MODULE-1

Semiconductor Diodes
Introduction:
The term diode identifies a two-electrode. or two-terminal device. A Semiconductor diode is
simply a p-n junction with a connecting Lead on each side. A diode is a one-way device
offering a low Resistance when forward biased and behaving almost as an open Switch when
reverse biased.
An approximately constant voltage drop occurs across a forward-biased diode. Diode
(forward and reverse) characteristics are graphs of corresponding current and voltage levels.
For precise circuit analysis, dc load lines are drawn on the diode forward characteristic.
Some diodes are low-current devices for use in switching circuit High-current diodes are
most often used as rectifiers for ac to de Conversion. Zener diodes are operated in reverse
breakdown ,because they have a very stable breakdown voltage.

p-n Junction Diode:

A p-n junction has the ability to permit substantial current flow when forward-biased and to
block current when reverse-biased. Thus it can be used as a Switch: on when forward-biased
, and off when biased in reverse. A p-n junction provided with copper wire connecting leads
becomes an electronic device known as a diode. Circuit symbol (or graphic symbol) for a
diode is an arrowhead and bar. The arrowhead indicates the Conventional direction of
current flow when the diode is forward biased, (from the positive terminal through the device
to the negative terminal). The p-side of the diode is always the positive terminal for forward
bias and is termed the anode. The n-side called the cathode is the negative terminal when the
device is forward biased.

A p-n junction diode can be destroyed by a high level of forward current overheating the
device. It can also be destroyed by a large reverse voltage causing the junction to break down.
In general physically large diodes pass the largest currents and survive the largest reverse
voltages. Small diodes are limited to low current levels and low reverse voltages.

Characteristics and Parameters

Forward and Reverse Characteristics
The semiconductor diode is essentially a p-n junction. Figures 2-4 and 2-5 show typical
forward and reverse characteristics for low current Silicon and Germanium diodes. From the
silicon diode characteristics in Fig. 2-4, it is seen that the forward current

remains very low (less than micro amps) until the diode forward bias voltage
exceeds approximately 0.7 V. Above 0.7 V increases almost linearly with increase in
.
Because the diode reverse current Ir is very much smaller than its forward current, the reverse
characteristics are plotted with expanded current scales. For a silicon diode, I r , is normally
less than 100 nA, and it is almost completely independent of the
reverse-bias voltage. Ir is largely a minority charge carrier reverse saturation current. A small
increase in I r, can occur with increasing reverse-bias voltage, due to some minority charge
carriers leaking along the junction surface. For a diode with the characteristics in Fig. 2-4, the
reverse current is typically less than 1/10,000 of the lowest normal forward current level.
Therefore, Ir is quite negligible when compared to If and a reverse-biased diode may be
treated almost as an open switch.
When the diode reverse voltage (VR) is sufficiently increased, the device goes into reverse
breakdown. For the characteristics shown in Fig. 2-4, reverse breakdown occurs at 75 V.
Reverse breakdown can destroy a diode unless the current is limited by a suitable series-
connected resistor. Reverse breakdown is usefully applied in Zener diodes .

The characteristics of a germanium diode are similar to those of a silicon diode, with some
important differences, (see Fig. 2-5). The forward voltage drop of a germanium diode is
typically 0.3 V compared to 0.7 V for silicon. For a germanium device, the reverse saturation
current at 25°C may be around 1 uA , which is much larger than the reverse current for a
silicon diode. Finally the reverse breakdown voltage for germanium devices is likely to be
substantially lower than that for silicon devices.

The lower forward voltage drop for germanium diodes can be a distinct advantage. However,
the lower reverse current and higher reverse breakdown voltage of silicon diodes make them
preferable
to germanium devices for most applications.

Diode Parameters
The diode parameters of greatest interest are:
VF forward Voltage drop
IR reverse saturation current
VBR reverse breakdown voltage
rd dynamic resistance
IF(max) maximum forward current
Some of the parameters can be determined directly from the diode characteristics. For the
silicon diode characteristics in Fig. 2-4. VF= 0.7 V, IR = 100 nA, and VBR= 75 V.
Forward resistance: It is a constant resistance of the diode at a particular constant forward
current.
The dynamic resistance of the diode is the resistance offered to changing levels of forward
voltage. The dynamic resistance, also known as the incremental resistance or ac resistance, is
the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics beyond the knee.

Rd=∆Vf /∆If

The dynamic resistance can also be calculate from the equation,

R’d =26mV/If

where IF is the dc forward current at the junction. Thus, for example, the dynamic
resistance for a diode passing a 10 ma forward current is, r'd=26 mV/l0 mA = 26 Ω.
Q)

Diode Approximations:
IDEAL DIODE CHARACTERSTICS
As already discussed, a diode is essentially a one-way device, offering a low resistance when
forward biased, and a high resistance when biased in reverse. An ideal diode (or perfect
diode) would have zero forward resistance and zero forward voltage drop. It would also have
an infinitely high reverse resistance, which would result in zero reverse current. Figure 2-8(a)
shows the current/voltage characteristics of an ideal diode.

In circuits with supply voltages much larger than the diode forward voltage drop, V F can be
assumed constant without introducing any serious error. Also, the diode reverse current is
so much smaller than the forward current can be ignored. These assumptions lead to the ideal
or approximate characteristics for silicon and germanium diodes shown in Fig. 2-8(b) and (C).
NUMERICAL:
Q)

Piecewise Linear Characteristic:

When the forward characteristic of a diode is not available, a piecewise linear straight-line
approximation called the piecewise linear characteristic maybe employed.

dc Equivalent Circuits:
An equivalent circuit for a device is a circuit that represents the device behavior. Usually, the
equivalent circuit is made up of a number of components, such as resistors and voltage cells.
A diode equivalent circuit may be substituted in place of the device when investigating a
circuit containing the diode. Equivalent circuits may also be used as device models in
computer analysis of circuits.
In Example 2-3 a forward-biased diode is assumed to have a constant forward voltage drop
(VF) and negligible series resistance. In this case the dc equivalent circuit is assumed to be a
voltage cell with a voltage VF, [see Fig. 2-11(a)].
A more accurate equivalent circuit includes the diode dynamic resistance (r d) in series with
the voltage cell, as shown in Fig. 2-11(b). This takes account of the small variations in V F that
occur with change in forward current. An ideal diode is also included to show that current
flows only in one direction. The equivalent circuit without rd assumes that the diode has the
approximate
Characteristics illustrated in Fig. 2-8(b) or (c). With rd, included, the equivalent circuit
represents a diode with the type of piecewise linear characteristic in Fig, 2-10. Consequently,
the circuit in Fig. 2-11(b) is known as the piecewise linear equivalent circuit.
Q)
DC Load Line Analysis:-
DC Load line:
Figure 2-13(a) shows a diode in series with a 100 Q resistance (R,) and a supply voltage (E).
The polarity of E is such that the diode is forward biased, so a diode forward current (I F)
flows. As already discussed, the circuit current can be determined approximately by
assuming a constant diode forward voltage drop (VF). When the precise levels of the diode
current and voltage must be calculated,
graphical analysis (also termed dc load line analysis) is employed.

For graphical analysis, a dc load line is drawn on the diode forward characteristics, [Fig. 2-
13(b)]. This is a straight line that illustrates all dc conditions that could exist within the circuit.
Because the load line is always straight, it can be constructed by plotting any two
corresponding current and voltage points and then drawing a straight line through them. To
determine two points on the load line, an equation relating voltage, current, and resistance is
first derived for the circuit.
E=(IF R1)+VF.
Any convenient two levels of IF can be substituted into the equation to calculate the
corresponding VF levels, or vice versa. As demonstrated in Example 2-6, it is convenient to
calculate VF with IF=0, and to determine IF when VF=0.
Q)
Q-POINT:
The relationship between the diode forward voltage and current in the circuit in Fig. 2-13(a)
is defined by the device characteristic consequently; there is only one point on the dc load
line where diode voltage and current are compatible with the circuit conditions. That is Q
point termed as the quiescent point or dc bias point, where the load line intersects the
characteristic. This may be checked by substituting the levels of I F and VF at point Q into Eq.
2-3. From the Q point on Fig. 2-13(b). IF= 40 mA and VF= 1V Equation 2-3 states that E = (IF R1)
+ VF. Therefore,
E = (40 mA x l00Ω) + 1V=5 V
So, with E =5 V and R, = 100 Q, the only levels of IF and VF ,that can satisfy Eq. 2-3 on the diode
characteristics in Fig. 2-13b) are IF= 40 mA and VF= 1 V.

Calculating Load Resistance and Supply Voltage:

When designing a diode circuit. It may be required to use a given supply voltage and set up
a specified forward current.
In this case, points A and Q are first plotted and the load line is drawn. R 1, is then calculated
from the slope of the load line.
The problem could also occur in another way. For example, R1 , and the required I F are known,
and the required supply voltage is to be determined.
This problem is solved by plotting point Q and drawing the load line with slope 1/R1. The
supply voltage is then read at point A.

NUMERICALS:

Q
Q)
Half Wave Rectifier

A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of
an AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers
are used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to
construct.
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It
is done by using a diode or a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode,
while a full wave rectifier uses multiple diodes.

A complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode
The graph above actually shows a positive half wave rectifier. This is a half-wave
rectifier which only allows the positive half-cycles through the diode, and blocks the
negative half-cycle.
Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
The output waveform we have obtained from the theory above is a pulsating DC
waveform. This is what is obtained when using a half wave rectifier without a filter.

Filters are components used to convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms into

constant DC waveforms. They achieve this by suppressing the DC ripples in the
waveform.

Although half-wave rectifiers without filters are theoretically possible, they can’t be
used for any practical applications. As DC equipment requires a constant
waveform, we need to ‘smooth out’ this pulsating waveform for it to be any use in the
real world.

This is why in reality we use half wave rectifiers with a filter. A capacitor or an
inductor can be used as a filter – but half wave rectifier with capacitor filter is most
commonly used.
The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is can be used to smoothen
out a pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC waveform.

Half Wave Rectifier Formula

We will now derive the various formulas for a half wave rectifier based on the
preceding theory and graphs above.

Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier

‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage
waveform into a DC waveform. Even though we try out best to remove all AC
components, there is still some small amount left on the output side which pulsates
the DC waveform. This undesirable AC component is called ‘ripple’.
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Half wave rectifiers are not as commonly used as full-wave rectifiers. Despite this, they still
have some uses:
 For rectification applications
 For signal demodulation applications
 For signal peak applications
Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
The main advantage of half-wave rectifiers is in their simplicity. As they don’t require as many
components, they are simpler and cheaper to setup and construct.

As such, the main advantages of half-wave rectifiers are:

 Simple (lower number of components)

 Cheaper up front cost (as their is less equipment. Although there is a higher
cost over time due to increased power losses)

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of half-wave rectifiers are:

 They only allow a half-cycle through per sinewave, and the other half-cycle is
wasted. This leads to power loss.
 They produces a low output voltage.
 The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a lot of
ripple (i.e. it has a high ripple factor)

What is a Full Wave Rectifier?

A full wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that converts both halves of each cycle
of an alternating wave (AC signal) into a pulsating DC signal. Full-wave rectifiers are used
to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, requiring multiple diodes to construct. Full wave
rectification is the process of converting an AC signal to a DC signal.

Circuits that convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) are known as rectifiers.
Full-wave rectifiers achieve this by using a group of diodes. A diode permits current
in one direction only and blocks the current in the other direction. We use this
principle to construct various rectifiers.

When we use a half-wave rectifier, a significant amount of power gets wasted as only one
half of each cycle passes through, and the other cycle gets blocked. Moreover, the half-
wave rectifier is not efficient (40.6%), and we can not use it for applications that need a smooth
and steady DC output. For a more efficient and steady DC output, a full wave rectifier is used.

We can further classify full wave rectifiers into:

 Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Full wave Rectifier (Centre Tapped)

Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Construction of Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier

A centre-tapped full-wave rectifier system consists of:

1. Centre-tapped Transformer
2. Two Diodes
3. Resistive Load

Centre-tapped Transformer: – It is a normal transformer with one slight

modification. It has an additional wire connected to the exact centre of the secondary
winding.
This type of construction divides the AC voltage into two equal and opposite
voltages, namely +Ve voltage (Va) and -Ve voltage (Vb). The total output voltage is

V = Va + Vb
Diodes are mainly Used in :

 Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages

 Isolating signals from a supply
 Controlling the size of a signal
 Mixing signals
Full Wave Filter Circuit (For Centre Tapped)
We get a pulsating DC voltage with many ripples as the output of the centre-tapped full wave
rectifier. We cannot use this pulsating for practical applications.
When the applied AC voltage starts decreasing and less than the capacitor, the
capacitor starts discharging slowly, but this is slower when compared to the
charging of the capacitor, and it does not get enough time to discharge entirely, and
the charging starts again.
So around half of the charge present in the capacitor gets discharged. During the
negative cycle, the diode D2 starts conducting, and the above process happens again.
This will cause the current to flow in the same direction across the load.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Construction of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
A full wave bridge rectifier is a rectifier that will use four diodes or more than that in
a bridge formation. A full wave bridge rectifier system consists of
During the half-wave, the diodes A and C conduct. It charges the capacitor
immediately to the maximum value of the input voltage. When the rectified pulsating
voltage starts decreasing and less than the capacitor voltage, the capacitor starts
discharging and supplies current to the load.

This discharging is slower when compared to the charging of the capacitor, and it
does not get enough time to discharge entirely, and the charging starts again in the
next pulse of the rectified voltage waveform.

So around half of the charge present in the capacitor gets discharged. During the
negative cycle, the diodes B and D start conducting, and the above process happens
again. This causes the current to continue to flow through the same direction across
the load.

Even though we try out best to remove all AC components, there is still some small amount
left on the output side which pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable AC component is
called ‘ripple’.
To quantify how well the half-wave rectifier can convert the AC voltage into DC voltage, we
use what is known as the ripple factor (represented by γ or r).

The ripple factor is the ratio between the RMS value of the AC voltage (on the input side) and
the DC voltage (on the output side) of the rectifier.

The formula for ripple factor is:

Form Factor of a Full Wave Rectifier (F.F)

The form factor is the ratio between RMS value and average value.

The formula for form factor is given as :

The form factor of a center-tapped full wave rectifier is equal to 1.11 (i.e. FF = 1.11).
What is Zener Diode? Working Principle of Zener Diode
Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diodes used in our daily
life. It is a specific diode that works in reverse bias conditions.

Zener Diode
A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a
Zener Diode. They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flowin
both forward and backward directions. For the Zener diode, the voltage drop across
the diode is always constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes
are used as a voltage regulator.
A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in reverse bias
 conditions. An electrical breakdown occurring in the reverse-biased condition of the
PN junction diode is called the Zener effect.

When the potential reaches the Zener voltage which is also known as Knee voltage.

The voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is reversed, at that point time,
the junction breaks down and the current starts flowing in the reverse direction.
This effect is known as the Zener effect.

High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more conductive and thus
the Zener diodes can easily conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction
diodes. These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very
thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.

Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased

In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in
the reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows through the diode. As we keep
increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the reverse voltage equals
the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as V z and in this
condition the current start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the
current increase drastically unit it reaches a stable value.
Avalanche Breakdown

The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and
Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the free
electron in the PN junction diode gains energy and acquires high velocity and these
high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock electrons from that atoms.
This collision continues and new electrons are available for conducting current thus
the current increase rapidly in the diode.

This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche

breakdown. This phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener
diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse voltage area.

If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown happens in the
Zener diode.

Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the
reverse bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger
and is sufficient enough to pull electrons from the valance band. These electrons
then gain energy from the electric field and break free from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in thevoltage
causes a sudden increase in the current.

We use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage in different circuits.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener
diode. This current is because of the electrons which are thermally generated in the
Zener diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage at any particular value of
reverse voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this
voltage is called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.

Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diode is a very useful diode. Due to its ability to allow current to flow in reverse
bias conditions, it is used widely for various purposes. Some of the common uses of
Zener Diode are:
 Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
 Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection
 Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits
Numericals :
Q. A single phase full wave rectifier supplies power to 1KW load, the AC applied voltage to
the diode is 300-0.300V. If diode resistance is 25 Ω and that of the transformer secondary
negligible. Determine average load current, average load and rectification.

Capacitance calculation
With a constant load current, the ripple amplitude is inversely proportional to the capacitance,
the largest capacitance produces the smallest ripple. The capacitance can be calculated from
load current, the acceptable ripple amplitude and the capacitor discharge time.
Along,