INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS

Unit-1

Scalar and Vector

In Physics, we often use the terms force, speed, velocity and work, and these quantities are
classified as a scalar or vector quantities. A scalar quantity is a physical quantity with only
magnitudes, such as mass and electric charge. On the other hand, a vector quantity is a physical
quantity that has both magnitudes and directions like force and weight. In this article, let us
familiarize ourselves with vectors and scalars.

What Is a Scalar Quantity?

A scalar quantity is defined as the physical quantity with only magnitude and no direction. Such
physical quantities can be described just by their numerical value without directions. The
addition of these physical quantities follows the simple rules of algebra, and here, only their
magnitudes are added.

Examples of Scalar Quantities

Some examples of scalar include:

 Mass
 Speed
 Distance
 Time
 Volume
 Density
 Temperature

What Is a Vector Quantity?

A vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has both directions as well as
magnitude.
A vector with a value of magnitude equal to one is called a unit vector and is represented by a
lowercase alphabet with a “hat” circumflex, i.e. “û“.
Examples of Vector Quantities

Examples of vector quantity include:

 Linear momentum
 Acceleration
 Displacement
 Momentum
 Angular velocity
 Force
 Electric field
 Polarization

Difference Between Scalars and Vectors

The difference between Scalars and Vectors is crucial to understand in physics learning.

We have listed the various differences between a scalar and vector in the table below:

Vector Scalar

A physical quantity with both the magnitude and A physical quantity with only
Definition
direction. magnitude.
 A number (magnitude), direction using unit cap or arrow
Representation A number (magnitude) and unit
at the top and unit.

Symbol Quantity symbol in bold and an arrow sign above Quantity symbol

Direction Yes No

Example Velocity and Acceleration Mass and Temperature

Vector Addition and Subtraction

After understanding what is a vector, let’s learn vector addition and subtraction. The addition
and subtraction of vector quantities do not follow the simple arithmetic rules. A special set of
rules are followed for the addition and subtraction of vectors. Following are some points to be
noted while adding vectors:

 Addition of vectors means finding the resultant of a number of vectors acting on a body.
 The component vectors whose resultant is to be calculated are independent of each other.
Each vector acts as if the other vectors were absent.
 Vectors can be added geometrically but not algebraically.
 Vector addition is commutative in nature, i.e.,

→A+→B=→B+→A
Now, about vector subtraction, it is the same as adding the negative of the vector to be
subtracted. To better understand, let us look at the example given below.

Let us consider two vectors, A and B, as shown in the figure below. We need to subtract vector B
from vector A. It is just the same as adding vector B and vector A. The resultant vector is shown
in the figure below.
Vector Notation

For vector quantity usually, an arrow is used on the top as shown below, which represents the
vector value of the velocity and also explains that the quantity has both magnitudes as well as
direction.

Resolution of a Vector in a Plane - Rectangular Components

Consider the following vector r; the vector r can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. These two components add up to give us the resultant vector, i.e. vector r.

How do we calculate the rectangular components of a given vector?

We should know that there are two rectangular components for a vector, i.e. the horizontal
component and the vertical component. The horizontal component lies on the x-axis, whereas the
vertical component lies on the y-axis,

Think of it this way; the horizontal component will resemble the shadow of the vector r falling
on the x-axis if the light were shining from above. Similarly, the vertical component will
resemble the shadow of vector r falling on the y-axis if the light were shining from the side.
Now let us call the vertical component vector r v and the horizontal vector as vector rh and let us
call the angle made by the vector rv with the horizontal component as θ.

If we notice carefully the 3 vectors rv, rh and rv form the 3 sides of a right angled triangle, so
from trigonometry we can say that,

|r→ℎ|=|r→|cos
The reason is for the angle θ, r is the hypotenuse, and r h is the adjacent side, so adj/hyp = cosine
of the angle, so from this rule, we can find the magnitude of the horizontal vector given that we
know the magnitude of the vector r and the angle it makes with the horizontal vector.

Similarly, the magnitude of the vertical component can be found using the sine function because
the vertical component resembles the opposite side of the triangle and opp/hyp = sine of the
angle thereby, the magnitude of the vertical component is given by,

|r→v|=|r→|sinɵ
Now that we know how to get the magnitude of the rectangular components of the two vectors,
how do we find out the direction and the magnitude of the resultant vector if its horizontal and
vertical components are given? This could be done easily with a graphical method,

Imagine we have the horizontal component of magnitude 100 Newtons and a vertical component
of magnitude 40 Newtons, then we can draw a right-angled triangle with the given data. By
plotting the lengths of the vectors proportional to their magnitude. i.e.
Now the resultant vector could be drawn as the hypotenuse, and the length of the vector gives us
the magnitude of the resultant vector and its direction.

Resultant of vectors

The resultant is the vector sum of two or more vectors. It is the result of adding two or more
vectors together. If displacement vectors A, B, and C are added together, the result will be vector
R. As shown in the diagram, vector R can be determined by the use of an accurately drawn,
scaled, vector addition diagram.

To say that vector R is the resultant displacement of

displacement vectors A, B, and C is to say that a person who
walked with displacements A, then B, and then C would be
displaced by the same amount as a person who walked with
displacement R. Displacement vector R gives the same result as displacement vectors A + B + C.
That is why it can be said that

A+B+C=R

The above discussion pertains to the result of adding displacement vectors. When displacement
vectors are added, the result is a resultant displacement. But any two vectors can be added as
long as they are the same vector quantity. If two or more velocity vectors are added, then the
result is a resultant velocity. If two or more force vectors are added, then the result is a resultant
force. If two or more momentum vectors are added, then the result is ...
In all such cases, the resultant vector (whether a displacement vector, force vector, velocity
vector, etc.) is the result of adding the individual vectors. It is the same thing as adding A + B +
C + ... . "To do A + B + C is the same as to do R." As an example,
consider a football player who gets hit simultaneously by three players on
the opposing team (players A, B, and C). The football player experiences
three different applied forces. Each applied force contributes to a total or
resulting force. If the three forces are added together using methods of
vector addition (discussed earlier), then the resultant vector R can be
determined. In this case, to experience the three forces A, B and C is the same as experiencing
force R. To be hit by players A, B, and C would result in the same force as being hit by one
player applying force R. "To do A + B + C is the same as to do R." Vector R is the same result as
vectors A + B + C!!

In summary, the resultant is the vector sum of all the individual vectors. The resultant is the
result of combining the individual vectors together. The resultant can be determined by adding
the individual forces together using vector addition methods.

Introduction to Units and Dimensions

Every measurement has two parts. The first is a number (n), and the next is a unit (u). Q = nu.
For example, the length of an object = 40 cm. The number expressing the magnitude of a
physical quantity is inversely proportional to the unit selected.

f n1 and n2 are the numerical values of a physical quantity corresponding to the units u 1 and u2,
then n1u1 = n2u2. For example, 2.8 m = 280 cm; 6.2 kg = 6200 g.

Fundamental and Derived Quantities

  The quantities that are independent of other quantities are called fundamental
quantities. The units that are used to measure these fundamental quantities are
called fundamental units. There are four systems of units, namely CGS, MKS, FPS and
SI.
 The quantities that are derived using the fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities. The units that are used to measure these derived quantities are called derived
units.
Fundamental and supplementary physical quantities in the SI system

Fundamental System of Units

CGS MKS FPS

Quantity
Length centimeter meter foot
Mass gram kilogram pound
Time second second second
Physical Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric current ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K

Intensity of light candela cd

Quantity of substance mole mol

Supplementary Quantities

Plane angle Radian rad

Solid angle Steradian sr

Most SI units are used in scientific research. SI is a coherent system of units.

A coherent system of units is one in which the units of derived quantities are obtained as
multiples or submultiples of certain basic units. The SI system is a comprehensive, coherent and
rationalised MKS. The ampere system (RMKSA system) was devised by Prof. Giorgi.

1. Meter: A meter is equal to 1650763.73 times the wavelength of the light emitted in a
vacuum due to the electronic transition from 2p10 state to 5d5 state in Krypton-86. But in
1983, the 17th General Assembly of Weights and Measures adopted a new definition for
the meter in terms of the velocity of light. According to this definition, a meter is defined
as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299, 792, 458 of
a second.
2. Kilogram: The mass of a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept in the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures preserved at Serves near Paris is called one kilogram.
3. Second: The duration of 9192631770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium-133 atoms is called one
second.
4. Ampere: The current which, when flowing in each of two parallel conductors of infinite
length and negligible cross-section and placed one meter apart in vacuum, causes each
conductor to experience a force of 2 × 10-7 newtons per meter of length is known as one
ampere.
5. Kelvin: The fraction of 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water is called Kelvin.
6. Candela: The luminous intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of a black
body of area 1/600000 m2 at the temperature of solidifying platinum under a pressure of
101325 Nm-2 is known as one candela.
7. Mole: The amount of a substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 12 × 10 -3 kg of carbon-12 is known as one mole.
8. Radian: The angle made by an arc of the circle equivalent to its radius at the centre is
known as a radian. 1 radian = 57o17l45ll.
9. Steradian: The angle subtended at the centre by one square meter area of the surface of a
sphere of radius one meter is known as steradian.

Some Important Conclusions

 Angstrom is the unit of length used to measure the wavelength of light. 1 Å = 10-10 m.
 Fermi is the unit of length used to measure nuclear distances. 1 Fermi = 10 -15 meter.
 A light year is the unit of length for measuring astronomical distances.
 Light year = distance travelled by light in 1 year = 9.4605 × 1015 m.
 Astronomical unit = Mean distance between the sun and earth = 1.5 × 10 11 m.
 Parsec = 3.26 light years = 3.084×1016 m.
 Barn is the unit of area for measuring scattering cross-section of collisions. 1 barn = 10-
28
m2.
  Chronometer and metronome are time-measuring instruments. The quantity having the
same unit in all the systems of units is time.

 What Are Dimensions?

 Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units are
raised to obtain one unit of that quantity.

 Dimensional Analysis

 Dimensional analysis is the practice of checking relations between physical quantities by

identifying the dimensions of the physical quantities. These dimensions are independent
of the numerical multiples and constants, and all the quantities in the world can be
expressed as a function of the fundamental dimensions.

Dimensional Formula

The expression showing the powers to which the fundamental units are to be raised to obtain one
unit of a derived quantity is called the dimensional formula of that quantity.

If Q is the unit of a derived quantity represented by Q = MaLbTc, then MaLbTc is called the
dimensional formula, and the exponents a, b, and c are called dimensions.

What Are Dimensional Constants?

The physical quantities with dimensions and a fixed value are called dimensional constants. For
example, gravitational constant (G), Planck’s constant (h), universal gas constant (R), velocity of
light in a vacuum (C), etc.

What Are Dimensionless Quantities?

Dimensionless quantities are those which do not have dimensions but have a fixed value.

 Dimensionless quantities without units: Pure numbers, π, e, sin θ, cos θ, tan θ etc.
 Dimensionless quantities with units: Angular displacement – radian, Joule’s constant –
joule/calorie, etc.

What Are Dimensional Variables?

Dimensional variables are those physical quantities which have dimensions and do not have a
fixed value. For example, velocity, acceleration, force, work, power, etc.

What Are the Dimensionless Variables?

Dimensionless variables are those physical quantities which do not have dimensions and do not
have a fixed value. For example, specific gravity, refractive index, the coefficient of friction,
Poisson’s ratio, etc.

Law of Homogeneity of Dimensions

1. In any correct equation representing the relation between physical quantities, the
dimensions of all the terms must be the same on both sides. Terms separated by ‘+’ or ‘–’
must have the same dimensions.
2. A physical quantity Q has dimensions a, b and c in length (L), mass (M) and time (T),
respectively, and n1 is its numerical value in a system in which the fundamental units are
L1, M1 and T1 and n2 is the numerical value in another system in which the fundamental
units are L2, M2 and T2, respectively, then
n2=n1[L1/L2]a[M1/M2]b[T1/T2]c

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

1. Dimensionless quantities cannot be determined by this method. Also, the constant of

proportionality cannot be determined by this method. They can be found either by
experiment (or) by theory.
2. This method does not apply to trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.
3. This method will be difficult in the case of physical quantities, which are dependent upon
more than three physical quantities.
4. In some cases, the constant of proportionality also possesses dimensions. In such cases,
we cannot use this system.
5. If one side of the equation contains the addition or subtraction of physical quantities, we
cannot use this method to derive the expression.

Unit -2
Aristotle famously represented a force as anything that causes an object to undergo “unnatural
motion”. Sir Isaac Newton was one of the first scientists to study gravity and force. Any kind of
force is just a push or a pull. It can be described as a push or pull on an object.

FORCE:

Push or pull of an object is considered a force. Push and pull come from the objects interacting
with one another. Terms like stretch and squeeze can also be used to denote force.
In Physics, force is defined as:

The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its velocity.

Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s state of rest or motion. It has a
magnitude and a direction. The direction towards which the force is applied is known as the
direction of the force, and the application of force is the point where force is applied.

The Force can be measured using a spring balance. The SI unit of force is Newton(N).

Common symbols: F→,F

SI unit: Newton

In SI base units: kg·m/s2

Other units: dyne, poundal, pound-force, kip, kilo pond

Derivations from other quantities: F=ma

Dimension: LMT-2

What are the Effects of Force?

In physics, motion is defined as the change in position with respect to time. In simpler words,
motion refers to the movement of a body. Typically, motion can either be described as:

1. Change in speed
2. Change in direction
The Force has different effects, and here are some of them.

 Force can make a body that is at rest to move.

 It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
 It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
 It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and size.

Formula for Force

The quantity of force is expressed by the vector product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). The
equation or the formula for force can mathematically be expressed in the form of:

F = ma

Where,

 m = mass
 a = acceleration
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kgm/s2.

Acceleration a is given by

a = v/t

Where

 v = velocity
 t = time taken
So Force can be articulated as:

F = mv/t

Inertia formula is termed as p = mv which can also be articulated as Momentum.

Therefore, Force can be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.

F = p/t = dp/dt

Force formulas are beneficial in finding out the force, mass, acceleration, momentum, velocity in
any given problem.

Unit of Force
  In the centimeter gram second system of unit (CGS unit) force is expressed in dyne.
 In the standard international system of unit (SI unit) it is expressed in Newton (N).

Types of Force

Force is a physical cause that can change an object’s state of motion or dimensions. There are
two types of forces based on their applications:

1. Contact Force
2. Non-Contact Force

Contact Force

Forces that act on a body either directly or through a medium are called contact forces.

Examples of contact forces are:

 Muscular Force
 Mechanical Force
 Frictional Force
We can use the muscular force of animals like bullocks, horses, and camels to get the activities
done. The frictional force is another type of contact force, which acts between a pair of a surface
in contact and tends to oppose the motion of one surface over the other.

Non-Contact Force
Forces that act through spaces without making direct contact with the body are called non-
contact forces.

Examples of non-contact forces are:

 Gravitational Force
 Electrostatic Force
 Magnetic Force
The force exerted by a magnet on other magnets is called magnetic force. Magnetic force and
electrostatic force act on an object from a distance. That’s the reason they are non-contact forces.
The strength of gravity is an attractive force that is exerted by the Earth on objects, which makes
them fall to the land. The weight of a body is the force that is pulled by the earth towards the
centre.

Gravitational Force

Ever wondered how planets revolve around the Sun? The Earth attracts the Moon, and the Moon
attracts the Earth, so shouldn’t they both just collide? Why doesn’t the Moon fall? Why does it
keep revolving around the Earth?

All these questions can be answered by understanding the concepts of gravitation. The universal
force of attraction, which is acting between objects, is known as the gravitational force. It is one
of the fundamental forces of the universe.

According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation,

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational Force Formula

F∝(m1m2)/r2

Where,

 F is the gravitational force between two bodies

 m1 is the mass of the first body
 m2 is the mass of the second body
 r is the distance between the centres of two bodies
The force exerted by two bodies with mass m1 and m2, whose centres are r units apart are given
as:

F=G(m1m2)/r2

Newton’s cannonball is a ‘thought experiment’ given by Newton, which leads to the hypothesis
that the force of gravity is universal, and it plays a major role in planetary motion.

According to this thought experiment, he assumed a cannon on the top of a very high mountain
peak. The following cases can arise if the cannon is loaded with gunpowder and fired.

 If the speed of the cannon is low, it falls on the Earth following a projectile motion.
 If at that particular altitude, the speed of the cannon is equal to the orbital speed, the
cannonball will go on circling the Earth about a fixed orbit.
 If the speed of the cannonball is higher than the orbital velocity but is insufficient to leave
the Earth, i.e. less than the escape velocity of the Earth then, the cannonball continues to
revolve around Earth in an elliptical orbit.
 If the speed is equal to escape velocity or greater than that, the cannonball leaves the
Earth in a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory.
Now, coming back to our original question, how do planets revolve around the Sun? Well, the
gravity of the Sun keeps the planets around it in fixed orbits. Due to the same reason,
the Moon orbits the Earth due to the gravitational pull of the Earth on the Moon. But if the Sun is
attracting the Earth, why doesn’t it fall into it or why doesn’t the Moon collide with the Earth?

The reason behind this is that Earth has a velocity perpendicular to the gravitational force exerted
by the Sun. Thus, the planets move sideways in addition to getting attracted by the Sun, which
keeps them moving in specified orbits. Similarly, the Moon revolves around the Earth without
falling into it.

Examples Of Gravity

As we learned in this article that gravity is the force that pulls two bodies together, below are the
examples of gravity:

 The force acting between the Sun and the Earth.

 The force that is responsible for the revolution of the Moon around the Earth.
 The tides that are caused in the ocean are due to the force from the Moon.
 The force that is holding all the gases in the Sun.
 The force that acts on us makes us walk on the ground and not float in the air.
Electrostatic force:

1. The electrostatic force is an attractive as well as repulsive force caused by the electric
charge particles.
2. It is also known as Columb's force. The Columb attraction would be named after Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb, a French scientist.
3. One of nature's four basic forces however is electrostatic force.
 4. Example: The power of attachment of such plastic wrapping to one's hand as well as the
υsubsequent removal of the hand from the wrap and photocopier and laser printer
operation.

Magnetic Force

Magnetic force is a consequence of electromagnetic force and is caused due to the motion of
charges. We have learned that a moving charge surrounds itself with a magnetic field. With this
context, the magnetic force can be described as a force that arises due to interacting magnetic
fields. Learn more about magnetic force in detail.

What Is Magnetic Force?

If we place a point charge q in the presence of both a magnitude field given by

magnitude B(r) and an electric field given by a magnitude E(r), then the total force on the
electric charge q can be written as the sum of the electric force and the magnetic force acting on
the object (Felectric + Fmagnetic ).

Magnetic force can be defined as:

The magnetic force between two moving charges may be described as the effect exerted upon
either charge by a magnetic field created by the other.

How To Find Magnetic Force?

The magnitude of the magnetic force depends on how much charge is in how much motion in
each of the objects and how far apart they are.

Mathematically, we can write magnetic force as:

�=q[E(r)+υ×B(r)]

This force is termed as the Lorentz Force. It is the combination of the electric and magnetic force
on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. The interaction between the electric field and the
magnetic field has the following features:

 The magnetic force depends upon the charge of the particle, the velocity of the particle
and the magnetic field in which it is placed. The direction of the magnetic force is
opposite to that of a positive charge.
  The magnitude of the force is calculated by the cross product of velocity and the
magnetic field, given by q [ v × B ]. The resultant force is thus perpendicular to the
direction of the velocity and the magnetic field, the direction of the magnetic field is
predicted by the right-hand thumb rule.
 In the case of static charges, the total magnetic force is zero.

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

Let us now discuss the force due to the magnetic field in a straight current-carrying rod.

 We consider a rod of uniform length l and cross-sectional area A.

 In the conducting rod, let the number density of mobile electrons be given by n.
Then the total number of charge carriers can be given by nAI, where I is the steady current in the
rod. The drift velocity of each mobile carrier is assumed to be given as vd. When the conducting
rod is placed in an external magnetic field of magnitude B, the force applied on the mobile
charges or the electrons can be given as:

F=(nAI)q υd×B

Where q is the value of charge on the mobile carrier.

As nqvd is also the current density j and A×|nqvd| is the current I through the conductor, then we
can write:

�=[(�����)��]�=[���]�=���

Where I is the vector of magnitude equal to the length of the conducting rod.

Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics, that deals with the electromagnetic force that occurs
between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental
forces and exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, electric fields, and light. It is
the basic reason electrons are bound to the nucleus and are responsible for the complete structure
of the nucleus.
What is Electromagnetic Force?

The electromagnetic force is a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically
charged particles. It acts between charged particles and is the combination of all magnetic and
electrical forces. The electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive.

Before the invention of electromagnetism, people or scientists used to think electricity and
magnetism are two different topics. The view has changed after James Clerk Maxwell
published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in the year 1873. The publication states that
the interaction of positive and negative charges are mediated by one force. This observation laid
a foundation for Electromagnetism. Later many scientists like Michael Faraday, Oliver
Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz contributed their ideas in electromagnetism.

What is Electromagnetism?

Electromagnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current in

the conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines. For
example, if current i.e., positive charges move in a wire, it produces the magnetic field along the
wire, and the direction of magnetic lines and force can be determined using Right-hand Rule.
Refer to the image for a detailed explanation.

Explanation of Electromagnetism with an Example

Permanent Magnetic speakers commonly used in TV’s and Radios are perfect examples of
Electromagnetic devices. Let’s see the operation of these devices which are based on the
principle of electromagnetism. See the picture below.
In order to convert electrical waves into audible sound, the speakers are designed. A metal coil is
attached to a permanent magnet and when current passes through the coil it generates a magnetic
field. The newly formed magnetic field is repelled by the permanent magnetic field resulting in
the vibrations. These vibrations are amplified by the cone-like structure causing the sound. This
is how speakers work based on electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic Induction

We have seen what happens when a conductor is electrically charged. Now, let’s see what
happens if we place a conductor in between the magnetic field.

When a conductor is placed or moved through the magnetic field it generates voltage i.e.,
electricity. This principle is called Electromagnetic Induction. The voltages generated will be
based on the speed of the conductor moving through the magnetic field. Faster the speed of the
conductor, the greater the induced electricity or voltage.

Faraday’s Law

According to Faraday’s Law, the relative motion between the magnetic field and conductor, the
flux linkage changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across the coil.

Explanation with an example

DC Generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. It is a

system that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
In the above figure, A rectangular conductor width sides are placed in between a magnetic field.
When the rectangular conductor rotates in between magnetics, it cuts the magnetic field thereby
causing the Electromagnetic field (e m f).

Properties of the Electromagnetic Wave

A few properties of electromagnetic waves are:

 Electromagnetic waves are propagated by oscillating electric and magnetic waves at right
angles to each other.
 They exhibit the properties of interference and diffraction.
 They travel at a speed of 3 × 108m/s in a vacuum.
 They are transverse waves.
 The relationship between the wavelength (λ) and frequency (c) of an electromagnetic
wave is given as follows:
c=vλ

Applications of Electromagnetism

A few applications of electromagnetism are:

 Electromagnetism serves as a fundamental working principle for many of the home

appliances in household applications.
 The Maglev trains or high-speed trains work on the principle of electromagnetism.
 Electromagnetic radiations are used in the communication system to transfer data from
the source to the receiver.
 In industries, starting from small instruments to large power equipment,
electromagnetism is used at least at one stage of their work.
What Is Nuclear Force?

The nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, the others being gravitational
and electromagnetic forces. In fact, being 10 million times stronger than the chemical binding
forces, they are also known as the strong forces. In this section, we will discuss this force in
detail. We can define nuclear force as:

The nuclear force is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.

The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together. This
force can exist between protons and protons, neutrons and protons or neutrons and neutrons. This
force is what holds the nucleus together.

The charge of protons, which is +1e, tends to push them away from each other with a strong
electric field repulsive force, following Coulomb’s law. But nuclear force is strong enough to
keep them together and to overcome that resistance at short range.

You may like to learn more about other related concepts as given below:

 Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fusion
 Radioactivity: Alpha Decay
 Nuclear Physics

Properties of Nuclear Force

 It is attractive in nature but with a repulsive core. That is the reason that the nucleus is
held together without collapsing in itself.
 The range of a nuclear force is very short. At 1 Fermi, the distance between particles in a
nucleus is tiny. At this range, the nuclear force is much stronger than the repulsive
 Coulomb’s force that pushes the particles away. However, if the distance is anything
more than 2.5 Fermi, nuclear force is practically non-existent.
 The nuclear force is identical for all nucleons. It does not matter if it is a neutron or
proton, once the Coulomb resistance is taken into consideration, nuclear force affects
everything in the same way.
 At a distance of less than 0.7 Fermi, this force becomes repulsive. It is one of the most
interesting properties of nuclear force, as this repulsive component of the force is what
decides the size of the nucleus. The nucleons come closer to each other to the point that
the force allows, after which they cannot come any closer because of the repulsive
property of the force.

Strong Nuclear force

Nuclear Force Examples

The most obvious example of Nuclear Force, as discussed earlier, is the binding of protons,
which are repulsive in nature because of their positive charge.

 On a larger scale, this force is responsible for the immense destructive power of nuclear
weapons. The release of energy when a nuclear weapon is detonated is due to strong
nuclear forces. It is also used in Nuclear power plants to generate heat for the purpose of
generating energy, such as electricity.
 A weaker nuclear force can transform a neutron into a proton and a proton into a neutron.
These forces occur in many reactions such as radioactive decay, burning of the sun,
radiocarbon dating etc.

Defining Centripetal Force

According to the centripetal force definition,

Centripetal force is the force acting on an object in curvilinear motion directed towards the axis
of rotation or centre of curvature.
The unit of centripetal force is newton.

The centripetal force is always directed perpendicular to the direction of the object’s
displacement. Using Newton’s second law of motion, it is found that the centripetal force of an
object moving in a circular path always acts towards the centre of the circle.

Calculating Centripetal Force

The Centripetal Force Formula is given as the product of mass (in kg) and tangential velocity (in
meters per second) squared, divided by the radius (in meters) that implies that on doubling the
tangential velocity, the centripetal force will be quadrupled. Mathematically it is written as:

F=mV2/r

Where, F is the Centripetal force, m is the mass of the object, v is the speed or velocity of the
object and r is the radius.

Centripetal Force Examples in Daily Life

The centripetal force pulls or pushes an object towards the centre of a circle as it travels, causing
angular or circular motion.

 When spinning a ball on a string or twirling a lasso, the force of tension on the rope pulls
the object towards the centre.
  The centripetal force is provided by the frictional force between the ground and the
wheels when turning a car.
 When going through a loop on a roller coaster, the force is provided by the normal force
as the seat or wall pushes you towards the centre.
 For the planets orbiting around the Sun, the centripetal force is provided by Gravity.

What Is Centrifugal Force?

Centrifugal force is a pseudo force in a circular motion which acts along the radius and is
directed away from the centre of the circle. The force does not exist when measurements are
made in an inertial frame of reference. It only comes into play when changing our reference
frame from a ground/inertial to a rotating reference frame.

The centrifugal force’s unit is newton.

Calculating Centrifugal Force

A centrifugal force basically uses the centripetal force formula (which describes a real
phenomenon) and reverses the direction of the force, to describe the fictitious centrifugal force.

F=−mv2/r

Where, F is the Centrifugal force, m is the mass of the object, v is the speed or velocity of the
object and r is the radius.

Centrifugal Force Examples in Daily Life

Centrifugal Force acts on every object moving in a circular path when viewed from a rotating
frame of reference. Some examples of Centrifugal Force are given below.

 Weight of an object at the poles and on the equator

 A bike making a turn.
 Vehicle driving around a curve
 Equatorial railway

Centripetal Force vs Centrifugal Force

Check the table below to learn the detailed comparison between Centripetal and Centrifugal
Force
 Differences Between Centripetal And Centrifugal Force

Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force

Centripetal force is the component of force acting on an Centrifugal force is a pseudo force in a circular
object in curvilinear motion which is directed towards the motion which acts along the radius and is
axis of rotation or centre of curvature. directed away from the centre of the circle.

It is observed from a non-inertial frame of

It is observed from an inertial frame of reference.
reference.

If a car is travelling through a curve on a circular When a car in motion takes a sudden turn
horizontal road, the centripetal force provided by the force towards the left, passengers in a car experience
of friction between the tyres of the vehicle and the road an outward push. This is due to the centrifugal
surface allows the car to negotiate the turn. force acting on passengers.

What Is Frictional Force?

Frictional force is the force generated by two surfaces that contact and slide against each other.

A few factors affecting the frictional force:

 These forces are mainly affected by the surface texture and the amount of force impelling
them together.
 The angle and position of the object affect the amount of frictional force.
 If an object is placed flat against an object, then the frictional force will be equal to the
object’s weight.
 If an object is pushed against the surface, then the frictional force will be increased and
becomes more than the weight of the object

Calculating the Force of Friction

The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can apply upon an object can be easily
calculated with the use of the given formula:

Ffrict = µ • Fnorm
To help you calculate the frictional force, here we have provided methodical steps to follow
while calculating the force of friction.

 Find the Normal Force

The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable
object. The normal force can be simply described in most cases by the following formula:
N = mg

In this formula, m describes the object’s mass, and g stands for the acceleration due to gravity. In
the case of an inclined surface, the strength of the normal surface is reduced the more the surface
is inclined, hence the formula becomes:
N = mg cos(θ)

θ represents the angle to the surface is inclined to. In a simple calculation, you would calculate
the normal force of a 2-kg block of wood sitting on a surface as N = 2 kg × 9.8 N/kg = 19.6 N

 Finding the Right Co-efficient

The co-efficient you choose depends on the object and the specific situation. If the object isn’t
moving across the surface, you use the coefficient of static friction
µstatic
, but if the object under consideration is moving, you use the coefficient of sliding friction
µslide
. The type of materials used also affects the co-efficient. For example, if a block was on a brick
surface, the coefficient would be 0.6, but if it were on a block of clean wood, it would range
from 0.25 to 0.5.

 Calculating Frictional Force

As discussed, the formula for frictional force is given by F = μN.

As an example, let us consider the block of wood that weighs 2-kg resting on a table to be
pushed from rest. In this case, we consider the static friction coefficient. 0.5 is the static
coefficient of wood.

With the given details, we can calculate the normal force as N = 2 kg × 9.8 N/kg = 19.6 N Now
that we have the values of normal force and static friction co-efficient, we can calculate the
frictional force as follows:
F = 0.5 × 19.6 N = 9.8 N
Are there Different Types of Frictional Force?

Yes, there are different types of frictional forces. The friction that takes place between solid
surfaces is classified as Static, Kinetic, Rolling, and Sliding Friction. The friction that takes
place between fluids and gases is termed as fluid Friction. Hence, friction is broadly classified
as:

 Dry Friction
o Static Friction
o Kinetic Friction
o Rolling Friction
o Sliding Friction
 Fluid Friction

Dry Friction

Dry friction describes the reaction between two solid bodies in contact when they are in motion
(kinetic friction) and when they are not (static friction). Both static and kinetic friction is
proportional to the normal force exerted between the solid bodies. The interaction of different
substances is modelled with different coefficients of friction. By this, we mean that certain
substances have a higher resistance to movement than others for the same normal force between
them. Each of these values are experimentally determined.

What is Static Friction?

Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest. Static friction definition can be written as:

The friction experienced when individuals try to move a stationary object on a surface, without
actually triggering any relative motion between the body and the surface on which it is on.
It can be explained as the force of friction which precisely balances the applied force for the
duration of the stationary state of the body.

The static frictional force is self-regulating, i.e. static friction will at all times be equivalent and

opposite to the force applied. R is the

reaction force because of the weight W. The external force is F, and fr is the friction. F = -fr when
no motion takes place.

What Is Kinetic Friction?

Friction is easily defined as the force that holds back a sliding object. Kinetic friction is a part of
everything, and it interferes motion of two or more objects. The force acts in the opposite
direction to the way an object wants to slide. If a car has to stop, we apply brakes and that is
exactly where the friction comes into play. While walking, when one wants to suddenly come to
a halt, friction is to thank again. But when we have to stop in the middle of a puddle, things get
harder since friction is less there and cannot aid one so much.

A Model For Kinetic Friction

Kinetic Friction Formula

The coefficient of kinetic friction is denoted by the Greek letter “mu” (μ), with a subscript “k”.
The force of kinetic friction is μk times the normal force on a body. It is expressed in Newtons
(N). The kinetic friction equation can be written as:

Force of kinetic friction = (coefficient of kinetic friction)(normal force)

 Fk= μk η

Where,

 Fk = force of kinetic friction

 μk = coefficient of kinetic friction
 η = normal force (Greek letter “eta”)

What Is Rolling Friction?

For a moving solid body, there are two principal types of friction that act upon it:

 The force resisting the motion of a rolling body on a surface is known as rolling friction
or rolling resistance. Rolling of ball or wheel on the ground is an example of Rolling
friction.
 The other type of friction is sliding friction. In this type of friction, there is a restriction
on the body’s movement as only one side of the body is in contact with the surface.
Pushing a box across the table is an example of Sliding friction.
Rolling friction is considerably weaker than sliding friction.

Laws of Rolling Friction

There are three laws of rolling friction:

 With the increase in smoothness, the force of rolling friction decreases.

 Rolling friction is expressed as a product of load and constant to the fractional power.
 F = kLn

 Rolling friction force is directly proportional to load and inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature.
�=���

Cause of Rolling Friction

When an object is rolled on a surface, certain things happen:

1. The object is deformed at the point of contact with the surface.

2. The surface is deformed at the point of contact with the object.
3. The motion is created below the surface as a result of the above-mentioned points.

The primary cause of this friction is that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of
recovery. Also, there is an adhesive force between the two surfaces which needs to be overcome
constantly. The amount of friction is based on a variety of factors such as:

 The quality of the sliding body

 The quality of the surface
 Load
 The diameter of the rolling object
 The surface area of the body

What is Sliding Friction?

We can define sliding friction as the resistance created by any two objects when sliding against
each other. This friction is also known as kinetic friction and is defined as the force that is
needed to keep a surface sliding along another surface. It depends on two variables- one is
material and the other is the weight of the object. Any change in the surface area in contact does
not change the sliding friction. In most of the materials, sliding friction is less than static friction.
There are exceptions that include metals having static and sliding friction coefficients and are
essentially the same with small surfaces where molecular attraction forces take over.

 Sliding Friction Formula

 The equation for sliding force includes the coefficient of sliding friction times the normal
force.

 FS = μSFn
 Where,

 FS = force of sliding friction

 μS = Coefficient of sliding friction

 Fn = normal force

What is Tension?

Tension is a force along the length of a medium, especially a force carried by a flexible medium,
such as a rope or cable.
Tension can be defined as an action-reaction pair of forces acting at each end of the said
elements. While considering a rope, the tension force is felt by every section of the rope in both
the directions, apart from the endpoints. The endpoints experience tension on one side and the
force from the weight attached. Throughout the string, the tension varies in some circumstances.

Common Misconception

Tension is a pulling force and not a pushing force as ropes can’t push effectively. Attempting to
push the rope will cause the rope to go slack losing the tension it possesses. This might sound
obvious but while illustrating the forces acting on an object, people often draw the force of
tension going in the wrong direction. Hence it is important to remember that tension can only
pull on an object but not push against it.

How do we calculate the force of tension?

The tension on an object is equal to the product of the mass of the object and gravitational force
added to the product of the mass and acceleration. Mathematically, it is represented as follows:
T = mg + ma

Definition of Adhesion and Cohesion

As for the definitions, the tendency of two or more different molecules to bond with each other is
known as adhesion, whereas the force of attraction between the same molecules is known as
cohesion.

The adhesion forces can be one of the results of electrostatic forces which are exerted on
different substances. The cohesive forces are associated with Van der Waals forces and hydrogen
bonding that cause liquids such as water to withstand the separation. When a glass surface is
poured with water, both adhesive and cohesive forces act on the surface of the water. A strong
adhesive force tends the liquid to spread over the surface whereas a strong cohesive force is
responsible for the formation of water droplets on the water surface.

The adhesion and cohesion forces, both vary in their strengths. For example, if cohesion forces
between the water molecules are stronger than that of the adhesion forces between them, then the
individual molecules will attract each other thus resulting in settling. In case, the adhesion forces
of the water surfaces are stronger than that of the cohesion forces of the water molecules, then
the water tends to disperse.
Differences Between Adhesion and Cohesion

Sr.no Adhesion Cohesion

1. Adhesion happens between two dissimilar When two similar substances or molecules
molecules or substances. face the force of attraction, this force is
known as the cohesion force.

2. Adhesion is generally the force of attraction Cohesion force is unrestrained among water
present between the water molecules and the molecules.
walls of xylem vessels.

3. Capillary action and meniscus (the curved Surface tension, meniscus and capillary
surface which is formed by any liquid in a action are the effects of cohesion.
cylinder) are the effects of adhesion.

4. Adhesion is caused by electrostatic or Cohesion is caused by hydrogen bonding

mechanical forces that exist among two kinds of and Van der Waals forces.
different substances.

5. A strong adhesion force causes the liquid to A strong force of cohesion forms water
spread all over the surface. droplets on any surface.
What is Cohesive Force?

Cohesion, also known as cohesive attraction or cohesive force, is the action or property of
molecules adhering to one another due to mutual attraction.

The force of attraction between two comparable substances or molecules is known as the
cohesion force. Cohesion is exemplified by water. Each water molecule makes hydrogen bonds
with molecules next to it. Cohesive Force is the action or property of
comparable molecules adhering to one another due to their mutual attraction. Surface tension is
created by cohesion, which creates a solid-like state on which lightweight or low-density
materials can be deposited.

Adhesive and Cohesive Forces

The force of attraction between two different molecules is known as adhesive force. For instance,
consider the attraction between water and air molecules. The cohesive force is the attraction
between two molecules that are comparable. For instance, consider the attraction between water
molecules.

The attraction between molecules of the same kind is known as a cohesive force. For example,
the force of cohesion between water molecules keeps the substance’s molecules bonded together.
The attraction between different types of molecules is known as adhesion force. For example,
when a glass of water is emptied, the particles remain stuck to the glass due to the molecular
adhesion between the water and the glass.

The attractive forces between dissimilar substances, such as mechanical forces (sticking
together) and electrostatic forces, are referred to as “adhesive forces” (attraction due to opposing
charges). Adhesion causes a liquid to cling to the surface it is resting on in the case of a liquid
wetting agent.

Cohesion Force in Liquids

Water is highly cohesive, it is the highest of the non-metallic liquids. Water is sticky and clumps
together into drops because of its cohesive properties, but chemistry and electricity are involved
at a more detailed level to make this possible.

The surface of a liquid contracts to the smallest possible surface area due to cohesive forces
between molecules. Surface tension is the common term for this phenomenon. Cohesive forces
pull molecules on the surface inward, lowering the surface area. Because they have neighbours
on all sides, molecules inside the liquid experience zero net force.

Cohesive forces are attractive forces between molecules of the same sort. Because cohesive
forces hold the molecules together, liquids can be held in open containers. Adhesive forces are
the attractive forces that exist between molecules of various sorts. Liquid drips, for example,
adhere to glass panes as a result of such forces. We will look at the effects of cohesive and
adhesive forces in liquids in this section.

Cohesive Force Example

Water is a good example of a cohesive substance. Dihydrogen monoxide (HOH) molecules,

which have two hydrogens and one oxygen, make up water. Take a look at the schematic
diagram of a water molecule’s chemical structure. The molecule has polarity, which is defined as
the presence of two opposed charges. The hydrogens have a slightly positive charge, resulting in
a partially positive pole, whereas the oxygen has a slightly negative charge, resulting in a
partially negative pole. The polarity of water molecules causes them to cling together or attract
one another.

A cohesive force holds water molecules together. This force is an intermolecular hydrogen bond,
which is a weak or temporary sort of chemical connection. It is formed when one HOH’s
hydrogen reacts with the hydrogen of another HOH. As a result, as they cohere, they create a
water drop.

Surface Tension

Surface tension is the tension in a liquid’s surface layer caused by the attraction of surface
particles by the bulk of the liquid, which strives to decrease surface area. Surface tension is used
when the liquid’s surface is sufficiently strong. It can support a lot of weight.

Surface tension is also responsible for certain insects remaining stationary above the water or
walking through it. Notice how the water strider can stand motionless without dropping its legs
below the water’s surface in the shot below.

The key variables that enable capillarity are surface tension, cohesion, and adhesion. This is
particularly significant in vascular plants. Capillary action allows water to travel up a tight tube
against gravity. The molecules of the liquid are drawn inward from the surface by surface
tension, resulting in the smallest possible surface area. The water molecules then adhere to each
other due to cohesion.