l us trated i n F i gu re 7 . 6 . T w o
I, I
"
I :' rad i o chan n els are used . The base stat i o n transm i ts i n o n e o f these ch a n n e l s ,
I
I ! wh i l e a l l m o b i l e s tati o n s tran s m i t i n the o th er. Al l s ta t i o ns h e a r trans m i s s i o n s
1
I I
, . m a d e by the b ase s tati o n . A n al l - i n fo r m e d n e t can b e created i f th e base sta
I I
,
, ti o n reb ro adcasts s i gn als it rece ives fro m other stati o n s on t h e net.
O ther pro perti es o f a nvo- fre q u e n cy, hal f-d u p lex rad i o system arc t h e
. i s a m e as those fo r CN R .
i I
I i'
I
I '
7 .4.5.4 M i l ita ry Uti l ity
Range/capa citv/mobility tra de-off. U s e r term i n a l s typ i ca l l y s u p p o n a si n gl e

, I
vo i ce c h :l Il nel a n d th rough p u ts u p to 9 . 6 Kb p s fo r P C S , 7 . 2 K b p s f�H
, ,
I
TETRA, a n d -4 Kbps fo r a m i l i ta r y nvo - freq u c n c : ' , h a l f- d u p l e x rad i o . A g g r l'

g;U i O Il o f ch a n n e l s m ay al low h i g h e r c a p a c i t i e s I n T ET RA . fo r ex a m p le . 1� ) l I 1'
.
,I :
Tx
f, f,�
t
2
Rx
Tx
Station 1
Control
.
�
f,
' t. Tx
x
Station 2
2
Figure 7.6 A two-frequency, half-duplex radio system.
channels may be aggregated to provide a capacity of 2 8 . 8 Kbps. The effi

ciency of use of the electromagnetic spectrum for all these systems is similar
to VHF CNR with a channel bandwidth of 25 kHz. A significant loss in effi
ciency may result, however, where multicast connections are required if one
channel must be allocated for each station participating. While user mobility
is greatly assisted by the use of a base station, base-station mobility is prob
lematic for two reasons. First, there is not sufficient time for path planning to
be carried out, and it is therefore unlikely that network connectivity will be
guaranteed to all subscribers to the same extent that it is in commercial net
works. Second, antennas will be mounted on masts to maximize the area of
coverage and vehicles will have to remain static while masts are deployed.
The ability of TETRA mobile stations to communicate directly without the ;
assistance of a base station greatly enhances the ability to command and con .j
Ii
trol on the move compared to cellular telephony. A base station is still re II
quired, however, to provide an interface to external systems such as the I

i
tactical trunk subsystem, which limits its mobility. I
i
, ,
; i
Command and control on the move. There is no doubt that command and
control on the move would be enhanced by the provision of a battlefield
wide cellular network. Commanders would be able to roam throughout the
network as dictated by the tactical environment and affiliate to the closest
base station; It is doubtful, however, whether sufficient infrastructure could
be provided to facilitate such mobility, particularly in forward areas.
Multiple a c c ess.Multiple access is achieved by the use of one or more of

CDMA, TDMA, and FDMA. Cell-based access offers more opportunity to
reuse frequencies than is possible with traditional fixed-frequency CNR nets.
Support for the chain of command. For PCS and trunked radio systems, con
nections must be established before communications can occur. No automa
tion of this process is supported by off-the-shelf systems. Additionally, in
cellular systems, all-informed communications are difficult to provide. While
conference calls can be initiated, the number of duplex channels required
rises in proportion to the square of the number of stations. Two-frequency,
half-duplex systems are able to provide all-informed communications by re
peating at the base station.
Oos. QoS for both voice and data is supported.
Mul ticast capability. Multicast can be achieved in circuit switched systems

by the use of conference calls. The major disadvantages of this approach are
its poor efficiency of use of the electromagnetic spectrum and the initial com
plexity of establishing the multicast. Two-frequency, half-duplex radios pro
vide much more efficient multicast.
Flexibility. Flexibility is limited by the requirement for a special-purpose

base station. Current base-station implementations are not suitable for man
pack operations. This difficulty in mobility can be overcome by the use of an
elevated base station, which would provide a larger coverage area. Addition
ally, the location of base stations is likely to be severely constrained in sup I
port of combat forces-it is unlikely that an unprotected base station would I
I
be deployed closer than approximately 20 km from the forward edge of own
I i forces, which renders base station-oriented systems almost unusable for CNR
I �
, ,
. I replacement for foot-mounted troops. Further, base stations must be inter I
iI
I
connected by high-capacity trunks (probably through the tactical trunk sub
I �
I system) , which limits the ability of smaller units or subunits deploying
I
I
I , without significant infrastructure. For mechanized formations, the ability to
I. I·
I .
I
i I protect a base station within an armored vehicle allows deployment closer to
combat troops, although high-capacity trunks must still be available to inter
connect base stations. I
\
Seamless conne ctivity. Interfaces to the public switched network exist from
PCS and trunked radio systems. Interfaces to military-specific systems could
be achieved either directly through specially designed interfaces or indirectly
through the strategic network. Two-frequency, half-duplex radios have simi
I , lar connectivity properties to conventional CNR.
i i
I
I I
["
.J - - - --- - - - - - - _ __. _ _ _ __ _ .- .__ . __ __ ..
_ __ _ _ __ _
244 Tactical Communi cat ions for the D i g i t i zed B attlef iel d
- . _ - - - - _ . . . __ . .. ----- .. - - - - - _ . . . _- -------
Security. Commercial off-the-shelf systems do not provide mili tary-grade

encryption. The use of military-grade encryption on an end-to-end basis is
faci litated by the TETRA standard, however, although not necessarily sup
po rted by commercially available equipment. Security in military two
frequency, half-duplex systems would typically be p rovided in the same man
ner as fixed-frequency CNR.
EP. PCS and trunked radio systems do not provide an EP capability. Even
systems such as CDMA employing DSSS do not provide an effective EP ca
pability because, while the spreading codes are effective to provide multiple
access, they are not sufficiently secure to provide LPD . PCS also have an un
intentional EP capability in that adversary intercept assets would have to ac
quire the appropriate access channel of a p articular base station and then
follow the call as it is handed off between base stations.
Minimal mutual interference. PCS and trunked radio handsets and base sta
tions are designed for operation in close proximity to other terminals. Fre
quency management requirements for a military two-frequen cy, half-duplex
radio are similar to those for conventional CNR.
Po wer source. Mobile stations can be operated for long periods with very
small batteries. Larger power supplies are, however, required for base sta
tions. In GSM, this is accentuated by the requirement for the base station to
transmit all the time to provide timing for the network.
Ruggedization of commer
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions.
cial terminals will most probably be required to enable them to operate across
the full range of climatic conditions required, especially with regard to im
mersion in water and the temperature range.

Commercial cellular telephone and PCS systems are available off-the-shelf.
They do not, however, incorporate any military security or EP. Commercial
systems based on the TETRA standard are available off-the-shelf. They also
do not incorporate any military security or EP. A range of commercial and
military two-frequency, half-duplex radios is available off-the-shelf.
7.4.6 UWB R a d i o
UWB radio, also known as impulse radio, transmits information in a

sequence of short p ulses, typically between 0 . 1 and 1 . 5 ns. As illustrated in
Figure 7.7, the information content is encoded in time, rather than fre
quency or amplitude. In its simplest form, a one may be encoded as a pulse
arriving shortly before a nominated time, a zero as the pulse arriving shortly
after this time [ 1 0] .
While a uniform pulse-train spacing may be used (i.e., � jT) , multi
=
ple access is best supported by a system incorporating a pseudorandom

pulse-train spacing, sometimes referred to as time-hopping. The use of a
pseudorandom pulse-train spacing (i.e., the sequence r; chosen to be pseu
dorandom) prevents the loss of a large number of consecutive bits due to
inadvertent synchronization between two transmitters. The use of a pseu
dorandom pulse train to provide multiple access for two transmitters is illus
trated in Figure 7.8. The variation in the pulse-train timing prevents regular
collisions between transmitters, but guarantees that some clashes will occur.
Unlike CSMA, collisions that cause loss of data in impulse radio are not pri
marily due to over-transmission, but arise when the receiver receives two
impulses indicating conflicting values for that symbol. The near-far effect
prevents the design of a multiple-transmitter, multiple-receiver UWB radio
system that uses synchronization of transmitters to overcome collisions.
The use of baseband pulse modulation enables impulse radio to have an
extremely wide bandwidth, typically in excess of250/0 of the center frequency
of the signal. The relationship between pulse length and the frequency
content of transmissions is illustrated in Figure 7.9. The transmission of
information using time-modulation of short pulses is a form of spread
spectrum communications. Spreading gains of 45 dB (30, 000) have been
achieved in prototype systems [ 1 1 ] . Like the other forms of spread-spectrum
O . - 1 .5 n s
----.. +- 1
I I
t
o +---;� 1 o .-,�
I 1 o +---;I� 1
I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
� +1
Figure 7.7 Time-coding of information in UWB radio.
P o ss i b l e c l a s h
1\
Jj Jj
0 i4 1 ° i4 1 O�
J\ i� Af\
4
I
1 0 +:'-+ 1
I
I
0 i'-+0 li 1
I
4
t
�
I
I
I
I
I
: : I
F i g u re 7.8 Multiple access in impulse radio.
communications discussed in Chapter 5 , this frequency spreading can also

provide LPD .
The use of baseband transmission creates the possibility o f building
extremely simple receivers, without the requirement for a conventional RF
front end. These receivers have the potential of being much lower cost than
traditional receivers based on FD MA.
Very low transmission power levels can be used. Once a receiver is syn
chronized to a transmission, it does not need to detect pulses. In the example
shown in Figure 7.7, the receiver has only to decide whether it is more likely
that the pulse arrived before or after the nominated time, enabling the use
of low transmission powers for the impulses. The average power is further
greatly reduced by the fact that the transmitter is active for only a very small
proportion of the time. Average transmitter powers are expected to be on the
order of 1 mW. The initial synchronization can be achieved by the transmis
sion of a long synchronization sequence, or by the transmission of a short,
higher-power synchronization sequence.
Communications applications for UWB radio include short-range,
high-capacity communications systems. It is also possible to construct posi
tioning systems with very high accuracy (better than 1 m) and radar imaging
applications capable of operating through walls and other obstructions.
UWB radios typically provide short-range

Range/ capacity/mobility trade-off.
communications, with capacities either similar to or greater than conven
tional CNR.
1\ t lIT f
(a ) (b )
Figure 7.9 Relationship between (a) pulse length, and ( b) freq uency content.
Command and control on the move. lJW'B

radios support command and
control on the move in the same way as conventional CNR, and can provide
both voice and data communications.
Multiple access. Multiple access is provided by time hopping. The effi

ciency of use of the electromagnetic spectrum may be lower than for other
forms of multiple access.
Support for the chain of command. lJW'B

radios can support the chain of
command by operating with the same net structure as used for CNR.
DoS. QoS is provided by lJW'B radio in the same way as conventional

CNR, allowing efficient support for both real-time and non-real-time
servIces.
Multicast capability. lJW'B radios are able to provide multicast for both
voice and data.
Flexibility. lJW'B
radios are likely to be useable over only short ranges. This
is because only low transmit power will be permissible, due to the interfer
ence caused to other communications systems.
Seamless connectivity. Interfaces to other nets or other communications

subsystems may be provided in the same manner as for any other candidate
technology for the combat radio subsystem.
I;'\
I ' IItl
, "
!
:�
248 Tactica l Communications for the D ig i t i zed B a ttlefield
- -_. . - - - - . . _-- - - - - _. - - -- - . . _- - - ' _.- ------ - --
S ecurity. Securi ty i n a UWB network may be th ro ugh the use of a secu re

pseudorandom time hopping sequence, or the overlay of conventio nal en
cryption o n the digital data transmitted.
EP. Avery high level of protection against detection, intercept, and jam
ming can be obtained if a sufficiently secure pseudorandom time hopping se
quence is employed. The requirement to use low transmitter powers to limit
interference to other communications systems further reduces the likelihood
of detection and intercept, but also limits antij am performance.
Minimal mutual interferen ce. UWB

radios may cause significant interference
to a range of other communications systems, especially if they are operated at
high power.
Power source. Because of their very low-power operation, UWB radios are
likely to provide long battery life. The potential simplicity of receivers also
has the potential to increase battery life beyond that available from more con
ventional communications systems.
Operation in all geographi c and climatic conditions.Military UWB radios could

be built to incorporate military standards or robustness.

UWB radio has the potential to provide high capacity, mobile communica
tions within small areas, essentially removing the requirement for frequency
management. Multiple access is achieved by assigning a different time-hop
sequence to each user community. There remain significant challenges, how
ever, in establishing the feasibility of providing efficient multiple access using
impulse radio and in preventing interference with other communications
and navigation systems. For example, current systems are believed to cause
interference with GPS to a range of approximately 30m [ 1 2] . The design of
antennas that provide efficient operation with very high bandwidth is also an
open problem. Additionally, current regulations for frequency management
in most countries explicitly prohibit the use of broadband transmitters that
operate across bands allocated for other p urposes. These regulations tend to
be particularly strict for frequencies allocated for safety and emergency uses.
In addition to the technical challenges, therefore, there is a requirement for
the reframing of regulations to accommodate UWB radio [ 1 3] .
I'
"
7.4.7 Preferred S o l ution
A summary of the relevant characteristics of the various potential solutions is

shown in Table 7. 1 . Areas of unacceptable performance are shaded in gray.
Data-enabled CNR is unsuitable because it lacks routing between nets
and automatic rebroadcast within nets, and is therefore unable to provide
seamless connectivity. Repeated-TDMA systems are unsuitable because they
do not support voice, do not have sufficient capacity and tend to require high
power. Base-station architectures are unsuitable because of the requirement
to have a base station that will have limited mobility and that cannot be
organic to all the units that it supports.
Preferred Gombat radio solution. In the above analysis, only the packet radio
solution is capable of meeting the full range of basic requirements for com
munications on the battlefield with fully mobile infrastructure. This solution
is therefore preferred as the basic communications system that is organic to
all units. An ad hoc network capable of being manually configured to accom
modate dispersed operations may be a long-term alternative once this tech
nology matures. The capability of both these solutions will be greatly
enhanced by developments in the area of software radio [ 1 4] .
Limitations. The major shortcoming of packet radio is the low data rates
available, which is not sufficient to support some digitization requirements,
such as real-time situational awareness. Addressing this issue is the primary
purpose of the tactical data distribution subsystem (see Chapters 4 and 8) .
7.5 Squad R adio
CNR has traditionally provided communications down to company level,

leaving platoon and section commanders to shout orders or use hand signals.
One important reason is that the weight of conventional CNR (up to
approximately 1 0 kg, including battery) is too great for a radio to be carried
by each soldier. Early U.S. development of a small radio for use at the squad
level foundered, however, for the lack of definitive requirements. Initial
requirements in the late 1 940s for a 9-pound radio were modified in 1 949 to
seek a I -pound radio with a SOO-yard range, an impossible requirement in
the light of the technology available at the time. Portability was also an issue,
with the Army finally testing a solution that comprised belt-mounted radios
and receivers embedded in fiberglass helmets. In an attempt to minimize
weight and cost, the Army decided to develop a production model of the
i
I
)
Ta b l e 7.1
S u m m a ry of Characteristics of C a n d idate S o l utions
Data-
Capable Pa cket Ad H o c Rep eated Base-Stati o n
Req u i rement CNR Radio N etwork TDMA Arch itecture UWB
Range/ High High High High High High

capaclty/ mob i l i ty, m o b i l ity, m o b i l ity, m o b i l i ty, m o b i l i ty, low m o b i l ity,
m o b i l ity l ow l ow l ow to l ow capacity moderate
trade-off capac ity capac ity moderate capacity capacity
capac ity per user
Command Good G ood G ood Moderate Poor G ood

and contro l
on the
m ove
DoS VOice VOice VOice Data o n l y VOice VO ice

and and and and and
data data data data data
M u lticast Good Good Good Good Often very Good

capa b i l ity i n effic i e nt
Flexi b i l ity Good G ood Poor for Poor for Poor: Base Poor for
d i spersed di spersed stat i o n i s a dispersed
opera- opera- l i a b i l ity opera-
tions tions tions
S ea m l ess Poor Good Good: Good: Req u i res Req u i res

connectivity Data Data D ata applique applique
o n ly only only
Secu rity Appl i q u e I n -bu i lt In-built I n-bu i lt None I n I n-bu i lt

commerc i a l
syste ms
EP In-bu i lt In-bu i lt In-bu i lt I n-bu i lt None in I n-bU i lt

or commerc i a l
applique systems
Power source Low Low Moderate Moderate H i g h power Low

power powe r powe r to h i g h f o r base powe r
power station
squad radio that provided squad leaders with small, handheld transmitters
and all squad members with receivers clipped onto their helmets. The PRT-4
transmitter ( 1 8 ounces) and PRR-9 receiver (8.6 ounces) were hailed as the
answer to the infantry soldier's need to talk in the dense vegetation of South
Vietnam. However, to reduce weight, the batteries were strapped unpro
tected to the radio, and the heat and humidity turned them into masses of
dripping cardboard. Not realizing that the helmet served as part of the
antenna, soldiers tried to use the receivers apart from the helmet and were
disappointed with the reception. Despite test findings that squad members
needed only receivers, soldiers in South Vietnam were unhappy without a
means to respond to directions. Following a period of heavy use, the squad
radio gradually disappeared from the battlefield as soldiers left the radios
behind when going out on patrol and commanders consigned them into
footlockers for safekeeping [ 1 5J .
More recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in squad radio in
support of programs aimed at developing soldier-level combat systems, such
as Land Warrior in the United States, the Future Integrated Soldier Technol
ogy (FIST) project in the United Kingdom, and Fantassin a Equipement et
Liason Integrees (FELIN) in France.
The basic requirements for squad radio are very similar to those
described in Section 7.2. The major differences are:
• Only very short range is required, perhaps I ,OOOm at the most (Brit
ish requirements suggest a maximum range of only 5 00m) .
• The requirement for low weight is paramount, which tends to mean
low transmit power.
• The ability to carry data and the requirement for seamless integra
tion may be sacrificed, especially for near-term solutions.
• The requirement for encryption to provide security may be sacri
ficed if LPD is provided by the use of low transmit power from
antennas that are placed close to the ground.
• If the radio is small in size and cheap, ruggedization to military stan
dards may not be required, as small size itself provides some physical
protection and a replacement of a low-cost radio may be a suitable
alternative to repair.
• The need for long battery life is increased by the number of radios
(potentially one for each soldier) that must be supplied, making
it vital to achieve the goal of 24 hours of operation without
replenishment.
"i�1 - - - - - -- �. .
�-
-� /
-- -. - . ---- � - -
- - � -- - � - -- - . - - --- --- � . - - -.
- -� . - - - -
I I:
i Ii
252 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield I, :li1

' ,
An important limitation on the compactness of CNR equipment has A

always been the requirement that it be possible for an operator wearing NBC
gloves to manipulate all controls. This prevents miniaturization of keypads in
the way that has occurred for cellular telephones and other commercial prod
ucts. An alternative to this problem for the squad radio is to make the radio Li
sufficiently simple that once it is configured for a task, the operator is not tI
required to further manipulate any controls.

The potential technical solutions for squad radio are the same as the
main component of the combat radio subsystem described in Section 7.4.
However, the chosen solution may be modified by the altered requirements
listed above. R
V1
Voice -only CNR. While voice-only CNR was rejected in Section 7.4 as a so n
lution for the main component of the combat radio subsystem, the unique �'�
-ir
requirements of the squad radio for light weight and short range allow EP C[
and a measure of security to be achieved by the use of low transmit power

and low antennas. The use of low power also aids in maximizing battery life, B
while the availability of such radios built to commercial standards off-the nc
shelf reduces cost to the point where disposal is a viable alternative to repair. bl
,;
(
Data-enabled CNR. For longer-term solutions in which the ability to ex 'I
I' CJ
1
change data such as CPS location data or images from a weapon sight may be
required, data-enabled CNR offers many of the same advantages as voice £)
only CNR, but with the added data capability. Such a radio is likely to offer n�
voice and data encryption, which has associated with it a large administrative fi:
overhead for the generation and distribution of key material . In many coun- 1
H
tries, there are also additional administrative requirements for stocktaking of ,> '
1:l"1
cryptographic equipment, and the requirement for higher-level security t�

II
clearances for soldiers using such equipment, especially if such a radio is :1
'I
seamlessly integrated into a battlefield network. Because of these administra I:
" de:
fl
tive requirements relating to security, there are important arguments against If
the seamless integration of a squad radio network with the other parts of the ,I hii
tactical communications system. ,I
if
Ii:i'
i�
,I Of
Packet radio. While packet radio is able to provide a higher data capability 'I
!�
li�
than data-enabled CNR, this comes at the cost of additional weight (espe II
;1
a
cially in batteries) and complexity. The short range over which a squad radio §�
'I
is required to operate make it unlikely that the intranet rebroadcast would
11 pi
have significant value, leaving little additional capability over a data-enabled :1 I
;�r�
CNR. I �\
:1
It
Ii I 1
Ad hoc network. While the maturity of ad hoc network technology is not

yet sufficient to see it included in fielded systems, the promise of a self
forming network that requires no planning and control has clear attraction.
Key outstanding issues for a squad radio based on ad hoc network technology
include the desirability of seamless integration with the remainder of the tac
tical communications system (without which the complexity of ad hoc net
work technology at this level is of questionable value) and, who will carry the
interface if seamless integration is required. An ad hoc network also brings
with it the same administrative issues of security discussed previously.
Repeated TDMA. Repeated TDMA systems tend to be data, rather than

voice, oriented. Such a system may have merit, however, as a long-term solu
tion for the squad radio, especially if there is a requirement to carry video im
agery from a weapon sight. The use of encryption to provide security would
create the same administrative issues of security discussed above.
Base-station architecture. The key issue with the use of a base-station archi
tecture as a squad radio is: Who carries the base station? Even if it were feasi
ble to build a light-weight base station, the power requirement for the base
station would require a significant extra weight in batteries. A base-station ar
chitecture is not likely to be successful in the squad-radio role.
UWB radio. In many ways, UWB radio is ideally suited to the squad radio
role. It has the potential to provide an effective low-cost, light-weight, short
range communications system. Its major drawbacks, especially in the near
term, are the immaturity of the technology and a lack of understanding of
the seriousness of interference with other UWB nets and other parts of the
tactical communications system.
A number of armies have recently made decisions to purchase radios to
meet these requirements. The U.S. Army has selected a voice-only radio, the
leom F3S, whose characteristics are listed in Table 7.2, for use as a soldier
intercom. The radio is intended for use in certain ranger, airborne, air assault,
light infantry and mechanized infantry units. The F3S is manufactured to
commercial, rather than military, standards. Extensive testing was carried out
in a tropical environment because the humidity and heavy foliage represented
a probable worst-case scenario for both propagation and equipment failure.
I j
ii As the first major procurement of its Bowman program, the British Army has
purchased a similar radio for use as a personal role radio. In both cases, the
use of commerical off-the-shelf (COTS) equipment has enabled short lead
: i
i :
! i times in the procurement process. A number of armies have also purchased the
i r
,
i
I
I
I
\ ___f
AN/PRC 1 48 Multiband Inter/Intra Team Radio (MBITR) , which provides a s
higher level of performance (including encryption and data), but at the expense
of higher weight, cost, and much shorter battery life, as shown in Table 7.3.
7.6 Mig ration of An a l o g C N R Systems
Many armies have only j ust introduced analog CNR subsystems into service
at a significant cost. It is not reasonable to expect that the current single
channel subsystem can be discarded within the next 1 0 to 1 5 years. So, while
a packet radio network solution is preferred, procurement of such a system
will not solve the short-term problem. Therefore, the most reasonable, cost
effective strategy is to migrate existing CNR systems to be capable of provid
ing a packet radio network.
With regard to the provision of a packet radio network, the primary
deficiencies of the in-service analog CNR equipment are the poor support for
digital data, including the inability to directly interface to the asynchronous
Ta b l e 7.2
Characteristics of Icom F3S R a d i o
Operati ng mode FM vOice
Freq u e n cy ra n g e 1 36-1 74 MHz
C h a n n e l ba ndwidth 2 5 kHz
C h a n n e l step 1 2 .5 kHz
Battery l ife ( 1 : 1 :8) 24-42 h o u rs (rechargeab l e )
2 1 -36 h o u rs (disposab l e AA c e l l s )
Battery voltage 9.6V
We i g ht ( i n c l u d i ng battery a n d a nten n a ) 370g
Tra n s m it power Up to 5W
D i mensions ( i n c l u d i n g battery) 54 € 1 32 x 35 m m
COMSEC Nil
Data i nterfaces Nil
Ruggedizati o n Nil
The Com bat Radio Subsystem. 255
serial communications port of a computer; the low data rates that can be
achieved (with raw data rates no higher than 1 6 Kbps for VHF and 2.4 Kbps
for HF) ; and the lack of a packet controller that enables either routing of data
between nets or intranet rebroadcast within nets.
7.6.1 VHF R a d i o
Depending on the type and age of the analog radios, the following enhance
ments may be required to upgrade current systems to a packet radio network:
provision of internal or external packet controllers to provide intranet
rebroadcast within nets and routing between nets; provision of an interface
between the external packet controller and the analog radio; and provision of
an interface between the user terminal and the external packet controller.
Options for increasing the throughput of any current data channel
should be investigated. Using the current frequency-shift-keyed modulation,
Ta b l e 7.3
Characteristics of AN/PRC 1 48 (MBITR)
O perating mode FM VOice, AM VOice, d i g ita l voice ( 1 2 or 1 6 Kbps)
Frequency ra nge 30-5 1 2 M Hz
Channel ba ndwidth 1 2 .5 or 25 kHz
Channel step 5 or 6.25 kHz
Battery l ife ( 1 : 1 :8) 8 hours (3 Ah recha rgea b l e l ith i u m i o n or l ith i u m

d i sposab l e AA ce l ls)
Battery voltage 1 6V ( n o m i n a l )
Weight ( i n c l u d i ng battery a n d a ntenna) 900g
Transmit power 0. 1 , 0.5, 1 , 3 or 5W ( FM); 1 or 5W (AM)
D i mensions ( i n c l u d i n g battery) 2.625 i nches in wi dth x 7.75 i n ches in height x 1 . 50

inches i n d i a meter
COMSEC I ntegrated C O M S EC (VI N S O N compati b l e ); frequency

hopping upgrade ava i l a b l e
Data i nterfaces GPS i nterface
PI
r
Ruggedization Im mersion to 2m
I
I
(
L _ . _ ____ _ __
it is unlikely that a throughput of more than 2 Kbps will be achieved. The

architecture of the secure voice system in the radio may constrain the maxi
mum user data rate to 1 6 Kbps. Significant improvements in the throughput
may, however, be obtainable by changing the modulation to provide a higher
raw data rate. If this is done, it may be possible to provide internal forward
error correction so that the throughput approaches 1 6 Kbps.
The complexity of the external packet controller will depend heavily on
the level of functionality provided. Further work would be required to estab
lish whether it is feasible to provide a full intranet rebroadcast. Improvement
of the data-carrying capacity of the radio and its interfaces without this fea
ture may still provide a significant improvement in capability. While consid
eration should be given to the use of standard protocols such as MIL
STD- 1 8 8-220a and ATM, both complexity and performance may dictate
the use of an alternative proprietary protocol between radios with conversion
to a standard protocol at the gateway between the radio and user terminals or
other communications systems.
It should also be noted that there are significant issues associated with
the radiation hazard posed by most current VHF and HF CNR. These issues
should be addressed in any modification considerations.
)
[I
7.6.2 HF Radio i
p
The following enhancements would be required to upgrade current in
service HF radios to a packet radio network: provisions of a high-speed
modem, an internal or external packet controller, an interface between the
external packet controller and the radio, and an interface between the user
terminal and the external packet controller. Depending on the age of the HF
radio, it may not be economically viable to upgrade to a packet radio,
although much higher data rates would be available from an improved
modem.
7.6.3 R e s o u rce I m p l i cati o n s
It should be noted that it is likely that there will be a significant resource cost
associated with migrating the existing CNR variants to packet radios. Fund
ing would be required to address retraining of technicians, drafting training
documentation, rewriting of test program sets for any CNR maintenance
subsystems, additional purchases of spare parts, investigation and establish
ment of supporting technical data, and drafting and reproduction of sup
porting documentation.
Ii
7.7 Concl usions and Recommendations
The ongoing requirement for a communications system with fully mobile

infrastructure will be met by the combat radio subsystem. Of the available
technology, the requirements for this subsystem are best met by packet radio
systems, such as those that will soon enter service in the U.S. and British
Armies. Other potential solutions lack support for important combat radio
subsystem requirements such as voice, security, or EP.
If existing analog CNR have j ust been introduced into service, procure
ment of a new radio system may not be able to be j ustified. Consideration
should therefore be given to identifying an upgrade path for in-service equip
ment to a packet radio network, including technology options, costs, and
benefits.
Endnotes
[1] These requirements may sometimes be relaxed in less stressful environments, such as
rear areas, allowing less costly radios to be used. The downside of this cost saving in
purchase price may, however, be increased maintenance costs due to the increase i n the
types of equipment that must be supported, which is likely to require a larger inventory
of spare parts and consumables (such as batteries) .
[2 ] The advantages and disadvantages of COMA listed here apply to the use of DSSS as a
multiple-access technique. They do not necessarily apply to the use of DSSS for
LPIILPD.
[3 ] U.S. Army Field Manual FM 24- 1 8 , "Tactical Single-Channel Radio Communications

Techniques," Sept. 1987.
[4] EPLRS uses TDMA to provide multiple access within an NCS area of responsibility,
which is equivalent to a net in the terminology used here. EPLRS supports multiple
access within a net by the use of TDMA to provide needlines for communication
between stations.
[5] More information on packet radio systems can be found in:
Bertsekas, D . , and R. Gallagher, Data Networks, 2nd ed. , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Pren
tice Hall, 1 992.
Kahn, R. , et al. , "Advances in Packet Radi o Technology," Proc. IEEE, Nov. 1 978.
Leiner, B. M . , D . L. Nielson, and F. A. Tobagi, (eds.), Special Issue on Packet Radio

Networks, Proc. IEEE, Jan. 1987.
[6] Rice, M . , and A. Sammes, Command and Control: Support Systems in the C;;ulf War,
London: Brassey's, 1994, p. 1 1 7.
Ii
11
I
�,
I
I
L
[7] See, for example:
Johnson, D. B . , and D. A. Maltz, "Protocols for Adaptive Wireless and Mobile Net
working, " IEEE Personal Communications, Vol . 3, No. 1 , Feb. 1 996.
Perkins, C. E., A d Hoc Networking, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 200 1 .
[8 ] TETRA specifications are contained in:
ETS 300 392- 1 , "Radio Equipment and Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trunked
Radio (TETRA) ; Voice Plus Data (V+ D ) ; Part 1 : General Network D esign , " S ophia
Antipolis: ETSI , 1 996.
ETS 3 0 0 3 92-2, " Radio Equipment and Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trunked
Radio (TETRA) ; Voice Plus Data (V+ D ) ; Part 2: Air Interface (AI) ," Sophia Antipolis:
ETSI , 1 996.
ETR 3 0 0- 1 , "Radio Equipment and Systems (RES) ; Trans-European Trunked Radio

(TETRA) ; Voice Plus Data (V+ D) ; Designers' Guide; Part 1 : Overview, Technical
Description and Radio Aspects," Sophia Antipolis: ETS I , 1 997.
ETR 3 00-2, "Radio Equipment and Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trunked Radio
(TETRA) ; Voice Plus Data (V+ D ) ; Designers' Guide; Part 2: Traffic Aspects , " Sophia
Antipolis: ETS I, 1 9 97.
ETR 300-3, "Radio Equipment and Systems (RES) ; Trans-European Trunked Radio
(TETRA) ; Voice Plus Data (V+D); Designers' Guide; Part 3 : Direct Mode O peration
(DMO ) , " Sophia Antipol is: ETS I , 1 9 97.
ETS 300 393- 1 , "Radio Equipment and Systems (RES ) ; Trans-European Trunked
Radio (TETRA) ; Packet Data Optimized (PDO) ; Part 1 : General Network Design , "
Sophia Antipolis: ETS! , 1 9 9 8 .
[9] Standards from APCO Project 25 are publ ished by the Telecommunications Industry
Association in their 1 02-series.
[ 1 0] See, for example, Scholtz, R. A. , "Multiple Access with Time-Hopping Impulse Modu
lation," in Proc. MIL COM, Oct. 1 99 3 ; or Win, M. Z . , and R. A. Scholtz, "Impulse
Radio: How It Works," IEEE Communications Letters, Vol. 2, No. 1 , Jan. 1 9 9 8 , pp.
1 0- 1 2.
[ 1 1 ] Multiple Access Communications Ltd , "An Investigation into the Potential Impact of
Ultra-Wideband Transmission Systems," U.K. Rad i ocommunications Agency,
RA0699/TD OC/99/002, Feb. 2000.
[ 1 2] Letter from Office of Spectrum Management, National Telecommunications and

Information Admin istration to the Federal Communications Commission, imposing
l imits on the grant of a waiver to Part 1 5 of the FCC rules fo r UWB radio, June 1 5 ,
1 99 9 .
[ 1 3] A waiver for limited use of UWB radio by fi re and pol ice departments i n the United
States was granted by the FCC on June 29, 1 99 9 . This waiver is subject to the use not
interfering with other services.
The Combat Radio Subs),stem 259
[ I 4] The u . s . Department of Defense is working to develop a software radio system under

its JTRS program. See for exam ple: "Joint Tactical Radio System Operational Re quire
ments Document, " Washington, D . C. : U . S . Department of Defense, Revision 2.2, Jan.
200 1 ; and "Joint Tactical Radio System Wideband Networking Waveform Functional
Descrip tion Document, " Washington, D . C . : U . S . Department of Defense, Revision
2.2, Aug. 200 1 .
[ I S] Bergen, J . , MzlltaJ]' Communz catlOns, A Test for Techno logy, Center for Military History,
U . S . Army: Washington, D . C . , 1 9 86, pp . 448-4 5 0 .
()
(I,
Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem
8.1 Introduction
The requirement for providing real-time situational awareness creates diffi

culties for both the combat radio and tactical trunk subsystems. The first of
these difficulties is the required communications capacity, which may exceed
500 Kbps for a mechanized brigade, or 2 Mbps for a division. This capacity
requirement is made more onerous by the requirement to distribute much of
this situational awareness data to a large number of recipients. In some cir
cumstances, a user community for this data may cover the whole of a brigade
area. In addition, much of this data must be exchanged between moving
vehicles.
The combat radio subsystem, whose throughput is unlikely to exceed
10 Kbps on any one net in the near future, is not able to provide sufficient
capacity. The tactical trunk subsystem could be dimensioned to provide suf
ficient capacity, but is unable to provide the required mobility.
The tactical data distribution subsystem addresses these difficulties and
provides a high-capacity, homogeneous, wireless, data network across the
brigade or divisional area of operations. The tactical data distribution subsys
tem is similar in concept to the U.S. Army's concept of the ADDS, which
provides medium and high capacity data communications to support situa
tional awareness [1]. The place of the tactical data distribution subsystem in
the range/capacity/mobility trade-off is shown in Figure 8.1.
261
-------... ---- ._ .- . . _. _ . . . ._ .. -.__
. - ---_.-_._-
Low capacity
• Trunk netwo rk
Low
mobility range
Figure 8.1 Place of tactical data distribution subsystem in the range/capacity/mobility

trade-off.
The tactical data distribution subsystem does not need to support

voice, which is already well supported at high levels by the tactical trunk sub
system and at low levels by the combat radio subsystem. Indeed, support for
voice at low levels would require very high data rates in the tactical data
distribution subsystem, possibly in excess of 1 Mbps for a brigade. As is
discussed in the following sections, these rates are very difficult to achieve.
While its main purpose is the efficient carriage of data for real-time or
near-real-time situational awareness, the tactical data distribution subsystem
can also be used to carry other types of data, such as reports and returns. A
general characteristic of this traffic is that it tends to consist of a large number
of small messages. The provision of situational awareness requires that equip
ment of the tactical data distribution subsystem are fitted down to the very
lowest levels. In a mechanized force, equipment from the tactical data distri
bution subsystem should be fitted in every armored vehicle. Indeed, a great
, I
\;w
Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem 263
motivation in the U.S. Army for providing real-time situational awareness is

the minimization of fratricide, which requires that the location of all friendly
and adversary elements be known with sufficient accuracy to allow them to
be distinguished and to allow targeting of the adversary. This equipment
should be provided up to at least brigade, going higher (to division or corps)
if the tactical trunk subsystem is not able to support the data requirements of
real-time or near-real-time situational awareness.
This chapter discusses the basic requirements for the tactical data distri
bution subsystem and presents characteristics of a number of systems in
service around the world. The chapter concludes with an overview of issues
that require further study.
The basic requirements for the tactical data distribution subsystem are as
follows.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. The minimum capacity of the tactical data

distribution subsystem should be sufficient for carrying real-time situational
awareness data. As discussed in Chapter 5, it is likely that the minimum re
quirement is on the order of a few hundreds of kilobits per second, which is
shared among a user community consisting of a brigade- or division-sized
force. Lower capacities may be acceptable where the force moves only slowly,
but higher capacities may be required for dispersed forces, as the requirement
for rebroadcast will increase. The total capacity available to the force is likely
to be the primary concern in the tactical data distribution subsystem, in con
trast to the combat radio subsystem where the primary concern was the ca
pacity available to individual terminals. Given these requirements, the
tactical data distribution subsystem is most likely to operate in the UHF or
high frequency bands. Operation in the SHF or higher bands is likely to be
limited by clutter loss and atmospheric attenuation. The tactical data distri
bution subsystem also requires high mobility, and therefore must support re
transmission to provide communications between terminals that are not
within line-of-sight range.
Command and control on the move. Like the combat radio subsystem, the
tactical data distribution subsystem must be capable of operation while on
the move without stopping. This requires that either there is no ground
based infrastructure or that this infrastructure is fully mobile. The require-
264 Tactical Communications fo r the Digitized Battlefield
SIr
ments of command and control on the move makes line unsuitable as a sole
rl';
means of communications; it favors, however, the use of radio with omnidi
rectional antennas. All radios and terminals must also be sufficiently small
and robust enough that they can operate mounted in vehicles. Some termi
nals should also be capable of operating in a manpack role, although these
terminals may have a lower level of capability than those mounted in vel
vehicles.
Multiple access. The spectrum available for military use is not likely to ex
pand, while the variety of systems that make use of the electromagnetic spec Se
Vir
, .
trum increases constantly. Sharing of the electromagnetic spectrum between

users is required. Possible multiple access techniques include FDMA, syn tef(
chronous TDMA, and CDMA. Multiple access may be provided using a

combination of these basic techniques. In systems such as EPLRS, multiple
access between user communities is achieved using a combination of
CDMA, FDMA, and frequency hopping. Multiple access within a user com Sit:
munity is provided by TDMA. ch
op
Support for the chain of command. Support for the chain of command re StL
quires that communication between a commander and subordinates is

achieved with maximum efficiency. Support for the chain of command also Se,
requires that ground-based equipment used for communications within a tlc:
unit or subunit is integral to that unit or subunit. The tactical data distribu m�:
tion subsystem should not constrain the locations of headquarters or other CO�
elements. This applies both while on the move and in static locations. A
commander should also be able to alter command arrangements within a for
mation or unit without having to fundamentally restructure the tactical data
m:
distribution subsystem. Finally, support for precedence and preemption is
na)
required, including a formal management capability.
ho:
c�
OoS. The tactical data distribution subsystem would normally support m:t
only data (i.e., non-real-time services) and would normally be optimized to vul
carry real-time situational awareness data. While not imposing the same de dir
lay constraints as voice, much of this data (such as location information) is su�
time-critical. Such data is usually not sensitive to loss, however, because it
is transmitted at regular intervals.
Multicast capability. An ability to efficiently carry messages and other data

with a large number of destination addresses is required to support real-time
Tactzcal Data Dzstributzo71 Subs),stem 265
situational awareness. This is best achieved by the explicit provision of a mul

ticast capability in the tactical data distribution subsystem.
Flexibility. Operation of the tactical data distribution subsystem across the

spectrum of operations should be supported, including mechanized and con
ventional infantry forces. This is well supported by systems that provide
automatic relay of data, but implies a more capable network management
function in dispersed operations than in high-intensity operations.
Seamless connectivity. The tactical data distribution subsystem should pro

vide a single homogeneous network across a user community, which will of
ten be a brigade or battalion. Movement of data between the tactical data
distribution subsystem and the tactical trunk subsystem and combat radio
subsystem should also be supported.
Simplicity. The tactical data distribution subsystem should adapt to

changes in network topology due to the movement of nodes without direct
operator intervention. What limited human input is required should be re
stricted to specialist communications staff.
Security. Secure communications should be provided at all levels of the tac

tical data distribution subsystem. The fact that this subsystem carries infor
mation on the locations of friendly forces mal<:es the provision of secure
communications vital to the security of the force.
EP. EP is required to provide LPD and resistance to jamming. This might

include passive EP, such as terrain shielding or the use of directional anten
nas. It is also likely that extensive active EP, including DSSS and frequency
hopping, will be employed [2]. The importance of EP is greater in the tacti
cal data distribution subsystem than in the combat radio subsystem, because
many stations make regular transmissions and would otherwise be extremely
vulnerable to detection and intercept. The use of some techniques, such as
directional antennas, is made difficult by the mobility requirements of the
subsystem.
Minimal mutual interference. Equipments forming the tactical data distribu

tion subsystem should be capable of operation in close proximity with other
equipments of the same or similar type, including equipments of the tactical
trunk subsystem and the combat radio subsystem.
266 Tactical Comm unications fo r the Digitized Battlefield
Power source. Many types of operation, such as dismounted infantry, will b

require operation of the tactical data distribution subsystem on battery power n
for extended periods. As discussed for the combat radio subsystem in Chap
ter 7, continuous operation of equipment for 2 4 hours should be able to be p�
achieved without replenishment of batteries. n
q,
The tactical data distri
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. n
bution subsystem should be capable of being operated under conditions of

immersion in water, a temperature range of - 20°C to + 70°C, and with
standing extremes of vibration, shock, pressure, and humidity.
I
L
8.3 Multiple Access
h
In the tactical data distribution subsystem, like the combat radio subsystem,
many stations transmit RF energy onto a single channel. Multiple access is
required to share the electromagnetic spectrum between these stations.
\.
For the purposes of this discussion, we define a user community as a l�
group of stations between which the tactical data distribution subsystem

allows direct communications without passing through a bridge or router, a
terrain permitting. We do not impose any particular structure of these user

communities, that is, they need not follow current doctrine; in the extreme
of aggregation, each station in the network may be part of a single user
a
commum ty.
Multiple access poses two key questions: How should multiple access t
be supported within a user community, and what form of multiple access t
should be used to permit access to a single channel by multiple user commu
nities? The important differences between the tactical data distribution sub Sf
system and the combat radio subsystem are the size of the user communities
and their geographic spread. The traditional hierarchical net structure of the
combat radio subsystem is an effective means for supporting command and
o
control. This structure is not effective, however, for the larger user communi
ties associated with situational awareness data.
For each of these issues, the utility of the following multiple access
techniques is discussed in Sections 8.3. 1 and 8.3.2: synchronous TDMA,
CSMA, FDMA, CDMA, frequency hopping, and time hopping.
8.3.1 Multiple Access Within a User Commun ity

iI
Synchronous TDMA. As long as a central control station is available and flexi I;�
''
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ble allocation of channel capacity is not required, synchronous TDMA can �
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be a very effective means of providing multiple access within a user commu

nity. With capacity assigned on demand by a control station, TDMA can
also provide a very high level of flexibility and support for precedence and
preemption. The major disadvantage ofTDMA for the tactical data distribu
tion subsystem is the power consumption resulting from transmissions re
quired to maintain synchronization. With current battery technology, it does
not appear to be feasible to useTDMA without at least one vehicle-mounted
station.
CSMA. CSMA is the access technique used by current CNR, for both ana
log and digital voice. By shortening transmissions through digitization,
throughput in a CSMA system may be significantly increased. The major re
maining drawback of CSMA is that it is not possible to achieve throughput
higher than approximately 50% of channel capacity for data.
FDMA. As long as flexible allocation of channel capacity is not required,

FDMA can be used for providing multiple access within a user community.
The major drawback is the difficulty of monitoring more than one channel at
a time, which works against the requirement for multicast communications.
CDMA. Because of the near-far effect, CDMA is not suitable for use as a
multiple-access technique except where there is only a single transmitter or
a single receiver. This is achieved in mobile telephone networks because all
transmissions either emanate from or are destined for a base station. In the
tactical data distribution subsystem, it is usually the case that all stations are
required to be able to transmit and to receive transmissions from all other
stations.
Frequency hopping. The use of frequency hopping to provide multiple ac

cess within a user community leads to an inflexible allocation of channel ca
pacity and usually makes monitoring of more than one transmitter infeasible.
For this reason, frequency hopping is not usually used for multiple access
within user communities.
Time hopping. As stated in Chapter 7, jtime hopping provides a very flexible

allocation of capacity to transmitters. However, the complexity of a receiver
that attempts to monitor n transmissions is likely to be n times that of a sin
gle channel receiver. In the exchange of situational awareness data within a
large user community, this level of complexity may be unacceptably high.
8.3.2 Multipie Access B etween User Commu n ities
Synchronous TOMA. The requirement for a synchronization of timing can

make the use of TDMA for providing multiple access between user commu
nities infeasible, as was the case for the combat radio subsystem. Where the
user communities are strongly overlapping and where extensive use is made 1.
of retransmission (both of which are often required for the exchange of situa
tional awareness data between mobile terminals), it may make sense to sepa
rate user communities in the same geographic area using TDMA, while using
a different multiple-access technique (such as FDMA) to separate these
groups of user communities. This use of TDMA also facilitates demand
assignment of capacity, increasing the flexibility of allocation of communica If
tions resources. Use of TDMA as the sole multiple-access technique to sepa I
r
rate user communities spread over very large areas is inefficient because large '/
"
guard intervals are required to compensate for the difference in transmission

path lengths.
I, :1I
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CSMA. Efficient operation of CSMA requires a small number of transmit II
Ii
ters and that all transceivers can hear all other transmitters. This is rarely the II
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case across a wide area, making CSMA infeasible as a multiple-access tech I ;!:
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nique between user communities.
II !
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FOMA. FDMA is commonly used for providing multiple access between

user communities. In fact, it is a useful way of separating user communities.
U;'
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COMA. The near-far effect usually makes the use of CDMA for providing
I
multiple access between user communities infeasible. 8,
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Frequency hopping. Frequency hopping can provide an effective means of i t�

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multiple access between user communities, as long as deletions due to over I
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f 8.
transmissions can be tolerated. These deletions may be acceptable for data if I
1i
suitable error protection is provided. In this case, however, error-correction I R
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data leads to a loss of overall throughput.

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Time hopping. The use of time hopping to provide multiple access between L tr
user communities allows for very flexible allocation of capacity and the re i tl
moval of the need for frequency management, and makes possible simple, I: I�' �
digital receivers. In the tactical data distribution subsystem, however, termi CI
nals may be required to retransmit signals associated with different user com- Ii )� 0'(
:1
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munities. In this application, time hopping has similar disadvantages to those

discussed for multiple access within a user community in Section 8.3.1.
8.3.3 Preferred Multiple Access
Because of the large number of stations typically present and transmitting on

a user community in the tactical data distribution subsystem, the require
ment for each station to monitor transmissions from a number of other sta
tions, and the need for flexible on-demand allocation of communications
capacity, TDMA is the preferred multiple-access technique within a user
commumty.
The preferred multiple-access scheme between user communities is
FDMA or frequency hopping. Where DSSS transmission is used to provide
low probability of intercept (LPI)/LPD, CMDA may be combined with either
FDMA or frequency hopping to form a composite multiple-access technique.
8.4 Possible Solutions
In this section, possible solutions for the tactical data distribution subsystem
are reviewed. These solutions are data-capable CNR, packet radio, ad hoc
networks, repeated TDMA (such as EPLRS and TADIL-J), base-station
architectures, UWB radio, and low-capacity TADILs such as TADIL-A,
TADIL-B, and TADIL-C.
Many of the systems reviewed here provide capabilities other than com
munications, which are not discussed.
8.4.1 Data-Capable CNR
Data-capable CNR is able to provide a high-mobility, low-capacity data sys

tem, operating over a wide area.
8.4.1.1 M ilita ry Utility
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. Only low capacity is available, which

means that the high data rates caused by aggregation of data as it passes up
the command hierarchy cannot be supported. This lack of capacity essen
tially rules out data-capable CNR as a solution for the tactical data distribu
tion subsystem.
:J,I
II Command and control on the move. Data-capable VHF CNR is capable of
i
I operation on the move in both manpack and vehicle configurations.
Ii
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---j -�-- -
- - - ----. ----..
•.. --
Multiple access. Multiple access is provided using a combination of CSMA

and FDMA. The use of CSMA effectively limits the number of stations per
net to approximately 10, preventing direct communication among user com
munltles.
Support for the chain of command. Little support for precedence or preemp
tion is provided. The allocation of capacity between nets is also relatively
inflexible.
DoS. As long as a net is not congested, relatively low delay can be obtained,
so long as preambles are not used for synchronization of crypto-equipment.
Delays of several seconds may be caused by such preambles, which are com
monly used by the current generation of CNR equipment.
Multicast capability. Data-capable CNR provides an efficient multicast ca

pability within a net; between nets, however, very poor efficiency is provided.
This multicast capability is unlikely to be sufficient for the tactical data dis
tribution subsystem, where there is a large number of overlapping user com
munities and a high proportion of situational awareness data requires
multicast transmission.
Flexibility. Poor support is provided for changing network topology. Provi

sion of this support effectively requires modification of the net structure, the
difficulty of which is increased both by frequency planning and key manage
ment.
Seamless connectivity. Automated connectivity is not supported between

nets or into other subsystems. This can be partially overcome by the use of
bridges between nets.
Simplicity. The lack of automated rebroadcast means that significantly higher

levels of management are required for dispersed operations.
Security. Encryption may be provided as integral equipment or an appli

que. The use of preambles for synchronization of decryption devices greatly
increases the transmission overhead, and results in very low efficiency in pro
viding real-time situational awareness, which consists of a large number of
short messages.
EP. Integral forward error correction may be provided. Other EP, such as
frequency hopping may be available by the use of an applique device.
Minimal mutual interference. Management of mutual interference requires

methods similar to those currently in use for CNR.
Power source. Operation for extended periods on battery power may be

possible. The requirement for regular transmissions may, however, reduce
battery life significantly.
CNR equipment is specifi

cally manufactured to meet military requirements for ruggedization.
8.4.1.2 Current Ava ila b ility

Data-capable CNR is currently in service with many western armies,
although as part of the combat radio subsystem rather than the tactical data
distribution subsystem.
8.4.2 Packet Radio
The operation of a packet radio system is described in Section 7.4.2. Compared

to data-capable CNR, packet radio has a distinct advantage by way of the seam
less connectivity provided by internet bridging and intranet rebroadcast.
8.4.2.1 M ilita ry Utility
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. While providing very high mobility, a VHF

packet radio network is likely to be capable of only low capacities. The use of
higher-bandwidth channels in the UHF band could be used to provide higher
capacIty.
Command and control on the move. Packet radio provides a high level of mo
bility, and does not require ground-based infrastructure.
Multiple access. Multiple access is provided using a combination of CSMA

(within user communities) and FDMA (between user communities). Using
these protocols, demand-assignment of capacity is not usually supported. Ef
ficient operation of CSMA protocols is very difficult if more than approxi
mately 10 stations share a common channel. This hinders the formation of
the large user communities required to carry situational awareness data.
--- ------ ------ . ... . . - ... --

.. .
Support for the chain of command. Support for precedence and preemption
is not provided within a net. A limited capability could be provided by inter
net bridging.
Oos. An appropriate QoS for data is provided.
Multicast capability. Multicast within nets is supported with high efficiency,

as long as all stations can receive directly from all other stations. Multicast be
tween nets is inefficient, requiring separate transmission on each net. For large
user communities, multinet retransmission would often be required, which is
likely to lead to unacceptable performance.
Flexibility. As long as sufficient density of stations is available to adequately

support intranet rebroadcast and internet routing, packet radio supports op
erations across the spectrum of operations. However, additional engineering
and equipment may be required in dispersed operations.
Seamless connectivity. Seamless connectivity is provided by the combina

tion of internet bridging and intranet rebroadcast. Full automation of this
capability is provided by packet radio systems.
Simplicity. While the use of a fixed net structure is a useful means for mini
mizing the technical risk of fielding a packet radio, it greatly reduces the abil
ity of the radio to cope with changes in the internet topology, even though
changes in the intranet topology are managed transparently.
Security. Packet radio systems usually have built-in security devices. The
use of preambles for synchronization leads to very low efficiency in handling
large quantities of small messages, however, as is required for the tactical data
EP. The use of lower transmit power in packet radio than in data-capable
CNR provides one means of EP. Additional measures, such as frequency
hopping and FEC, are also likely to be available.
Minimal mutual interference. Mutual interference IS managed usmg the

same techniques as are currently used with CNR.
roc
Power source. The requirement to regularly transmit data for real-time

situational awareness makes long battery life a difficult target for manpack
operation. This problem is exacerbated by the retransmission requirements

of packet radio system.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. A military packet radio

system would be constructed to military standards of ruggedization.
8.4.2.2 Current Ava ila b ility

Packet radio systems are in use (or currently being introduced into service)
for combat radio applications in a number of armies. These configurations,
however, do not support the high rates of data required for the tactical data
8.4.3 Ad Hoc Networks

As discussed in Chapter 7, the self-forming nature of ad hoc networks has a
great potential to reduce the management overheads in mobile communica
tions systems. An important example of an emerging system to provide this
capability for applications similar to those of the tactical data distribution
subsystem is the U. S. Army's Near-Term Digital Radio (NTDR).
8.4.3.1 NTD R
NTDR is an experimental system being developed by the U.S. Army under
the Force XXI program to explore the limits of near-term technology and to
provide a technical baseline for development of a multiband, multimode
digital radio system. Its architecture is based on:
• A mobile packet radio system without the requirement for fixed or

permanently positioned base stations;
• A self-forming mobile communications backbone with up to 1,000
stations, which would usually serve a brigade area;
• A reservation-based and receiver-directed protocol, providing effi
ciency similar to synchronous TDMA while preserving much of the
flexibility of uncontrolled CSMA;
• Network management that controls network membership and pro
vides automatic routing of data over the network.
The NTDR can be viewed as an RF system with an embedded

router! gateway such as those found in fixed local area networks.
The NTDR transports up to 288 Kbps of user information for each
cluster of users, backbone channel, or point-to-point connection. Additional
I J
I
throughput is available depending on the geographic relationship of users 11
employing automatic frequency reuse and availability of additional frequen 1
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cies. In a typical brigade application the aggregate throughput can be more :1
than 2 Mbps. Message delivery times are claimed to be less than 0.10 second ilI
,j
for a single hop. A typical mission thread comprising four hops takes less F
than 0.4 second. il 1

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The NTDR will operate from a single 28-V dc source. Its output er
power will be dynamically set between 2 mW and 20W. The operating fre
I
I
II
quency range is 225 to 450 MHz, with a channel bandwidth of 4 MHz. Ii
Because each unit is capable of acting as an information relay point, a net
work of NTDR may extend over a large area. Dynamic multipath equaliza
II
tion is claimed to maintain the on-the-move range at 50 km per hour to i1
within 10% of the static range.
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8.4.3.2 M i l itary Uti l ity
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. An ad hoc network provides a high level S�

of mobility. It is not yet clear whether this technology is able to provide the
efficient use of the electromagnetic spectrum that is required to provide high fa
capacity. Given the likely inefficiency of ad hoc network protocols, the dif
ference between the raw capacity and the throughput achieved may be very Si
large. nc
Command and control on the move. An ad hoc network is ideally placed CI
to provide an operation on the move as long as it is vehicle-mounted.

Current ad hoc network technology may support limited-capability man Sf,
pack terminals.
Multiple access. Multiple access is provided by a combination of synchro

nous or asynchronous TDMA and FDMA. Flexibility in the allocation of ca
pacity requires some form of assignment of capacity, suggesting that a
control station and formal network management function are required.
Support for the chain of command. Support for precedence and preemption
requires a network management function. In addition to any automation,
some means for human intervention is necessary, suggesting that a com
pletely self-managing network is not necessarily ideal. ill
.,
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DoS. As long as the network does not become congested, an ad hoc net
work is able to provide an appropriate QoS for data. The difficulties that this
! .
, ,
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, I Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem 275
I:
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II
r] technology has with real-time services are probably not relevant to the tacti
I! cal data distribution subsystem.
Multicast capability. An ad hoc network based on some form of TDMA is

ideally suited to providing a multicast data capability. It is likely to be effi
cient only within clusters, suggesting that cluster formation should be influ
enced by the makeup of user communities as well as geographic localization.
Once again, this suggests some level of human input to complement auto
mated network management and planning.
Flexibility. An ad hoc network requires a relatively high density of stations

for efficient operation. This may not be achieved in dispersed operations, re
quiring either a different protocol to be used or a planning function that can
position retransmission stations to maintain network connectivity.
Seamless connectivity. The ad hoc network provides seamless connectivity

internally as a natural part of its operation. The provision of suitable inter
faces would allow seamless passage of data to other subsystems.
Simplicity. Ad hoc networks are specifically designed to adapt to changes in

network topology. It is not yet clear whether this technology will be able to
adapt at the speed of change in topology caused by fast-moving forces, espe
cially in steep terrain.
Security. Built-in security devices, performing both encryption and key

management, are likely to be the norm in ad hoc networks designed for mili
tary use.
EP. A range of electronic-protection techniques is possible. The NTDR ra

dio, for example, provides a combination of DSSS, fast frequency hopping,
and narrowband excision at receivers to eliminate effects of narrowband jam
ming. Further protection against error will be provided by 3/4-rate convolu
tional coding. A high level of vulnerability may be created by the use of
commercial off-the-shelf protocols in the military environment due to their
lack of EP.
Minimal mutual interference. Mutual interference is managed automatically

by the ad hoc network, reducing the planning overhead, compared to data
capable CNR and packet radio. It is not yet clear what costs may be incurred
in loss of efficiency in the use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Power source. Due to the requirement to provide intercluster backbones,

at least some stations of an ad hoc network supporting the tactical data distri
bution subsystem must be vehicle-mounted in order to support high trans
mISSIOn powers.
Ad hoc networks designed

for military use would be ruggedized to military requirements.
8. 4.3.3 Current Ava i l a b i l ity
No fully functional ad hoc network is yet in service. The implementation of

ad hoc networks requires new technology in the formation of clusters and r
(
intercluster backbones, the management of network congestion, and the pro
vision of security services, which suggests that this technology still has a high
associated risk.
8.4.4 Repeated TDMA
TDMA was identified in Section 8.3 as the preferred means of multiple

access within user communities for the tactical data distribution subsystem.
Further, TDMA was identified as being an effective means for providing
multiple access between user communities where those communities occupy
the same geographic area, especially in situations where stations may be a
member of more than one user community or move between communities.
This section reviews the characteristics of two in-service systems based on
TDMA, followed by a general analysis of the military utility of repeated
TDMA systems in the tactical data distribution subsystem.
8.4.4.1 TA D IL-J
TADIL-J is a secure, high capacity, jam-resistant, nodeless data link which

uses the JTIDS transmission characteristics and the protocols, conventions,
and fixed-length message formats defined by the JTIDS Technical Interface
Design Plan (TIDP) [3] . TADIL-J operates in the UHF band in the fre
quency range of 960 to 1,215 MHz, and therefore provides line-of-sight
operation. Operation beyond line-of-sight can be achieved by means of a
relay, which may be an airborne or satellite-mounted system. ! '
I
TADIL-J operation is based on all-informed nets. Multiple access
between nets is provided by a combination of frequency hopping, FDMA,
and CDMA. The 51 channels are supported. Multiple access within a net is
provided by TDMA. The TDMA structure is shown in Figure 8. 2. Time slots
of 7. 8125 ms are allocated to stations on the net. The 1,536 time slots malze
up a time frame, and 64 time frames form an epoch. Each station on the net is
allocated at least one time slot per epoch.
Table 8.1 shows the TADIL-J maximum range and data rates, which
depend on the operating mode.
EP in TADIL-J is provided by a combination of frequency hopping with
an instantaneous hop rate of 77,000 hops per second over 51 frequencies [4],
DSSS with a spreading gain of 6.4 and a chip rate of 5 MHz, repeated trans
mission with data optionally transmitted twice in successive hops, and forward
error detection and correction, using a (31, 15) Reed-Solomon code. In each
hop, the transmitter is turned on for 6.4 flS, which means that power from a
jammer with transmitter-jammer-receiver path length 2 km longer than the
transmitter-receiver path length will reach the receiver after the end of the data
transmission [5] . TADIL-J contains an embedded cryptographic system to
provide secure communications.
In the u.S. Army, TADIL-J terminals will be assigned to division,
corps, and echelons above corps (EAC) . These terminals will support
I
i!
12.8-minute epoch
; i
64 time frames per epoch
1,536 time slots per time frame
Guard interval
Syncronous burst
Figure 8.2 TADIL-J time-slot structure.

Table 8.1
TADIL-J Operati n g Mode s
b
p
Throughput
t:
After Error
Guard Interval Correction Hops per
Mode Guard Interval (ms) Range Limit (nm) (Kbps) Second p
Sta nda rd full slot 44585 700 30 33,000

p
Packed-2full slot 4 4585 700 59 33,000
Packed-4 full slot 20405 300 119 57,000
engagement operations, command and control, surveillance, weapon status

and coordination, precise participant location and identification (PPLI), and
battlefield situation awareness (air and ground).
g
8.4.4.2 EPLRS
The value of being able to accurately locate friendly forces has long been
clear, even though it has not been technically feasible to build an automated e:
position locating and reporting system until relatively recently. Technology
developments in the 1970s made possible a radio network in which stations
could use time delay to measure their distances from other stations, and with
the help of a control facility, to use this information to build up a picture of pi
the locations of surrounding friendly forces. This system, which first saw n
service with the U.S. Marine Corps, was known as the Position Locating and
Reporting System (PLRS). While such a locating system may seem redun c;
dant with the availability of GPS, it still provides an important means for
locating friendly forces, especially in high-intensity conflicts where the integ
rity of the GPS system may be threatened locally by jamming or globally by
destruction of satellites [6]. The parallel requirement to pass data other than
location data led to the development of the EPLRS [7], which is entering
service with the U.S. Army.
The two basic types of EPLRS unit are the EPLRS User Unit (EPUU),
and the EPLRS NCS. The EPLRS NCS, which is vehicle-mounted, controls
the net and provides timing for synchronization. All other EPLRS stations
A
can be either vehicle-mounted or manpacked with a weight of approximately
12 kg. A limited-functionality, light-weight terminal (approximately 3 kg)
has also recently been released. p,
til:
Frequencies in the range of 420 to 450 MHz are used, with the band
being segmented into eight channels, each having 3-MHz bandwidth. Multi
ple access within a net is provided by TDMA technology, in which users
transmit information in bursts during predetermined time slots. Multiple
access between nets is provided by a combination of FDMA, frequency hop
ping, and CDMA.
The EPLRS radio supports a variety of data communications services,
providing both point-to-point links and an extensive multicast capability,
including all-informed nets. Data rates up to 57.6 Kbps per connection,
known as a needline, are possible, with rates in excess of 200 Kbps likely to
be available in the near future. Common use sees one EPLRS user commu
nity per brigade, with a maximum area of approximately 47 X 47 km. Each
EPLRS user community has a maximum practical data capacity of between
300 and 450 Kbps, depending on configuration. This capacity is reduced
when retransmission is required. Capacity is also reduced when the area over
which the user community increases because of the requirement for larger
guard intervals between TDMA slots.
The EPLRS NCS has evolved from the PLRS master station through
the addition of processing capabilities to automatically manage the initial
assignment of the communication paths. The actual relay assignments and
evaluation of the performance of the communication paths between host ter
minals is monitored by the firmware in the individual EPUU. In the event
that distribution paths are disrupted due to adversary jamming and terrain,
the EPUU will take action to reestablish the required needline. The NCS
provides position location, navigation, and identification services and all the
Ii
, '
I
network management for the EPLRS control net.
[II i The network management capability also enables EPLRS to automati
cally build the network from scratch with no prior connectivity information
and to automatically adapt to the changing battlefield conditions of terrain
masking, user motion, jammer dynamics, and varying subscriber data com
munications requirements. In addition, the net management design accom-
, modates assignment and deletion of military users to the network.
Continuity of operations in EPLRS is maintained by software that per
mits data communications to continue along established paths if an NCS is
lost. If the loss of a station occurs, the division's NCS or an adjacent brigade's
NCS automatically assumes net control of the affected EPUU community.
Additional continuity of operations can be gained by the placement of an
additional NCS in division rear to assume net control either in planned dis
placement or during unplanned sudden loss of any NCS. In dispersed opera
tions a brigade may need an internal redundant NCS.
Resistance to jamming is provided through DSSS transmission with a

spreading gain of approximately five, frequency hopping operation among
eight channels with a hop rate of 512 Hz, error detection and correction, and
network management that facilitates the automatic routing and rerouting of
messages in the EPLRS network using any EPLRS radio as a relay of
opportUnity.
Primary power is provided by a 28- V dc battery. The transmit power of
the radio is selectable between 0.4, 3, 20, and 100W.
8.4.4.3 Mil ita ry Uti l ity
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. Repeated TDMA systems sacrifice some

range for capacity and mobility, but current generation systems are capable
of offering several hundred kilobits per second, shared among a large number
of terminals. This capacity is appropriate to the provision of situational
awareness data for a brigade-sized force. The ability to mount at least some
terminals in vehicles is important to ensure that an undue proportion of the
network capacity is not devoted to retransmission.
Command and control on the move. Repeated TDMA systems can be

mounted in vehicles to provide full operation on the move. Man-portable
systems are less common and tend to offer reduced processing and commu
nications capabilities.
Multiple access. Nlultiple access within large users commUnities (some

times corresponding to groups of user communities) is provided using
TDMA, while user communities are separated by FDMA or frequency hop
ping. This provides very efficient multiple access, although some control and
management by a central control station is required.
Support for the chain of command. The ability to support large user commu
nities maximizes the flexibility of support for changes in command arrange
ments. The support of these large user communities is especially important
for communications supporting situational awareness.
DoS. Appropriate QoS for data is supported. Providing low delay voice
services may also be possible, assuming that sufficient capacity is available.
Multicast capability.The use of TDMA as the main multiple-access tech

nique provides a natural support for multicast transmission between stations
Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem 28 1
that are within direct communications range. Efficient rebroadcast can also
be supported where range-extension is required.
Flexibility. Support for dispersed operations depends on the provision of ef

fective relays between enclaves. Where enclaves are widely separated, it may
be necessary to synchronize separately within enclaves, with timing transla
tion provided by the relay. The management associated with this relay func
tion is naturally performed by the network control station.
Seamless connectivity. Repeated TOMA systems typically provide seamless

connectivity internally; the provision of interfaces allows seamless transfer of
data with other subsystems.
Simplicity. Rapid changes in network topology may be supported by the

provision of relays. Systems designed for use in the land environment (e.g.,
EPLRS) tend to provide this automatically, although a degree of manual net
work planning is required to ensure that relays are appropriately positioned.
Security. Built-in encryption is provided.
EP. Built-in EP, including spread spectrum and FEe, is commonly avail
able. In TOMA systems, where most stations are transmitting at regular in
.� tervals, high-performance EP systems are of great importance.
i�
,j
n
�. ,1
' .1
iI The use of TOMA to provide multiple access

Minimal mutual interferen ce.
I i
ii alongside spread spectrum techniques minimizes the planning overheads to
; .j
I; avoid interference.
i: iI
iI Power source. Regular transmISSIOn, whether broadcasting situational
Ii awareness data or providing retransmission, is likely to lead to short battery
I!
, I
life in manpack systems. Although vehicle mounted systems may use trans
I Ii
I mitter powers up to 100W, manpack systems tend to operate at lower trans
I
mitter powers to avoid unnecessarily reducing battery life.
Being built to military speci

fications, ruggedization is common in repeated TO MA systems.
8.4.4.4 Current Ava i l a b i l ity

II
I! Both EPLRS and TADIL-J are currently in service with U.S. forces.
I i
I
8.4.5 Base-Station Arch itectures
Three base-station architectures were described in Chapter 7. Commercial

PCS systems (Section 7.4.5. 1), trunked radio (Section 7.4.5.2), and two
frequency, half-duplex radios (Section 7.4.5.3) all provide communications
services that could be used in the tactical data distribution subsystem.
8.4. 5.1 M i l itary Uti l ity
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. The requirement for base stations, which

usually require antennas elevated on masts, limits the mobility of base-station
architectures. The relatively small number of base stations provides a much
lower level of retransmission performance than systems in which any station
can perform this task. Even if base stations use low, omnidirectional anten
nas, some form of semimobile trunking infrastructure between base stations
is required, violating the mobility requirements of this subsystem.
Command and control on the move. Base stations typically require extensive en
gineering in addition to being stationary during operation, and are unlikely to
be able to operate on the move.
Multiple access. Multiple access is accomplished using FDMA or a combi

nation of FDMA and TDMA. This multiple access tends to be efficient for
point-to-point communications, but inefficient for point-to-multipoint
commUnIcatIons, which is the primary mode for situational awareness
commUnIcatIons.
Support for the chain of command. Provision of base-station architectures that

are integral to all levels of a force is usually not feasible, which would limit the
ability of elements of the force to be dispersed on separate tasks.
OoS. Appropriate QoS is provided for data.
Multicast capability. Multicast usually requires allocation of capacity for

each receiver in cellular telephone and trunked radio systems, reducing effi
ciency to unacceptable levels. Given that multicast is the primary form of
situational awareness communications, this loss of efficiency is unacceptable.
Even for two-frequency, half-duplex radio systems, multicast is only efficient
for stations that are within the direct communications coverage of a trans
mitter. Such systems do not usually provide an efficient relay for stations that
are outside this range.
IJ
Flexibility. .As long as sufficient base stations are deployed and sufficient
resources are available for inter-base-station communications, base-station
architectures can support dispersed forces. The inter-base-station trunk infra
structure would therefore require augmentation for dispersed operations. The
ability of a base-station architecture to provide area coverage in dispersed op
erations may also be limited by the coverage of the limited number of available
base stations. This difficulty could be reduced by the use of a base station
mounted on an airborne platform, as described in Chapter 9.
Seamless connectivity. Through suitable interfaces, data can be exchanged

with other subsystems.
Simplicity. The handoff process supports slow changes in network topology.

Fast changes in network topology may overload the processing or signaling
capacities of the system. Changes in the topology of the network between the
base stations are also usually not supported.
Security. Commercial systems do not usually have military-grade encryp

tion built in. This is currently being addressed by efforts such as the U.S. Na
tional Security Agency's CONDOR program, which is working to embed
military-grade encryption into a variety of commercial cellular telephone ter
minals. The cost effectiveness of this program relies on a range of nonmilitary
government uses anticipated for these systems.
EP. EP is not usually provided in these systems. Unlike encryption systems,

the cost of adding military grade EP to handsets and base stations is likely to
be prohibitive.
Minimal mutual interference.Frequency planning, following similar rules to

those currently used for CNR, is required.
Power source. Base stations typically require a generator for operation;

other stations may be able to operate for extended periods using batteries.
Commercial systems may

require ruggedization. The economic feasibility of this is unclear. Physical
ruggedization and construction to support troops operating in an NBC envi
ronment are likely to be feasible by modifying the external casing. Electro
magnetic ruggedization is likely to involve modification of the internal
284 Tactical Commun ications for the Digitized Battlefield
electronics of handsets and base statIOns, and may not be economically s

tr:
viable.

A range of commercial networks based on a base-station architecture are in
common use, including pes , trunked radio, and two-frequency, half-duplex
w
radio, such as taxi dispatch systems.
c' ;
w
8.4.6 UWB Radio
The operation of UWB radio is described in Section 7.4.6. Its primary dis
tinguishing feature is the use of extremely wide bandwidths, with time hop
ping used to provide multiple access.
8.4.6.1 M i l itary Uti l ity e ;' ,
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. UWB radios can potentially provide high

mobility and high capacity over short ranges. Provision of coverage over large
areas would require the incorporation of relays, probably based on more con
a.
ventional communications technology.
to
Command and control on the move. Full operation on the move is possible.
Multiple access. Multiple access within and between user communities is

provided by time hopping, which may provide less efficient use of the elec
te
tromagnetic spectrum than other multiple-access techniques, which can be
seen as part of the cost of its high level of EP.
Support for the chain of command. With the use of a control station, the to
time-hopping multiple access does allow for flexible allocation of capacity

and support for precedence and preemption.
DoS. UWB radio supports both real-time and non-real-time services.
Multicast capability. Multicast transmission is supported; reception of mul

tiple simultaneous transmissions effectively requires one receiver per received
signal, which is likely to increase power consumption in UWB receivers. rei
us
Flexibility. UWB radio may require bridging between enclaves in dispersed fa,
operations, which is likely to be based on more conventional communica eu
tions technology. all;J
Seamless connectivity. A UWB network could provide seamless connec

tivity following the approach of either packet radio or ad hoc networks.
Simplicity. Dispersed operations are not supported by UWB radio. Some

form of bridging (provided by a more conventional radio) between enclaves
would be required in such operations, which is likely to be based on more
conventional communications technology, and require a high degree of net
work planning and management by specialist communications staff.
Security. Encryption can be used in conjunction with time hopping. The

use of preambles for synchronization leads to very low throughput in the tac
tical data distribution subsystem. The use of low power to minimize interfer
ence with other systems also provides LPD.
EP. The use of time hopping for multiple access is itself a means of EP,
which provides a high level of protection against detection and intercept, and
a moderate level of protection against jamming (which is limited by the need
to use low transmitter powers to minimize interference with other parts of
the tactical communications system) . FEe may also be used.
Minimal mutual interference. Interference with other communications sys

tems and navigation systems such as GPS is likely to occur.
Power source. Because of their low transmit power, UWB radios are likely
to provide high efficiency and a long battery life.
A military UWB radio

would be manufactured to military standards of ruggedization.

Experimental UWB radios are in use. Further technical development is
required before a UWB network is achievable, such as would be required for
use in the tactical data distribution subsystem. Modification of procedures
for deconfliction of different uses of the electromagnetic spectrum, which are
currently based on the allocation of a band of frequencies to each use, would
also be required.
286 Tact ical Communication s for the Digitized Battlefield
- - - - - - . . - - ---
8.4.7 Low-Capacity TAD I L

c
TAD ILs have provided a highly effective means fo r shari ng situational aware
ness data in the sea and ai r environments for a number of years. The character
istics of three low-capaci ty TAD ILs-TADIL-A, TADIL-B, and TADIL-C
are examined here, while TADIL-J was discussed in Section 8 . 4.4.
''''';
.�
8.4.7 . 1 TA D IL-A
TADIL-A (also known as Link- I IA) employs netted communicatio ns tech
niques using standard message formats. TADIL-A radios can operate in the
HF band, giving a range of up to 300 nm, or the UHF band, giving a range
of approximately 25 nm surface-to-surface or up to 150 nm surface-to-air.
TADIL-A data links operate at rates of 1,364 bps (HF/UHF) or 2,250 bps
(UHF) . The modulation scheme is differential QPSK [8] .
TADIL-A normally operates on a polling system with a net control sta
'r:
tion polling each participant in turn for his or her data. In addition to this J
roll-call mode, TADIL-A may be operated in broadcast modes in which a Ii

single data transmission or a series of single transmissions is made by one par
ticipant. TADIL-A is, therefore, a half-duplex link. TADIL-A is secure but
does not provide any specific EP capability.
TADIL-A is used commonly in the sea environment for the exchange
of air, surface, and subsurface tracks, EW data, and limited command data
s
among connected terminals, but it does not support aircraft control or other
warfare areas.
8.4.7.2 TA D I L- 8
TADIL-B (also known as Link- l I B) provides a secure, full-duplex, point

to-point digital data link utilizing serial transmission frame characteristics
and standard message formats at 2,400, 1,200, or 600 bps. It interconnects
tactical air defense and air control units.
8.4.7.3 TA D I L- C
TADIL-C (also known as Link-4) is an insecure, time-division digital data

link utilizing serial transmission characteristics and standard message formats
at 5,000 bps from a controlling unit to controlled aircraft. Information
exchange can be one way (controlling unit to controlled aircraft) or two way. [6J
8.4.7.4 M i l ita ry Uti l ity
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. None of these systems, the most capable

of which operates at 5 Kbps, is able to support the data requirements of the
tactical data distribution subsystem.
Command and control on the move. The use of HF in some systems limits the
capability for communications on the move. Other systems, operating the
VHF and UHF bands, do have sufficient mobility.
Multiple access. Multiple access within user communities is usually based

on polling by a control station. This increases the vulnerability of the net
work, unless alternate control stations are available. Multiple access between
user communities is provided by FDMA, which provides a high efficiency of
use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Little flexibility is provided in the struc

Support for the chain of command.
ture of user communities, primarily due to the low capacity and the require
ment for a control station on each net. Flexibility could be increased by
providing rebroadcast between nets, but the low capacities of these systems is
likely to preclude this in many situations.
QoS. Non-real-time services are supported. Some FEC is provided, but the
primary means of error recovery is to wait for the same data to be transmitted
again. This works well for data such as platform tracks, where the loss of a
single transmission has little impact on the overall track plotted.
Multicast capability. Some systems support multicast data within nets. The
low capacities of these systems and the difficulty of providing rebroadcast be
tween nets make the establishment of flexible user communities, as required
for land situational awareness, difficult.
Systems such as TADIL-A that are capable of operating in the

Flexibility.
HF band may provide very effective support to dispersed operations, albeit at
only low capacities.
! li Seamless connectivity. Connection to other subsystems via an interface is

possible. Exchange of data between user communities via internal interfaces
may also be achievable.
Simplicity.No direct support for retransmission is provided to cope with

changes in network topology. A high degree of network management and
planning by specialist communications staff is likely to be required.
I:
I!
J L - - _ _ _
Security. TADIL-A and TADIL-B provide secure operation; other systems

do not. Modification of other low-capacity TADIL equipment to support se
curity is unlikely to be cost-effective.
EP. No active EP is provided.
Minimal mutual interference. Careful arrangement of antennas on a platform

and frequency planning are required to ensure that interference is not caused
to other systems.
Power source. These systems usually operate at high powers (1 OOW or

more) and are therefore not suitable for extended battery operation.
Being specifically designed

for military use, TAD ILs are constructed with high levels of ruggedization.
8.4.7.5 C u rrent Ava i l a b i l ity

TADIL-A, TADIL-B, and TADIL-C are all in service with U.S. and allied
forces.
8.5 Preferred S o l ut i o n
A summary of the relevant characteristics of the various potential solutions is

shown in Table 8 . 2. Areas of unacceptable performance are shaded in gray.
Based on the analysis of currently or soon-to-be available systems, the
preferred solution for the tactical data distribution subsystem is one based on
a repeated-TDMA architecture. This system supports the basic requirements
of the tactical data distribution subsystem, the keys to which are command
and control on the move, multicast capability, EP, and capacity.
The use of an ad hoc network may provide a higher level of flexibility.
Given the current lack of fielded systems, there is a much higher technical
risk in the adoption of such a system.
8.6 Conclusion
I n most armies, there is no in-service system that attempts to meet the

requirements of the tactical data distribution subsystem. Development of
this subsystem (including equipment acquisition and the generation of
Ta b l e 8.2
Sum m a ry of C h a racteristics of C a n d i date S olut i o n s
Data-Ca p a b l e Packet Ad H o c Repeated Base-Station Low-Capacity

Requirement CNR R a d io N etwork TDMA Arc h itecture UWB TAD I L
R a n g e/ c a p a c l ty/ I n sufficient I nsuffi c i e n t I n suffic i ent H i g h capac ity Base stat i o n must be Pote ntial for I nsuff i c i e n t
mobility tra d e-off capac ity capac ity c a p acity a n d m o b ility stati o n a ry h i g h capacity c a p a city
a n d m o b ility I �
">
.,.,.
'N •
Command and Yes Yes Yes Yes Base stat i o n must be Yes Yes
B
"'-
co ntrol stati o n a ry
t;
on the m ove ;:,
�
Support for c h a i n Poor Poor Pos s i b ly poor Yes Base stati o n s Yes Unli kely to be t;
�.
of c o m m a n d p e rform a n c e p e rfo r m a n c e p e rfo r m a n c e unli kely to be integral asset ::t
...: .
<:::J-.
when when when i ntegral a s s ets at all l evels :;::
.,.,.
'N •
con gested c o n g ested c o n gested <:::>

�
VJ
M ult i c a st Effi c i ent Eff i c i e n t May n ot b e V e ry eff i C i ent I n effi c i ent Effi c i e nt over Efficient with i n :;::
<:::J-.
c a p a b ility with i n n et with i n net eff i c i ent short ra nges cove rag e of �
.:::;
control stati o n �
�
N
Sea mless Poor Good Good G ood Good Good Good

c o n n ectivity
S ecurity No Yes Yes Yes Not in c o m m e rc i al Yes Yes

syste ms
EP Very Yes Yes Yes No Yes Very l i m ited

l i m ited N
I co
r..o
290 Tactical Com mun ications for the D i g itized B attlefield
doctrine, procedures, and training) should be a priority if real-time situa

tional awareness is required. This process would begin with a study to
ascertain the types of data to be carried, the regularity with which this data
must be retransmitted (which may vary greatly depending on the opera
tional scenario and its phase), the data rates required, the network entry
and exit points (interfaces) for data, the technology available for meeting
these requirements, the operational impacts of introducing this technology,
and the subsystem's support requirements.
Based on current technology, solutions based on a repeated TDMA
architecture are likely to provide the best trade-off between performance and
technical risk.
Endnotes
[1] U . S . Army Field Manual F M 1 1 -7 5 , "Battlefield Information S ervices (BIS ) , " Sept.
1 9 94.
[2] See, for example, Chapter 3 of Frater, M. R., and M. Ryan, Electronic Warfare for the
Digitized Battlefield, Norwood, MA.: Artech House, 200 1 .
"JTIDSITIES Consolidate Tactical Communications, " EW, S ept.lOct. 1 977.
MIL-STD-60 1 6 , "DoD Interface Standard Tactical D igital Interface Link (TADIL) J

Message Standard," Feb. 1 9 97.
Stiglitz, M., "The Joint Tactical Information Distribution System," Microwave Journal,
Oct. 1 9 87.
Toone, ] . , and S . Titmas, " Introduction to JTIDS," Signal, Aug. 1 987, pp. 5 5-5 9 .
[4] B ecause guard intervals are required to accommodate the changing distances between
transmitters and receivers, the transmitter is turned off for some of the time. The
number of hops actually occurring in 1 second is therefore less than the instantaneous
hop rate.
[5 ] Frater, M . R. , and M. Ryan, Electronic Warfare for the Digitized Battlefield, Norwood,
MA.: Artech House, 200 1 , pp. 79-84 .
Bond, L., "Global Positioning Sense," Proc. 2 5 th Annual Convention and Technical
Symposium, International Loran Association, S an Diego, CA, Nov. 1 99 6 .
Carroll, ] . , et al . , "Vulnerability Assessment of the U . S . Transportation Infrastructure

That Relies on GPS," ION National Technical Meeting, Long Beach, CA, Jan. 200 1 .
I
I
I
Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem 29 1
[7] U . S . Army Field Manual FM 24-4 1 "Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures fo r the
Enhanced Position Locatio n Repo rting System (EPLRS) , " Final D raft, J uly 1 9 9 9 .
[8] MIL-STD- 1 88-203- 1 A, "Interoperability and Performance S tandards fo r Tactical

Digital Info rmation Link, (TAD IL) A, " Jan. 1 9 8 8 .
Tactical Airborne Subsystem
9.1 Introduction
An airborne communications platform can be used to provide additional

capacity and to extend ranges of the combat radio and tactical trunk subsys
tems when dictated by the operational scenario. Traditionally, solutions to
the provision of high-capacity, long-range communications have relied on
the use of satellite-based services. However, subspace platforms (i.e., air
borne, rather than space-borne) offer a viable alternative, with the potential
to deliver a broader range of services more cost-effectively. These platforms
are also known as stratospheric communications platforms, and are called high
altitude platform stations (HAP) by the lTU. Other names include high
altitude aeronautical platforms (HAAP) and high-altitude long-endurance
(HALE) platforms.
The concept of airborne communications is not new-U.S . operations
in South Vietnam highlighted the importance of airborne relay in supporting
wide-ranging campaigns. For example, during Operation Silver Bullet (Octo
ber 23-November 20, 1 965) , the 1 3th Signal Battalion of the 1 st Cavalry
Division employed a fIxed-wing aircraft operating at 1 0,000 feet and equipped
with 1 2 FM radios to retransmit voice command nets [ 1 ] . While helicopter
borne relay platforms were also developed, the cost of aircraft operation meant
that airborne retransmission sets were generally only used as temporary relays
while units were setting up ground relays, or during major operations [2] .
Additionally, since almost every brigade and battalion commander controlled
293
critical operations from a helicopter-borne command post, there was less need
for airborne relays when commanders were airborne [3] .
This chapter examines the utility of a tactical airborne subsystem in
support of future land warfare. Advantages of an airborne communications
platform are discussed and payload requirements are analyzed. Some limita
tions are examined before an upper-level architecture is presented. Potential
platform types are discussed and relative costs are outlined.
9.2 Advantages of an Airborne Communications Platform
Before addressing the issues in detail, it is worth briefly considering the

number of significant advantages to the operation of an airborne communi
cations platform, which can offer a broad array of services with low operating
costs compared with satellite-based systems:
• Airborne platforms do not require a launch vehicle; they can move

under their own power to change position and to remain on-station.
• Platforms can be retrieved and relaunched, allowing the commu
-nications payload to be brought down to Earth for routine
maIntenance.
• Airborne platforms can be steadily enhanced with emergent tech
nologies (unlike satellite communications payloads, which remain
fixed in the deployment configuration).
• Once a platform is in position, it can immediately begin delivering
services to its service area without the need to deploy a global infra
structure or a constellation of platforms to operate (providing some
form of central terminal is available in theater). Coverage can there
fore be provided more rapidly to areas of operation without having
to have significant satellite assets covering the area of potential tasks.
• The aircraft is 20 to 2, 000 times closer to the user than a satellite,
with 1 0 times the available electrical power. The relatively low cost
of the platform and gateway stations make it the cheapest wireless
infrastructure per subscriber over large areas.
• The low altitudes provide short paths through the atmosphere,
reducing attenuation.
• Higher antenna elevation angles provide most subscribers with
unobstructed line-of-sight to the platform.
Tactical Airborne Subsystem 295
• Airborne platforms have much lower transmission delays-tens of

microseconds compared to tens to hundreds of milliseconds for sat
ellite. Lower delays reduce problems with voice communications as
well as with data protocols such as TCP/IP.
• With small antennas and low power requirements, an airborne com
munications platform can support a wide variety of fixed and port
able user terminals to meet almost any service need.
• Unlike satellite systems, which are all-or-nothing, multibillion
dollar investments, airborne platforms can be procured and
deployed one at a time as strategic guidance and budgets allow.
• Much lower capital investments are required-tens to hundreds of
millions of dollars compared to several billion.
The advantages of stratospheric platforms have created considerable

interest for commercial communications applications, and a number of sub
space systems have been proposed (a number of major systems are discussed
in Section 9.7). For example, for PCSs, a metropolitan area can be served
within a 1 00-km radius by one beam of a GEO satellite, by not more than six
to nine beams of a LEO satellite, and by as many as 700 to 1 ,000 beams
formed by a stratospheric platform. For stratospheric platforms, the coeffi
cient of frequency reuse is therefore two orders of magnitude higher than
satellite-based systems [4].
While these advantages offer significant tactical benefits, it should be
noted that, as with any practical system, there are some operational limita
tions, which are discussed in Section 9.5.
9.3 Platform Height
Although most commercial systems are proposed for operation in the strato
sphere, an airborne platform could potentially operate at any height. Table
9.1 shows some representative operating heights that offer possible solutions
to requirements for the tactical airborne subsystem.
As can be seen from the table, the lower the altitude, the shorter the
communications range to ground terminals, and more platforms would
therefore be required to cover a particular area of operations (AO). Addition
ally, a larger number of platforms would be required at the lower height to
maintain 24-hour coverage due to the shorter endurance.
Table 9.1
Possible Platform Heights for the Tactlca I Airborne Subsystem
loiter Altitude 65,000 feet 45,000 feet 25,000 feet 13,000 feet
(above (above (In commercial (In commercial
commercial commercial airspace) airspace)
airspace) airspace)
Endurance 42 hours 8+ hours 40+ hours 3 hours
Range 5,500 km/24 900 km/8 900 km 185-230 km

hours/5,50o km hours/900 km
Footprint
Diameter
500-650 km 400 km 300 km 150 km
Payload 900 kg 350 kg 200 km 35 kg
From [5]
The larger (65,000-feet operating height) platforms such as the U. S.

Global Hawk are also self-deployable worldwide, whereas the others are not
self-deployable and would require considerable in-theater infrastructure to
maintain operations. In particular, a suitable airstrip would be required,
although many of the smaller tactical systems can be launched and recovered
from mobile infrastructure (e. g. , a small UAY can be launched from a trailer
and recovered by parachute). These smaller assets would therefore be
deployed by uniformed personnel, as opposed to Global Hawk, which could
provide a tactical service but have the logistical advantages of operating from
civilian airports in the strategic environment, and be repaired and main
tained by civilian personnel.
Additionally, an asset that can perform as the tactical airborne subsys
tem will require the larger payload capacity of Global Hawk. The services
detailed in Section 9 . 2 could not be provided by the smaller platforms, which
would only be able to provide range extension for a few combat radio
channels.
Larger platforms operating at greater altitudes (approximately 65,000
feet) are therefore preferred as the basis of the tactical airborne subsystem.
The deployment of a larger number of less capable systems is not likely to be
cost-effective. This is not to say that the less capable systems are not useful
at all as a communications relay. Tactical, low-level platforms are poten
tially very useful to tactical commanders for both communications and
surveillance. However, these will normally be organic assets to provide inti

mate support to tactical units and will not be capable of supporting commu
nications across the deployed force.
9.4 Payload Requirements
The tactical airborne subsystem provides an airborne platform that carries

robust communications packages to support command and control across
wide areas. High-gain antennas coupled with the ability to loiter at high alti
tudes for extended periods will enable tactical users equipped with lightweight
omnidirectional antennas and low-power radios to establish long-range com
munications from mobile platforms. This capability will provide a significant
improvement in communications ranges and will enhance the ability for com
manders to command and control on the move. The tactical airborne subsys
tem is required to provide range extension of the combat radio, tactical trunk,
and tactical data distribution subsystems; and to provide additional commu
nications services, including surrogate satellite communications and coverage
extension of overlaid communications systems, such as PCSs and the theater
broadcast system (TBS).
9.4.1 Range Extension
The major requirement for a tactical airborne subsystem is to extend the

range (mainly through retransmission) of the other subsystems of the tactical
communications system where the provision of high-capacity, long-range
communications tends to be intractable, particularly to mobile assets.
As illustrated in Figure 9. 1 , the range extension offered by an airborne
communications platform is very significant. In their normal terrestrial
modes, CNR and radio relay are generally terrain-limited, not power
limited. For example, ground ranges of CNR are limited to 5 to 1 5 km
depending on how high the operator can elevate the antenna. An airborne
communications platform has the potential to extend those ranges to up to
500 km-a dramatic improvement. For example, had an airborne communi
I
cations platform been available during the Gulf War, true communications
I on the move could have been provided to support a fast-moving, wide
I I
, I
I
i ranging envelopment, at a time when terrestrial networks were stretched to

i
I
breaking point [6] . An airborne communications platform offers the oppor
I
;
tunity to provide commanders with command and control on the move over
a large operational area.
,
i
i
i
I
: i
- 500 km
Figure 9.1 Footprint of airborne communications platform.
A further extension in coverage can be provided by cross-linking

between platforms, as illustrated in Figure 9.2. However, it should be noted
that cross-linking requires antennas with fairly high gains that have to be
pointed accurately to another airborne platform. Therefore, cross-linking
represents some engineering challenges for most platforms except those that
can be maintained in a geostationary position, although modern phased
array antennas go some considerable way to solving this problem. The inclu-
sion of a cross-linking capability will reduce the communications payloads II
onboard the platform.
9.4.2 Additional Communications Services
Once the requirement for a tactical airborne subsystem has been accepted on
the basis of range extension for the other subsystems in the tactical commu
nications system, a number of additional communications services can be
provided from the airborne platform.
Intrabattlespace communications. As mentioned in Section 9.4.1 , an air

borne platform presents the opportunity to provide true joint and combined
communications in a simple manner. Figure 9.3 illustrates how the airborne
platform can relay communications and establish a net between joint assets as
well as provide reach-back communications by satellites in either LEO or
GEO. The platform could also provide Link-1 6 relay capability to extend
connectivity between widely dispersed air-defense assets, both airborne and
land-based. It should be noted, however, that intrabattlespace communica-
Cross-link
� · -----zz _____ �
�
Figure 9.2 Increase in coverage by cross-linking between airborne platforms.
tions are only facilitated by an airborne platform if the various communica

tions systems are themselves interoperable. The interoperability of joint and
combined communications systems is a thorny issue that takes considerable,
sustained effort to achieve and maintain.
Surrogate satellite communications. It may also be possible to mount a sur

rogate satellite transponder onboard the airborne platform. In-service satel
lite ground terminals could be used to communicate to the surrogate
transponder rather than to a satellite. Since the airborne platform is much
closer, lower powers (higher data rates) are possible throughout the AO,
without having to be within the satellite footprint.
Link-16 repeater. Provision of Link-1 6 (TADIL-J) communications to ter

restrial terminals generally poses an intractable problem due to the inability
of the terminals to "see" each other. An airborne Link-l 6 repeater could ex
tend coverage to terrestrial terminals across the AO, greatly facilitating
sensor-to-shooter communications.
pes access. It may be possible to mount a cellular pes base station on the
airborne platform and provide digital mobile telephony coverage within the
footprint. However, commercial pes base stations tend to be large and
heavy, although there are some initiatives within the commercial industry to
reduce size and weight. There are a number of programs in the United States
and Europe that are examining the possibility of airborne pes base stations.
Figure 9.3 Improved battlespace communications.
The large power requirements of a base station provide an additional prob

lem. However, recent studies have shown that a scaled-down base station
that accommodates 60 simultaneous calls can be included as part of the U.S.
Airborne Communications Node (ACN) concept (discussed in more detail
in Section 9 . 7. 2) . Even if a base station is not included in the platform pay
load, the airborne platform has the potential to provide a reach-back capabil
ity with digital cellular phones to support connection back to a base station
on the ground.
Theater broadcast. The airborne platform offers two opportunities with re
gard to theater broadcast: broadcast relay and in-theater broadcast.
• Broadcast relay. One of the difficulties in getting satellite theater

broadcast to tactical units is the difficulty that combat troops have in
deploying reasonably sized satellite antennas. Broadcast relay would
take the satellite broadcast on the airborne platform and rebroadcast
it into the footprint in the VHF and UHF bands. Broadcast com
munications can then be provided to tactical users who can receive
broadcasts with small omnidirectional antennas and low-powered
receIvers.
I
J
• In-theater broadcast. It is doubtful whether the brigade commander

would allow theater broadcast into the brigade area without modifi
cation by brigade staff; the most useful product for brigade units is a
broadcast of the brigade/divisional view, rather than a strategic one.
In that case, the airborne platform allows the brigade commander to
take the satellite broadcast at brigade headquarters, modify and add
information, and then provide an in-theater VHF/UHF broadcast
through the airborne platform. Again, any mobile units in the foot
print can receive high-capacity broadcast into small, omnidirec
tional (whip) antennas with low-powered receivers.
Videoconferencing. Should commanders decide that videoconferencing is

required, terrestrial solutions are difficult to arrange. However, an airborne
platform provides an ideal vehicle for the delivery of videoconferencing facili
ties into the footprint.
Special-forces communications. High-capacity, long-range communications

are normally difficult for special forces (SF), which are commonly forced to
operate using low-capacity HF to provide adequate range. This significantly
reduces the ability of SF patrols to transmit high data rates to support applica
tions such as image transfer for surveillance roles. An airborne communica
tions platform can extend high-capacity communications to SF patrols, which
can be equipped with small, low-powered receivers with small antennas that
are not required to be pointed accurately.
9.4.3 Potential Noncommunications Uses
In addition to communications, the tactical airborne subsystem may also

potentially be used to support EW and remote sensing. Just as the airborne
platform provides an ideal communications base, it also provides an excel
lent platform for EW. Ground-based intercept is invariably terrain-limited,
and many more ground assets would be required to have the same coverage
as an airborne EW platform. The airborne platform could also provide
broad area surveillance of the AO in a range of frequencies, through its abil
ity to carry a range of optical, infrared, multispectral, and synthetic aper
ture radar (SAR) sensors. In addition to carrying sensors, airborne
platforms could also be used to retransmit data from ground-based sensors
in remote areas [7J .
However, it is unlikely that such additional uses could be incorporated
on a communications platform without suffering some loss in the platform's
;)
1',
1\ ,---- __ _ _
communication ability due to the incorporation of extra equipment and

antennas . Sensors also come with considerable additional space and weight
requirements, as stabilization systems are often several times heavier than the
sensors themselves. Additionally, the operation of a multirole platform may
be difficult to coordinate if the other tasks demand an operational profile at
odds with its communications tasks . For those reasons, it is most likely that
additional tasks such as EW and remote sensing would be conducted from
separate dedicated platforms, although the same type of platform could be
utilized in each role.
9.4.4 Platform Control
The airborne communications platform must be controlled during its opera

tional period. Options include VHF/UHF direct line-of-sight, UHF satel
lite, and HF .
Direct line-of-sight
Direct line-of-sight control would require that the gro und control station is
always in line-of-sight of the airborne platform, thereby limiting the range
of the airborne platform. As noted in Section 9 5. . 1 . 2 , at the highest operat
ing points of 20 km, this range is often limited to 2 0 0 km for antennas with
a 5° takeoff angle. The requirement fo r line-of-sight would also invariably
imply that the control station and the platform are forward-deployed
into the area of operations, increasing system vulnerability and support
req Ulremen ts.
UHF satellite
Satellite command links are perhaps the best option, as the control station
can be anywhere within the satellite footprint. One of the advantages of
satellite-based command links is that the control station can remain in the
strategic environment and the platform does not necessarily have to be
forward-deployed. For the Global Hawk UAV, for example, this means that
the control station and aircraft base can remain in the strategic environment
and reach operating areas that are up to 5,600 km (8 hours transit time)
away. This operating range adequately covers those areas required by most
countries for tasks in defense of regional interests .
HF Communications in this frequency band have limited bandwidth but

provide longer ranges than both satellite and line-of-sight command links . It
Tactzcai Azrborne Subs)'Stem 303
is therefore a useful backup system, provided that there is sufficient space on

the platform.
9.4.5 Example Payload
As an example of an airborne platform, the U.S. ACN is based on the Global

Hawk UAV and proposes the following services [8J:
• Range extension for 1 0 to 20 combat-radio channels;

• Range extension for one to three EPLRS channels;
• Range extension for one Link-II channel;
• Tactical wideband relay for two or four channels for the MSE (trunk
subsystem) ;
• 1 0 to 20 channels for surrogate tactical satellite;
• Tactical broadcast capabilities for up to 64 Kbps to 1 .554 Mbps;
• Internet services for up to 600 users;
• Cellular or PCS telephony for up to 200 calls.
9.5 Some limitations
Despite its major advantages, the use of an airborne platform does have a
number of operational limitations.
• Communications ranges are limited by terrain and weather effects on

radio-wave propagation between terrestrial terminals and the airborne
platform. These issues affect command links as well as communica-
. . .
nons CIrcUIts.
• The platforms are also vulnerable to physical and electronic attacks,
which have the potential to significantly impact the operational use
of the assets.
• A number of technical challenges must be overcome if airborne com
munications platforms are to achieve their potential.
9.5.1 Terrain Effects on Propagation
9.5.1.1 Terrain Screening

The footprint coverage of Figure 9.4 assumes that the Earth's surface is
not disturbed by terrain. If ground terminals are located on high ground,
communications ranges can be extended beyond 500 km. However, as

illustrated in Figure 9. 4, the coverage of the airborne platform is limited by
the terrain in the near vicinity of the ground terminal. The range of 500
km can therefore vary markedly with the type of terrain .
9.5.1.2 Antenna Elevation Angle

Even if terrain screening is not as marked as that shown in Figure 9. 4, at
higher frequencies the required antenna elevation angle can limit the range of
communication to the airborne platform. In particular, SHF antennas have a
radiation pattern that requires clearance above the Earth's surface, which
reduces ranges for certain airborne applications such as when it provides a
surrogate satellite transponder. Figure 9.5 shows the typical range-extension
radius that could be expected for an airborne platform when communicating
to ground terminals with antennas that have elevation angles of 0°, 5°, 1 0°,
20°, and 30°. An elevation angle of 5° should be considered to be the mini
mum for an antenna at sea level. The problem is not so marked for VHF and
UHF whip antennas, which tend to have an omnidirectional radiation
pattern.
9.5.2 Effects of Weather on Propagation
While weather will have a small effect on propagation to and from the air
borne platform, that effect is either negligible or easily accommodated. At
frequencies above 1 GHz, propagation to and from the airborne platform
will suffer attenuation by rain and cloud as the radio wave passes through the
Figure 9.4 Effect of terrain screening on propagation range.

troposphere. However, most communications frequencies for the combat

radio and tactical trunk subsystems will be below 1 GHz and will therefore
not suffer any additional loss due to weather. Frequencies above 1 GHz (e.g.,
for surrogate satellite communications) will suffer some loss (on the order of
1-2 dB) and will therefore require slightly larger transmit-powers and
higher-gain antennas. Heavy rain may therefore cause some reduction in data
rate. However, these difficulties will be much less than those experienced for
satellite communications since the airborne platform is 20 to 2,000 times
closer than communications satellites.
9.5.3 Tactical Vulnerability
One argument often targeted against airborne communications platforms is

their supposed vulnerability against air attack. For example, attrition rates for
DAVs are generally accepted to be higher than for manned aircraft. The per
formance of the air vehicle is optimized in terms of cost, size, and weight,
and there is little room for system redundancy within the airframe. The kill
probability of the air vehicle, when hit, is very high. However, it appears that
600
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500
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Elevation angle 0°
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(I) 400
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Q)
C)
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co
300 /"
L..
Q)
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0
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V
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---
200 c...--
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----
100
I-
r-
V--�
I---
--r-
-:::::
o
10 20 30 40 50 60
Platform height (x 1,000 ttl
Figure 9.5 Airborne range extension radius as a function of height, for various antenna
elevation angles [9].
I
I '
a UAV is difficult to locate as it presents a small visual profile as well as a

small RCS and is therefore difficult to hit either with gunfire or a missile.
Aerostats in particular present a difficult target, as two Canadian F I Gs
recently found to their chagrin when trying to shoot down a wayward aero
stat that had wandered into controlled airspace. At greater heights such as 20
km, where conventional fighter aircraft struggle to operate, an airborne plat
form is relatively safe against conventional attack.
The platform is also potentially vulnerable to electronic attack of its
communications platform, command links, or navigation systems . Measures
can be taken to minimize vulnerability to electronic threats , and in this
regard the vulnerability of the airborne platform can be reduced as far as pos
Ii
sible for any other electronic battlefield asset. However, by virtue of its I:I
height, an airborne platform is more vulnerable than terrestrial assets. Adver I

sary EW assets are invariably terrain-limited and would find the elevated air
borne platform an easier target for both electronic support measures (ESM)
!II,
and electronic attack.
These issues are generally irrelevant when the operational environment
is considered. An airborne platform has its greatest utility in extending com I .
munications ranges when the supported force is dispersed. If the force is dis
persed, then it must be assumed that air superiority has been attained, in
which case the airborne platform is not vulnerable. The corollary is that, if air
superiority has not been attained, the force will not be dispersed and the
requirement for an airborne platform is not so great because communica
tions ranges are much shorter.
9.5.4 Technical Challenges
All the RF systems that are intended to be mounted on an airborne platform

create considerable spectrum conflict. For example, the u.s. ACN proposes
to have 20 combat radio channels when only four can currently operate
simultaneously. In all, the platform must deal with more than 75 collocated
transceivers with 1 7 different waveforms, with the entire capability designed
to fit into 1 00 cubic feet, weigh no more than 450 pounds, and consume
only5 kW of power [8] .
Other problematic issues are antenna design for an airborne platform
to provide steerable arrays of spot beams; antenna stabilization; provision of
adequate power; suitable airship structures; station keeping; the provision
of control, switching, and networking services; management of encryption
algorithms and keys; and size and weight restrictions, which will only be met
with the development of smaller, lower-power electronics .
II
I
I Tactical Airborne Subsystem 307
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9.6 Payload Architecture
Figure 9.6 shows a proposed upper-level view of the payload architecture

onboard the airborne platform. The payload comprises four main elements:
• Satellite reach-back communications: This SHF satellite communica

tions system provides data (and potentially control) communications
from the AO to the strategic network.
• Platform control communications: The airborne platform can be con
trolled by either UHF satellite communications or direct line-of
sight radio.
• High-speed bus, switching, and control: The airborne platform pro
vides a high-speed data bus to interconnect each supported commu
nications system. Also onboard is a high-speed switch, probably
based on ATM technology. This element also contains the commu
nications control module (CCM) , which is capable of changing the
operating parameters of the onboard communications systems.
• Supported C071u1lunications systems: These elements provide the serv
ices to supported communications subsystems, including combat
radio and trunk radio rebroadcast, division/brigade theater broad
cast, surrogate satellite communications, Link- 1 6 repeater, and cel
lular base station.
The tactical airborne subsystem must include a CCM that is capable of

changing the operating parameters of the onboard communications systems
(e.g., switching frequencies, hop sets, and cryptographic variables). These
parameters should be able to be preprogrammed before deployment as well
as by remote control from the ground during operation.
An onboard CCM would increase the number of gateways to provide
truly seamless connectivity to link users of dissimilar systems. The CCM is
perhaps the most crucial capability for proper operation of the tactical air
borne subsystem. The CCM must perform the following functions:
• Provide interconnection between all onboard communications serv

ices and equipment;
• Manage in-flight service priorities, frequency assignment, net ini
tialization, communications security (COMSEC) key assignment,
and antenna pointing;
Satellite
SHF
reach-back
SATCOM
---
communications
Platform
UHF Line-of-sight control
SATCOM data link communications
I
---
High-speed
C CM I--- Subsystem interconnection (ATM switch) bus, switching
and control
I I 1
-
Supported
Combat Theater JTIDS communications
radio broadcast (Link 16) systems
rebroadcast
Trunk SHF Cellular

radio SATCOM base
rebroadcast transponder station
Figure 9.6 Upper-level view of the tactical airborne subsystem's payload architecture.
• Dynamically access and reallocate unused communications channels

on the airborne platform;
• Provide gateway connectivity and data format conversions between
subsystems.
9.7 Potential Platforms
There are three main potential platforms for the tactical airborne subsystem:
piloted aerial vehicles, UAV, and aerostats (balloons) . While piloted airborne
communications platforms have been employed during World War II and
other conflicts such as the Vietnam War, UAV and aerostat platforms have
generally been considered somewhat eccentric. However, a number of com
mercial consortia-such as Angel Technologies, Sky S tation, Astrolink,
EuroSkyWay, SkyBridge, and Teledesic-are currently developing systems
in competition with broadband satellite-based projects [ 1 0] . §
;: 1[
9.7.1 Piloted Aerial Vehicles I

The most conventional solution is to mount suitable communications pack !I
I
j
ages in a piloted platform. As an example, the following is a brief description I
,I i,
\ l
\.. "
of the Angel Technologies' High Altitude Long Operation (HALO) system,

which comprises a fleet of specialized Proteus aircraft that carry broadband
transponders communicating through a large underbelly antenna. The
piloted aircraft is designed to orbit for up to 1 6 hours at a time at approxi
mately 1 6 km, providing a variety of fixed and mobile wireless services,
including voice, data, and video . Plans are well advanced, with an August
1 99 9 trial aircraft achieving a 52-Mbps wireless link with the ground [ 1 1 ] .
On November 1 , 2000, the Proteus aircraft set three world records in peak
altitude (62,786 feet) , sustained altitude in horizontal flight (6 1 ,9 1 9 feet) ,
and peak altitude (of 5 5 , 878 feet) with a 1 ,OOO-kg payload [ 1 2] .
9.7.1.1 Angel Technologies' HALO System

As an example of a solution based on a piloted vehicle, this section briefly
outlines Angel Technologies' HALO System [ 1 3] . Angel Technologies Cor
poration and its partners-Endgate Corporation, Scaled Composites, and
Wyman-Gordon Company-propose a piloted HALO aircraft with a fixed
wing airframe and twin turbofan propulsion (see Figure 9 . 7) that will operate
above 5 1 ,000 to 60,000 feet over selected cities.
The HALO Proteus aircraft (manufactured by Scaled Composites, a
division of Wyman-Gordon Company) was designed to be certified by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for piloted commercial operation;
this aircraft can operate from any regional airport within a 5 00-km radius of
the city to which communications are provided. The proof-of-concept air
craft first flew publicly in September 1 9 9 8 . Proteus is built from composite
materials and has a gross weight of 6.4 tons, including 2 . 8 tons of kerosene.
Seating is available for two pilots (as well as a spare seat for a third pilot or
passenger) . Two pilots will be used in the short term to streamline FAA
approval; in the long term, one pilot, or even an uninhabited vehicle, may be
employed.
The aircraft has been designed for an on-station endurance of 1 4 hours
and operation up to a ceiling of 64, 000 feet. However, typically, the platform
will fly between 5 1 ,000 to 60,000 feet and will remain on station for up to
eight hours, dictated mainly by pilot endurance. Each HALO location is
serviced by a fleet of three HALO aircraft providing one aircraft on-station at
any time. The aircraft orbits at a diameter of 9 to 1 5 km and uses GPS to
maintain its position within 1 00m.
The aircraft will carry nearly 900 kg of payload, including an antenna
array and electronics, in a large streamlined pod underneath. The pod is
roll-stabilized so that it swivels to remain parallel to the Earth as the aircraft
banks. The antenna array creates hundreds of contiguous virtual cells on the
Figure 9.7 The HALO Proteus aircraft.IPhotograph courtesy of Raytheon.)
ground to serve thousands of users. The liquid-cooled payload can be pro

vided with greater than 40 kW of direct-current power.
The ground stations are relatively simple, although a steerable antenna
is required because the ground station must track the aircraft that is orbiting
at a diameter of 9 to 15 km.
The HALO aircraft will provide the hub of a star-topology broadband
telecommunications network that will allow subscribers to access multimedia
services, the Internet, and entertainment services as well as to exchange video,
high-resolution images, and large data files. Information addressed to non
subscribers or to recipients beyond the region served by the HALO network
will be routed through a dedicated HALO gateway connected to the public
switched networks, or via business premise equipment that is owned and
operated by service providers connected to the public networks.
The communications payload will operate in two 300-MHz portions
of spectrum of the 28-GHz band. The total capacity of one platform can be
in the range of 10 to 100 Gbps. Individual consumers will be able to connect
at rates ranging from 1 to 5 Mbps and business users will be offered connec
tion speeds ranging from 5 to 12.5 Mbps. A dedicated beam service can also
TactIcal An'borne Subsystem 311
be provided to those subscribers requiring 25 to 155 IVlbps. Angel Technolo

gies claim that between 10,000 to 75,000 1.5-Mbps channels can be sup
ported within an area of approximately 100 km in diameter.
9.7.2 UAV
There is considerable worldwide development of UAV-based platforms, pre

dominantly for surveillance operations. UAV-mounted sensors on platforms
such as Predator and Phoenix have provided valuable information in theaters
such as Bosnia and Kosovo. Attention is now turning, particularly in the
United States, to the employment of UAVs in communications and E\,\1
modes.
Commercial plans for UAV platforms include the U.S. Helios [14]
platform, which is planned to carry 600-pound payloads to 70,000 feet; and
the European Heliplat [15] aircraft, which is planned to have a 70-m 'wing
span. Both aircraft are solar-powered, using fuel cells to provide power at
night.
9.7.2.1 U.S. ACN
An example of a UAV-based communications solution is the U.S. ACN con

cept, which proposes to use the Global Hawk aircraft as a platform [16]. The
objective ACN system will provide communications capabilities to support
existing joint and Army communications architectures, and to correct
communications deficiencies identified during recent deployments and
operatIons.
The ACN combines the capability of a high-altitude endurance UAV
with the essential capabilities of a state-of-the-art communications package
(node). The ACN's capability to self-deploy anywhere in the world will free
up airlift assets that can be used for other missions. The ACN will carry
robust communications packages that can be reconfigured rapidly to support
changing C2 priorities. High-gain antennas, coupled with the ACN's ability
to loiter at very high altitudes (65,000 feet and higher) for extended periods
of time, will enable tactical users equipped with light\veight omnidirectional
antennas and low-powered radios to establish over-the-horizon communica
tions from mobile platforms. This capability will provide a significanr
improvement in C2 on the move.
The ACN ,viII be a uniquely capable platform for greatly improving
battle command and battle management communications. The ACN's lifr
capacity will allow it to carry a large, multiband, multimode, and robust
communications payload to support a relatively large number of subscribers.
The capability to operate at high altitudes will provide a large commu

nications footprint diameter of 400 to 65 0 km (depending on ground sys
tems deployed) . Loiter endurance times of 24 to 96 hours or more will help
ensure user access . A robust antenna and power suite will support the inte
gration of leap-ahead information and communications technology as it
becomes available, without major modifications to the airframe, antennas, or
power bus. As illustrated in Figure 9.8, the obj ective ACN will be fully
modular, with a common power and signal bus, and a flexible antenna sys
tem. This will allow rapid reconfiguration between missions.
As an essential part of the Warfighter Information Network (WIN) ,
the ACN contributes to the rapid connectivity of the entire network. The
force proj ection capabilities of the ACN will greatly enhance the communi
cations capabilities of the WIN architecture. The ACN will provide reach
back connectivity from the area of operations to sustaining bases. It will also
provide gateways for seamless communications between dissimilar commu
nications systems . The ACN will provide communications redundancy to
ensure information dominance, reduce the requirement for terrestrial line
of-sight radio relays, and provide new types of communications services
directly to the warfighter.
Although the ACN augments commercial and military satellites, it
does not replace them. Satellites and satellite radio systems operate in specific
frequency bands and provide unique communications services to support
WIN . Satellites, however, will not have the capability to support range exten
sion for every type of military radio and communications system. Range
extension for voice and data line-of-sight communications through the ACN
will enhance the warfighter's C2 capability.
The ACN system will provide communications capabilities to support
existing j oint and Army communications architectures, and to correct com
munications deficiencies identified during recent deployments and opera
tions. The ACN capability should include:
• A modular communications node payload with gateway capability to

support and interconnect deployed forces that have both legacy and
state-of-the-art communications systems;
• A robust antenna system, versatile power suite, and modular com
munications package to support rapid reconfiguration on a mission
by-mission basis, as communications priorities change;
• Range extension (retransmission) of SI NCGARS, EPLRS, UHF
surrogate satellite, MSE, and ]TIDS, as well as a limited gateway
Communications Seamless gateways Cross-linking

manager +----------. store/forward between multiple
controller messaging UAVs
I I I
I -- - - -
DATA BUS
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Figure 9.8 Objective capabilities for U.S. A C N [17].
capability between SINCGARS and UHF satellite; range extension

implies the following requirements:
• The ACN must be capable of performing retransmission for
CNRlSINCGARS nets. An airborne gateway between SINCGARS
and UHF single-channel TACSAT equipment will provide on-the
move capability for mobile platforms, without the need for large, di
rectional auto-track TACSAT antennas.
• The ]TIDS provides support to near-real-time air-defense en
gagement operations, and its relay capability will extend connec
tivity between widely dispersed terrestrial air-defense and joint
air-battle elements. The ACN will augment other ]TIDS relay,
including the airborne warning and control system (AWACS), in
providing ]TIDS range extension.
• The ACN relay will link EPLRS enclaves that are beyond line
of-sight.
• MSE relay will connect widely dispersed signal nodes on the
battlefield.
• A reach-back capability for digital cellular phones, to support early

entry and major offensive operations-cellular phone services may be
limited because commercial cell sites are large and heavy, and there is
n
r >
at present no incentive for the commercial industry to downsize;

reach-back communications will consist of a satellite link with mini
mum data rate of 1.544 Mbps;
• A communications control element (CCE) capable of switching fre
quencies, hop sets, and crypto-variables by remote control from the
ground; an onboard capability will allow for preprogrammable fre
quencies, hop sets, and crypto-variables, as well as over-the-air
rekeying of hop sets and crypto-variables;
• An onboard communications manager/controller (CMC)-perhaps

the most crucial capability for proper operation of the ACN-to
increase the number of gateways to provide truly seamless connec
tivity to link users of dissimilar systems and which must perform the
functions described earlier for the CCM (Section 9.6);
• Range extension for Army and joint videoconferencing;
• LPIILPD communications to store and forward e-mail for SF and

conventional elements that operate deep in enemy territory;
• A Global Broadcast System (GBS) relay to provide broadcast com

munications on the move to support tactical users with omnidirec
tional antennas and low-powered receivers; global messages such as
NBC warnings can also be uplinked to the ACN and rebroadcast to
miniature pagers on the ground;
• A flyaway transit case launch and recovery element that can deploy
early in a contingency operation and allow in-theater mission con
trollers to direct the can;
• Cross-linking between multiple ACNs to allow the facility to cover

an entire theater of operation;
• Operation in secure and nonsecure modes;

• Interoperability with joint architectures.
As an essential part of WIN, the ACN contributes to the rapid connec

tivity of the entire network. The force projection capabilities of the ACN will
greatly enhance the communications capabilities of the WIN architecture. The
ACN will provide reach-back connectivity from the area of operations to sus
taining bases. It will also provide gateways for seamless communications
between dissimilar communications systems. The ACN will provide communi
cations redundancy to ensure information dominance, reduce the requirement
" ,J " - - - - -
Tactical Airborne Subsystem 31 5
for terrestrial line-of-sight radio relays, and provide new types of communica
tions services directly to the warfighter.
9.7.3 Aerostat Platforms
An alternative to UAV is provided by aerostats, which are also called dirigi

bles, or balloons. Several commercial consortia propose to use aerostats as the
platforms for metropolitan coverage for broadband services. For example,
Sky Station International plans to have 250 helium-filled balloons hovering
2 1 km above the world's biggest cities by 200 5 . Similarly, the Japanese Min
istry of Posts and Telecommunications has advanced plans for an aerostat
based broadband access network, called the Stratospheric Wireless Access
Network [1 8] .
Another system is being developed by Turin Polytechnic in conj unc
tion with the Italian Space Agency (ISA) to provide a long-endurance plat
form that will be powered by solar energy during the day and fuel cells at
night [ I I J . The Korean Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Energy has
plans for a multipurpose stratospheric airship to be used for remote sensing
and telecommunications applications [ 1 9] .
Tethered aerostats. Aerostats may be tethered, that is, tied to the ground.
Tethered aerostats have found particular application in elevating sensors and
are used in surveillance tasks in such locations as U.S. -Mexico and Iraq
Kuwait borders. In the commercial environment, tethered aerostats are also
finding increasing application. For example, Platform Wireless International
Corporation plans to use a tethered 1 ,25 0-pound airborne payload to pro
vide cellular telephone service to a 1 40-mile-diameter region in Brazil [20J .
However, tethered aersotats tend to have limited ranges due to their low alti
tudes of around 1 7, 5 0 0 feet (constrained by the technology of the tethering
cable and weather conditions) .
Disposable balloons. Australian Defence Science and Technology Organisa

tion (DSTO) scientists have demonstrated the feasibility of releasing a low-cost
($ 1 ,000) , disposable meteorological balloon carrying a small transponder to
provide short-term (2-3 hours) , over-the-horizon communications. This con
cept was originally developed for the Royal Australian Navy, but it has promise
for tactical units to extend VHF/UHF coverage temporarily.
As an example of an aerostat-based solution, Section 9.7.3. 1 briefly
describes Sky Station's Stratospheric Telecommunications Service [2 1 ] concept.
9.7.3.1 S ky Station's Stratos pheric Telecomm unications Service

The Sky Station's uninhabited aerostat platforms are planned to be guided
under remote control on an ascent path to the stratosphere, where GPS is
used to locate the platform in the desired geostationary position. The plat
form then remains in that position for up to 1 0 years providing high-speed,
high-capacity wireless broadband services to an area of approximately 1 9 ,000
knl. Remote sensing and monitoring devices can also be installed on the
platform, providing continuous data collection.
The $ 7 . 5 billion plan is to offer wireless communication services to
users of laptops and handheld terminals at speeds of 64 Kbps to 2 Mbps. The
stations will probably accommodate anywhere from 5 0 ,000 to 1 5 0,000 com
munications channels, although the theoretical limit for the network is
650,000 64-Kbps channels, according to Sky Station [22] .
Ultimately, Sky Station plans to have at least 2 5 0 Sky Station plat
forms, one above every major city in the world. Additional platforms may be
located above large population centers, such as Tokyo or London, and addi
tional platforms can be added at any time to increase capacity over specific
regIOns.
Platforms. The size of Sky Station platforms depends on market demand or

the services onboard. The average platform will be approximately 1 57-m
long and 62m in diameter at the widest point. The platform is equipped with
sufficient solar and fuel cell capacity to carry a payload of up to 1 , 000 kg. Al
though designed for a lifespan of 5 to 1 0 years, platforms can be recalled for
repair if necessary. A new platform will be deployed in advance to replace the
existing one so there will be no interruption of service. Catastrophic rupture
of the main hull is unlikely due to the use of state-of-the-art envelope materi
I
als and weaves. However, in the event of a loss of b uoyancy, the automated
II
'I
master control system can be enabled to propel the platform safely to a water Ii
landing.
II
II I
Communications services. Sky Station's stratospheric platforms will be ide

ally suited to delivering telecommunications services. Broadband and mobile
communications services can be provided at low cost with low latency (less
than 0 . 5 ms compared to about 2 5 0 ms for GEO-based services) . Addition
ally, for mobile communications no handover is required. Handover is a sig
nificant design issue in terrestrial systems and causes many problems in
LEO-based services.
Broadband services. The S tratospheric Communications Service promises

to provide cheap, easy access to broadband services in direct competition to
IS the more expensive terrestrial and satellite-based solutions. Subscribers trans
t mit directly with the platform, where onboard switching routes traffic di
d, rectly to other Sky Station subscribers within the same platform coverage
)0 area. Traffic destined for subscribers outside the platform coverage area is
routed through ground stations to the public networks or to other platforms
serving nearby cities. With data rates of up to 2-Mbps uplink and 1 20-Mbps
to downlink, subscribers will be provided with high-speed Internet access, as
rre well as other broadband services such as television distribution, videoconfer
n encing, and on-line remote monitoring and other security applications. Spec
IS trum in the 47-GHz band (47.2-47. 5 GHz stratosphere-to-Earth and
47. 9-48.2 GHz Earth-to-stratosphere) has already been designated globally
n by the lTU and by the U.S . Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
be for use by stratospheric platforms.
11-
fie Mobile communications. The Sky S tation system is also the ideal means for
low-cost rapid deployment of mobile services. Sky Station is participating in
the development and delivery of a third-generation cellular service.
or
9.8 Costs
I
·m 'I
1m
AJ- I,1 Current proposals for commercial stratospheric systems anticipate costs of
11
for between $ 5 0 million and $ 1 billion as opposed to approximately $9 billion
the :; for an LEO satellite constellation. In the absence of detailed user require
q
me !i ments, accurate costs are currently difficult to estimate and compare for each
Ii
II-
:1 potential platform. However, the following indicative costs allow some basis
ted for comparison.
Iter The U.S. ACN is currently under design by three U.S . teams headed by
II ii Raytheon, Sanders, and TRW. DARPA believes that a full flyaway capability
can be achieved for less than $5 million per aircraft unit. Taking into account
i'
I
full operating costs, Australian estimates for Global Hawk life-cycle costs
de- (one platform and ground equipment) are approximately $ 1 billion in Aus
bile tralian dollars over 1 0 years (acquisition cost and 7 years of operating costs)
[23J . For a smaller platform, estimates for 1 3 Predator-based platforms are
,
less
on- I $ 1 8 million over fiscal years 1 997 to 2002 [24J .
slg- II Although difficult to quantify precisely, costs for aerostat-based solu
iI tions are expected to be at least one-half that of UAV solutions, depending
It
, m
Ii
on the desired mission profiles . For example, the total investment for the
318 T a c U c a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s f o r t h e O I Q l t l z e d 8 a t1 1 e f l e l d
Tu rl l1 P o l ytech n i cl I SA p latfo rm i � expected to a m o u nt t o o n l y ab o u t 5 3 m i l

l i on a n d rhe o p e rati n g cos t m i gh t b e as l o w a s $ 3 4 5 p e r h o u r . Th i s i n ve s t
m e n t i s a t l east ,1n order o f m ag n i tude l ower th a n l a n d-based t e r r es t r i a l
b road b a n d d i s tr i b u t i o n sys t e m s a n d two o rd e rs o f m agn i t u d e l ess t h a n th a t
req u i red fo r sate l l i te-based p l a tfo r m s [ 1 1 ] .
II
II
9.9 Co n c l us i o n s
I;
Ii
'!
Iiil
11
The tactical airborne communications system provides a s i gn i fican t improve
!i
ment in communications ranges by extending the combat radio, tactical
� i
trunk, and tactical data distribution subsystems. In addition, it allows for 1�
:1 I'
command and control on the move across an AO with a radius of between ii fi
II
I
Ii I: ,
200 and 500 km. The deployment of an airborne platform offers additional 'I
opportunities in the provision of other communications services such as r/, !
i:
•
theater broadcast and pes. I
i :!
J'
!
Despite the need to resolve a number of technical challenges, there are
a number of potential subspace platforms that will be able to meet the
I 'I
requirements of a tactical airborne subsystem in support of land operations.
The precise platform type and payload will depend of the nature of the
;I:1 'i
operational requirement, but it is considered that the larger systems have the II I
il
:!
most potential due their larger capacities and higher operating altitudes, lead
I
ing to longer ranges for communication range extension.
!
Endnotes I
[1] Meyer, c . , Division-Level Communications 1962-1973, D epartment of the Army: I
I
I
Washington, D . C . , 1 982. I
Bergen, J . , Militmy Communications A Test for Technology, Center for Military History,
i
[2] I
United States Army: Washington, D . C . , 1 9 86, pp. 1 4 2, 1 5 6, and 2 8 5 . II
j
[3] Bergen, ] . , Militmy Communications A Test for Technology, Center fo r Military History, II
United States Army: Washington, D . C . , 1 986, p . 1 6 4 . I
I
Bern, D . , T. Wieckowski, and R. Zielinski, " B roadband Satellite Systems, " IEEE Com
[4]
I
I
munications Surveys, Vol. 3, No. 1 , 2000, available on-line at http : //www . com
soc. org/pubs/surveys/ 1 qOOissue/zielinski .html.
[5] This table is based o n the similar UAV requirements of Warfighter Infonnation Network
(WIN) Master Plan, Commander, U . S . Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon: Forr
Gordon, GA, Version 3, June 3, 1 9 97.
TactIcal An'bonze Subsystem 3i 9
[6] McAl l ister, M . , and S. Zabradac, " H i gh -Alti tude-En d u rance Un m a n n e d AerIal Veh i
cles P i ck U p Com m un i cations N o d e , " A mI)1 CommUillcator, S p r I n g 1 9 9 6 , p p . 2 1 -2 3 .
[7] Ai rborne relays were used fo r this p u rpose by U . S . fo rces In Vietn am ; see, fo r exam p l e :
Berge n , J . , Milum), Co mmumcatzo 72S A Test jor TechnoLogy, Center fo r M I l I tary H I s tory,
U n ited S tates Army: Was h i n gto n , D . C . , 1 9 8 6 , pp. 3 9 2-3 9 3 .
[8] Ackerman, R. , " D efense D epartm e n t Res earch ers Ai m fo r S ky-Based SwItchboard s , "
Signal, Ap ril 1 9 9 9 , p p . 65-67.
[9] M ahoney, T., An n ex A to M . J. Ryan and M . R. Frater, BattLespace Com711U771catlom

System (Land) A rchztecture Study, AD F Con tract CAPO 3 7 2 644 1 , O ct. ] 9 9 9 .
[ 1 0] I n addition t o t h e references cited i n the fol lowi n g secti o n s , further i n format I o n can b e
fo u n d i n :
Djuknic, G . , J . Friedenfelds, a n d Y . O k u n ev, " Establish i n g Wireless Co m m U n ICat I O n S

Services V i a H i gh-Altitude Aero nautical Platforms: A Concept \X/h ose T i m e H as
Come?" IEEE Com m U11lCatzollS Magazme, Sept. 1 9 9 7 , pp. 1 2 8- 1 3 5 .
Kop p , c . , "Angels, HALOs and Atm ospheric Networks , " A ustralian CommU771CatlollS,
Sept. 1 9 9 9 , p p . 23-3 0 .
[1 1] Edwards, T. , " M o re Than J ust H o t Ai r , " Co mmunicatzo71s InternatIOnal, Sept. 1 9 9 9 .
[ 1 2] See S caled Composites LLC p ress release a t http :// www .scaled . com/news/p r 1 1 0 1 0 0 . h t m .
[ 1 3J Unless o th e rwise noted, t h e i n formation i n this annex is b ased o n detai ls l o cated a t the
t i n , and 1 . Akyi l d iz, "The HALO N etwo rk, "

Angel Technologies' Web s i te: http : / /www . b roadban d . c om / a n d Collela, N . , N. M ar
IEEE CommUl1lcatzo l7S Magazll7e, June
2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 42- 1 4 8 .
[ 1 4J M o re i n fo rmation can be obtained i n Zorpette, G . , "Winging Wildly Upward , " IEEE

Spectrum, Sept. 2 0 0 1 , p p . 22-2 3 ; and at the Web s i te http : / /ww\,,, . d frc . n asa. gov/ P roJ
ects/Erast/helios . h tml .
[ 1 5J F u rther i n fo rmatio n is available at http : / / ww·w . e l ec.york.ac.au/co m ms/haps . h t m ! .
[ 1 6J This annex is largely an extract o f t h e ACN descri ption i n Wlarfighta Injormatloll Nct
(WIN)
Vers i o n 3 , J u n e 3 , ] 9 9 7 .
wor/;: !l1aster PLan, Com mander, U . S . Army S i gnal Center and F o rt G o rdo n ,
"
,I
[ 1 7J Warfighter Injo rmatio n Networ/;: (1)(111") !l1asta Plall, Commander, U.S. Army S i gnal
Center and Fort G o rd o n , Vers i o n 3 , J u n e 3 , 1 9 9 7 .
M o re i n fo rmati o n can b e fo und o n t h e \X1e b s i t e h ttp ://www2 . c r! . g o . J p / m r / b 1 8 1 /

I'"
[ 1 8J
research/ spf/ i ndex-e. h tm ! '
i/ '
:1 '
[ 1 9] An n o u n ced a t t h e S e o u l Air S h ow 2 0 0 1 -see http: //seo u l airs h ow . c o m / E n g/N e\\'sIA ITI
c1e/article_ 1 4 . h tm .
B rewi n , R. , " G i a n t Aerostats Deve l o ped F o r Ru ral C e l l P h o n e Service . " M a rc h 5 -

II.
20 0 ] , available o n - l i n e a t h ttp : / / www . co m p u te rwo rl d . co m / cwi/sto r i e s / O . J 1 9 9 . N A V 4 " -
[20]
6 8_ST0 5 8 3 2 ] , 0 0 . h t m l .
:" 1
Tactical Network Interfaces
10.1 Introduction
Previous chapters have described the tactical trunk subsystem, the tactical
data distribution subsystem, and the combat radio subsystem. This chapter
describes the internal interfaces between these subsystems within the tactical
communications system and the external interfaces between the tactical com
munications system and supported systems, overlaid communications sys
tems, and strategic communications system. These interfaces are the key to
the future of the tactical communications system, because they are the glue
that will allow a network to be built from the previously separate subsystems.
It has been shown in previous chapters that because there are differing
requirements for mobility and capacity, it is not feasible with current or
foreseeable technology to provide the tactical communications system as a
physically homogeneous network. It is essential, nonetheless, to provide a
system that forms a single logical network to facilitate the movement of data
throughout the battlespace. This is in line with current trends in commercial
networking technology. The interfaces between the different parts of the tac
tical communications system and between it and other systems play an
important part in this integration.
Within the tactical communications system, the following interfaces
are required:
• Combat radio subsystem-tactical trunk subsystem;
321
322 Tactic a l Com m unications for the Dig itized B a ttl efie l d
• Combat radio subsystem-tactical data distribution subsystem;

• Tactical data distribution subsystem-tactical trunk subsystem.
Because the airborne subsystem carries communications equipment

from the other subsystems, it does not require an explicit interface. This is
discussed further in Section 1 0.5.4.
The tactical communications system should provide external interfaces to:
• Supported systems, such as command elements (including user termi

nals, both individually and aggregated) , sensors, and information
systems;
• The strategic communications system;
• Overlaid communications systems, such as the PSTN, theater broad
cast systems, and PCSs.
The local subsystem will provide the interface between supported sys
tems and the tactical communications system. It will also provide limited
interfaces between the various subsystems. Because one of the primary pur
poses of the local subsystem is to provide interfaces, we do not consider
explicitly the interfaces between it and other systems.
This chapter begins with a general consideration of the basic require
ments of interfaces, followed by an overview of the local subsystem. The
more detailed structure of the interfaces nominated above is then considered
in turn. The chapter concludes with an overview of the remaining issues that
require further study.
10.2 Basic Requirements
Like other parts of the tactical communications system, the interfaces, both
internal and external, have a number of basic requirements.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. The interface should not restrict capacity

or mobility beyond the restriction of the less capable of the two systems be
ing interfaced. fu a result, there may be physical differences in the systems
providing the interface in, for example, a brigade headquarters and a com
pany headquarters. The interface may also enhance the communications
services by providing buffering between the systems it is connecting. For a
messaging service, this buffering might enable a store-and-forward capability.
Tactical Network Interfaces 323
DoS. An interface should support the full range of communications serv

ices provided by connecting entities, and should not itself limit these services.
This means that the interface should support the Qos requirements of these
services. In areas where a mixture of real-time (i. e. , delay-constrained) and
non-real-time (i. e. , loss-constrained) services are carried, measures are re
quired to support the requirements of both. In addition to the traditional
sources of real-time services, some types of cryptographic systems (particu
larly bulk-encryption systems that produce a continuous output bitstream)
may have strict requirements on both loss and delay.
Flexibility. A user should be able to connect the same terminal to the tactical
communications system at any interface regardless of location with minimal
variation in the procedures used. The only major difference that is visible to
the user should be the variation in capacities across the network. There
should also be minimal differences between interfaces provided for concen
trated forces to those provided for dispersed forces.
Seamless connectivity. An interface should not limit the connectivity pro

vided by the tactical communications system. Interfaces should support the
services offered by the tactical communications system, including the nam
ing and addressing scheme adopted by the network. This implies that the in
terface is capable of performing as a gateway (i.e. , an OSI Layer 7 interface)
where required.
Simplicity. Interfaces will often be operated by personnel who are not spe
� cialist communicators. It is therefore necessary that use of an interface does
I not require special skills and training.
I'J Precedence and preemption. Support for precedence and preemption at in
terfaces is especially important to resolve contention for the use of limited re
1
I
sources.
1
Security. Interfaces must support the security architecture of the tactical
communications system. Interfaces may therefore provide encryption and
decryption services. They may also provide support for services such as over
the-air rekeying of cryptographic equipment.
\
I Power source. An interface should be capable of being operated from the
I same type of power source as other elements of the tactical communications
I'I I
system operating in the same location.
I
i
11
I'
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1\-----.---. ___. . ____. "__ ._
324 Tactical Com m unications for the Dig itized B a ttl efield
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions. An

interface should be ca
pable of being operated under all conditions of immersion in water, tempera
ture, and extremes of vibration, shock, pressure, and humidity as the systems
that are being interfaced.
10.3 User Terminals
Communications services are provided to users through a user terminal,

which is interfaced to the tactical communications system. A user of the
communications services offered by the tactical communications system may
be a staff officer, who may have a fIxed location in a headquarters or logistics
area, or who may be mobile; a commander (squad, platoon, company, battal
ion, brigade, or division) ; or an equipment operator or network manager.
The user's terminal will take different forms, depending on the user's
role and location and the communications services required, as illustrated in
Table 1 0. 1 . It is desirable, however, that each user accesses all network serv
ices through a single terminal. In the future, many users will require termi
nals incorporating both voice and data services. User terminals may take the
form of a telephone; a facsimile; a radio handset capable only of voice opera
tion; a data terminal, including palm-top computers, notebook computers,
and more powerful desktop and vehicle-mounted computer systems, as well
as peripherals such as printers; or a multimedia terminal, incorporating voice,
facsimile, data, and possibly videoconferencing.
A user terminal should be able to operate to any part of the tactical
communications system with minimal variation in procedures. A user termi
nal will be capable of interfacing directly to one or more of the tactical trunk
subsystems, the tactical data distribution subsystems, the combat radio sub
systems, and the local subsystems (described in Section 1 0.4). It is preferable
that user terminals maximize the flexibility of their interfacing capability. A
portable terminal should preferably be able to interface to all of the subsys
tems listed above. In areas where a terminal is permanently mounted in a
vehicle and connected to a local subsystem, the capability of interfacing
directly to other subsystems may not be required. The deployment, opera
tion and management of a user terminal should be an individual responsibil
ity. Its use should not, therefore, require specialist training.
10.4 The Local Subsystem
Aggregation of traffic from user terminals may occur in a local area such as a
headquarters. The system performing this function will be referred to as the
Tactical Network Inteifaces 325
Table 10.1
Possible Types of User Terminals and Their Associated Users
Terminal Type Services Typical User
Radio handset VOice only Section, platoon, or company

commander; staff officers up to
bngade, for those users working from
vehicles, likely to be Integrated Into
multimedia terminal in the future
Telephone Voice handset, possibly with Staff officers and commanders at

data adaptor for data terminal battalion and above; is likely to be
integrated into multimedia terminal in
the future
Facsimile Text and graphics Staff officers and commanders at

battalion and above; IS likely to be
integrated Into multimedia terminal in
the future
Data terminal, varying Data, including text, graphics, Staff officers and commanders at all
from personal digital and Imagery levels; for users at battalion and
assistant (PDA) to desk- above, the data terminal is likely to
top computer be integrated Into multimedia
terminal in the future
Multimedia terminal A wide range of voice and Staff officer or commander supported
data, supplying all services by vehicles, most likely at battalion
provided by other types of and higher
terminals, but at the cost of
higher cost and complexity
local subsystem. The local subsystem may perform a number of functions,

including a communications network for a local area, capable of carrying
real-time services such as voice telephony and non-real-time services such as
data; interfaces to one or more of tactical trunk subsystem, combat radio sub
system, strategic communications system, or overlaid communications sys
tems for users in a local area, depending on available equipment and level; an
internal switching capability so that traffic whose source and destination ter
minals are both connected to the same local subsystem can be passed directly
without traveling over the tactical communications system; and a routing
capability where it is connected to more than one external system, which
n
f fc
,
326 Ta ctica l Com m unications for the Dig itized B a ttl efie l d
would provide an alternate to the primary routing provided by the tactical

communications system itself [ 1 ].
Through these functions, the local subsystem allows a single user termi
nal to access the full range of communications resources available in the local
area without requiring a separate connection to each one. It may be desirable
in some circumstances that the local subsystem provides wireless connectivity
for user terminals. Depending on the range over which this interface is
required to operate, it might be achieved using an infrared WLAN or an RF
WLAN , possibly based on commercial standards such as IEEE 802. 1 1 [2] or
Bluetooth [3]. Infrared and Bluetooth-based technologies are likely to be
suitable for ranges of a few meters, while commercial WLAN standards such
as IEEE 802. 1 1 may be usable over distances of tens of meters.
While the local subsystem sometimes provides switching, this capabil
ity should be used primarily for local switching, but is available as an alterna
tive to the switching offered by the tactical trunk subsystem. If the local
subsystem is used to provide the primary switching for the tactical communi
cations system, the mobility of users will be unduly restricted.
The deployment, operation, and management of a local subsystem are
the responsibility of the unit that it supports. Its use should not, therefore,
require specialist training, but should be able to be incorporated into the
training cycle of individual, subunit, and unit training.
The simplest local subsystem, illustrated in Figure 1 0. 1 , may be a
switch that enables a single voice handset or palm-top computer to access
two radios-VHF and HF.
Within a small headquarters, the local subsystem may enable a staff
officer or commander to use a single handset for accessing voice radios and
VHF combat radio
Local
subsystem
Figure 10.1 Simpl est loca l s ubsyste m.

'·1'
I
I' Tactical Network lnteifaces 327

I
for making local telephone calls or telephone calls via the tactical trunk sub
system. The local subsystem may also provide an alternate for routing
between nets in the combat radio subsystem, and the interface between the
combat radio subsystem and the tactical data distribution subsystem.
In a larger headquarters, as illustrated in Figure 1 0.2, the local subsys
tem may support a range of multimedia terminals, allowing users to access
the full facilities of all subsystems of the tactical communications system.
This local subsystem may provide an access node for the tactical trunk sub
system, and an alternate for routing between nets in the combat radio subsys
tem, routing and switching in the tactical trunk subsystem, the interface
between the combat radio subsystem and the tactical data distribution sub
system, the interface between the tactical data distribution subsystem and the
tactical trunk subsystem, and the interface between the tactical trunk subsys
tem and overlaid communications systems.
The various types of local subsystems are summarized in Table 1 0.2.
The basic requirements of interfaces in the tactical communications system
are applied to the local subsystem as follows.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off.A local subsystem should have sufficient

capacity to support the user terminals and communications equipment to
which it is connected without restricting the capacity of either. A local sub
system should have the same mobility as the user terminals and those subsys
tems of the tactical communications system to which it is directly connected.
Ta ctical trunk subsyste m
Local
s ubsystem
Figure 10.2 Local s ubsystem in a l arger he a dquarters.
n
, l
328 Tactical Com munications for the Digitize d B a ttlefield
Table 10.2
Types of Local Subsystems
Location Description
Single vehicle or user Harness to allow a single terminal to

be sWitched between two or more
communications devices (e g , VHF and
HF radIO)
Low-level headquarters Allows use of a single handset for

accessing vOice radios and making
telephone calls, may also provide an
alternate for routing between nets In
the combat radio subsystem, and the
Interface between the combat radio
subsystem and the tactical data
distribution subsystem
Larger headquarters Supports a range of multimedia

(battalion or brigade terminals, allowing users to access
and above) the full facilities of network, provides
access to subsystems and alternate
to various Interfaces between
subsystems and between the
tactical communicatIOns system and
external systems
DoS. S upport for real-time and non-real-time services is required in areas

where these are supported either by attached terminals or communications
eqUIpment.
Flexibility. While equipment providing the local subsystem may vary due to
differing requirements of mobility, capacity, and power source, commonality
of interfaces to user terminals and communications equipment should be
maximized.
Seamless connectivity. A local subsystem should support the full connec

tivity supported by subsystems of the tactical communications system to
which it is connected. A local subsystem connected to the tactical trunk sub
system, for example, should therefore support voice telephony, while a local
Tactlcal Network Intelfaces 329
subsystem that connects only to the tactical data distribution subsystem may
not.
Simplicity. There should be as much commonality as possible between the

operations of different types of local subsystems. It is desirable that the inter
face between the local subsystem and the tactical trunk subsystem be as simi
lar as possible to internal interfaces in the tactical trunk subsystem. Such
similarity is desirable in the interfaces to the combat radio subsystem and tac
tical data distribution subsystem. Simplicity requires also development of a
common vehicle harness.
Precedence and preemption. Support for precedence and preemption in the

local subsystem enables limited communications resources to be shared be
tween users. This is important both within the local subsystem and at inter
faces between the local subsystem and the tactical communications system.
Security. The operation of a local subsystem should not conflict with secu
rity requirements. This may require the provision of encryption within a lo
cal subsystem where cabling runs over significant distances .
Minimal mutual interference. The local subsystem should not generate any
electromagnetic interference (EMI) that inhibits the operation of another in
terface or any other part of the tactical communications system. This should
hold regardless of whether all ports of the local subsystem are in use, or some
are unconnected.
Power source. The power source of a local subsystem should be the same as
either the attached user terminals or communications equipment.
A local subsystem should

be ruggedized to the same standards as the attached user terminals or com-
. . .
mUnICatlOns eqUlpment.
10.5 Internal Interfaces
10.5.1 Combat Radio Subsystem: Tactical Trunk Subsystem Interface
Connectivity between the combat radio subsystem and the tactical trunk
subsystem must support the passage of both voice and data.
i(
)
ii
if
330 Tactical Commurllcatlons for the Digitized Battlefield
c a r riag e of voice traffIc from rhe

'fhe IIlterface should facilitate the
combat radio sub s y stem into the trunk system. The full facilities of th e tacti
cal trunk subsystem should be available to a user connecting from the com
ba t radio subsystem. This would include, for example, the ability to place
and receive telephone calls. Similarly, the full facilities of the combat radio
subsystem should be available to a user connecting from the tactical trunk
subsystem. This would include being able to join a net.
Voice interface between the combat radio subsystem and the tactical
trunk subsystem may be limited to only those users of the combat radio
subsystem who possess a station on a net that has one of its stations con
nected directly to the tactical trunk subsystem. This limitation arises
because the combat radio subsystem does not normally allow for routing
between nets. Access to some voice facilities of the tactical trunk subsystem
from the combat radio subsystem may not be available without operator
aSSIstance.
For non-real-time data, the interface should permit the passage of mes
sages and other data in both directions. Unless the protocols used in the tac
tical trunk subsystem and the combat radio subsystem are identical, the
interface will need to provide the full functionality of a gateway.
Gateway functions associated with this interface should be part of the
trunk communications subsystem, since its mobility requirement is less than
that of the combat radio subsystem. The interface is therefore managed as
part of the tactical trunk subsystem.
As illustrated in Figure 1 0.3, in addition to providing a gateway to the
combat radio subsystem, the tactical trunk subsystem may also provide a
direct bridging capability between nets on the combat radio subsystem. This
differs from the gateway function in that it does not require messages and
other data to be converted to protocols known to the tactical trunk subsys
tem. In this situation, the tactical trunk subsystem provides a virtual private
network (VPN) functionality for the combat radio subsystem.
Every node in the tactical trunk subsystem should be capable of provid
ing an interface to the combat radio subsystem.
10.5.2 Combat Radio Subsystem: Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem

Interface
Connectivity between the combat radio subsystem and the tactical data dis
tribution subsystem must support the passage of data. A real-time voice
interface is only required if the tactical data distribution subsystem carries
this type of traffic. It is expected that this would not normally be the case, as
,"
I'�
I(
I'
;�
, I
Tactical Network Inte1faces 331
Combat radio Tactical trunk Combat radio

subsystem subsystem subsystem
...
(a)
Combat radio Tactical trunk ..

Combat radio
subsystem subsystem subsystem
...
(b)
Figure 10.3 (a) Gateway interface and (b) VPN interface.
the primary role of the tactical data distribution subsystem is to support

real-time situational awareness.
tical data distribution subsystem and combat radio subsystem are identical,
the interface will need to provide the full functionality of a gateway.
tactical data distribution subsystem, since it is most likely that at least some
elements of the tactical data distribution subsystem are vehicle-mounted,
whereas the entire combat radio subsystem may be man-portable. The inter
face may be managed either as part of the tactical data distribution subsystem
or as part of the tactical trunk subsystem.
In addition to providing a gateway to the combat radio subsystem, the
tactical data distribution subsystem may also provide a direct bridging capa
bility between nets on the combat radio subsystem. This differs from the
gateway function in that it does not require messages and other data to be
converted to protocols known to the tactical data distribution subsystem. In
this situation, the tactical data distribution subsystem provides a VPN func
tionality for the combat radio subsystem.
Every node in the tactical data distribution subsystem should be capa
ble of providing an interface to the combat radio subsystem. At small nodes,
this interface may be provided by the node's local subsystem.
332 Tactical Com munications for the Digitize d B attlefield
10.5.3 Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem: Tactical Trunk Subsystem

Interface
Connectivity between the tactical data distribution subsystem and the tacti
cal trunk subsystem must support the passage of data. No requirement exists
for a voice interface between the tactical data distribution subsystem and the
tactical trunk subsystem. This is because the tactical data distribution subsys
tem does not carry real-time conversational services such as voice.
tical trunk subsystem and tactical data distribution subsystem are identical,
the interface will need to provide the full functionality of a gateway.
trunk communications subsystem, since its mobility requirement is less than
that of the tactical data distribution subsystem. The interface is therefore
managed as part of the tactical trunk subsystem.
In addition to providing a gateway to the tactical data distribution sub
system, the tactical trunk subsystem may also provide a direct bridging capa
bility between nets on the tactical data distribution subsystem. This differs
from the gateway function in that it does not require messages and other data
to be converted to protocols known to the tactical trunk subsystem. In this
situation, the tactical trunk subsystem provides a VPN functionality for the
tactical data distribution subsystem.
ing an interface to the tactical data distribution subsystem.
10.5.4 Tactical Airborne Subsystem Interface
The tactical airborne subsystem is used to extend the range of the tactical
trunk subsystem, the tactical data distribution subsystem, and the combat
radio subsystem.
This interface creates no new interface requirements. If it extends the
combat radio subsystem, it carries equipment from the combat radio subsys
tem. If it provides an interface between combat radio and tactical trunk sub
systems, it will carry equipment from both subsystems, including the same
interface as would be used if this interface were provided on the ground.
Two possibilities are foreseen for which a new interface may be
required in the future. These are situations in which the tactical airborne
subsystem includes a surrogate satellite transponder, in which case different
ground-based equipment may be required from that used for conventional
\1 --
'I
Ii
,I
I
il
Tactical Network Intelfaces 333
ground-ground or ground-air links; and provides direct air-air links between

rebroadcast stations.
10.6 External lnterfa ces
There exist a large number of external systems to which the tactical commu
nications system must interface, including supported systems, the strategic
communications system, and overlaid communications systems. This section
describes interfaces to these external systems.
10.6.1 Interface to Supported Systems
The tactical communications system is required to support a number of dif

ferent types of supported systems. These are defined in Chapter 5 as:
• Command elements, maneuver elements, and logistics elements;

• Sensor systems, which would often provide their own communica
tions between sensor and interpretation facility and would be inter
faced to the tactical communications system at this facility;
• Weapons platforms, which should be able to connect in to any point
in the tactical communications system and subsequently be able to
access any sensor, the supported command element, and their own
command post;
• Information systems, which include tactical-level systems, joint and
combined systems, and a wide range of administrative systems;
• Information services, including security, messaging, video teleconfer
encing, information management, data replication and warehous
ing, distributed computing, and search engines;
• Network management, which must be an integrated system capable of
managing the entire tactical communications system.
As much as possible, interfaces for these supported systems should be pro

;i
vided across the tactical communications system.
!� This interface may be part of the combat radio subsystem, the tactical
ii
!! data distribution subsystem, the tactical trunk subsystem or the local subsys
i
I
I tem. It is managed by as part of the subsystem of the tactical communica
! tions system to which the supported system is directly connected.
- -.-.- ---- --- -------
10.6.2 Interface to Strategic Communications System
It is necessary to connect the tactical communications system to operational

and strategic-level communications systems. This permits the command of
deployed forces to be exercised by operational and strategic headquarters. It
also allows deployed forces to access communications and information serv
ices such as intelligence databases and logistics support systems via the strate
gic communications system.
The interface to the strategic communications system should support
both real-time services such as voice and non-real-time data services. This
interface may be provided via a number of types of bearer, including HF
radio, satellite, or the public telephone network.
Unlike other types of interface described in this chapter, this interface
is usually provided across a radio path.
ing an interface to the strategic communications system, given a suitable
bearer. This bearer could be the public telephone network, a satellite link, or
an HF channel. Nodes in the combat radio subsystem may be capable of pro
viding an interface to the strategic communications system (e.g., via HF
radio) , subj ect to the requirement that this interface is provided by specialist
UnIts.
Depending on management arrangements, this interface may be
achieved by having the boundary between the tactical communications sys
tem and the strategic communications system may be see to be "in the air,"
by placing equipment conforming to tactical communications system stan
dards at strategic sites, or by having equipment conforming to strategic com
munications system standards at tactical sites.
·
The interface between the strategic communications system and the
tactical communications system should normally be deployed, operated, and
managed by specialist signals units . The interface to the strategic communi
cations system should be managed as part of the strategic communications
system. Equipment that is collocated with the node of the tactical communi
cations system, however, should be operated by the unit collocated with that
node. The interface should facilitate support provided to the tactical com
munications system by the strategic communications system.
The U. S . global information grid (GIG) extends the concept of inter
faces to operational and strategic networks, aiming to provide seamless inte
gration throughout a reliable, assured, cost-effective, global network. An
important means for providing this level of connectivity will be the incorpo
ration of multiple layers of airborne rebroadcast using aircraft, UAVs, and
Tactical Network Inte7faces 335
satellites [4]. The GIG allows operational and strategic networks to act as
overlaid communications systems.
The basic requirements of interfaces in the tactical commUnIcatlons
system are applied as follows.
Range/capacity/mobility trade-off. The capacity of this link will be deter

mined largely by the capacity of the bearer across which it operates. Buffer
ing should be provided in both the strategic communications system and
the tactical communications system to maintain seamless connectivity in
the presence of congestion in the interface or the tactical communications
system or temporary loss of connectivity in the tactical communications
system.
DoS. This interface should support both real-time services such as voice and
non-real-time data services.
Flexibility. It is desirable that the differences other than capacity in this in
terface due to the use of different bearers be minimized.
Seamless connectivity. This interface is required to support the provision of

communications and information services across both the strategic commu
nications system and the tactical communications system. The interface
should permit services offered by the strategic communications system to be
accessed from all user terminals attached to the tactical communications sys
tem, subject to sufficient capacity being provided by the bearer and the tacti
cal communications system providing the required connectivity between the
user terminal and the interface to the strategic communications system.
Simplicity. While part of this interface resides with a node of the tactical
communications system, it should be managed as part of the strategic com
munications system. A higher level of complexity is therefore permissible
than for interfaces that must be managed by users.
Security. The interface must support the security architectures of the tacti
cal communications system and strategic communications system and maxi
mize the ability of services to be provided across both systems.
Precedence and preemption. Precedence and preemption should be sup

ported across the interface.
336 Tactical Com m u nications for the Digitized Battlefield
Minimal mutual interference. This interface should not generate any electro
magnetic interference that inhibits the operation of another interface or any
other part of the tactical communications system.
Power source. The interface to the strategic communications system should

use the same power source as the node of the tactical communications system
to which it is directly connected.
Operation in all geographic and climatic conditions.This interface should be

ruggedized to the same standards as the equipment in the node of the tactical
communications system to which it is directly attached.
10.6.3 Interfaces to Overlaid Communications Systems
The tactical communications system provides the minimum essential com

munications for the conduct of land operations. The tactical communica
tions system should be able to make use of these to expand its capacity in
areas where other communications systems are available.
10.6.3.1 PSTN Interface
The PSTN provides a circuit-swi tched network that supports a range of serv
ices, including voice, video, and data. The services available depend on the
type of connection used. Commonly available connections are a single chan
nel analog interface, that can carry either one voice call or data at rates up to
approximately 30 Kbps in ideal operating conditions; an ISDN basic rate
interface, which provides two 64-Kbps channels, each of which can carry a
single voice call, and a 16-Kbps signaling channel; and an ISDN primary rate
interface, providing a data rate of 2 Mbps or 30 multiplexed voice circuits.
The PSTN also provides a range of interfaces that support global roaming,
including interfaces to PCS and satellite communications systems.
Not all types of interface are available in all locations. ISDN interfaces,
in particular, are likely to be available only in maj or population centers.
The PSTN may be used as an overlaid communications system in order
to supplement the capacity of the tactical communications system, connect
the tactical communications system to the strategic communications system,
and provide connectivity between user terminals in the tactical communica
tions system and terminals attached to the PSTN.
Advantages offered by the use of the PSTN as an overlaid commu
nications system include provision of interconnection between tactical
communications system users and locations not served by the tactical com
munications system, such as civil authorities and civil logistics suppliers;
Tactical Network lnteifaces 337
additional capacity to the tactical communications system; and an alternate

channel.
Disadvantages include the fact that capacities available away from major
population centers may be small, and the physical vulnerability of the PSTN,
especially its cables, which are difficult to protect.
Every node of the tactical trunk subsystem should be capable of provid
ing an interface to the PSTN. This interface is managed as part of the tactical
trunk subsystem.
10.6.3.2 Public Data Network Interface

Many countries have public data networks, including the Internet and com
mercial packet-switching networks based on the ITU-T X.25 standard.
There are also international connections between these national networks.
Access to these networks can be obtained by dedicated connections or by
dial-up connections using a modem.
A public data network may be used as an overlaid communications sys
tem to provide additional capacity to the tactical communications system, or
act as an alternate channel.
The advantages offered by the use of a public data network as an over
laid communications system include the provision of additional capacity to
the tactical communications system and the provision of an alternate chan
nel. Potential disadvantages include the fact that datagram headers cannot be
encrypted because they are used in routing decisions made by the network.
This prevents bulk encryption at the interface to the tactical communications
system or user terminal. Signaling traffic between the network and tactical
communications system must also be transmitted without encryption. Con
sequently, security against traffic analysis is typically difficult to provide,
although some security can be provided by the use ofVPN technology.
10.6.3.3 Satellite Communications Systems Interface

Communications satellites provide long-distance communications between
ground-based stations. In systems currently in service, the satellite may provide
signal regeneration, but it does not provide other services such as switching.
Military satellites (or military transponders on commercial satellites) may pro
vide EP. The capacity of a satellite transponder depends on the transmitter
output power and the gain of the Earth station antenna. The performance of
the least-capable terminal tends to limit the total performance that can be
obtained in areas where multiple Earth stations share a transponder.
Satellite communications may be used as an overlaid communications
system to provide connectivity between geographically dispersed elements of
338 Tactical Com munications for the Digitize d B attlefield
the tactical communications system, access to the strategic communications

system from the tactical communications system, access to the PSTN from
the tactical communications system, or access to the tactical communications
system from an isolated user terminal or local subsystem.
Advantages offered by the use of satellite communications as an over
laid communications system include interconnection between tactical com
munications system users and locations not served by the tactical
communications system, such as civil authorities and civil logistics suppliers;
provision of additional capacity to the tactical communications system; and
provision of an alternate channel. Disadvantages include the lack of EP in
commercial satellite systems, which leads to vulnerability to adversary EA
and ES .
10.6.3.4 pes Interface

pes may be used as an overlaid communications system. The nature of the
interfaces involved is shown in Table 10.3. pes may be used as an alternative
to the laying of line in a headquarters or logistics installation, as in interface
to the PSTN or a means of access to the tactical communications system for
users who are temporarily outside its coverage. This latter use is likely to be
restricted to low-intensity operations, in which civilian infrastructure is less
likely to have been damaged.
Advantages offered by the use of pes as an overlaid communications
system include provision of access to communications resources from loca
tions not directly supported by the tactical communications system, and pro
vision of an alternate channel. Disadvantages include the lack of EP in
commercial pes, which leads to vulnerability to adversary EA and ES , espe
cially in base stations and satellites; the presence of a base station required for
operation with most systems; and the necessity that mobile stations must be
within range of a base station, which is limited to approximately 35 km for
TDMA systems based on GSM [5].
In the first case, the pes is operated, managed, and maintained by an
external organization. This is the only case that will typically be applicable to
satellite pes. In the second case, the pes is operated, managed, and main
tained by the deployed force.
10.6.3.5 Theater Broadcast Interface

h
A TBS, known as the Global Broadcast S tem in the United States, uses the
concept of high-bandwidth broadcasting for providing a high-capacity
broadcast service. Military TBS is typically required to be delivered over
a long distance. Likely options for the communications channel include
Tactical Network Interfaces 339
Table 10.3
Interfaces to pes
Use of pes Nature of Interface
Alternative to line within Base station Interfaces to tactical

headquarters or logistics commUnicatIOns system, pes
installation handsets (possibly ruggedized) are
used for access
Interface Into PSTN Tactical communicatIOns system

Includes an Interface that emulates a
pes handset to pes base station User
terminal IS the same as used with
Integral communicatIOns systems, and
IS connected to pes via the tactical
communications system.
Access for remote users Users who are outside the coverage
of Integral elements of the tactical
communications system may use pes
handsets to access the tactical
communications system via the PSTN
satellite, possibly using a high-power steerable spot beam; VHF, UHF, or

SHF radio with airborne repeater; or HF sky wave.
A different broadcast may need to be provided by each level of com
mand. One picture may be provided to brigades, while each brigade may fil
ter and refine this picture before passing it on to units under command. This
doctrine has yet to be finalized.
A TBS may be used as an overlaid communications system to provide
many services that would otherwise be carried across the tactical communica
tions system, including database replication and weather reports. The advan
tages offered by the use of a military TBS as an overlaid communications
system include such diverse elements as high capacity and efficient provision
of multicast services. Disadvantages include the performance being limited
by the user with the lowest performance antenna and potential difficulty of
integration with protocols of the tactical communications system that may
require duplex channels.
Some nodes of the tactical trunk subsystem should be capable of pro
viding an interface to TBS . Access to TBS data is then available to users via
the local subsystem. This interface is managed as part of the tactical trunk
340 Tactical Com m unications for the Digitized B attlefield
subsystem. It is conceivable that the tactical communications system may be

used to pass data received from TBS to elements that cannot receive it
directly. The tactical communications system is unlikely to have sufficient
capacity to carry large amounts of TBS data, however, and it is therefore
more likely in practice that this direct bridging would not occur.
10.7 Conclusion
The provision of suitably designed interfaces in the tactical communications

system is one of the major requirements to enable a fully functional battlefield
network. In designing a particular system, however, many different require
ments must be taken into account, some of which are summarized in Table
10.4. These requirements can be used to form the basis of studies to imple
ment these interfaces, including technology options, costs, and benefits.
Table 10.4
Issues Requiring Study in the DeSign of Interfaces In the Tactical Communications System
Location Issues
Local subsystem Provision and dimensioning of the local subsystem for

headquarters at all levels and logistics installations;
Vehicle harnesses for use in all local subsystems;
A detailed work breakdown structure and cost

analysis for the provision of the subsystem;
Manning, ILS, maintenance, and support philosophy,

including a cost-benefit analysIs of upgrade options.
Internal interfaces Upgrade of CNRI to support the requirements of

interface between the tactical trunk subsystem and
combat radio subsystem;
Provision of the interfaces between the subsystems

of the tactical communications system, including the
capacity of these interfaces;
Limitations imposed by current technology on the

basic requirements of interfaces;
A detailed work breakdown structure and cost

analysis for the provision of the interfaces;

including a cost-benefit analysis of upgrade options.
Tactical Network Intelfaces 341
Table 10.4 (continued)
Location Issues
External Interfaces ProvIsion of the Interfaces between the tactical com

municatIOns system and the strategic communica
tIOns system, overlaid communicatIOns systems, and
supported systems, including the capacity of these in
terfaces and the number reqUired;
Limitations Imposed by current technology on the ba

S IC requirements of interfaces,
The types of data that are to be carried by the Inter

face;
A detailed work breakdown structure and cost analy

S IS for the provIsion of the subsystem;

including a cost-benefit analysis of upgrade options
Endnotes
,
[1] This concept of the local subsystem is similar to the LAS concept in BOWMAN. See,
for example, "Bowman Watershed," Military Technology, Nov. 1 998, pp. 51-53.
[ 2] ANSI/IEEE Std 802. 1 1 , "Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHy) Specifications," Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 1 999.
[3] "Specification of the Bluetooth System," Bluetooth SIG, Version 1 . 1 , Feb. 200 1 .
[4] Policy for the GIG is defined in: U.S. Department of Defense Chief Information Offi
cer Guidance and Policy, Aug. 24, 2000, Memorandum 1 0-8460, "GIG Network
Operations," Memorandum 7-8 1 70, "GIG Information Management," and Memoran
dum 4-8460, "GIG Networks."
[5] Mouly, M., and M. Pautet, The GSM Systems for Mobile Communications, Palaiseau:
Cell and Sys, 1 992.
List of Acronyms
2IC second in command
ac alternating current
ACN airborne communications node
ADDS advanced data distribution system
ADF Australian Defence Force
ADFORM Australian defense formatted message
ADPCM adaptive differential pulse-code modulation
AF audio frequency
AM amplitude modulation
AO area of operations
APC armored personnel carrier
APCO Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials International
343
344 T a ctic a l Co mmun i c a t I O ns for the Digitized B a ttlefie l d
.. _ - _ . - -- - - -- _ . - -_. - - - - - ----- ------
ARQ a u to m a t I c repeat req u es t
AS K a m p l i tude s h i ft keyi ng
ATACS Army Tactical Comm u n i cati o ns System
ATM asynchro n o us transfer mode
. .
ATU an t enn a tu nm g u nI t
AWACS airborne warning and control system
BMA brigade maintenance area
BS base station
BSA brigade support area
C2 command and control
C2W command and control warfare
C3 command, control, and communications
C4ISR command, control, and communications, computers, intelligence

surveillance, and reconnaissance
CA certificate authority
CCE communications control element
CDMA code-division multiple access
CELP codebook-excited linear predictive
CIS communications and information systems
CMA corps mamtenance area
CMC communications management controller

List ofAcronyms 345
CMM communications control module
CNR combat net radio
CNRI combat net radio interface
CO commanding officer
COMSEC communications security
COTS commercial off-the-shelf
CP command post
CRC cyclic redundancy check
CSA corps support area
CSMA carrier-sense multiple access
CSMAlCD carrier-sense multiple access/collision detection
CVSDM continuously variable slope delta modulation
CW carrier wave
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
de direct current
DCS Defense Communications System
DCT discrete cosine transform
DF direction finding
DFT discrete Fourier transform
DKLT discrete Karhunen-Loeve transform

346 Tactical Com m unications for t h e Dig itized B attlefie l d
DMA divisional maintenance area
DPSK differential phase-shift keying
DSA divisional support area
DSB double sideband
DSBSC double-sideband suppressed-carrier
DSSS direct-sequence spread spectrum
DTSO Defence Science and Technology Organisation (Australia)
DWHT discrete Walsh-Hadamard transform
EA electronic attack
EAC echelons above corps
EDC error detection and correction
EHF extremely high frequency
ELF extremely high frequency
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EP electronic protection
EPLRS Enhanced Position Locating and Reporting System
EPUU EPLRS User Unit
ES electronic support
ESM electronic support measures
EW electronic warfare
List ofAcronyms 347
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FDM frequency-division multiplexing
FDMA frequency-division multiple access
FEC forward error correction
FELIN Fantassin a Equipment et Liason Integrees
FH frequency hopping
FIST Future Integrated Soldier Technology
FM frequency modulation
FSK frequency shift keying
GBS Global Broadcast System
GEO geostationary Earth orbit
GIG global information grid
GPS global positioning system
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HAAP high-altitude aeronautical platform
HALE high-altitude long-endurance
HALO High Altitude Long Operation
HAP high-altitude platform
HF high frequency
348 Tactical Com m unications for th e Dig itized Battlefield
HQ headquarters
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IF intermediate frequency
10 information operations
IP Internet Protocol
IR infrared
ISA Italian Space Agency
ISB independent sideband
ISDN integrated subscriber digital network
ISO International Standards Organization
ISP Internet service provider
lTV International Telecommunication Union
IW" information warfare
JTIDS Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
JTRS . Joint Tactical Radio System
JV2020 Joint Vision 2020
KEA key exchange algorithm
LAN local area network
LAS local area system
LEO low-Earth orbit

List ofAcronyms 349
LF low frequency
LPC linear predictive coding
LPD low probability of detection
LPI low probability of intercept
LSB lower sideband
MAN metropolitan area network
MBITR Multiband Inter/Intra Team Radio
MEO medium-Earth orbit
I MF medium frequencies
I
Ii MOOW military operations other than war
'I
I'
:Ii1 MSC mobile switching center
"
'I I
I'
Ii
MSE Mobile Subscriber Equipment
il
1
II MSS mobile satellite service
'I ,I
I[
MTF message text format
II
II
i,
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
I NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical
NCS net control station
NCW network-centric warfare
NEW network-enabled warfare
NIC network interface card

350 Tactical Com mun ications for the Digitize d B attlefield
NMF network management facility
NOC node operations center
NOS network operating system
NTDR Near-Term Digital Radio
OODA observation, orientation, decision , and action
. .
OSI open systems mterconnection
OUDA observation, understanding, decision, and action
PClvl p ulse code m o d ulati o n
PCS p e rso n al c o m m u n i cati o n s systems
PDA perso n al digi tal ass i stan t
PLRS P o s i t i o n Locati ng and Rep o rt i n g System
PM phase modulation
PN pseudo n o ise
P P LI p recise parti c i p a n t l o cati o n and i d e n t i fi cati o n
PSK phase s h i ft keyi ng
. tched telep h o n e n envo rk
ampl i tu d e m o dulati o n
keyin g
List ofAcrony ms 351
RATEL radio telephone procedure
RF radio frequency
RLC run-length coding
RPE regular pulse excited
RS Reed-Solomon
SAR synthetic aperture radar
SCRA single-channel radio access
SDS signal dispatch service
SF special forces
SHF super high frequency
SINCGARS Single Channel Ground and Air Radio System
SOP standing operating procedures
SSB single sideband
STA surveillance and target acquisition
STP shielded twisted pair
TAD IL tactical data link
TBS theater broadcast system
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TDM time-division multiplexing
TDMA time-division multiple access
__
l
' r-�--..- -. - � ------ -. - . - --- ----
352 Tactical Com m unications for the Dig itiz e d B attlefield
TETRA Terrestrial Trunked Radio
TIDP Technical Interface Design Plan
TIl tactical interface installation
Toe tactical operations center
UAV uninhabited aerial vehicle
UHF ultra high frequency
USB upper sideband
USMTF u. s . message text format
UTP unshielded twisted pair
UWB ultra wideband
VF voice frequency
VHF very high frequency
VLF very low frequency
VoIP voice over IP
VPN virtual private network
WAN wide area network
WIN Warflghter Information Network
WLAN wireless local area network

1 1- - - - -
"
Ii
Ii
I
11
:J
About the Authors
Dr. Michael ]. Ryan received his B.E., M.Eng. Sc. , and Ph.D. in electrical
engineering from the University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia,
in 1 9 8 1 , 1 989, and 1 996, respectively. Since 1 98 1 , he has held a number of
positions in communications and systems engineering and in management
and proj ect management as a lieutenant colonel with the Royal Australian
Signal Corps. Since 1 998, he has been with the School of Electrical Engi
neering at the University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence
Force Academy, where he is currently a senior lecturer. His research and
teaching interests are in communications systems (network architectures,
electromagnetics, radio wave propagation, mobile communications, and sat
ellite communications) , information systems architectures, data compression
for remote sensing applications, systems engineering, project management,
r and technology management. He is the editor-in-chief of the Journal ofBat
!
I
I
tlefield Technology and has authored a number of articles on communications
I and information systems as well as a book on battlefield command systems.
I
He has also coauthored books on communications and information systems,
j
I tactical communications electronic warfare, and systems engineering.
i
i
I
j
i
I
Dr. Michael R. Frater is an associate professor at the School of Electrical
i Engineering at the University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence
I Force Academy. He has more than 1 0 years of experience in the development
I
i of communications systems and services, including videoconferencing and
,j
I video and image surveillance. He has led a number of collaborative proj ects
!1
I
'I
I,I
I 353
il
!,
I:
if
i i,
354 Tactical Com m unications for th e Dig itized Battlefield
investigating image and video communications over low-bandwidth links.

Dr. Frater has been actively involved in the development of international
standards for audio-visual communications and broadcasting and has served
as head of the Australian delegation to the Moving Picture Expert Group,
one of the major international standards bodies working in this area. He
holds a B.Sc. and a B.E. in electrical engineering from the University of Syd
ney and a Ph. D . in systems engineering from the Australian National Uni
versity. His research and teaching interests lie in digital audio-visual
communications, including compression; transmission and delivery electron
ics; broadcasting and datacasting; telecommunications networks and archi
tectures; and mobile communications (peS technology and services) . He has
authored a number of articles on communications systems and communica
tions services and coauthored books on digital television, communications
and information systems, and tactical communications electronic warfare.
Index
Access nodes,132-33 See Tactical airborne subsystem

connection illustration, 133 Airborne repeaters,171-72
defined,132 Amplitude modulation (AM), 33-36
large,132,134 defined,33
layouts,134 double-sideband,34-35
small,132,134 independent-sideband,36
See also Trunk communications single-sideband,35-36
Adaptive differential pulse-code waveform illustrations,34
modulation (ADPCM),28 See also Analog modulation
Adaptive prediction, 28-29 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK),37-38
Ad hoc networks, 234-37 defined,37-38
clustering example,236 illustrated,38
connectivity example,235 See also Digital modulation
current availability,237,276 Analog modulation, 33-37
defined,234 amplitude,33-36
military utility,235-37, 274-76 frequency,36-37
NTDR,273-74 phase,37,38
for squad radio,253 See also Modulation
Advanced Data Distribution System Analog signals,17-24
(ADDS),115,144 electromagnetic sprectrum, 21-24
Aerostat platforms,315-17 frequency,17-18
defined,315 frequency domain, 18-20
disposable balloons,315 phase,] 7-] 8
Sky Station,316-17 speech signals, 20-21
tethered,315 wavelength,17-] 8
See also Platforms Antennas, 53-57
Airborne communications platform bandwidth,56
355
356 Tactical Com m un ications for the Digitized B a ttlefield
Antennas (continued) Baseband modems, 41

construction, 54 Base-statio n architectures, 240-44
defined, 53 cellular telephone/PCS, 240-41
dipole, 53, 54 current availability, 244, 284
gain, 55-56 military utility, 24 1 -44, 282-84
monopole, 53, 54 for squad radio, 253
radiation pattern, 54-55 trunked radio systems, 241
radio relay, 1 28 two-frequency half-duplex radio, 241
size, 53-54 Battlespace, 1 0
Antenna tuning unit (ATU) , 54 Bearers, 1 27, 19 1 -9 2
Architectural framework, 1 73-83 long-range, 1 9 1 -92
overlaid communications systems, military utility, 1 97-99
1 8 0-83 preferred option, 1 9 9-200
subsystems, 1 75-76 types of, 1 97-200
supported systems, 1 76-80 Block codes
See also Communications architecture cyclic codes, 32
Army structure, 89- 1 02 defined, 32
illustrated, 1 06 polynomial codes, 32
infantry battalion, 95-97 pro duct codes, 32
infantry brigade, 97-98 Boyd cycle. See Command and control
infantry corps, 99- 1 00 B ridges, 72
infantry division, 98-99 Bulk encryption, 30
infantry squad, 9 1 -93 Bus topology, 69, 70
mechanized/motorized infantry,
C4ISR Architecture Framework, 1 1
1 00- 1 0 1
Candidate solutions (combat radio
overview, 89-9 1
subsystem) , 227-49
rifle company, 94-95
ad hoc networks, 234-37
rifle platoon, 93-94
base-station architectures, 240-44
span of command, 1 0 1 -2
characteristics summary, 250
typical units, 90
data-capable CNR, 227-29
Army Tactical Commun ications System
packet radio, 229-34
(ATACS) , 1 23
preferred, 249
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) , 66
repeated TDMA, 238-40
advantages, 207
drawbacks, 207 UWR, 244-48
See also Combat radio subsystem
IP over, 209-1 0
Candidate solutions (tactical data
native, 206-7
distribution subsystem) , 269-88
Asynchronous transmission, 27
ad hoc networks, 273-76
Atmosphere layers, 59-60
Audio frequencies (AF) , 20 base-station architectures, 282-84
data-capable CNR, 269-7 1
Automatic repeat requests (ARQ) , 3 1
low-capacity TADIL, 286-88
Balanced transmission lines, 50-5 1 packet radio, 27 1 -73
Bandwidth, 20 preferred, 2 8 8
antennas, 56 repeated TDMA, 276-8 1
management, 1 92 OWE radio, 284-85
Baseband digital signals, 25-26
Index 357
Capacity, 1 4 1 -42 Climatic conditions. See Geographic!

bearers, 1 9 1 -92, 1 97 climatic condition operation
fixed network infrastructure, 1 66-67 Coaxial cable, 5 1
mobile access, 2 1 2 Codebook-excited linear predictive (CELP)
mobile network infrastructure, 1 72 coders, 29
nodal topology, 200-20 1 Code-division multiple access (CDMA) , 224
switching, 1 9 1 advantages/disadvantages, 224
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 9 1-92 combat radio subsystem, 225, 226
Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) , 223 defined, 47
combat radio subsystem, 225 , 226 tactical data distribution subsystem,
tactical data distribution subsystem, 267, 268
267, 268 between user communities, 226, 268
between user communities, 226, 268 within user community, 225 , 267
within user community, 225 , 267 Combat net radio (CNR) , 1 -2, 1 1 5- 1 9 ,
Cell switching, 66 161
Cellular communications systems, 1 68 application of RF bands, 1 1 9
Cellular telephones, 1 6 1 -62, 240-4 1 data-capable, 227-29
Chain-of-command networks, 1 20-22 data rates, 1 1 8
direct, 1 20 defined, 1 1 4
displaced, 1 2 1 frequency ranges, 1 1 6
expanded, 1 22 interface (CNRI), 1 24, 1 36
See also Trunk communications mobile network infrastructure, 1 69
Chain-of-command support net diagram, 1 1 7
ad hoc networks, 236, 274 net hierarchy, 1 1 8
base-station architecture, 282 nets, 1 1 7, 1 74
combat radio subsystem, 220 replacing/enhancing, 1 1
data-capable CNR, 228, 270 single-frequency, half-duplex operation,
low-capacity TADIL, 287 1 16
military communications, 1 4 1 stations, 1 1 5
packet radio, 232, 272 use of, 1 1 8
repeated TDMA, 239, 280 Combat radio subsystem, 1 1 5 , 1 74, 1 75 ,
tactical data distribution subsystem, 264 2 1 7-57
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 89 advantages, 2 1 8
UWB radio, 247, 284 analog system migration, 254-56
Channel coding, 3 1-33 architectural drivers, 2 1 9-22
block codes, 32 candidate solutions, 227-49
convolutional codes, 33 command and control on the move, 2 1 9
defined, 1 6, 3 1 electronic protection (EP) , 22 1
error correction techniques, 3 1-32 flexibility, 220-2 1
Ciphers, 29 in geographic/climatic conditions, 222
Circuit switching, 64-65 introduction, 2 1 7- 1 9
advantages, 64 minimal mutual interference, 22 1
defined, 64 multicast capacity, 220
disadvantages, 65 multiple access, 2 1 9
with embedded switch, 206 power source, 22 1 -22
illustrated, 65 QoS, 220
See also Switching
358 Tactical Com m unications for the Dig itized Battlefield
Combat radio subsystem (continued) military, principles, 1 40-44

in range/capacity/mobility trade-off, model, 1 6
2 1 8, 2 1 9 organic, minimum-essential, 1 54
seamless connectivity, 22 1 scalable, 1 54-5 5
security, 22 1 special-forces, 30 1
squad radio, 249-54 support situational awareness, 1 5 1
support for chain of command, 220 surrogate satellite, 299
tactical data distribution subsystem system block diagram, 1 6
interface, 3 3 0-3 1 technology, 1 5-8 1
tactical trunk subsystem interface, Communications architecture, 1 49-84
329-30 design drivers, 1 50-62
See also Combat net radio (CNR) fixed network infrastructure, 1 64-67
Command, span of, 1 0 1 -2 framework, 1 73-83
Command and control (C2) , 5-7 introduction, 1 49
ad hoc networks, 2 3 5 , 274 mobile network infrastructure, 1 69-73
base-station architecture, 242, 282 options, 1 62-73
bearers, 1 98 semimobile network infrastructure,
combat radio subsystem, 2 1 9 1 68-69
cycle, 5-7 summary, 1 83-84
data-capable CNR, 228, 269 Continuously variable slope delta
decision-making, 6 modulation (CYSDM), 2 8
defined, 5 Control, 1 82
EW impact on, 8 Convolutional codes, 3 3
illustrated, 6 Copper transmission lines, 5 1 -52
information processing, 6 Cost-effectiveness
low-capacity TADIL, 287 fixed network infrastructure, 1 67
mobile access, 2 1 3 mobile network infrastructure, 1 72-73
packet radio, 232, 27 1 Cyclic codes, 32
processes, 5
Data-capable CNR, 227-29, 249
repeated TDMA, 238, 280
current availability, 229, 27 1
tactical data distribution subsystem,
defined, 227
263-64
military utility, 227-29, 269
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 94-9 5
for squad radio, 252
UWB radio, 247, 284
See also Combat net radio (CNR) ;
Commercial communications networks,
1 3 1-32 Combat radio subsystem
Common trunking, 1 3 8 Data services, 1 3 8-39
Communications Decision cycle. See command and control
characteristic distances for, 1 0 5-6 Defense Advanced Research Proj ects
expandable, 1 54 Agency (DARPA) , 237
hIgh-capacity, 1 5 8-59 Defense Communications System (DCS ) ,
high-capacity/high-mobility, 1 60 181
high-capacityllong-range, 1 5 9 Delta modulation, 27-28
high-mobility, 1 5 9 comparison, 28
intrabatdespace, 298-99 continuously variable slope (CYSDM),
long-range, 1 5 9 28
long-range/high-mobility, 1 60 defined, 27
Index 359
Design drivers, 1 50-62 Dispersed forces, 1 03-4

command and control on the move, 1 5 1 defined, 1 03
communication principles, 1 50 Gulf War, 1 03-4
communications support, 1 5 0 layout of, 1 04
communications support situational Displaced chain-of-command trunk
awareness, 1 5 1-53 network, 1 2 1
electromagnetic compatibility, 1 57 Double-sideband AM , 34-35
expandable communications, 1 54 Duplex transmission, 75
geographic/climatic conditions, 1 5 8
Early military communications, 1 1 0-1 1
jamming resistance, 1 56
Economy, 1 43
LPD, 1 5 6
bearers, 1 9 8-99
organic, minimum-essential
mobile access, 2 1 4
communications, 1 54
nodal topology, 204
precedence and preemption, 1 57
Electrical telegraphyltelephone, 1 1 1- 1 2
QoS, 1 5 5-56
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) , 1 57
range, capacity, mobility trade-off,
Electromagnetic spectrum, 2 1 -24
1 5 8-62
EHF, 23
scalable communications, 1 54-5 5
ELF, 2 1
seamless connectivity, 1 53-54
HF, 23
supported force size, 1 5 0
LF, 22
supported systems, 1 57-5 8
MF, 22-23
See also Communications architecture
RF/AF portions of, 22
Differential PSK (DPSK) , 39
SHF, 23
Digital modulation, 37-40
UHF, 23
ASK, 37-3 8
VF, 2 1-22
FSK, 3 8-39
VHF, 23
PSK, 39-40
VLF, 22
See also Modulation
See also Analog signals
Digital signals, 24-26
Electronic protection (EP) , 1 8 1-82
advantages/ disadvan tages, 24
ad hoc networks, 237, 275
baseband, 25-26
base-station architecture, 244, 283
illustrated, 25
combat radio subsystem, 22 1
regeneration of, 26
data-capable CNR, 229, 27 1
Digitized battlefield, 9- 1 0
low-capacity TADIL, 288
communications architecture, 1 49-84
packet radio, 233, 272
defined, 9-1 0
repeated TDMA, 239, 28 1
drive towards, 1 0
tactical data distribution subsystem, 265
Direct chain-of-command networks, 1 20
UWB radio, 248, 285
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS),
Electronic warfare (EW)
42-43, 44
defined, 7
advantages, 43
impact on C2 cycle, 8
defined, 42
Embedded network, 1 3 9
illustrated, 43
in presence of broadband interference, 44 Encryption, 29-3 1
bulk, 30
in presence of single-channel
ciphers, 29
interference, 44
defined, 1 6
Dirigibles. See Aerostat platforms
1'1
I )
,I
i 1., _ __ _
360 Tactical Com munication s for the Digitize d B attlefield
Encryption (continued) security, 1 67

forms of, 30 terrestrial mobile telephony, 1 65
keys, 3 0 wireless networking, 1 65
message, 3 0-3 1 Flexibility, 1 42
message-content, 3 1 ad hoc networks, 236-37, 275
public-key, 30 base-station architecture, 243, 283
secret-key, 3 0 combat radio subsystem, 220-2 1
Enhanced Position Locating and Reporting data-capable CNR, 228 , 270
System (EPLRS), 1 7 1 , 278-80 fixed network infrastructure, 1 66
basic types, 278 local subsystems, 328
defined, 278 low-capacity TADIL, 287
EPUU, 278 mobile network infrastructure, 1 73
frequencies, 279 nodal topology, 202
j amming resistance, 280 packet radio, 233, 272
NCS , 278, 279 repeated TDMA, 239-40, 28 1
power source, 280 tactical data distribution subsystem, 265
Entropy coders, 29 tactical network interfaces, 323
Equatorial orbit, 7 5 , 77 UWB radio, 247, 284
Forward error correction (FEC) , 3 1
Error correction Frequency-division multiple access
defined, 3 1 (FDMA) , 223
techniques, 3 1 -32 advantages, 46, 223
Error detection and correction (EDC) , 1 5 2 combat radio subsystem, 225, 226
Ethernet, 7 1 , 72 defined, 46, 223
Expandable communications, 1 54 disadvantages, 223
Expanded chain-oF-command trunk tactical data distribution subsystem,
network, 1 22 267, 268
External interfaces, 333-40 between user communities, 226, 268
to overlaid communications system, within user community, 225 , 267
336-40 See also Multiple access
to strategic communications system, Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) ,
334-36 4 1 -42
to supported systems, 333 Frequency domain, 1 8-20
See also Tactical network interfaces bandwidth, 20
Extremely high frequency (EHF), 23 complex waveform in, 20
Extremely low frequency (ELF) , 2 1 sine wave in, 1 9
usefulness, 1 9
Fixed network infrastructure, 1 64-67
Frequency hopping, 43-45
capacity, 1 66-67
advantages, 4 5 , 224
cost-effectiveness, 1 67
combat radio subsystem, 225 , 226
flexibility, 1 66
defined, 43-45
military utility, 1 66-67
disadvantages, 224
mobility, 1 67
illustrated, 45 , !
precedence and preemption, 1 67
occurrence, 45
provision of, 1 66
tactical data distribution subsystem,
range, 1 66
267, 268
resistance to j amming, 1 67
between user communities, 226, 268
Index 361
within user community, 225, 267 defined, 309

See also Multiple access Proteus aircraft, 309- 1 0
Frequency modulation (FM) , 36-37 H F radio, 256
advantages, 37 High-altitude platform stations (HAP) . See
capture effect, 36 Tactical airborne subsystem
defined, 36 High-capacity communications, 1 5 8-59
disadvantages, 37 H igh-capacity/high-mobility
waveform illustration, 36 communications, 1 60
See also Analog modulation High-capacity/long-range communications,
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) , 38-39 1 59
defined, 3 8 High frequency (HF) , 23
illustrated, 3 9 High-mobility communications, 1 5 9
Frequency spreading, 42-45
defined, 1 6, 42 Inclined orbit, 76, 77
DSSS, 42-43, 44 Independent-sideband (ISB), 3 5 , 36
Infantry battalion, 95-97
frequency hopping, 43-46
communications, 96-97
Gain, antennas, 5 5-5 6 in defense, 96
Geographic/climatic condition operation defined, 95
ad hoc networks, 237, 276 organization, 95-96
base-station architecture, 244, 283-84 See also Army structure
data-capable CNR, 229, 27 1 Infantry brigade, 97-98
as design driver, 1 5 8 armored personnel carriers (APCs) , 97
local subsystems, 329 brigade maintenance area (BMA) , 97
low-capacity TADIL, 288 brigade support area (BSA) , 97
packet radio, 233, 273 communications, 98
repeated TDMA, 239, 28 1 defined, 97
tactical data distribution subsystem, 266 organization, 97-98
tactical network interfaces, 324 tactical operations center (TOC) , 97
UWB radio, 248, 285 See also Army structure
Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO), 76-78 Infantry corps, 99- 1 00
advantages, 77 communications, 1 00
communication systems, 1 70 in defense, 1 00
defined, 76 defined, 99
disadvantages, 78 organization, 99
uses, 76 See also Army structure
See also Satellite communications Infantry division, 98-99
Global Broadcast System (GBS ) . See communications, 99
Theater broadcast in defense, 99
Ground waves, 57, 57-5 8 defined, 98
illustrated, 5 8 organization, 9 8
space waves, 67-68 See also Army structure
surface waves, 5 8 Infantry squad, 9 1 -93
See also Propagation communications, 92-93
in defense, 92
Half-duplex transmission, 75
defined, 9 1
HALO System, 309-1 1 organization, 9 1 -92
communications payload, 3 1 0
Infantry squad (continued) presentation layer,69

See also Army structure session layer,69
Information transport layer,68-69
processing,6
Jamming resistance,156
rate,26
systems,177-78 Keys,30
Information Age,2
command and control in,5 Land force structures,87-107
military operation revolution,7 army structure,89-102
warfare in,3 communication distances and,105-6
Information services,178-80 dispersed forces,103-4
messaging,178-79 joint forces,102-3
security,178 spectrum of military operations,87-89
videoconferencing,179-80 summary,106-7
Integration,141 Linear predictive coding (LPC),28
mobile access, 213 Link-16 repeater,299
nodal topology,202-3 Local area networks (LANs),67
tactical trunk subsystem,189-90 elements,70
Internal interfaces, 329-33 Ethernet,71,72
combat radio subsystem (tactical data media,70-71
distribution subsystem),330-31 media-access techniques,71-72
combat radio subsystem (tactical trunk token ring,71,72
subsystem),329-30 topologies, 69-70
tactical airborne subsystem,332-33 wireless (WLANs), 160
tactical data distribution subsystem,332 Local subsystem,324-29
See also Tactical network interfaces defined,325
Internet, 73-75 functions,326
addresses,75 illustrated,326,327
defined,73-74 in larger headquarters, 327
packet switching,74 requirements, 327-29
service providers (ISPs),74 simple,326
TCPIIP,74 types of,328
Internet Protocol (IP), 74 See also Tactical network interfaces
native, 207-9 Long-range communications,159
over ATM,209-10 Long-range/high-mobility
Internenvorking,72-73 communications,160
Interoperability,144 Low-capacity TADIL, 286-88
Intrabattlespace communications,298-99 current availability, 288
Ionosphere,59-60 military utility, 286-88
advantages/disadvantages,62 TADIL-A,286
defined,59 TADIL-B,286
ISO 051 reference model,67-69 TADIL-C,286
application layer,69 Low-Earth orbit (LEO),76,78-79
data link layer, 68 advantages/disadvantages,79
defined,67 altitude,78
network layer,68 communication systems, 170
physical layer,67-68 defined,76
Index 363
See also Satellite communications data-capable CNR, 227-29, 269-7 1

Lower sideband (LSB), 35, 3 6 fixed network infrastructure, 1 66-67
Low frequency (LF), 22 low-capacity TADIL, 286-88
Low probability of detection (LPD), 1 56 mobile access, 2 1 1 - 1 4
mobile network infrastructure, 1 72-73
Mechanized infantry, 1 00-1 0 1 packet radio, 232-33, 27 1-73
Media-access techniques, 7 1 -72
repeated TDMA, 238-40, 280-8 1
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) , 76, 78 semimobile network infrastructure,
advan tages/ disadvan tages, 79
1 6 8-69
defined, 76 ultra-wideband (UWB) radio, 246-48,
use of, 78
284-85
See also Satellite communications
Minimal mutual interference
Medium frequency (MF) , 22-23
Message-content encryption, 3 1
base-station architecture, 244, 283
Message encryption, 30-3 1
data-capable CNR, 229, 27 1
Message switching, 65-66
local subsystems, 329
Messaging, 1 78-79
low-capacity TADIL, 288
Metropolitan area networks (MANs) , 67
packet radio, 233, 272
Military communications, 1 40-44
repeated TDMA, 239, 28 1
anticipation of requirements, 1 42
tactical data distribution subsystem, 265
architecture for digitized battlefield,
UWB radio, 248, 285
1 49-84
Mobile access, 2 1 0- 1 4
capacity, 1 4 1-42
functionality, 2 I 0-1 1
chain-of-command support, 1 4 1
limitations, 2 1 2
economy, 1 43
military utility, 2 1 1 - 1 4
flexibility, 1 42
preferred option, 2 1 4
integration, 1 4 1
See also Tactical trunk subsystem
interoperability, 1 44
Mobile network infrastructure, 1 69-73
mobility, 1 43
airborne repeater, 1 7 1 -72
principles, 1 40-44, 1 50
architecture, 1 72
quality, 1 42
capacity, 1 72
reliability, 1 4 1
CNR, 1 69
security, 1 43
cost-effectiveness, 1 72-73
simplicity, 1 4 1
flexibility, 1 73
survivability, 1 44
fully meshed/repeater-based networks,
See also Communications
171
Military operations
characteristics, 8 8
packet radio, 1 69-70
density o f troops, 89
range, 1 72
in JV2020, 89
satellite communications, 1 70
other than war (MOOW) , 8 8
security, 1 73
spectrum of, 87-8 9, 1 5 0-5 1
Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE)
Military utility
trunk system, 1 23
ad hoc networks, 23 5-37, 274-76
Mobility, 1 43
base-station architectures, 24 1 -44,
fixed network infrastructure, 1 67
282-84
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 92-93
bearers, 1 97-99
Modems, 4 1
:�
,I
I,
j '---L. ___ _ ___ _ _____.. ___
364 Tactical Commun ication s for the Digitized B a ttlefield
Modulation, 33-4 1 UWB radio, 246, 247, 284

amplitude (AM) , 33-36 within user communi ty, 225, 266-67
analog, 33-37 M ultiplexing, 4 1 -42
AS K, 37-3 8 defined, 4 1
defined, 33 frequency-division (FDM) , 4 1 -42
digital, 37-40 time-division (TOM) , 42
&equency (FM) , 36-37
Native ATM , 206-7
FSK, 38-3 9
Native IP, 207-9
PM, 37, 3 8
Near-Term Digital Radio (NTDR) , 273-74
PSK, 39-40
architecture, 273
Motorized i n fa n t ry , 1 00- 1 0 1
c apa c i ty , 273-74
Multiband I n teriintra Team Radio
defined, 273
(MB ITR) , 2 5 4
power source, 274
M u l ticast capa b i l i t y
Nenvo rk-centric warfare (NCW) , 3
ad hoc netwo rks , 2 3 6 , 2 7 5
deflned, 3
base-stati o n architecture, 243 , 2 8 2
i n t e r l o c ki n g gr i ds , 4
data-capab l e CNR, 228, 270
N envork-enabled warfare (NE\XI) , 3
l o w -capa c i t), TAD I L , 2 8 7
N e nv o rk management, 1 3 9-40
packet rad i o , 2 3 3 , 272
fu n c t i o n al l evels o f, 1 4 0
re pea t ed T O MA , 2 3 9 , 2 8 0-8 1
as suppo rted s y ste m , ] 80
tacti cal data d i stri b u t i o n s u bs)'ste m ,
tas k , ] 3 9
264-6 5
Nenvorks, 67-7 5
U\X/B rad I O , 2 4 7 , 2 8 4
b r t dges , 7 2
M u i tico re c a b l e , 5 1
elements, 7 0
M u l t I p l e a cc e s s , 1 6 , 4 6-4 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2- 2 7
exte n s i o n , 7 2
ad h o c n e tworks, 2 3 5 , 274
I nt erco n n ec t i o n , 7 2
b a s e -s t a t I o n a rch i tectu re, 2 4 2 -4 3 , 2 8 2
I n t e rn e t , 7 3 - 7 5
C O MA , 4 7 , 2 2 4 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 , 2 6 7 , 2 6 8
i n r e rn e nv o r k i n g ,
72-73
C S �1 A , 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 , 2 6 7 , 2 6 8
I S O O S 1 l ay e r reference m odel, 67-69
d a ta-c a p a b l e C N R , 2 2 8 . 2 7 0
m e d i a , 70-7 1
d e fl n e d , 4 6
m e d i a-access tcch n i q u e s , 7 ] -7 2
f O MA , 4 6 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 ) , 2 2 6 . 2 6 7 , 2 6 8
n e two rk typ es, 67
fre q u e n c)' h o p p l l1 g , 2 2 4 , 2 2 5 . 2 2 6 ,
repeaters, 72
267, 268
tacncal tru n k s u bsys tem e n t i ties, ] 9 5-96
I m p l e m e n tat i o n , 222
to p o l og i e s , 69-70
l ow-capaCI ty TA O I L , 2 8 7
Nodal topol ogy, 2 0 0-204
p a c k e t rad i o , 2 3 2 , 2 7 1
h u b-spoke, 200
r epe a te d T D M A , 2 3 8 , 2 8 0
m e s h ed , 2 0 0
s u m m a ry , 2 2 6-27
m i l i t a ry u t i l i ty , 200-204
ta c t i ca l data d i s t r i b u t I o n s u bs),stc m ,
264 , 2 6 6-69
options, 200
p r efe rr e d o p t i o n , 20 4
T O ]v1A , 4 6-4 7 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 ,
See {d,o Tactical t r u n k s u b s ys t em
2 6 6 -6 7 , 26 8
t i m e h o p p i n g , 4 7-4 8 , 2 2 4 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 , O O DA l o o p . Sec Co m m a n d a n d c o n trol
2 6 7 , 268-69 O p era t i o n a l e n v i ro n m e n t , 2-4
between user c o m m u n i t i e s , 2 2 6 , O p t i c a l fi b e rs , 5 2-53
2 6 8- 69 a dv a n r a ge s , 5 2 - 5 3
Index 365
capacities, 1 60 See also Tactical airborne subsystem

defined, 5 2 Personal communications system
disadvantages, 5 3 (PCS) , 79-8 1
Organic, minimum-essential communications access, 299-300
bearers, 1 9 8 advantages/ disadvantages, 338
as design driver, 1 54 base station, 80
mobile access, 2 1 4 classes, 80
nodal topology, 203 defined, 79
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 9 5 elements, 79-80
Overhead, 26 illustrated elements, 8 1
Overlaid communications systems, 1 8 0-83 i n terface, 3 3 8
control, 1 8 2 as overlaid communications system, 3 3 8
defined, 1 8 0 Phase modulation (PM) , 3 7 , 3 8
electronic pro tection (EP) , 1 8 1-82 defined, 37
interfaces to, 3 3 6-40 illustrated, 3 8
PCS interface, 3 3 8 Phase-shift keying, 3 9-40
physical security of infrastructure, 1 83 defined, 39
PSTN interface, 3 3 6-37 differential (DPSK) , 3 9
public data network interface, 337 illustrated, 40
ruggedization, 1 8 2 polar diagram, 40
satellite communications system quadrature (QPSK) , 39, 40
interface, 3 37-3 8 Piloted aerial vehicles, 3 0 8 - 1 1
security, 1 8 2 defined, 3 0 8
theater broadcast interface, 3 3 8-40 HALO System, 3 0 9- 1 1
user interface, 1 82-8 3 See also Platforms
Platforms
Packet radio, 1 69-7 0 , 229-34
advantages, 294-9 5
advantages, 23 1
aerostat, 3 1 5- 1 7
current availability, 234, 273
control, 3 0 2-3
defined, 229-30
costs, 3 1 7- 1 8
disadvantages, 23 1 , 232
footprint, 2 9 8
i n ternet bridging, 2 3 0
height, 29 5-97
i ntranet rebroadcast, 230
limitations, 3 0 3-6
military utility, 232-3 3 , 27 1 -73
piloted aerial vehicles, 3 0 8- 1 1
for squad radio, 2 5 2
po tential, 3 0 8- 1 7
tactical internet, 23 0-3 1
tactical vulnerability, 3 0 5-6
tactical i ntranet, 23 1 -3 2
technical challenges, 3 0 6
Packet switching, 66
terrain effects and, 30 3-4
defined, 66
UAV, 3 1 1 - 1 5
I nternet and, 74
weather and, 304-5
Payloads
See also Tactical airborne subsystem
architecture, 3 0 7-8
Polar orbit, 76, 77
communications services, 298-3 0 1
Polynomial codes, 3 2
example, 3 0 3
Position Locating and Reporting System
noncommunication uses, 3 0 1 -2
(PLRS) , 278
range extension, 297-9 8
Power source
requirements, 297-3 0 3
366 Tactical Com munications for the Digitize d B a ttlefield
Power source (continued) polar diagram, 4 0

base-station architecture, 244 , 2 8 3 Quality, 1 4 2
data-capable CNR, 2 2 9 , 2 7 1 Quality of service (QoS), 1 5 5-56
local subsystems, 3 2 9 ad hoc networks, 2 3 6 , 274-7 5
low-capacity TADIL, 2 8 8 base-station architecture, 243 , 2 8 2
packet radio, 2 3 3 , 272-73 combat radio subsystem, 220
repeated TDMA, 2 3 9 , 2 8 1 data-capable CNR, 228, 270
tactical data distribution subsystem, 266 local subsystems, 3 2 8
tactical network interfaces, 323 low-capacity TADIL, 2 8 7
UWB radio, 248, 285 m obile access, 2 1 3
Precedence packet radio, 2 3 2 , 272
facilities, 1 3 8 repeated TDMA, 2 3 9 , 280
fixed network i n frastructure, 1 67 tactical data distribution subsystem, 264
local subsystems , 3 2 9 tactical network interfaces, 323
requirem ents, 1 5 7 tactical tru n k subsystem, 1 92
tactical ner-work i n terfaces, 3 2 3 UWB rad io, 247, 284
P reem ption
Radio co m m u n ications, 1 1 2
fa c i l n i es , 1 3 8
Radio relay, 1 2 7-29
fixed n e two rk i n fras t r u c t u re . 1 67
a n ten nas, 1 2 8
local s u b s ys t e ms 3 2 9
,
fre q u e nc of operation, 1 2 7-2 8

y
re qu I re m e n ts 1 5 7
,
range e x t e n S I O n , 1 2 8-29
tactl cal n e rw o rk II1 te rt�1ces , 3 2 3
siti ng, 1 2 8
P ro d u ct c o d e . 3 2
stations, 1 29
P r o p ag a t l o n , 5 7-64
Sa also T r u n k co m m u n i ca t i o n s
g ro u n d waves . 5 7 - 5 8
Range
l o ng - d I S t a n c e 5 9
.
fi x e d n e twork i n fras t ru c t u re, 1 6 6

sc anCfed W,1\'e s , 6 2-64
m o b i l e n e tw o r k i n fr as u u c tur e 1 72,
s ky waves , 60-62
Ra n ge / c a p a c i ry/ m o b i l i ty trade-off
s p a c e waves , 5 7 - 5 8
ad h o c n crw o r ks , 2 3 5 , 2 7 4
s u rface waves , 5 8
base-sta t i o n ; nch i t ecru re, 2 4 1 -4 2 , 2 8 2
terra lI1 e ffects o n , 3 0 3 -4
c o m b a t rad i o s u bsys t e m , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9
wea t h e r eHcC(s o n , 3 0 4 - 5
d a ta-ca p a b l e C N R , 2 2 7-2 8 , 269
P rotoco l s , 7 4
as design d ri ve r , 1 5 8 -62
P u b l I c d a t a n e tw o r k I n r t: r b c e , .) 3 7
[ o c a l s u bsys t e m s , 3 2 7
P u b l I c sw i t c h e d t e l e p h o n e n e two rk
[ O W - Gl p 3 C i t), TA D I L , 2 8 6
( P STN ) , 6 4
\jq
p a c k e t r3d i o , 2 3 2 , 2 7 1
a d v a n tages / d isadvan tages , 3 3 6 3 7 -
rep eatcd T D MA , 2 3 8 , 2 8 0
d e fl n e d , 3 3 6
t a c t i c a l d a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n s u b sy s t e m 263
,
\1
I I1 te rfa c e , 3 3 6- 3 7 :.j
t 3 c r i c a [ n e two rk i n t e rfa ces , 3 2 2 ';1
P u l s e code m o d u l a n o ll ( p e M ) :;�.
t a c t i ca l uu n k s u b s ys t e m , 1 8 8 q
'.,{
a d a p [ J v e d i lTe r e n r i a l (AD P C M ) , 2 8
U\X/B rad i o , 24 6 , 2 8 4 n
compariso n , 28 ii
d e fi n e d , 2 7
RA P s , 1 3 3-3 5 if
c o n n e C t i o n to t r u n k nerwork, 1 3 5 il
I, i\
Q u a d r a t u re 3 m p l i t u d e m o d u b t i o n l ayo u t , 1 3 6
(QAM ) , 3 9 [1
Qu a d ra t u r e PSK (QP S K)
m o b i l e s u bscri bers, 1 3 3
:I
II
Receivers, 4 8 -4 9
d e fi n e d , 3 9
\ I
!I
I ,
I i
' I
!I
I
Index 367
block diagram, 49 systems, 1 3 1 , 1 62

defined, 48-49 Scalable communications, 1 54-5 5
functions, 49 Scattered waves, 57, 62-64
superheterodyne, 49 defined, 62-63
Regular pulse excited (RPE) , 28-29 troposcatter, 63-64
Reliability, 1 4 1 Seamless connectivity, 1 53-54
bearers, 1 97 ad hoc networks, 237, 275
mobile access, 2 1 2- 1 3 base-station architecture, 243 , 283
nodal topology, 20 1 combat radio subsystem, 22 1
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 90 data-capable CNR, 228-29, 270
Repeated TDMA, 238-40 local subsystems, 328-29
current availability, 240, 28 1 low-capacity TADIL, 287
defined, 238 packet radio, 233, 272
EPLRS, 278-80 repeated TDMA, 239, 28 1
military utility, 238-40, 280-8 1 tactical data distribution subsystem, 265
for squad radio, 253 tactical network interfaces, 323
TADIL-J, 276-78 UWB radio, 247, 285
See also Time-division multiple access Security
Repeater-based network, 1 7 1 ad hoc networks, 237, 275
Repeaters, 72 base-station architecture, 244, 283
RF modems, 4 1 combat radio subsystem, 22 1
Rifle company, 94-9 5 data-capable CNR, 229, 270
communications, 94 fixed network infrastructure, 1 67
in defense, 9 5 as information service, 1 78
defined, 94 local subsystems, 329
organization, 94 low-capacity TADIL, 288
Rifle platoon, 93-94 military communications, 143
communications, 94 mobile access, 2 1 4
in defense, 93 mobile network infrastructure, 1 73
defined, 93 as overlaid system, 1 82
organization, 93 packet radio, 233, 272
See also Army structure physical, of infrastructure, 1 8 3
Ring topology, 69, 70 repeated TDMA, 239, 28 1
Ruggedization, 1 82 tactical data distribution subsystem, 265
tactical network interfaces, 323
Satellite communications, 75-79
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 93
advantages/disadvantages, 338
trunk network, 1 37
equatorial orbit, 75, 77
UWB radio, 248, 285
GEO, 76-78
Semimobile network infrastructure, 1 68-69
inclined orbit, 76, 77
cellular systems, 1 68
interface, 337-3 8
LEO, 78-79
trunk networks, 1 68
MEO, 78
Sensors, 1 77
mobile network infrastructure, 1 70
Sequential decoding, 33
as overlaid communications system,
Signal dispatch service (SDS) , 1 1 4, 1 40
337-38
advantages, 1 40
polar orbit, 76, 77
defined, 1 40
surrogate, 299
368 Tactica l Com m u n ication s for the D i g itize d B attl efi e l d
S i mplex transmissio n , 7 5 defined, 8 8

Simplicity, 1 4 1 mobile access, 2 1 3
ad hoc networks, 2 7 5 n odal topology, 2 0 3
base-station archi tecture, 2 8 3 tactical trunk subsystem, 1 93-94
data-capable CNR, 2 7 0 S peech signals, 20-2 1
local s ubsystems, 3 2 9 S quad radio , 249-54
l ow-capacity TADIL, 2 8 7 ad hoc network, 2 5 3
packet radio, 272 b ase-station arch itecture, 2 5 3
repeated TD MA, 2 8 1 data-enabled CNR, 2 5 2
tactical data distribution subsystem, 2 6 5 defined, 2 5 0-5 1
tactical netv,rork interfaces, 3 2 3 packet rad i o , 2 5 2
tactical trunk subsystem, 1 9 0 repeated TDMA, 2 5 3
UWB radio, 2 8 5 requirements, 2 5 1
S ingle channel radio . See Combat net radi o solutions, 2 5 2
(CNR) UWB radio, 2 5 3
S ingle channel radio access (S CRA) , 1 24 , voice-only CNR, 2 5 2
1 3 3-3 6 See also Combat radio subsystem
direct access, 1 3 5-36 S tar topology, 6 9 , 70
RAPs, 1 3 3-3 5 S t o re-and-fo rward switches, 66
subscriber terminals, 1 3 5 S tratosphere, 5 9
subsystem , 1 3 3 S u bscriber terminals, 1 3 5
S i n gle-s i d eband (SS B ) , 3 5-3 6 S u perheterodyne receivers, 4 9
S i n usoidal functi o n , 1 7 S uper h i gh frequency (SH F ) , 23
S i tuati o n al awareness, 1 5 1 -5 3 S up p o ne d systems, 1 76-80
Sky S tati o n , 3 1 6- 1 7 command, maneuver, logistic, 1 76-77
broadband services, 3 1 7 i n fo rmation services, 1 7 8-80
co m m u n ICati on serVi ces, 3 1 6 i n fo rmati o n systems, 1 77-78
defi ned, 3 1 6 network management, 1 8 0
mobile co m m u n i ca t i o n s , 3 1 7 sensors, 1 77
platfo rms, 3 1 6 weapon platforms, 1 77
See also Aerostat platfo rms S u rrogate satel l i te commun i cations, 2 9 9
S ky waves , 5 7 , 60-62 S u rve i l l ance and target acquisition
defi n ed, 60 (STA) devices, 5
i l l ustrated, 60 S u rvivability, 1 44
range, 6 1 nodal topo l o gy, 203-4
S o u rce cod i ng, 1 6 , 27-2 9 tactical trunk su bsystem, 1 9 3
adap tive predicti o n , 2 8-29 Switch i n g, 64-66
defi n ed, 27 cel l , 66
delta m o d u l ati o n , 27-28 circuit, 6 4-6 5
en tropy cod ers , 29 m essage, 6 5-66
PCM, 27, 28 packet, 66
transform co ding, 29 Swi tch i n g node compositi o n , 204- 1 0
vector quantizati o n , 29 circuit switch with embedded packet
vocoders, 28 switch , 2 0 6
Space waves, 5 7-5 8 I P over ATM , 2 0 9- 1 0
Special-fo rces com mun icati o n , 3 0 1 native ATM , 206-7
Spectrum o f operati o n s , 8 7-8 9 , 1 5 0-5 1 n ative I P , 207-9
Index 369
p referred option, 2 1 0 introduction, 26 1 -63

See also Tactical trunk subsystem m i n imal mutual J n terference, 2 6 5
Synch ro nous TDMA, 46--47, 223 multicast capab i l i ty, 264-6 5
combat radio subsystem, 2 2 5 , 226 multiple access, 264
tactical data distribution subsystem , power so urce, 266
266-67, 268 p referred m ultiple access , 269
between user commun ities, 226, 268 preferred soluti o n , 268
with i n user com m u n i ty, 225, 266-67 purpose, 262-63
See also Tim e-division m ultiple access QoS , 264
Syn chro n o us transmission, 27 in range/capaci ty/mobIlity trade-off,
262, 263
Tacti cal airborne subsystem, 1 7 5 , 29 3-3 1 8
seamless co n nectivi ty, 265
advantages, 294-9 5
security, 265
conclusi ons, 3 1 8
simplicity, 2 6 5
costs, 3 1 7- 1 8
sol ution characteristics sum mary, 289
defined, 293
tactical trunk subsystem I n terface, 3 3 2
i n terface, 3 3 2-33
Tactical i n terface installation (TI l ) , 1 24
introducti o n , 29 3-94
Tactical i n tranet, 23 1 -32
limitations, 3 03-6
Tactical network interfaces, 1 76 , 3 2 1 --4 0
payload architecture, 3 0 7-8
basic requirements, 3 22-24
payload requirements, 297-30 3
conclusion, 340
platform height, 29 5-97
external, 322, 3 3 3--40
potential platforms, 3 0 8- 1 7
flexibility, 323
s tratospheric platforms, 2 9 5
gateway, 3 3 1
Tactical com m u n i cations, 8-9
geograph i clclimatic condition
CNR, 1 1 5- 1 9
operatio n , 3 24
current system, 1 63
i n ternal, 3 29-3 3
development of, 1 0 9--45
i n troductio n , 3 2 1 -22
early history of, 1 1 0- 1 5
issues, 340
elements, 1 76
lo cal subsystem, 3 24-29
i n terface requirements, 3 3 5-36
power source, 3 2 3
options, 1 62-73
p recedence and preem ption, 323
principles, 1 40--44
Qo S , 323
subsystems, 1 7 5
range/capacity/mobility trade-offs , 322
trunk, 1 1 9--40
required, 3 2 1 -22
Tactical data distribution subsystem, 1 7 5 ,
seamless co n n ectivity, 323
26 1 -90
securi ty, 323
archi tectural drivers , 263-6 6
simplicity, 323
candidate solutions, 269-8 8
user termi nals, 324-2 5
chain-of-command support, 264
VP N , 3 3 1
command and con trol o n the move,
Tactical trunk subsyste m , 1 1 5 , 1 7 5 ,
263-64
1 8 7-2 1 5
conclusion, 28 8-9 0
arch itectu ral d rivers , 1 8 9-9 5
d e fi n ed , 26 1 -62
arch i tectu ral overview, 1 9 5-96
E P , 265
bearer types, 1 97-200
flex i b i l i ty, 265
capaci ty, 1 9 1 -92
aeoaraph iclcl i matic condition
b b co m m and and con tro l , 1 9 4-9 5
operat i o n , 266
370 Tactical Com m u nications for the Digitized Battlefield
Tactical trunk subsystem (continued) See also Multiple access

communications support (chain of Time-division m ultiplexing (TDM) , 4 2
command) , 1 8 9 T i m e hopping, 47-4 8 , 2 2 4
communications support (spectrum of combat radio subsystem, 225 , 2 2 6
operations) , 1 9 3-94 tactical data distribution subsystem,
defined, 1 8 7 267, 268-69
elements, 1 8 7 between user communities, 226, 268-69
integration, 1 8 9-90 within user community, 2 2 5 , 267
interfaces, 2 1 4- 1 5 See also Multiple access
introduction, 1 8 7-8 8 Token ring, 7 1 , 72
mobile access, 2 1 0- 1 4 Topologies, 69-70
mobility, 1 92-9 3 bus, 69, 70
network entities, 1 9 5-96 defined, 69
nodal topology, 2 0 0-204 illustrated, 7 0
organic, minimum-essential ring, 6 9 , 70
communications, 1 9 5 star, 69, 70
QoS , 1 92 See also Networks
in range/capacity/mobility trade-off, 1 8 8 Transfo rm coding, 29
reliability, 1 9 0 Transmission
security, 1 9 3 asynchronous, 27
simplicity, 1 90 duplex, 7 5
summary, 2 1 5 half-duplex, 7 5
survivability, 1 9 3 simplex, 7 5
switch ing node composition, 204- 1 0 synchronous, 27
See also Trunk commun ications Transm ission Control P rotocol/Internet
TAD I L-A, 2 8 6 Protocol (TCPII P) , 74
TAD IL- B , 2 8 6 Transmission lines, 49-52
TAD I L-C, 2 8 6 bal anced, 5 0
TAD IL-J , 276-78 copper, 5 1 - 5 2
defined, 276 defined, 49-50
EP 1l1, 277 multicore cable, 5 1
operating modes, 278 twisted pair, 5 0-5 1
operati on, 276 two-wire line, 5 0
time-slot structure, 277 unbalanced, 5 1
Telegraphy, 1 1 1 - 1 2 Transmi tters , 4 8
Telephone, 1 1 1 - 1 2 Troposcatter, 63-64, 1 29-3 1
Terrai n effects, 3 0 3 -4 advantages, 1 3 0
Terrestrial mobile telepho ny, 1 6 5 analog, 64
Theater broadcast, 3 0 0-3 0 1 digi tal , 64
data access, 3 3 9 disadvan tages, 1 3 0-3 1
interface, 3 3 8-40 first use of, 1 3 1
as overlaid communicati ons syste m , 3 3 9 setup/teardown and, 1 9 9
Time-division multiple access (TD MA) , Troposphere, 5 9
46-47 Trunk communications, 1 , 1 1 9-4 0
asyn chronous, 47 access nodes, 1 3 2-3 3
repeated, 23 8-40 bearers, 1 27
synchronous, 46-47, 223 , 2 2 5 , 226 CNRI, 1 36
Index 37 1
commercial communications networks , UAV -based platforms, 3 1 1 - 1 5

1 3 1 -3 2 capabilities, 3 1 2- 1 4
components , 1 24-37 commercial plans, 3 1 1
defined, 1 1 4 deployment, 3 1 1
di rect chain-of-command, 1 20 obj ective capab ilities, 3 1 3
displaced chain-of-command, 1 2 1 U . S . ACN , 3 1 1 - 1 5
expanded chain-of-command, 1 22 See also P latfo rms
fo u rth-generatio n architecture, 1 23-24 Ultra high frequency (UHF) , 23
nation al networks, 1 2 5 Ul tra-wideband (UWB) rad I O , 224,
netwo rk management, 1 3 9-40 244-49
nodes, 1 24-27 co mmunications applications i n , 246
radio relay, 1 27-29 current avai lability, 2 4 8 , 2 8 5
replacing/enhancing, 1 1 d e fi n e d , 244-4 5
satellite network links, 1 3 1 military uti l i !:)!, 246-4 8 , 284-8 5
SCRA, 1 3 3-36 m ultiple access i n , 246, 247
S D S , 1 40 near-far effect and, 2 4 5
semimobile network infrastructure, 1 68 fo r squad radio, 2 5 3-54
subscriber facilities, 1 37-3 9 time-coding of i n formati on i n , 245
systems, 1 60 Unbalan ced transmission lines, 5 1
tactical i n terface installations, 1 3 6-37 U n inhabited aerial veh icles (UAVs) , 1 73
tropospheric scatterer, 1 29-3 1 U . S . ACN, 3 1 1 - 1 5
See also Tactical trunk subsystem capability, 3 1 1 - 1 2
Trunk nodes, 1 24-27 costs, 3 1 7
components , 1 2 5-27 defined, 3 1 1
components illustratio n , 1 27 Warfighter Info rmation Netvvork
defined, 1 24 (WIN) , 3 1 2 , 3 1 4
deployment, 1 25 See also UAV-based platforms
network management facility (NM F ) , U . S . Joint Vision 2020 OV2020) , 3
1 26 Upper sideband (US B ) , 3 5 , 3 6
node operations center (NOC) , 1 26 User co mmun ities
radio-relay detachments, 1 26-27 defined, 222
switch, 1 2 5-26 multiple access with i n , 225, 267
See also Trunk communications between user commun ities, 226,
Trunk radio , 1 1 4 268-69
Trunk subscriber facilities, 1 3 7-3 9 User interface, 1 8 2-83
affiliation, 1 3 8 User terminals, 3 24
data services , 1 3 8-3 9
Vector quan tizati o n , 29
flood search , 1 3 8
Very high freq uency (VHF) , 23
security, 1 3 7
Very l ow frequency (VlF) , 22
subscriber equipment, 1 37
VF modems, 4 1
voice services , 1 3 7-3 8
VH F rad io, 25 5-56
See also Trunk co mmunicati ons
Vi deoconferenci ng, 1 79-8 0 , 3 0 1
Twisted pair, 5 0-5 1
Viterbi d e cod i n g algorith m , .3 3
Two-frequency, half-duplex rad io system ,
Vocoders , 28
24 1 , 242
Two-wire line, 50
Voice fre q u e n cy (VF ) , 2 1 -2 2
Voice over I P (Vo I P ) , 2 0 4
Voice services, trunk network, 1 3 7-3 8 Weap on p latforms, 1 77

Weather, 3 04-5
Warfare
Wide area networks (WANs) , 6 7
levels o f, 8-9
Wireless LAN s (WLANs) , 1 60
o perational level of, 8-9
Wireless n etworking, 1 6 5
strategic level of, 8
World War II communications, 1 1 3- 1 4
tactical level of, 9
Waveguides, 5 2

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Tactical Communications for the

British Library Cat al oguing in Publication Data

Cover design by Yeleaterina Ratner

© 2002 ARTECH HOUSE, INC.

International S tan d a rd Book Number: 1-58053-323-x

1 The Need for an Architecture 1

1.2 Operational Environment 2

1.3 Command and Control 5

1.3.1 The C2 Cycle 5

1.4 An Increased Vulnerability 7

1.5 Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield 0

1.5.1 Tactical Communications 8

1.6 The Need for an Architecture ]0

l An Introduction to Communications Technology 15

2.2 Communications Model 16

2.3.1 Analog Signals 17

2.3.2 Digital Signals 24

2.3.3 Baseband Digital Signals 25

2.3.4 Information Rate 26

2.3.5 Asynchronous/Synchronous Transmission 27

2.4 Source Coding 27

2.6 Channel Coding 31

2.6.1 Block Codes 32

2.6.2 Convolutional Codes 33

2.7.1 Analog Modulation 33

2.7.2 Digital Modulation 37

2.9 Frequency Spreading 42

2.10 1\11 ultiple Access 46

2.10.4 Time Hopping

2.13 Transmission Lines 49

2.13.1 Balanced Transmission Lines 50

2.13.2 Unbalanced Transmission Lines 51

2.13.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Copper Transmission

2.14 Optical Fibers 52

2.14.1 Advantages of Optical Fibers 52

2.14.2 Disadvantages of Optical Fibers 53

2.15.1 Antenna Size 53

2.15.2 Radiation Pattern 54

2.16.1 Ground Waves 57

2.16.2 Sky Waves and Scattered Waves 5S

2.17.1 Circuit Switching 64

2.17.2 Message Switching 65

2.17.3 Packet Switching 66

2.17.4 Cell Switching 66

2.1S Networking and Internetworking 67

2.1S.1 ISO OSI 7-Layer Reference Model 67

2.1S.3 Network Extension 72

2.1S.5 The Internet 73

3 Introduction to land Force Structures 87

3.2 Spectrum of Military Operations 87

3.3 Army Structure 89

3.3.1 The Infantry Squad 91

3.3.2 The Rifle Platoon 93

3.3.3 The Rifle Compa n y 94

3.3.4 The Infantry Battalion 95

3.3.5 The Infantry Brigade 97

3.3.6 The Infantry Division 98

3.3.7 The Infantry Corps 99

3.3.8 Mechanized and Motorized Infantry 100