ELE11113/513

Network Analysis

Refer to the accompanying PowerPoint presentation for the introductory material

on Networks.

The per-unit system

Per-unit values
Power systems analysis can be simplified using per-unit (p.u.) values or ratios to
express the system quantities. Usually, it is more informative to express values in
p.u. rather than in volts, amperes, ohms etc. particularly in interconnected power
systems where the rated voltages and currents in the various parts of the system
may differ.

The idea of a per-unit value is already familiar, though perhaps not appreciated;
since efficiency is usually expressed in per-unit form e.g. a motor with an efficiency
of 0.9 has an output of 0.9 per unit of input power. It has been noted already that
p.u. values are more informative. For example, to quote the loss in a transformer
as 10 kW is relatively meaningless. Depending on the rating of the transformer this
may represent a fairly large loss or an insignificant loss. Relating the losses to the
rating of the transformer conveys more information. Thus if the transformer is rated
at 200 kW then the 10 kW loss can be expressed more usefully as 5% or 0.05 p.u.
of the rating (it can also be deduced that the output is 95% or 0.95 p.u.).

Per-unit values relate actual values to a base or reference value, e.g. to a base of
132 kV, a voltage of 120 kV corresponds to 120 /132 = 0.909 p.u. In general, the
per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value to the base
value, expressed as a decimal. Thus:

actual _ value
p.u. value = ……………….(1)
base _ value

where equation (1) may be applied to any quantity.

Base values
Every quantity requires a base value. Electrical quantities are so related that
selection of the base values for any two of them determines the base values of all
other electrical quantities. For example, if randomly selected base values for
voltage and current are designated VB and IB, other base values must satisfy the
accepted fundamental equations:

i.e. ZB = VB/IB and SB = VB x IB

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 1 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Hence, the base values for impedance ZB and apparent power SB are determined
by these equations, thus they are determined by the chosen values for VB and IB;
and therefore cannot be chosen randomly. Base values for other electrical
quantities can be derived in the same way (e.g. admittance YB = 1/ZB).
By ensuring that base values satisfy the fundamental equations, these fundamental
equations may be expressed as per-unit values. e.g. Vpu = Ipu x Zpu
The two base values most commonly selected are:

(a) the base value of apparent power, SB - This can be any value! (but
see below).
(b) the base value of voltage, VB - This is the nominal voltage for the part
of the system being studied. Hence we use a different V B at different
points in the network!

All other bases must be derived from these values.

Where only a single item of plant is being considered, the most convenient base
values to choose are the rated values of the plant. For a complete power system,
the apparent power ratings of the individual components may vary considerably. It
is common either to choose the value which appears most frequently throughout
the system or to take 100 MVA as the base apparent power.

Per-unit impedance
In terms of the chosen base apparent power SB and base voltage VB, an ohmic
impedance Z(Ω) is expressed as a p.u. impedance Zpu as follows:

SB = V B x IB therefore IB = SB/VB

Note – this is for single phase, for 3-phase, SB = √3.VB x IB

therefore IB = SB/√3.VB

VB VB VB 2
The base impedance ZB    ……………….(2)
IB SB / VB SB

Z()
Also by definition (1), per-unit impedance: Zpu =
ZB

Note that in equation (2), SB and VB are in units of volt-amperes (VA) and volts (V)
respectively.

The meaning of p.u. impedance

This is best illustrated by a worked example.

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 2 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Example 1: A 30 MVA, 11 kV generator has an actual impedance Z of 0.8 Ω.

Find the per-unit impedance to a base of;
a) 30 MVA,
b) 100 MVA.

Setting aside the per-unit system and assuming a single-phase generator, the rated
current of this generator, corresponding to 30 MVA at 11 kV is.

Srated 30 x106
Irated =  = 2727 A
Vrated 11x103
When the machine delivers this current, the voltage drop in the machine's internal
impedance Z is:

volt drop = Irated x Z = 2727 x 0.8 = 2182 V

Expressed as a per-unit of the rated voltage:

volts drop = 2182/11x103 = 0.198

This is numerically equal to the per-unit impedance. Thus per-unit impedance is

a measure of the voltage drop which the impedance will produce.

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 3 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Change of base
When several items of plant are connected in series they must carry the same
current and apparent power S. To estimate the total series p.u. impedance the
individual p.u. impedances must be quoted to the same base, SB. Adding series
impedances not to the same base SB is equivalent to adding resistors in series not
carrying the same current. Calculating total series impedance may therefore
require that the p.u. impedances are recalculated or converted to a new base
apparent power. The “new” base may be the “study” base that is being used to
perform a particular analysis.

To convert a p.u. impedance from an original base Sold to a new base Snew multiply
the given p.u. impedance by the ratio Snew/Sold

i.e. Zpu(new) = Zpu(old) x Snew/Sold …………………….(2)

Example 2 A transformer has an impedance of 0.05 p.u. to a base of 60 MVA.

Calculate the p.u. impedance to a base of 100 MVA.

From equation (2):

These results are logical. Accepting the idea that the value of a p.u. impedance
reflects the voltage drop the impedance will cause, halving the MVA would result in
the voltage drop being halved (i.e. the p.u. impedance is halved) while doubling the
MVA must double the voltage drop (and hence the p.u. impedance).

Per-unit quantities in 3-phase systems

In 3-phase systems it is necessary to distinguish between line and phase values.
To convert from one to the other the following relations are used:

Star-connection : VL = 3 VPH IL = IPH

Delta-connection: VL = VPH IL = 3 IPH

If the above relations are observed when selecting base values for the line and
phase quantities i.e.

star connection : V LB = 3 VPHB ILB = IPHB

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 4 of 14
 ELE11113/513

delta connection: VLB = VPHB I LB = 3 IPHB

VL 3VPH
then for a star connection: VLpu =  = VPHpu
VLB 3VPHB

IL 3IPH
And ILpu =  = IPHpu
ILB 3IPHB
Similarly, it can be shown for a delta connection that:

VLBpu = VPHpu and ILpu = IPHpu

Thus when working with p.u. values in a 3-phase system the line and phase values
are numerically equal; there is no need to differentiate between line and phase
values. Again, this is a major benefit of per-unit calculations.

Further, with both star and delta connections the p.u. apparent power:

S 3VLIL
Spu =  = VLpu ILpu= VPHpu IPHpu
SB 3VLBILB

Note from the above, that the 3 (or 3) found commonly in the equations describing
3-phase systems are dropped when working in per-unit.

Summary of advantages of the per-unit system

 Circuits operating at several different voltage levels are much easier to

analyse.
 The p.u. values are generally easier to use.
 There are fewer 3 factors in 3-phase calculations
 Impedances and volt drops (regulation) in units of widely different sizes can be
directly compared.

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 5 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Load Flow Studies (using the per-unit system)

With knowledge of the components that make up a power system, (their circuit
symbols and their equivalent circuits), along with knowledge of the per unit
system, it is possible to carry out simple load flow calculations on simple power
system networks using standard circuit analysis techniques.

Load flow studies are essential to determine the magnitude and phase angle of
the voltage at each point (busbar) of the system and the real and reactive power
flow along each line, in the steady-state. Potentially large and complex circuits
may still be analysed in this manner if the rest of the grid system is represented by
its equivalent circuit.

Straightforward series and parallel circuits can be analysed with corresponding

series/parallel circuit reduction techniques. More complicated interconnected
circuits may require the use of more sophisticated circuit reduction techniques
such as star-delta transforms.

More complicated circuit analysis techniques and/or suitable software packages

such as ERACS are required for larger and more complicated networks.

Load Flow Examples

Load Flow Example 1
Consider the power circuit shown below:

G T1 T2
Line
Load

The parameters are G : 50 MVA, 11 kV, X = j0.6 p.u.

T1 : 50 MVA, 11/132 kV, X = j0.2 p.u.
Line : 132 kV, Z = j100 Ω per phase
T2 : 50 MVA, 132/33 kV, X = j0.24 p.u.
Load : 40 MW, 0.8 p.f. lagging at a voltage of 30 kV.

Using a base of 50 MVA, determine the p.u. current and the generator EMF, E.

Note - pu values are to plant rated Apparent Power value unless otherwise stated.

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 6 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Solution process to be followed;

• Convert all quantities to the same base MVA using pu system

• Calculate the load current
• Calculate the system impedance (simple series circuit)
• Solve for E using KVL and Ohm’s law.
• NB - the base value of voltage, VB, is the nominal voltage for the part of the
system being studied.

Using a base of 50 MVA (as it is a common value).

The reactances of G, T1 and T2 remain at their given values
j0.6 pu, j0.2 pu and j0.24 pu respectively.
For the line, the base impedance,

To obtain the per unit current, Ipu; [NB the key objective of this calculation is to
determine the load current. This is often found from the load apparent power, which
can be found using the information available to us, which in this case is the Power
and power factor.]

Sload = P/cosΦ =

In pu terms, Spu = Sload/SB =

In pu terms, Vpu = Vload/VB =

Thus Ipu = Spu/Vpu =

Note that the phase angle of the load (current) is -36.8° (cos-1 0.8, lag) and
VL is the reference, so at 0°.

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 7 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Alternatively, the load current can be found from;

P 40M
I   962 A
3Vl cos  3x30kx0.8

IB = SB/√3.VB

50M
  875 A
3x33k

Thus the pu current, Ipu = I/IB = 962/875 = 1.1-36.8° pu

To find the generator e.m.f., E;

From KVL, E = VL + IZ

j0.6 j0.2 j0.287 j0.24

E
VL

Z=

Hence E = VL + IZ

At the generator, 1.0 pu voltage is 11 kV

Thus E =

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 8 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Load Flow Example 2

Consider the circuit below:

G T1 T2
Line
Load

The parameters are:

G : 80 MVA, 11 kV, X = j0.7 p.u
T1 : 60 MVA, 11/132 kV, X = j0.12 p.u.
T2 : 80 MVA, 132/33 kV, X = j2.4 Ω/ph referred to 33 kV
Line : 132 kV, Z = 2 + j6 Ω per phase
Load Current : 1.2 p.u. at a power factor of 0.82 lag.

If the generator e.m.f. is 19.522° kV, using a base of 100 MVA calculate the
voltage in kV at the load busbar.

Solution process.

• Convert all quantities to the same base MVA using pu system

• NB use the appropriate VB where applicable
• Determine the load current
• Calculate the system impedance (simple series circuit)
• Solve for VL using KVL and Ohm’s law.

A
T1 T2 B
Line Load

Base MVA of 100 MVA.

Convert the generator to the study base of 100 MVA

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 9 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Convert transformer T1 to the study base of 100 MVA

For the line, VB = 132 kV and the base impedance is;

For Transformer T2, VB = 33 kV and the base impedance is;

Again need to determine the load current, using the information available to us,
which in this case is the p.u. load current and its power factor.

Thus Ipu =

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 10 of 14
 ELE11113/513

j0.875 j0.2 0.011+j0.034 j0.22

E
VL

Z=

From KVL, VL = E - IZ

In pu terms, E = E/VB =

Hence VL =

At VL, 1.0 pu voltage is 33 kV.

Thus VL =

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 11 of 14
 ELE11113/513

Load Flow Example 3

The figure below shows part of a power system where the parameters are:

G : 150 MVA, 13.8 kV, X = j0.6 p.u.

T1 : 180 MVA, 13.8/66 kV, X = j0.4 p.u.
Line : 66 kV, Z = (1 + j4) Ω per phase
T2 : 120 MVA, 66/11 kV, X = j0.2 p.u.
Load : 60 MW, 24 MVAr (lag) at a busbar voltage of 11.6 kV.

G T1 T2
Line
Load

Sketch the equivalent circuit and, using a base value of 100 MVA, calculate the
generator e.m.f.

Solution process to be followed;

• Convert all quantities to the same base MVA using pu system

• Calculate the load current
• Calculate the system impedance (simple series circuit)
• Solve for E using KVL and Ohm’s law.

Using a base of 100 MVA.

Convert the generator to the study base of 100 MVA

Convert transformer T1 to the study base of 100 MVA

Convert transformer T2 to the study base of 100 MVA

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 12 of 14
 ELE11113/513

For the line, the base impedance,

To obtain the per unit current, Ipu; [NB the key objective of this calculation is to
determine the load current. This is often found from the load apparent power, which
can be found using the information available to us, which in this case is the Power
and the Reactive Power.]

Sload = P – jQ =

In pu terms, Spu = Sload/SB =

In pu terms, Vpu = Vload/VB =

Choose VL as the reference, so at 0°

Thus Ipu = Spu/Vpu =

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 13 of 14
 ELE11113/513

To find the generator e.m.f., E;

From KVL, E = VL + IZ

j0.4 j0.222 0.023 +j0.092 j0.167

E
VL

Z=

At the generator, 1.0 pu voltage is 13.8 kV

Thus E =

Network Analysis Dr. D S Henderson

1/11/16
Page 14 of 14