Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Syllabus : Crystal systems and X-rays: Crystal systems-Bravais lattice; Miller

indices– Spacing between lattice planes of cubic crystals, Continuous and
characteristic X-ray spectra; Moseley's law, Scattering of X-rays - Compton effect,
Bragg's law.

Introduction : A solid material has two basic properties, namely rigidity and
elasticity. Thus, solids have definite shape and size. The following tabular
column gives the types of solids

Types of Definition Examples

solids
single Are solids having a regular, repetitive Quartz, salt,
crystals arrangement of atoms or molecules. They Iceland spar,
have Long range order and 3 – dimensional diamond, topaz
periodicity. Here the crystal lattice of the etc..
entire sample is continuous and unbroken
to the edges of the sample
polycrystalli Or multicrystalline materials (microscopic Metals like
ne crystals crystals) are solids that are composed of copper, sodium,
many crystallites or grains of varying size Magnesium etc…,
and orientation. some ceramics,
rock, ice…
Quasicrysta Long range order and no 3 –dimensional Al72Ni20Co8
ls periodicity
Amorphous Are solids that lack long range order, i.e Glass, plastic,
materials disordered or random atomic structure silicon

Crystallography is a branch of science that deals with the geometric description

of crystals and their internal atomic arrangement.

It is the symmetry of a crystal that has profound influence on its properties.

Crystalline materials are solids with an atomic structure based on a regular
repeated pattern across its whole volume. At long range length scales, each atom
is related to every other equivalent atom in the structure by translational or
rotational symmetry.

In crystallography, geometrical properties of the crystal are of interest. Thus an

atom or a group of atoms are replaced by a geometric
point.

Crystal lattice : An infinite array of points in space

is called the crystal lattice. Each point has an
identical surroundings to all others as shown below.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Arrays are arranged in a periodic manner. The square shown represents a unit
cell which is primitive. (This is in two dimension)

Basis and Crystal structure:

Every lattice point can be associated
with one or more unit assembly of
atoms or molecules identical in
composition called Basis.

The regular periodic three-dimensional arrangement of Basis is called Crystal

Structure. Thus lattice + basis = crystal structure.
Space lattice is imaginary. Crystal structure is real.

Unit cell and Lattice parameters

1. Atoms or groups of atoms forming building blocks
of the smallest acceptable size of the whole volume
of the crystal is defined as a unit cell
2. A unit cell is chosen to represent the symmetry of
the crystal.
3. They are the basic building blocks of the crystal.
4. When these unit cells are translated in three
dimensions, they will generate the crystal.
5. Each crystal lattice is described by a type of unit
cell.
6. Each unit cell is described by three vectors a, b
and c called the length of the sides and the
interfacial angles α, β, γ between them. They are
called lattice parameters

Primitive Cell
Primitive cell is defined as a geometrical shape which, when repeated indefinitely
in three dimensions, will fill all space and it consists of lattice points only at
corners. A unit cells may be primitive (simple) or Non-primitive (body centered,
base centered, face centered).
Bravais lattice
A Bravais lattice is one in which all lattice points are identical in composition.
Bravais showed that identical points can be arranged spatially to produce 14
types of regular pattern. These 14 space lattices are called Bravais lattices.
According to Bravais, there are 14 lattices corresponding to seven crystal
structures. They are cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic,
trigonal (rhombohedral) and hexagonal.

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Types of Number
SL.N Lattice
Crystal system Bravais of Bravais
o. parameters
lattices lattices
𝑎=𝑏=𝑐
1 Cubic P, I, F 3 𝛼= 𝛽= 𝛾=
90

𝑎=𝑏 ≠ 𝑐
2 Tetragonal P, I 2
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90

𝑎≠𝑏≠𝑐
3 Orthorhombic P, I, F, C 4
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90

𝑎≠𝑏≠𝑐
4 Monoclinic P, C 2
𝛼 = 𝛾 = 90 ≠ 𝛽
𝑎≠𝑏≠𝑐
5 Triclinic P 1
𝛼≠𝛽≠𝛾

Rhombohedral 𝑎=𝑏=𝑐
6 P 1
(Trigonal) 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾  90

𝑎=𝑏≠𝑐
7 Hexagonal P 1 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90 , 𝛾 =
120

In the above structures it is observed that the types of lattices are four.

(1) Simple denoted by P having lattice points only at the edges of the unit cell.

(2) Body centred denoted by I having a lattice point at the centre of the unit cell
along with the edges.

(3) Face centred denoted by F having lattice points at the centres of all the faces
of the unit cell along with edges.

(4) Base centred denoted by C having lattice points at the centres of the bases
of the unit cell along with the edges.

Coordination number : It is defined as the number of particle immediately

adjacent to each particle in the crystal lattice.
It is characteristic of a given space lattice and is determined by an
inspection of the model. In a simple cubic lattice, each particle is
adjoined by six other particles and so the coordination number is
six. The coordination number for body centred and face centred
cubic lattice are 8 and 12 respectively.

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Crystal symmetry :The definite ordered arrangement of faces and edges of a

crystal is known as crystal symmetry. Study of symmetry is a powerful tool for
the understanding the crystal structure.

A crystal possess different symmetry elements. They are described by the

symmetry operations. A symmetry operation is one that leaves the crystal and
its environment invariant or unchanged after the operation.

Symmetry operations performed about a point, line or a plane in a crystal are

called point group symmetry operation. Symmetry operation performed by
translation as well as rotation are called space group symmetry operations.

The point group symmetry elements are

(1) centre of symmetry or inversion centre – A cube has a centre

called centre of symmetry from where all edges are of the same
distance.

(2) Plane of symmetry or reflection

symmetry – Here the crystal is said to
have plane of symmetry if the crystal
remains unchanged even after reflection
about a plane. A cube has nine such symmetries. Some examples are shown
here.

(3) Rotation symmetry – Here a crystal is said to possess rotational symmetry

about an axis if the body after rotation by an angle remains the same as before.
360
The axis said to be n – fold if the angle of rotation is given by . For example,
𝑛
a cubic crystal has four fold rotation axis, as rotation by 90 degree of the crytsl
leaves it invariant. Other possibilities are 60o (n = 6), 90o (n = 4), 120o (n = 3)
and 1800 (n = 2).

Miller indices :
➢ Miller indices is defined as the reciprocal of the intercepts made by the
plane on the crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest numbers
➢ Notation system in crystallography to indicate the internal planes of a
crystal.
➢ The crystal planes are a set of parallel planes used to determine the shape
and structure of the unit cell and crystal lattice.
➢ The miller indices identify the set of planes in the crystal with which the
crystal structure can be studied
➢ Denoted by three integers (𝒉 𝒌 𝒍)

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The crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of

an aggregate of a set of parallel equidistant planes,
passing through lattice points.
It can be chosen in different ways as shown in the
diagram. (2 dimensional).

Miller devised a method to designate a set of parallel

planes by three numbers called h, k and l called
Miller indices.

Procedure to determine miller indices of a crystal plane

1. To determine the intercepts of a crystal plane along the three

crystallographic directions (along the x, y, and z axes)

2. To express the intercepts as multiples of unit cell dimensions, or lattice

parameters along the axes

3. To take the reciprocal of the intercepts

4. To reduce these numbers to smallest set of integral numbers by taking

least common multiplier (LCM) of these and multiplying with the
reciprocal values

5. The set of three integers are called miller indices denoted by (h, k, l) values

Example

Consider the diagram shown.

(1) The coordinates of the intercepts made by the

planes along the crystallographic axes (x, y, z)is
given by
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

2𝑎 3𝑏 𝑐

𝑝𝑎 𝑞𝑏 𝑟𝑐
where 𝑝 = 2, 𝑞 = 3, 𝑟=1

(2) To express the intercepts as multiples of unit cell dimensions, or lattice

parameters along the axes,
2𝑎 3𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

2 3 1

1 1 1
(3) To determine the reciprocals of these numbers, .
2 3 1

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(4) To reduce these numbers to smallest set of integral numbers by taking least
common multiplier of these and multiplying with LCM,
1 1 1
6 ×2 6 ×3 6 × 1 . This results in (3 2 6)

In general these are denoted by (ℎ 𝑘 𝑙) called Miller indices. It is also

1 1 1
observed that ∶ ∶ =ℎ∶𝑘∶𝑙.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟

Important features of Miller indices of crystal planes :

(1) All parallel equidistant planes have the same Miller indices. Thus miller
indices define a set of parallel planes.

(2) A plane parallel to one of the coordinate axis has an intercept of infinity.

(3) If the Miller indices of two planes have the same ratio, i.e. (8, 4, 4) and (4, 2,
2) or (2, 1, 1) then the planes are parallel to each other.

(4) If (ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙) are the Miller indices of a plane, then the planes cuts the axes into
h, k and l equal segments respectively.

Important planes and directions in a

cubic crystal

In the diagram (a), the plane cuts the Y

axis at a, X axis at ∞ and Z axis at infinity.
Thus the intercepts are (∞, 1, ∞).
1 1 1
The reciprocals are 𝑜𝑟 (0 1 0) .
∞ 1 ∞
These are the Miller indices. Similarly the
Miller indices for the planes in the
diagram (b) and (c) are (1 1 0) and
(1 1 1) respectively

Separation between lattice planes in a cubic crystal.

Consider a cubic crystal of side a as shown. Let (ℎ 𝑘 𝑙) represent the Miller

indices of the plane ABC. Let 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑑 be the distance of the plane ABC from the
origin as shown in diagram (a). which is the interplanar spacing assuming a plane
parallel to ABC at O.

Let 𝛼 ′ , 𝛽 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 ′ be the angles by the three axes with the line ON respectively as
shown in diagram (b). These are not interfacial angles of the unit cell.

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The intercepts of the plane on the

three axes are
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑂𝐴 = , 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐶 = ….(1)
ℎ 𝐾 𝐿

From the diagram (b) we have 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ′ =

𝑑1 𝑑 𝑑1
, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 ′ = 𝑂𝐵1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ′ =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐶
…(2)

From diagram (c)

(𝑂𝑁)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ….(3)

𝑑2 = [𝑑2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 ′ + 𝑑 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 ′ + 𝑑2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 ′ ]

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 ′ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 ′ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 ′ = 1 ….(4)

Substituting corresponding cosine terms from (2) in (4), we get

𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝑑 2
[𝑂𝐴] + [𝑂𝐵] + [𝑂𝐶] = 1 …..(5)

Substituting for OA, OB and OC from (1) in (5)

𝑑ℎ 2 𝑑𝑘 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝑑2
[ ] + [ ] + [𝑎] =1 or (ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 ) = 1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2

𝒂
the interplanar spacing is 𝒅= ….(6)
√𝒉𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐

Relation between the cell constant and density of the material in cubic
crystal

Consider a cubic crystal of cell constant 𝑎. Let the number of atoms per unit cell
be 𝑛 and the density of the material be 𝜌. The atomic weight of the material is
𝑀𝐴 and the Avogadro number is 𝑁𝐴 .
𝑀𝐴
Then ( ) m3 volume of the material will contain 𝑁𝐴 atoms. Hence 𝑛 atoms per
𝜌
𝑀𝐴 𝑛
unit cell will occupy a volume given by 𝑉 = .
𝜌 𝑁𝐴
𝑀𝐴 𝑛
As the volume of a cubic crystal is 𝑉 = 𝑎3 . Thus 𝑎3 = 𝜌 𝑁𝐴

𝟏
𝑴 𝒏 𝟑
Or the cell constant is 𝒂 = [ 𝑨 ] .
𝝆 𝑵𝑨

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

X – Rays : X – rays are electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelengths of the

order of 0.001 to 10 nm. X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons
that have been accelerated through a potential difference of order 1 kV to 1 MV
strikes a metal target.

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen. He was interested in the

cathode rays (beams of electrons) developed in discharge tubes. By chance he
++
noticed that a fluorescent screen (ZnS + Mn ) lying on a table some distance
from the discharge tube emitted a flash of light each time an electrical discharge
was passed through the tube. Realizing that he had come upon something
completely new, he devoted his energies to investigating the properties of the
unknown ray “X” which produced this effect.

Production of X – Rays

The Coolidge tube - The X-ray tube consists of a

glass envelope containing a high vacuum of the
order of 10-5 mm of mercury. A cathode or negative
electrode having a tungsten filament (F), which
when heated emits electrons in a process called
'thermionic emission'. The cathode also has a
focussing cup (G) to direct the emitted electrons across the vacuum to hit the
target. The anode or positive electrode is a thick copper rod with a small
tungsten target (T) at the end. Tungsten is required as it has a high atomic
number and a high melting point to improve the efficiency of bremsstrahlung X-
ray production. A cooling system with water circulating around the anode is
provided to conduct enormous heat generated away from the tube effectively.

Working - A potential difference (around 50, 000V) is applied between the

cathode and anode. The tungsten filament is heated by an independent battery
and the thermionically emitted electrons are accelerated across the potential
difference to a high velocity before striking the tungsten target. When the
electrons are suddenly decelerated on impact, some of the kinetic energy is
converted into EM energy, as X-rays. Less than 1 % of the energy supplied is
converted into X-radiation during this process. The rest is converted into the
internal energy of the target which is taken out using cooling system.

1. The intensity of X – rays depends on the number of electrons striking the

target per second. The number of electrons given out by the filament is
proportional to the temperature of the filament which is controlled by the
current in the filament circuit.
2. The frequency of X – rays depend on the potential difference between the
cathode and the anode. If V is the pd and e the charge on the electron, the work

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

done on the electron in moving from cathode to the anode = eV. The electrons
that acquire kinetic energy is converted to X – rays when they strike the target.
If max is the maximum frequency of X – rays produced, then
hmax = eV.
𝒄 𝒉𝒄
If min is the minimum wavelength of X – rays produced, then min = = .
𝝂𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒆𝑽

Properties of X – rays
1. X-rays travel in straight lines and cannot be deflected by electric field or
magnetic field.
2. They have a high penetrating power.
3. They effect photographic plates.
4. Fluorescent materials glow when X-rays are directed at them.
5. Photoelectric emission can be produced by X-rays. Ionization of a gas results
when an X-rays pass through the gas.
6. They can be absorbed by tissues and reflected or scattered by bones in the
human body.
7. X-rays can cause chemical and biologic damage to living tissue.

X – ray spectra
It was first studied by Urey and his coworkers.
X – Ray spectra is the variation of Intensity of
X – ray beam emitted by an X – ray tube with
wavelength for different applied potential
difference for a given substance.

The X – ray spectra consists of two types (1)

Continuous spectra and (2) Characteristic X –
ray spectra.

Continuous X – ray spectrum

1. For a given applied voltage, the intensity of X – rays
varies smoothly with wavelength. The intensity reaches
a maximum value as the wavelength increases, then
the intensity falls at greater wavelengths.
2. When the applied potential is increased, the intensity
of X – rays also increases. The minimum wavelength
which depends on the tube voltage decreases with
increase in voltage.
3 Duane and Hunt showed that the min is inversely proportional to the applied
voltage V or max is directly proportional to the applied voltage V. The graph
shows this variation. This is mathematically indicated by the relation
𝒄 𝒉𝒄 1
min = 𝝂𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 𝒆𝑽
, ie. 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝑉
or hmax = e V ie. 𝜈𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑉.

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4. Most of the electrons that generate X – ray photons

give up only a part of their energy in this way. Thus
most of the X – rays are of wavelength longer than
min .
5. Thus a continuous spectrum is the result of the
inverse photoelectric effect, with electron kinetic
energy (eV) being transformed into X –ray photon
energy (h𝜈).
6. Fast moving electrons are decelerated by the atoms of
the target due to electrostatic forces and collisions emitting X – ray photons.

Note “Bremsstrahlung” means "braking radiation" and is retained from the original
German to describe the radiation which is emitted when electrons are decelerated or
"braked" when they are fired at a metal target. Accelerated charges give off
electromagnetic radiation, and when the energy of the bombarding electrons is high
enough, that radiation is in the x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is
characterized by a continuous distribution of radiation which becomes more intense
and shifts toward higher frequencies when the energy of the bombarding electrons is
increased.

Characteristic X – ray spectrum

1. It is the spectrum that indicates sharp lines at a specific
applied voltage against the continuous X – ray spectra
background which is the characteristic of the
substance responsible for the spectrum.
2. The peaks seen in the diagram at specific wavelengths
indicating the line spectrum which is the characteristic
of the element used in the target of the Coolidge tube.
3. These peaks occur at different applied voltages for different elements.

Origin of characteristic X – ray spectrum

1. The bombarding electrons on the target can eject electrons from the inner
shells of the atoms of the metal target.
2. Those vacancies will be quickly filled by electrons dropping down from
higher levels, emitting x-rays with sharply defined frequencies associated
with the difference between the atomic energy levels of the target atoms.
3. Thus characteristic x-rays are emitted from heavy elements when their
electrons make transitions between the lower atomic energy levels (ie.
between K, L, M.. shells).
4. The characteristic x-rays emission which shows as two sharp peaks occur
when vacancies are produced in the n=1 or K-shell of the atom and
electrons drop down from above to fill the gap.
5. The x-rays produced by transitions from the n=2 to n=1 levels are called
𝐾𝛼 x-rays, and those for the n=3to n = 1 transiton are called 𝐾𝛽 x-rays.
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6. Transitions to the n=2 or L-shell are designated as L x-rays (n=3 to n = 2

is 𝐿𝛼 , n=4 to n = 2 is 𝐿𝛽 , etc. ).
7. The frequencies of the characteristic x-rays can be predicted from the
Bohr model.
8. Moseley measured the frequencies of the characteristic x-rays from a large
number of the elements of the periodic table and a plot of them which is
now called a "Moseley plot" was drawn.
9. Characteristic x-rays are used for the investigation of crystal structure by
x-ray diffraction.
10. Crystal lattice dimensions may be determined with the use of Bragg's
law in a Bragg spectrometer
.

Moseley’s law : Moseley had done experiments on the characteristic X-rays

and this led to the development of the concept of atomic number.

1. The periodic table was made according to the atomic weight in earlier
days. But some anomalies were found in such an arrangement.
2. Moseley measured the frequencies of characteristic X-rays from large
number of elements for a particular line (like 𝐾𝛼 line) and he studied the
relationship between frequency and the atomic number of the element in
the periodic table.
3. A graph between square root of frequency Vs
atomic number Z in the periodic table is
found to be a linear graph.
4. This suggested that, elements are to be
arranged based on atomic number and not
on atomic weight. Hence, Moseley re-
arranged the periodic table based on atomic
number.
5. Statement of Moseley’s law – The frequency of a spectral line in the X –
ray spectrum, varies as the square of the atomic number of the element
emitting it. 𝝂 ∝ 𝒁𝟐 . He expressed his observations mathematically as
√𝝂 = 𝒂(𝒁 − 𝒃)where a and b are the constants depending on the particular
line,  is the frequency and Z is the atomic number.

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Explanation of Moseley’s law according to Bohr’s theory

Bohr’s theory of hydrogen spectrum gives the
1 1
frequency of a spectral line as 𝜈 = 𝑍 2 𝑅𝑐 (𝑛2 − )
1 𝑛22
where R is the Rydberg constant and c is the
speed of light. For K line n1 = 1 and n2 – 2 for
the electron making transition from second to
1 1 3
first orbit. Thus 𝜈 = 𝑍 2 𝑅𝑐 (12 − )= 𝑐𝑅𝑍 2 .
22 4
This shows 𝜈 ∝ 𝑍 2 which approximately corresponds to Moseley’s law.

Distinction between Continuous and characteristic X ray spectra

SL.
Continuous spectra Characteristic spectra
No.
They consist of specific wavelengths
They consist of all possible of
1 superimposed on the continuous
wavelengths
spectra.
They occur at specific applied voltages
The intensity increases with
2 which depends on the nature of the
increase in applied voltage
material
They are produced due to They are produced by inner shell (usually
3
bremsstrahlung K shell) transitions.
When a metal target is Some electrons kick the inner shell
bombarded with electrons, electrons out of the target atom. These
some electrons are scattered atoms which have one electron less in
4 by the atoms, whose their inner shell will then rearrange its
acceleration causes them to electronic configuration to fill the inner
radiate. This mechanism is shell vacancy, emitting characteristic x
called bremsstrahlung. rays.
Continuous spectrum
depends very little on the It is the line spectrum that depends
metal used as target. The mainly on the material from which the X
5 height of the curve increases –rays originates, either the anticathode of
with the increase of the Z of the X – ray tube or absorbing material
the metal, but the shape of used in a fluorescence experiment.
the curve is independent of Z
The frequencies of the spectral lines are
The maximum frequency independent of the voltage which
νmax of the emitted X rays accelerates the electrons and
6 completely independent of independent of the frequency of the
metal used for the incident radiation. Depends only on the
anticathode or the target chemical elements of which the material
is composed.

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Compton effect
1. The change in the wavelength of scattered X –
rays after incident on a material due loss of
energy of incident X – rays is called Compton
effect.
2. Compton discovered that when X – rays of
sharply defined wavelength were incident on a
material of low atomic number like carbon,
they suffered a change of wavelength on
scattering.
3. The scattered X rays observed by a detector at
different angles.
4. The scattered X – rays have two wavelengths one same as incident ray and
the other of longer wavelength at angles other than 00 i.e. direct rays as
shown.
5. This effect was explained by Compton on the basis of quantum theory of
radiation. The whole process is treated as collision between a X – ray
photon and an electron of the scatterer in which both momentum and
energy are conserved.

Expression for Compton shift

Consider an X – ray photon of energy h and momentum h/c striking an
electron at rest.
The scattered photon of energy h’ and momentum h’/c moves in a direction
making an angle  to the original direction.
The electron acquires a momentum mv and moves
an angle  to the original direction.
The initial energy of electron is 𝑚0 𝑐 2 and initial
momentum is zero. Final energy due to recoil is mc2.
Considering the x and y components of momentum
and applying the principle of conservation of
momentum we get
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′
= cos 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜙 ………(1) (along X axis)
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ𝜈 ′
0= sin 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜙 ……….(2) (along Y – axis)
𝑐
From equation (1) 𝑚𝑣𝑐 cos 𝜙 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ cos 𝜃) …..(3)
From equation (2) 𝑚𝑣𝑐 sin 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈 sin 𝜃
′
………(4)
Squaring and adding equations (3) and (4)
2 2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ′ cos 𝜃 + 𝜈 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + ℎ2 𝜈 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ′ cos 𝜃) + ℎ2 𝜈 ′
2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ′ cos 𝜃 + 𝜈 ′ ) … … . . (5)
According to the principle of conservation of energy

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 ′ + 𝑚𝑐 2 ………(6)
or𝑚𝑐 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 + 𝑚0 𝑐
2 ′) 2

squaring the above equation 𝑚2 𝑐 4 = (ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ ) + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 )2

2
or𝑚2 𝑐 4 = ℎ2 (𝜈 2 − 2𝜈𝜈 ′ + 𝜈 ′ ) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ ) 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ……..(7)
subtracting equation (5) from (7)
𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = −2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ ) 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ……(8)
𝑚0
The value of 𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) is obtained from the relativistic formula 𝑚 = 2
,
√1− 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0 2 𝑚0 2 𝑐 2
squaring this equation 𝑚2 = 𝑣2
= . Multiplying both sides by 𝑐 2
1− 2 𝑐 2− 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0 2 𝑐 4
we get 𝑚2 𝑐 2 = or 𝑚2 𝑐 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 ………(9)
𝑐 2− 𝑣2
comparing equations (8) and (9)
𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 = −2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃) + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ ) 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4
Simplifying 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ ) 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 2ℎ2 𝜈𝜈 ′ (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝜈− 𝜈 ′ ℎ 1 1 ℎ
Or = (1 − cos 𝜃) or − = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝜈𝜈 ′ 𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝜈′ 𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐 ℎ
Multiplying both sides by c𝜈′ − = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐
𝒉
Or 𝝀′ − 𝝀 = (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) ……….(10)
𝒎𝟎 𝒄
𝒉
The change in wavelength is 𝒅𝝀 = (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) called the Compton
𝒎𝟎 𝒄
shift
The change in wavelength is independent of the wavelength of the incident
radiation as well as the nature of the scattering material. d depends on the
angle of scattering only.
Case 1 : When  = 0, cos  = 1 and hence d = 0.
Case 2 : When  = 900, cos  = 0 and
ℎ 6.625 × 10−34
Hence 𝑑𝜆 = = = 0.0243 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.0243 𝐴0
𝑚0 𝑐 9.11 × 10−31 ×3 ×108
This is called the Compton wavelength.
2ℎ
Case 3 : When  = 1800, cos  = - 1 and hence 𝑑𝜆 = = 0.0485 𝐴0 . Thus d
𝑚0 𝑐
has the maximum value at  = 1800.

X – Ray diffraction
➢ X – rays are electromagnetic rays like light and thus exhibit interference
and diffraction. The wavelength of X rays are of the order 0.1nm.
➢ The diffraction grating produce diffraction of light as the condition to
produce diffraction is, the wavelength of light (500 nm) is comparable to
the size of the obstacle or the slit. Thus grating cannot produce X- ray
diffraction.
➢ In 1912 Laue suggested that a crystal which consisted of a three
dimensional array of regularly spaced atoms could serve the purpose of a

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

grating. Thus crystal acts as a space grating for X rays to undergo

diffraction. Here the interplanar spacing is of the order of wavelength of X
rays.
➢ The diffraction pattern consists of a bright central spot and a series of
spots arranged in a regular pattern around the central spot.
➢ According to Bragg, the spots are produced due to the reflection of
incident X rays from various sets of parallel crystal planes (called Bragg
planes) with each plane having a large number of lattices points of equal
spacing.

Bragg’s law :
Consider a X ray PA reflected at atom A from
plane I in the direction AR and another ray
QB reflected at another atom B from plane II
in the direction BS.
Now from the atom A two perpendiculars AC
and AD are drawn to QB and BS respectively.
The two reflected rays will be in phase or out
of phase depending on the path difference.
When the path difference (CB + BD) is a whole wavelength (𝜆) or multiples of
whole wavelength (𝑛𝜆) , then the two rays will superpose constructively to
produce a intense spot.
Thus the condition for this reinforcement or superposition is
𝐶𝐵 + 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑛𝜆 …..(1)
In the diagram, from the right angle triangles, ACB and ADB,
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝐷𝐵 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …..(2)
where d is the interplanar spacing and 𝜃 is the angle between the incident ray
and the plane of reflection called glancing angle.
Substituting (2) in (1) 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

Thus the condition for reinforcement is 𝟐𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀 where n is the integer

taking values 1, 2, 3, …. which correspond to first order, second order, third
order…. Maxima respectively.
The above equation is called the Bragg’s law.
𝜆 2𝜆
For first maximum 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 2𝑑 , for second maximum, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 2𝑑 and for third
3𝜆
maximum 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 = 2𝑑 etc…. The intensity of the maxima decreases as the order
of spectrum increases.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

PART A
1 Distinguish between crystalline and amorphous states of matter and hence define
lattice, basis, crystal structure, unit cell and cell parameters.
2 What are Bravais lattice? Mention all the Bravais lattices along with the crystal
system they belong to and the corresponding cell parameters.
3 (a) What are symmetry elements in crystallography? Explain the various point group
operations.
(b) What is coordination number? Explain.
4 (a) What are Miller indices? Explain the procedure of finding these Miller indices with
an example.
(b) Arrive at the interplanar spacing between lattice planes of a cubic crystal.
5 (a) State and explain Moseley’s law. Mention any two importance of Moseley’s law.
(b) Distinguish between continuous and characteristic X ray spectra.
6 What is Compton effect? Derive an expression for the Compton shift.
7 (a) What are X rays? Mention the characteristics of X rays.
(b) Explain continuous and characteristic X ray spectra.
8 (a) Arrive at the relation between the cell constant and density of the material in a
cubic crystal
(b) With a neat diagram explain the Bragg’s law of X ray diffraction.

PART B
1. In a crystal, a plane cuts intercepts of 3a, 2b and 6c along the three crystal axes.
Determine the Miller indices of the plane.
Hint : Take the intercepts and then reciprocal and multiply by LCM (hkl) = (231)
2 Find the Miller indices of a plane which is parallel to y axis and intercepts 2 and
1/3 along x and z axes respectively.
Hint : Intercept along y axis is infinity. (hkl) = (1,0,6)
3 Find the inter planar spacing for the lattice planes of Miller indices (3 2 1) (2 1 0)
and (1 1 1) for the cubic lattice with a = 5.62A0.
𝑎
Hint : 𝑑 = .
√ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙2
4. Compute the Miller Indices for a plane intersecting at x= ¼ , y=1, and x=1/2,
Answer: (4,1,2)
5. Calculate the miller indices for the plane with intercepts 2a, - 3b and 4c the
along the crystallographic axes.
Answer (6, 4̅, 3)
6. The lattice constant for a unit cell of aluminum is 4.031Å Calculate the
interplanar space of (2 1 1) plane. Answer: d = 1.6456 Å
7 Calculate the minimum voltage that should be applied to the X ray tube to produce
photons of wavelength 0.1A0.
ℎ𝑐
Hint : 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑒
8 Monochromatic X rays of wavelength 0.15A0 undergoes Compton effect from a carbon
block. Calculate the wavelength scattered through i) 450, (ii) 1350 and (iii) 1800
ℎ
Hint : 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑚0 𝑐
(1 − cos 𝜃) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 − 𝜆′ = 𝑑𝜆, find 𝜆
9 The anode voltage in an X ray tube is 80kV and the wavelength of the X ray produced
is 0.15A0. Find the planck’s constant.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

ℎ𝑐
Hint : 𝑉 =
𝜆𝑒
10 Find the smallest glancing angle at which 𝐾𝛼 line of Molybdenum of wavelength 0.5
A0 will be reflected from calcite crystal of spacing 3A0. At what angle will the third
order reflection occur?
𝜆 3𝜆
Hint : 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 = , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜃3
2𝑑 2𝑑
11 Calculate the glancing angle on the plane (1 1 0) of a cube rock salt ( a = 2.81A 0)
corresponding to second order diffraction maximum for the X rays of wavelength
0.71 A0.
𝑎 2𝜆
Hint : 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 2𝑑 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 .
√ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙2
12 X rays of wavelength of 1.54 A0 are used to calculate the spacing of (200) plane in
platinum. The Bragg angle for this reflection is 22.40. What is the size of unit cell of
the platinum crystal?
𝑎 𝑎
Hint : 𝑑 = 2 2 2 = 2 , (ℎ𝑘𝑙) = (200) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎
√ℎ + 𝑘 + 𝑙
13 The wavelength of prominent X ray line from a copper target is 1.54A 0. This radiation
when diffracted from (111) plane of a crystal with fcc structure, correspond to Bragg
angle of 19.20. If the density of the crystal is 2698 kgm-3, and atomic weight 26.98kg
k mol-1, Calculate the Avogadro number.
𝑛𝜆 𝑎
Hint : 𝑑 = , 𝑛 = 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑, 𝑑= 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 √ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙2
𝑀𝐴 𝑛
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝐴 =
𝜌𝑎 3
14 X rays of wavelength 0.3A0 undergoes 600 compton scattering. Find the wavelength
of the photon after scattering.
ℎ
Hint : 𝜆 − 𝜆′ = 𝑚0 𝑐
(1 − cos 𝜃)
15 Find the perpendicular distance between the two planes indicated by the
Miller indices (1 2 1) and (2 1 2) in a unit cell of a cubic lattice with a lattice
constant parameter ‘a’. Answer : d = d1 – d2 = 0.0749 a
16. What is the distance between the adjacent Miller planes if the first order
reflection from X-rays of wavelength 2.29 A occurs at 2708' ? Ans 2.51 A
17. X-rays of wavelength λ=1.5Å are reflected from the (2 2 2) planes of a cubic
crystal with unit cell a = 5Å. Calculate the Bragg angle, θ, for n=1.
18. X – rays of wavelength 0.71 A0 are incident on a sodium chloride crystal.
Calculate the first order reflection angle from the (100), (110) and (111)
planes. The d spacing for (100) plane is 2.84 A0.
19. In Compton effect, the wavelength of the X -rays scattered at an angle of 450
is 0.022 A0. Calculate the wavelength of X – rays.
20. The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.448 and its density 2.165 g cm-3. What
is the edge length of a cube that contains one mole of NaCl ?

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Free electron theory of metals

Properties of Metals
1. Metals have high electrical and high thermal conductivities.
2. In steady state Ohm’s law is obeyed. ( 𝐽 ∝ 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉)
3. Electrical resistivity above Debye temperature (it is the temperature of a
crystal’s normal mode of vibration i.e. highest temperature that can be
achieved due to a single normal vibration) is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature. (𝜌 ∝ 𝑇)
4. At very low temperatures, the resistivity of the metal is directly
proportional to the fifth power of absolute temperature.(𝜌 ∝ 𝑇 5 )
1
5. For most metals resistivity is inversely proportional to the pressure(𝜌 ∝ 𝑃)
𝐾
6. Wiedemann – Franz’s law is obeyed. (𝜎 ∝ 𝑇) where K is thermal
conductivity and  is electrical conductivity.
7. At absolute zero temperature, the value of resistivity tends to zero –
Superconductivity.

Classical theory of metals – Drude and Lorentz free electron theory of

metals
Postulates :
1. Metals are composed of positive metal ions with the valence electrons
moving freely among the positive ions.
2. The electrons are in random motion. They are confined to remain within
the boundaries of the metal. They can move from one place to another
within the metal without loss of energy and occasionally collide with the
positive ions.
3. The free electrons are bound to the positive metal ions by the electrostatic
force of attraction.
4. The random motion of electrons within the metal can be imagined to be
similar to molecules in a gas. (Electron gas) Thus classical kinetic theory
of gases can be applied to the electrons.
5. Classical Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution law is applied to electron gas.

Expression for the Electrical conductivity – Ohm’s law

Consider a large number of free electrons each of charge e, moving in random
motion in a metal and constantly colliding with the other electrons.
If the average time taken by electrons between two successive collisions called
relaxation time be  and the random velocity of the electrons along any one
𝜆
direction be u, then 𝜏 = ………..(1)
𝑢
Where  is the mean free path which is the average distance travelled by the
electrons between any two successive collisions.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

If an electric field E is applied to such a metal, the force F exerted on an electron

𝑑2 𝑥
is F = - eE where F = ma and a is the acceleration of the electron 𝑎 = .
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑒
Thus 𝑚 = −𝑒 𝐸 or = −𝑚 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝐸
Integrating the above equation ∫ 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑚 𝐸 𝑑𝑡 . Thus = 𝑥̇ = − 𝑡+𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑒𝐸
At t = 0, 𝑥̇ = 0  C = 0. Thus 𝑥̇ = − 𝑡 ……..(2)
𝑚
The average velocity of electrons between two successive collisions is found by
integrating eqn. (2)
1 𝜏 𝑒𝐸 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝜏2
𝑥̇ ̅ = ∫ − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − ( )
𝜏 0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑚 2
𝑒𝐸𝜏
Thus 𝑥̇ ̅ = − . The average velocity of electrons is called drift velocity vd.
2𝑚
𝒆𝑬𝝉
Thus the drift velocity is given by 𝒗𝒅 = − …..(3)
𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝒎 𝒗𝒅
From the above expression, relaxation time is given by 𝝉 = . …..(4)
𝒆𝑬
If the current through the metal of area of cross section A is 𝐼 and n is the
number of electrons per unit volume , then 𝐼 = −𝑛𝑒𝐴𝒗𝒅
If J is the current density which is the current per unit area, then
𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜏 𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜏
J = - n e 𝒗𝒅 = − 𝑛 𝑒 (− )= . Thus 𝐽= …….(5)
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜆
Substituting for 𝜏 from eqn. (1) in the above equation, we get 𝐽 = 2𝑚 𝑢
𝑛 𝑒2𝐸 𝜆 𝑢
Multiplying and dividing the above equation by u we get 𝐽 = 2 𝑚𝑢2
1 3
From the kinetic theory 𝑚 𝑢2 = 𝑘𝑇 or 𝑚 𝑢2 = 3 𝑘 𝑇 where k is the
2 2
Boltzmann constant
𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜆 𝑢 𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜆 𝑢
Thus 𝐽 = = …..(6)
2 (3 𝑘 𝑇) 6𝑘𝑇
The current density 𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸 ……(7)
𝑛 𝑒2 𝐸 𝜆 𝑢 𝑛 𝑒2 𝜆 𝑢
Comparing (6) and (7) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎 𝐸 = or 𝜎 =
6𝑘𝑇 6𝑘𝑇
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝀 𝒖
The expression for the electrical conductivity is 𝝈 = 𝟔𝒌𝑻

Verification of Ohm’s law :

If the metal is of length is l and area of cross section A, V is the applied potential,
𝑉
then 𝐸 = 𝑙 . (as the electric field is negative potential gradient)
𝐼
The current density 𝐽 = 𝐴,
Substituting for J and E from the above equations in the equation
𝐼 𝑉 𝑙 𝑙
𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = (𝜎 𝐴) 𝐼 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑅 . Thus V = R I
𝐴 𝑙 𝜎𝐴
1
where R is the resistance of the metal and = 𝜌 called resistivity of the metal.
𝜎
This verifies Ohm’s law.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Expression for Thermal conductivity

Consider a metal assumed to be made of a number of layers. E A F
Consider any three such layers as shown with layer E at
 
temperature T1 and F at temperature T2. Consider 𝜆 as the
mean free path which is the distance between the layers E and
A and also A and F. B
If n is the number of electrons per unit volume, u is the
average velocity of electrons, then the number of electrons crossing from layer E
1
to F through A per unit area per unit time is 𝑛 𝑢 . (As the system is in three
6
dimensions, the electrons can move in any of the three directions x, y and z.
Thus 1/3rd of electrons move along each axis. Also half of 1/3rd moves in one
direction and remaining in the opposite direction of that axis. Thus 1/6th is
considered along a specific direction).

If T1> T2, from the kinetic theory of gases, the heat energy transferred from E to
1 1
F per unit area per unit time is 𝑄1 = 𝑛𝑢 × 𝑚 𝑢12 ………..(1)
6 2
1
where, 𝑚 𝑢12 is the energy of each electron
2
1 3 1 3
𝑄1 = 𝑛𝑢 × 𝑘 𝑇1 . (Since 𝑚 𝑢12 = 𝑘𝑇1 )
6 2 2 2
1
𝑄1 = 𝑛 𝑢 𝑘 𝑇1 ………….(2)
4
1
The energy transferred from F to E is 𝑄2 = 𝑛 𝑢 𝑘 𝑇2
4
Hence the net heat energy transferred from E to F per unit area per unit time is
Q = Q1 – Q2
1
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝑢 𝑘 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )…….(3)
4
If K is the thermal conductivity of the metal, then the energy transfer per unit
area per unit time by definition is
𝐾 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄= ……(4) (where 2 𝜆 is the distance between layers E and F)
2𝜆
Comparing equations (3) and (4) we get
1 𝐾 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑛 𝑢 𝑘 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) =
4 2𝜆
𝟏
Or 𝑲 = 𝝀𝒏𝒖𝒌
𝟐

Wiedemann – Franz kaw

Statement : The ratio of thermal conductivity to that of the electrical
conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
the metal.
𝟏
The thermal conductivity 𝑲 = 𝝀𝒏𝒖𝒌 ……(1)
𝟐
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝀 𝒖
The electrical conductivity 𝝈 = ……..(2)
𝟔𝒌𝑻

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

𝐾 𝑘 2
Taking the ratio of the above equations we get = 3 (𝑒 ) 𝑇
𝜎
𝐾 𝐾 3 𝐾2
Or = 𝐿 or =𝐿𝑇 where 𝐿 = is called the Lorentz number.
𝜎𝑇 𝜎 𝑒2
𝑲
Hence ∝ 𝑻 which is the Wiedemann – Franz law.
𝝈

Merits of Classical Free Eletron Theory:

1. It is used to verify Ohm's law.
2. The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals can be explained.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann- Franz law
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory:

1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. It cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators properly.
3. Dual nature is not explained.
4. It cannot explain the Compton effect and Photo-electric effect.
5. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat do not agree with
each other.
6. Atomic fine spectra could not be accounted.
7. Different types of magnetisms could not be explained satisfactorily by this
theory.

Quantum theory of metals

Sommerfeld and Pauli applied quantum mechanics and modified the free
electron theory.
1 Instead of classical Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution law that is applied to
electrons in the classical theory, the distribution of energy in electron gas is
said to obey Fermi – Dirac distribution law according to the quantum theory.
2 The energy of electrons in a metal are quantized. The energy levels in the
metal are filled with electrons on the basis of Pauli exclusion principle.
3 According to this principle, an energy level can take only two electrons one
with spin up and the other with spin down. Thus the electrons, depending
on the energy values are filled from the lowest energy upwards.
4 The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature is called
Fermi energy.

Expression for density of states for free electrons

Density of states is defined as the number of electronic states present in a unit
energy range. It is represented by g(E).

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

𝑑𝑁
𝑔(𝐸) = 𝑑𝐸
where dN is the number of electron quantum energy states present in the energy
interval E and E + dE.
The number of quantum states in the energy state dE can be determined using
quantum mechanical analysis of particle in a box. According to this analysis,
𝑛2 ℎ 2
the energy of an electron in the nth state is 𝐸= 8 𝑚 𝐿2
Here n is an integer that takes values 1,2,3…. Also, n is treated like vectors
representing the distance from the lowest energy line. Then one can use
Pythagoras theorem to combine them into one single vector. ie. 𝑅 = √𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2
1
𝑅2 ℎ2 8 𝑚 𝐿2 𝐸 2
Thus the energy is represented as 𝐸= . or 𝑅=[ ] .
8 𝑚 𝐿2 ℎ2
The number of states with energy En will just be the number of states inside the
sphere of radius R.
The n – space associated with particle in a box involves only positive values of
n, so that volume must be divided by 8. It is then multiplied by 2 to account for
two possible spin values of electron.
Thus the number of quantum states
3
3
1 4 3 1 8 𝑚 𝐿2 𝐸 2 1 𝐿3
𝑁=2 × × 𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋[ ] = 𝜋[8 𝑚 𝐸 ]2
8 3 3 ℎ2 3 ℎ3
1 3 𝐿3 1 8 (2 𝑚 𝐸)3/2 𝐿3
or 𝑁 = 𝜋 [2 √2 𝑚 𝐸] = 𝜋
3 ℎ3 3 ℎ3
8 𝜋 (2 𝑚)3/2 𝑉 𝐸 3/2
𝑁= where V = L3 = volume
3 ℎ3
𝑑𝑁 𝑑 8 𝜋 (2 𝑚)3/2 𝑉 𝐸 3/2 8 𝜋 (2 𝑚)3/2 𝑉 3
Thus the density of states 𝑔(𝐸) = = ( )= √𝐸
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 3 ℎ3 3 ℎ3 2
𝟖 √𝟐 𝝅 𝑽 𝒎𝟑/𝟐
or 𝒈(𝑬) = √𝑬
𝒉𝟑
Thus the number of energy states per unit volume per unit energy E is
8 √2 𝜋 𝑚3/2
𝑔(𝐸) = √𝐸. or 𝑔(𝐸) ∝ √𝐸.
ℎ3

Fermi – Dirac distribution function : Fermi energy (EF)

Fermi energy is the maximum energy occupied by a free electron at absolute
zero temperature.
The electron gas in a metal obeys Fermi – dirac statistics (called fermions). In an
assembly of fermions, if there are g(E) allowed quantum states in an energy
range E and E + dE and n(E) is the number of particles, then n(E) states are filled
and g(E) – n(E) are vacant.
The Fermi dirac distribution function f(E) is defined as
𝑛(𝐸) 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = ……..(1)
𝑔(𝐸) 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
It indicates the fraction of quantum states occupied or the probability that the
level E is occupied by an electron.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

f(E) = 1 for E < EF ie. all quantum states are filled.

f(E) = 0 for E > EF ie. quantum states above EF are empty. This function is plotted
as shown

All levels below EF are completely filled and all levels above EF are empty at
absolute temperature. As the temperature is increased, f(E) changes from 1 to 0
more and more gradually. For E = EF, f(E) = ½ at all temperatures.

Expression for Fermi energy

The number of electrons between the energy E and E + dE is
n(E) dE = g(E) dE f(E) …….(1)
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2
where g(E) is the density of states given by 𝑔(𝐸) = √𝐸 ….(2)
ℎ3
1
and f(E) is the Fermi distribution function 𝑓(𝐸) = …..(3)
1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Substituting (2) and (3) in equation (1) we get
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 1
𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = √𝐸 ……(4)
ℎ3 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
The total number of electrons in the system is given by integrating the above
equation
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 ∞ √𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝑁= ∫0 …..(5)
ℎ3 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
At absolute zero temperature, the maximum energy of the electron is the Fermi
energy EF
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 𝐸
Thus 𝑁 = ∫0 √𝐸 𝑑𝐸 ,
𝐹
(∵ 1 + 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 = 1 As E < EF thus E - EF is
ℎ3
negative and at absolute zero temperature 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹)/𝑘×0 = 𝑒 −∞ = 0)
8√2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 2 3/2 8 𝜋 𝑉 2 𝑚 3/2
Integrating, we get 𝑁= 𝐸 or 𝑁= ( ℎ2 ) 𝐸𝐹 3/2
ℎ3 3 𝐹 3
8 𝜋 𝑉 2/3 2 𝑚
Rising the power of the above equation to 2/3, 𝑁 2/3 = ( ) 𝐸𝐹
3 ℎ2
Simplifying the above equation, the expression for Fermi energy is given by
𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝑵 𝟐/𝟑
𝑬𝑭 = ( ) …..(6)
𝟐𝒎 𝟖𝝅𝑽
V Semester B.Sc. Physics Dr. K S Suresh Page 23
Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

From the above equation it is observed that EF depends only on the density of
electrons given by n = N/V
𝒉𝟐 𝟑 𝒏 𝟐/𝟑
Thus 𝑬𝑭 = ( ) This is the expression for fermi energy at absolute zero
𝟐𝒎 𝟖𝝅
temperature.
EF is independent of size of the metal. The values of EF for few metals are given
by 4.72 eV for lithium, 3.12 eV for sodium, 7 eV for copper at absolute zero
temperature.
The value of Fermi energy at any other high temperature is
2
𝜋2 𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹(0) [1 − ( ) ] where EF(0) is Fermi energy at absolute zero
12 𝐸𝐹(0)

temperature. At room temperature, the change in Fermi energy is very small

compared to that at absolute temperature.

Electron energy distribution

The number of electrons in an electron
n(E) dE

gas that have energies between E and E

+ dE is n(E) dE = g(E)dEf(E)
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 1
𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = √𝐸 ….(1)
ℎ3 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝑵 𝟐/𝟑
As 𝑬𝑭 = ( )
𝟐𝒎 𝟖𝝅𝑽 E
8 𝜋 𝑉 2/3 2 𝑚
or 𝑁 2/3 = ( ) 𝐸𝐹
3 ℎ2
8 𝜋 𝑉 2 𝑚 3/2 8 𝜋 𝑉 2√2 𝑚 3/2 𝑁
or 𝑁 = ( ℎ2 ) 𝐸𝐹 3/2 or (ℎ2 ) =
3 3 𝐸𝐹 3/2
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 3𝑁 3𝑁 − 3/2
This implies that = 3/2 = 𝐸𝐹 …..(2)
ℎ3 2 𝐸𝐹 2

Thus, substituting for the terms of LHS of (2) in (1) we get

3𝑁 − 3/2 √𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 where 𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 ∝ √𝐸
2 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
The above equation is plotted for T = 0 K and for temperature greater than 0 K.

Expression for average kinetic energy of electrons at absolute

zero temperature
The number of electrons in an electron gas that have energies between E and E
+ dE is n(E) dE = g(E)dE f(E) …….(1)
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2
where g(E) is the density of states given by 𝑔(𝐸) = √𝐸
ℎ3
1
and f(E) is the Fermi distribution function 𝑓(𝐸) =
1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Substituting above expressions in equation (1) we get
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 1
𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = √𝐸 …(2) (∵ 1 + 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 = 1 As E < EF thus E -
ℎ3 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
EF is negative and at absolute zero temperature 𝑒 (𝐸− 𝐸𝐹)/𝑘×0 = 𝑒 −∞ = 0)
V Semester B.Sc. Physics Dr. K S Suresh Page 24
Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝑵 𝟐/𝟑 8 𝜋 𝑉 2/3 2 𝑚
Also 𝑬𝑭 = ( ) or 𝑁 2/3 = ( ) 𝐸𝐹
𝟐𝒎 𝟖𝝅𝑽 3 ℎ2
8 𝜋 𝑉 2 𝑚 3/2
Or 𝑁 = ( ℎ2 ) 𝐸𝐹 3/2
3
8 √2 𝜋 𝑉 𝑚3/2 3𝑁 3𝑁 − 3/2
This implies that = 3/2 = 𝐸𝐹 …..(3)
ℎ3 2 𝐸𝐹 2

Thus equation (2) after substituting from (3) is given by

3𝑁 − 3/2 1/2
𝑛(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 = ( ) 𝐸𝐹 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2
Total energy at absolute temperature is given by
𝐸 3𝑁 − 3/2 𝐸
𝐸0 = ∫0 𝐹 𝐸 𝑛(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 = ∫0 𝐸 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
𝐹
𝐸𝐹
2
𝐸 3𝑁 − 3/2 𝐸
𝐸0 = ∫0 𝐹 𝐸 𝑛(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 = ∫0 𝐸 3/2 𝑑𝐸
𝐹
𝐸𝐹
2
5/2
3 𝑁 − 3/2 𝐸𝐹 3
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑁 𝐸𝐹
2 5/2 5
The average electron energy at absolute zero temperature is given by
𝐸0 3 𝟑
𝐸̅0 = = 𝐸 ̅ 𝟎 = 𝑬𝑭
Thus 𝑬
𝑁 5 𝐹 𝟓

Note :The expression for Fermi momentum is 𝒑𝑭 = √𝟐 𝒎 𝑬𝑭

Fermi velocity is the average velocity of an electron in an atom at absolute
𝟐 𝑬𝑭
temperature given by 𝒗𝑭 = √ .
𝒎
𝑬𝑭
Fermi temperature is given by 𝑻𝑭 = where k is the Boltzmann constant.
𝒌

Hall effect
When a metal or a semiconductor
carrying an electric current is placed in a
magnetic field, an electric field is
produced inside the material in a
direction which is at right angles to both
the current and the magnetic field. This
was discovered by Edwin H Hall and is
called the Hall effect.

Hall effect in a metal : Consider a metal in the

form of a rectangular slab as shown. Let the current
be 𝐼 flowing along the positive X direction. 𝐽 is the
current density (ratio of current to area) also along
the + X direction. Let a magnetic field of strength B
be applied along the + Z direction. The electrons
which are moving along the negative X direction will
experience a Lorentz force given by 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 …..(1) (since 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 with 𝜃 =
V Semester B.Sc. Physics Dr. K S Suresh Page 25
Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

900 ) where e is the charge on the electron, v is the velocity with which electron
is moving. This force acts along the negative Y direction (Fleming left hand
rule).

Under the action of the Lorentz force, the electrons collect at the bottom surface
of the metal slab making it negative and the top surface becomes positive. Thus
an electric field is created called the Hall field 𝐸𝐻 along the negative Y axis.

Now the electrons experience a force due to electric field given by 𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸𝐻 . …(2)

This force is opposite to the Lorentz force and at equilibrium the two are equal
given by 𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 or 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝐵 …..(3)

The current in the conductor is given by 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 .

𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣
The current density 𝐽 = = = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 where 𝑛 is the number of electrons per
𝐴 𝐴
𝐽
unit volume. From the above equation 𝑣 = ……(4)
𝑛𝑒

𝑱𝑩 𝟏
Substituting for 𝑣 from (4) in (3) 𝑬𝑯 = = 𝑹𝑯 𝑩𝑱 ….(5) where 𝑹𝑯 =
𝒏𝒆 𝒏𝒆

𝑅𝐻 is called the Hall coefficient which depend on the nature of the conductor.
In case of a metal as electrons are the charge carriers, the Hall coefficient is
𝟏
negative i.e. 𝑹𝑯 = − .
𝒏𝒆
𝑉𝐻
If 𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage generated in the metal of thickness 𝑑, then 𝐸𝐻 = .
𝑑

𝑉𝐻 𝑩𝑱𝒅
Thus from equation (5) = 𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐽 or 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐽𝑑 or 𝑽𝑯 =
𝑑 𝒏𝒆

Importance of Hall effect

1. The sign of the current carrying charge can be determined by the Hall
effect.
2. The electron concentration (number of electrons per unit volume) can
be calculated by measuring Hall coefficient.
3. The mobility of electrons can be measured directly.
4. Hall effect can used to find the electronic structure of the material.
5. Knowing 𝑅𝐻 , the magnetic field can be measured from Hall voltage.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Superconductivity
Introduction : In general the electrical resistivity 𝜌 of metals and alloys
decreases when they are cooled(i.e. temperature is decreased). When the
temperature is lowered the thermal vibrations of the atoms decreases and the
conduction electrons are less frequently scattered. For a perfectly pure metal,
the resistivity must approach zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
This is not real as any metal will always possess impurity. Thus there is always
some residual resistivity 𝜌0 or electrical resistance even at absolute zero
temperature.

Certain metals, however, show a remarkable behaviour when they are cooled.
As the temperature is lowered the resistivity decreases as usual, but at a certain
low temperature close to absolute zero, the resistivity suddenly reduces to zero.
Then they are said to have passed into superconducting state.

Superconductivity is a phenomenon of certain materials attaining exactly zero

electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic flux fields, when cooled below a
characteristic critical temperature.

It was discovered by Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes

in the year 1911. Onnes, after having
successfully liquified helium in 1908, investigated the
low temperature resistivity of mercury in 1911. The
mercury could be made very pure by distillation, and
this was important because the resistivity at low
temperatures tends to be dominated by impurity effects.
He found that the resistivity suddenly dropped to zero at
4.2K, a phase transition to a zero resistance state. This phenomenon was
called superconductivity, and the temperature at which it occurred is called
its critical temperature.

Critical temperature 𝑻𝑪 : The critical temperature

or transition temperature for superconductors is the
temperature at which the electrical resistivity of a metal
drops to zero as shown in the graph. The transition is
so sudden and complete that it appears to be a
transition to a different phase of matter. This
superconducting phase is described by the BCS theory.
Several materials exhibit superconducting phase
transitions at low temperatures. The highest critical temperature was about 23
K until the discovery in 1986 of some high temperature superconductors.

Materials with critical temperatures in the range 120 K have received a great deal of
attention because they can be maintained in the superconducting state with liquid

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

nitrogen (77 K). Eg. Gallium 𝑇𝐶 = 1.1 𝐾, Aluminium 𝑇𝐶 = 1.2 𝐾, Indium 𝑇𝐶 = 3.4 𝐾
Tin 𝑇𝐶 = 3.7 𝐾 , Lead 𝑇𝐶 = 7.2 𝐾 , Niobium 𝑇𝐶 = 9.3 𝐾 La-Ba-Cu-oxide 𝑇𝐶 = 17.9 𝐾
and Y-Ba-Cu-oxide 𝑇𝐶 = 92 𝐾.

Experimental Facts
1. When impurities are added to superconducting elements, the
superconducting property is not lost but the transition temperature is lowered.

2. Isotope effect : It has been observed that the critical temperature of

superconductors varies with isotopic mass. In Mercury 𝑇𝐶 varies from 4.185 K
to 4.146 K as the average atomic mass M varies from 199.5 to 203.4 amu. They
obey a relation 𝑇𝐶 √𝑀 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 . The variation of critical temperature with
isotopic mass is called isotope effect.

3. The thermal properties such as the specific heat capacity and thermal
conductivity of a substance change abruptly, when it passes over to
superconducting state.

(a) Specific heat : The specific heat of a normal metal at

low temperature is of the form 𝐶𝑛 (𝑇) = 𝛾𝑇 + 𝛽𝑇 3 . The
first term on the right hand side is the specific heat of
electrons in the metal and the second term is the
contribution of lattice vibrations. But from the graph it
is seen that a superconductor shows a jump at critical
temperature 𝑇𝐶 . Since the superconductivity affects
electrons mainly, the second contribution 𝛽𝑇 3 almost remains the same in the
superconducting state. The variation of electronic specific heat 𝐶𝑒𝑠 is nonlinear
∆
−
with temperature. It is given by 𝐶𝑒𝑠 (𝑇) = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
.

An exponential dependence implies that it requires a finite energy ∆ to excite an

individual electron in a superconductor.

(b) Thermal conductivity : The thermal conductivity of

superconductors undergo a continuous change between
the two phases (normal and superconducting) and is
usually lower in the superconducting phase. This suggest
that the electronic contribution drops and possibly the
superconducting electrons playing no part in the heat
transfer. The thermal conductivity of tin at 2K is 3400
Wm-1K-1 for normal phase and 1600 Wm-1K-1 for the
superconducting phase. The variation is as shown in the
graph.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

4 Persistent currents : The fact that the resistance is zero has been
demonstrated by sustaining currents or persistent currents in superconducting
lead rings for many years with no measurable reduction. An induced current in
an ordinary metal ring would decay rapidly from the dissipation of ordinary
resistance, but superconducting rings had exhibited a decay constant of over a
billion years. Thus currents persists in a superconducting ring over very long
time.

In a superconducting state, since the dc electrical resistance is practically zero,

persistent current is observed to flow in superconducting rings. The current
flowing in a ring at any time t due to changing magnetic flux density B is given
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐼
by Lenz law according to which − 𝐴 = 𝑅(𝑡) + 𝐿 where A is the area, R is
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
the resistance of the ring and L is the inductance of the ring. If there is no
external magnetic field applied to the ring B = 0.
𝑑𝐼
Thus 𝑅(𝑡) + 𝐿 =0 The solution of this equation can be written as
𝑑𝑡

𝑅
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼(0)𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 . The current decays in the ring exponentially in the absence of
the external magnetic field. But if the ring is a superconductor, then resistance
is zero i.e. R = 0, thus 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼(0). Thus the current does not decay with time
and remains the same called the persistent current.

5 Critical magnetic field : Destruction of HC Normal

superconductivity by magnetic fields : If a phase
strong magnetic field called critical magnetic Superconducting
field is applied to a superconducting phase
specimen, it becomes normal conductor and TC T
recovers normal resistivity even at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝐶 . The
critical value of the applied magnetic field for the destruction of the
superconductivity is denoted by 𝐵𝐶 (𝑇) and
is a function of temperature. It is called
critical field. For a given substance, the
value of 𝐻𝐶 decreases as the temperature
increases from 𝑇 = 0 𝐾 𝑡𝑜 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 . The
variation can be expressed by the formula

𝑇 2
𝐵𝐶 (𝑇) = 𝐵𝐶 (0) [1 − (𝑇 ) ] where 𝐵𝐶 (0) is
𝐶

the critical field at 0 K. At the critical temperature 𝑇𝐶 the critical field is zero,
𝐵𝐶 (𝑇𝐶 ) = 0. This result is expected, because at 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 , the specimen is already
normal and field is necessary for this transition. The variation of critical field
with temperature is as shown in the graph for mercury. Generally for all
substances the variation is the same.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

Meissner effect
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfold measured the magnetic flux distribution
outside Tin and Lead specimen which has been cooled below their transition
temperature while in the magnetic field. They found that at their transition
temperatures the specimens spontaneously became
perfectly diamagnetic, cancelling all the flux even though
they are inside the magnetic field.

When a conductor is cooled in a magnetic field to

temperature below the critical temperature then, at the
critical temperature the magnetic field lines are expelled
from the interior of the superconductor. This phenomenon
is called the Meissner effect. Thus at T  Tc when magnetic field is expelled from
the material the superconductor is said to exhibit diamagnetism. Thus in the
superconducting state, the magnetic flux density inside it is zero. i.e. 𝐵 = 0.

The magnetic flux density 𝐵 along a specific direction within a material is given
by

𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝐼) ….(1) where H is the applied magnetic field and 𝐼 is the intensity

of magnetization,
𝐵 𝐼 𝐼
= 𝜇0 (1 + 𝐻) But = 𝜒 called the volume magnetic susceptibility of the
𝐻 𝐻
specimen.
𝐵
Thus = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒) For a superconductor 𝐵 = 0, thus the equation reduces
𝐻
to 𝜒 = −1 .

The negative sign indicates that the specimen is a diamagnet.

The superconducting state is a characteristic thermodynamic phase of a

substance in which the material cannot sustain stead electric and magnetic
fields. Thus the two mutually independent properties of a superconductor are :
(1) zero resistivity (𝜌 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 0) and (2) perfect diamagnetism ( 𝐵 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜒 =
−1). They are essential properties that characterize the superconducting state.

Critical current density

The magnetic field which causes the superconductor to become normal from a
superconducting state need not necessarily by an external magnetic field. It may
arise as a result of electric current flow in the conductor. If the field produced
by the current in the conductor exceeds critical field 𝐻𝐶 , the superconductivity
disappears. The maximum current density 𝐽 at which the superconductivity
disappears is called the critical current density 𝐽𝐶 .

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

𝐼
For a ring of radius 𝑟 carrying a current 𝐼, the magnetic field is given by 𝐻𝑖 = .
2𝜋𝑟

If 𝐻𝑖 exceeds 𝐻𝐶 , the superconductor becomes normal. If a transverse magnetic

field is also applied to the ring, then the critical magnetic field is given by
𝐼𝐶
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑖 + 2𝐻 or 𝐻𝐶 = + 2𝐻 or 𝐼𝐶 = (𝐻𝐶 − 2ℎ)2𝜋𝑟 . This is called
2𝜋𝑟
Sisbee’s rule. If the applied field is zero, 𝐻 = 0, then the critical current is

𝐼𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝐶 . Thus a superconductor loses to be so if the current is critical

current given by the above expression in a ring. This puts a limit to the current
that can flow in a ring for the material to remain as a superconductor.

Types of superconductors
Type I and Type II superconductors
Depending upon their behaviour in an external magnetic
field, superconductors are divided into two types: a) Type I superconductors and
b) Type II superconductors

1) Type I superconductors:
a). Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their
superconductivity very easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic
field. As can be seen from the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus
applied magnetic field (H), when the Type I superconductor is placed in the
magnetic field, it suddenly or easily looses its superconductivity at critical
magnetic field 𝐻𝐶 .
After 𝐻𝐶 , the Type I
superconductor will become
conductor.
b). Type I superconductors
are also known as soft
superconductors because of
the reason that they loose
their superconductivity
easily.
c) Type I superconductors perfectly obey Meissner effect.
d) Example of Type I superconductors: Aluminum (𝐻𝐶 = 0.0105 T), Zinc (𝐻𝐶 =
0.0054T)

2) Type II superconductors:
a). Type II superconductors are those superconductors which loose their
superconductivity gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the
external magnetic field. As you can see from the graph of intensity of
magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the Type II

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually looses its

superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to loose their
superconductivity at lower critical magnetic field (𝐻𝐶1 ) and completely loose their
superconductivity at upper critical magnetic field (𝐻𝐶2 ).

b) The state between the lower critical magnetic field (𝐻𝐶1 ) and upper critical
magnetic field (𝐻𝐶2 ) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.
After 𝐻𝐶1 ), the Type II superconductor will become conductor.
c). Type II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because
of reason that is they loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily.
c) Type II superconductors obey Meissner effect but not completely.
d) Example of Type II superconductors: NbN (𝐻𝐶 = 8 x 106 T), Babi3(𝐻𝐶 = 59 x
103 T)
e) Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for
strong field superconducting magnets.

Differences between Type I and Type II superconductors

S. Type I superconductor Type II superconductor

No.
1 They are Soft superconductors They are Hard superconductors
that can tolerate the impurities that canot tolerate the impurities.
without affecting the The presence of impurities affect
superconducting properties the superconducting properties
2 They have low critical magnetic They have high critical magnetic
field field
3 They exhibit complete They trap magnetic flux and hence
Meissner effect Meissner effect is not complete
4 The current flows through the The current flows throughout the
surface only material
5 Eg. Tin, Aluminium Eg. Tantalum, Niobium

BCS theory :
The properties of Type I superconductors were modelled successfully by the
efforts of John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer in what is commonly
called the BCS theory. A key conceptual element in this theory is the pairing of
electrons close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs through interaction with the
crystal lattice. This pairing results from a slight attraction between the electrons
related to lattice vibrations; the coupling to the lattice is called a phonon
interaction.
Cooper pairs : The behavior of superconductors suggests that electron pairs are
coupling over a range of hundreds of nanometers, three orders of magnitude

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

larger than the lattice spacing. Called Cooper pairs, these coupled electrons can
take the character of a boson and condense into the
ground state.
This pair condensation is the basis for the BCS
theory of superconductivity. The effective net
attraction between the normally repulsive electrons
produces a pair binding energy on the order of milli-electron volts, enough to
keep them paired at extremely low temperatures.
Pairs of electrons can behave very differently from single electrons which
are fermions and must obey the Pauli exclusion principle. The pairs of electrons
act more like bosons which can condense into the same energy level. The
electron pairs have a slightly lower energy and leave an energy gap above them
on the order of 0.001 eV which inhibits the kind of collision interactions which
lead to ordinary resistivity. For temperatures such that the thermal energy is
less than the band gap, the material exhibits zero resistivity.
Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in 1972 for the
development of the theory of superconductivity.

High temperature superconductors:

It was generally believed that Superconductivity is exhibited only by materials
at very low temperatures. The alloy Nb3Ge had the highest known Tc equal to
23.2 K. In the year 1986 George Bednorz and Karl Alex Muller discovered that
an oxide of lanthanum, barium and copper (La-Ba-Cu-O) became
superconducting at 30 K. Then it was thought that superconductivity could be
achieved even at higher temperature. This lead to the production of materials
with higher and higher values of T. Some examples of high temperature
superconductors are Ti2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 with Tc = 125K and Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 at
Tc = 134K.
Applications of superconductors:
(1) Superconductors are used in making magnets that can produce very strong
magnetic fields.
(2) The ability of superconductors to conduct electricity with zero resistance
leads to its application in efficient transmission and distribution of electrical
power.
(3) SQUIDS (superconducting quantum interference devices) are used to detect
magnetic fields as low as 10-14T.
(4) The Meissner effect exhibited by superconductors is used in magnetic
levitation. That is, a small permanent magnet can be made to float above a
superconductor.
(5) Superconducting magnets are used in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
scanning devices.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

(6) A current generated once in a circular ring of superconductor remains for

infinite time. This property can be used as memory device or information
storage in a computer.
SQUIDS : A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is a very sensitive
device for measuring weak magnetic fields. It is capable of measuring magnetic fields
as low as 5 aT (5×10-18 T). Due to their sensitivity, SQUIDs are widely used in research,
biological studies and other ultrasensitive electronic and magnetic measurements
where faint signals cannot be sensed using conventional measurement instruments.

There are two types of SQUID, the radio frequency (RF) SQUID consisting of only one
Josephson junction, and the direct current (DC) SQUID with two or more junctions.
The RF is cheaper in construction but less sensitive compared to the DC.
A typical DC SQUID has two parallel junctions inserted in a superconducting loop.
Without a magnetic field, the input current splits equally between the branches. This
maintains an externally connected tank circuit at resonance. Any external magnetic
field causes a change in the resonant frequency in the tank circuit, and a current
imbalance that leads to a voltage across the Josephson junction. The voltage is a
function of the magnetic flux and can therefore be measured and used to calculate the
magnetic flux.
The superconducting materials used for low-temperature SQUIDs are pure niobium or
lead alloys. The device is cooled with liquid helium to maintain superconductivity. High-
temperature SQUIDs are made from high-temperature superconductors such as
yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) and cooled with the cheaper and readily available
liquid nitrogen. However, they are not as sensitive as the low-temperature models, but
are good enough for certain applications.
A SQUID is very sensitive in detection of magnetic energy fields, as low as 100 billion
times smaller in magnitude than the energy that moves a compass needle. This extreme
sensitivity makes them ideal for highly sensitive applications in research, biological
studies and medical tests where the magnetic fields present cannot be measured using
conventional instruments.
For example, SQUIDS are used in measuring faint signals in the human brain or heart
by sensing the magnetic fields created by the neurological currents. Other applications
include the construction of highly sensitive gradiometers, magnetometers and
voltmeters.

Josephson junction : Two superconductors separated by a thin insulating layer can

experience tunneling of Cooper pairs of electrons through the junction. The Cooper
pairs on each side of the junction can be represented by a wavefunction similar to a free
particle wavefunction. In the DC Josephson effect, a current proportional to the phase
difference of the wavefunctions can flow in the junction in the absence of a voltage. In
the AC Josephson effect, a Josephson junction will oscillate with a characteristic
frequency which is proportional to the voltage across the junction. Since frequencies
can be measured with great accuracy, a Josephson junction device has become
the standard measure of voltage.

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Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

PART A
1. (a) Mention the basic properties of metals.
(b) Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a metal based on free electron
theory. Hence establish Ohm’s law.
2. (a) Derive the expression for thermal conductivity of the metal based on free electron
theory.
(b) State and explain Weidman-Franz law.
3 (a) Define the density of states for free electron. Derive an expression for density of
states for free electron.
(b) Explain Fermi distribution function.
4 (a) What is Fermi energy?
(b) Obtain the expressions for Fermi energy of a metal.
5 (a) Explain electron energy distribution with the help of a graph in case of metals.
(b) Arrive at the average kinetic energy of electrons at absolute zero temperature.
6 (a) Define Hall effect. Derive an expression for Hall voltage and Hall field in the case
of metals and hence derive an expression for Hall co-efficient.
(b) Write a note on importance of Hall effect.
7 (a) What is superconductivity? Explain.
(b) Expalin critical field, critical temperature and critical current density.
8 (a) Explain Meissner effect. Explain any three experimental facts about
superconductivity.
(b) Explain the Type I and type II superconductors.
9 (a) Writa a note on BCS theory.
(b) What is SQUID? Explain. Explain any three applications of superconductivity.

PART B
1 Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons in a conductor of area 10−4 𝑚2 given
the electron density to be 8 × 1028 𝑚−3 when a current of 5 A flows in it.
𝐼
[Hint : 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴
]
2 The drift velocity of free electrons in a metal wire of diameter 5 mm is 6 × 10−4 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
The current is 10 A. Calculate the electron density.
𝐼
[ Hint : 𝑛 = 𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ]
3 Calculate the relaxation time of free electrons in copper of atomic weight 63.5. Density
of copper is 8.94 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚3 and electrical conductivity is 6 × 107 𝑚ℎ𝑜 𝑚−1 .
𝑛 𝑒 2𝐸 𝜏 𝐽 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 2𝜎 𝑚 𝑁𝐴 𝜌𝑁𝐴 8.94 × 103 ×6.02×1026
[Hint : 𝐽 = ,As 𝜎 = 𝐸
= 2𝑚
or 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑒 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑉
= 𝑀
= 63.5
[
2𝑚
4 Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper from the following data : atomic weight
of copper = 63.5, density of copper = 8.94 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚3 and relaxation time =
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
2.48 × 10−14 𝑠 . [ Hint: 𝜎 = 2𝑚
]
5 Find the Fermi energy in copper on the assumption that each copper atom
contributes one free electron to the electron gas. The density of copper is
8.94 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚3 and its atomic mass = 63.5 amu Given 1 amu = 1.66X10-27kg.

V Semester B.Sc. Physics Dr. K S Suresh Page 35

Paper VI :Unit 2 (503) - Solid State Physics

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 8.94 × 103

[ Hint : 𝑛= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 63.5 ×1.667 ×19−27 , 𝐸𝐹 =
ℎ2 3 𝑛 2/3
( ) 𝐽, 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 1.6 × 10−19 𝐸𝐹 (𝐶𝑢) = 7.04 𝑒𝑉 ]
2𝑚 8𝜋
6 Calculate the fermi energy for lithium and sodium given their densities to be 534
and 971𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and their atomic weights to be 6.931 and 22.99 amu respectively.
ℎ2 3 𝑛 2/3
[Hint: 𝐸𝐹 = ( ) 𝐽, 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 1.6 × 10−19 𝐸𝐹 (𝐿𝑖) =
2𝑚 8𝜋
4.7 𝑒𝑉, 𝐸𝐹 (𝑁𝑎) = 3.152𝑒𝑉]
7 The fermi energy of silver is 5.5 eV. Calculate the fermi temperature and fermi
velocity.
𝐸𝐹 2 𝐸𝐹
[ Hint : 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝐹 = √ . Convert eV to J by multiplying with
𝑘 𝑚

1.6 × 10−19 ]
8 The fermi energy of copper is 7.1 eV. Calculate the number of electrons per
unit volume, given the density of copper is 8.94 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚3 .
ℎ2 3 𝑛 2/3
[ Hint : 𝐸𝐹 = ( ) to calculate n]
2𝑚 8𝜋
9 A copper wire of cross sectional area 5 × 10−6 𝑚2 carries a steady current of 50
A. Assuming one free electron per atom, calculate the (1) density of free electrons, (2)
drift velocity of the electrons and (3) relaxation time given resistivity of copper is
1.7 × 10−8 Ω𝑚 .
𝜌𝑁𝐴 𝐼 2𝑚
[ Hint : 𝑛 = , 𝑣𝑑 = , 𝜌= , to find 𝜏 ]
𝑀 𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
10 A current of 50 A is established in a copper slab 0.5 cm thick and 2cm wide. The
slab is placed in a magnetic field of 1.5 T. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane of the slab and to the current. The free electron concentration in copper is
8.48x1028 electron/m3. What is the magnitude of Hall voltage across the width of
𝐵𝐽𝑑 𝐼
the slab? [ Hint : 𝑉𝐻 = where 𝐽 = and 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ(𝑤) × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑑) ]
𝑛𝑒 𝐴
11 Calculate the Hall coefficient of sodium, if the number of free electrons per unit
volume is 2.55 × 1028 𝑚−3 .
1
[ Hint : 𝑅𝐻 = − 𝑛𝑒
]

V Semester B.Sc. Physics Dr. K S Suresh Page 36