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Chapter 2.2: The structure of procedural programs

2.2 (a) Statement, subroutine, procedure, function, parameter, loop

Procedural programs are ones in which instructions are executed in the order defined by the
programmer.

Procedural languages are often referred to as third generation languages and include FORTRAN,
ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, and PASCAL.

Statement
A statement is a single instruction in a program, which can be converted into machine code and
executed.

In most languages a statement is written on a single line, but some languages allow multiple lines
for single statements.

Examples of statements are:

DIM name As String
A=X*X
While x < 10

Subroutine
A subroutine is a self-contained section of program code that performs a specific task, as part of
the main program.

Procedure
A procedure is a subroutine that performs a specific task without returning a value to the part of
the program from which it was called.

Function
A function is a subroutine that performs a specific task and returns a value to the part of the
program from which it was called.

Note that a function is ‘called’ by writing it on the right hand side of an assignment statement.

Parameter
A parameter is a value that is ‘received’ in a subroutine (procedure or function).

The subroutine uses the value of the parameter within its execution. The action of the subroutine
will be different depending upon the parameters that it is passed.

Parameters are placed in parenthesis after the subroutine name. For example:
Square(5) ‘passes the parameter 5 – returns 25
Square(8) ‘passes the parameter 8 – returns 64
Square(x) ‘passes the value of the variable x

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2.2 (b) Identify the three basic programming constructs used to control the flow of
execution: sequence, selection and iteration

Control structures
Computer programs execute statements one line after the next, unless there is a command that
instructs the program to ‘jump’ backwards or forwards to an alternative line.

Sequence
Sequence is when the programming statements are executed one after the other, in the order in
which they appear in the program.

Selection
Selection is a control structure in which there is a test to decide if certain instructions are
executed.

If x < 10 then
Do this line
And this line
Else
Do this line
End if

Iteration
Iteration is a control structure in which a group of statements is executed repeatedly – either a set
number of times, or until a specific condition is True.

Repeat
Do this line
And this line
Until n=5

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2.2 (c) Understand and use selection in pseudocode and a procedural programming
language, including the use of IF statements and CASE/SELECT statements

IF-THEN-ELSE
This selection method is used if there are two possible outcomes to a test:

IF x < 0 THEN
OUTPUT “Sorry, you can’t have negative values”
ELSE
a = x*x
OUTPUT a
END

SELECT-CASE
This selection method is used if there are more than two possible outcomes to a test:

SELECT CASE KeyPress

CASE LeftArrow
Move one character backwards
CASE RightArrow
Move one character forwards
CASE UpArrow
Move one character up
CASE DownArrow
Move one character down
END SELECT

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2.2 (d) Understand and use iteration in pseudocode and a procedural programming
language, including the use of count-controlled loops (FOR-NEXT loops) and
condition-controlled loops (WHILE-ENDWHILE and REPEAT-UNTIL loops)

FOR-NEXT
This is an unconditional loop in which the number of repetitions is set at the beginning.

FOR X = 1 TO 5
Answer = X*3
OUTPUT X, Answer
NEXT

WHILE-ENDWHILE
This is a conditional loop, which has a test at the start and repeats until the condition is false:
X = 0
WHILE X < 6 DO
X = X + 1
Answer = X*3
OUTPUT X, Answer
ENDWHILE

REPEAT-UNTIL
This is a conditional loop, which has a test at the end and repeats until the condition is true:
X = 0
REPEAT
X = X + 1
Answer = X*3
OUTPUT X, Answer
UNTIL X > 4

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Comparison of the different iterations

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2.2 (e) Understand and use nested selection and nested iteration statements

Nested selection
This is where there is an IF statement contained within an IF statement.
The following algorithm allows a maximum of four attempts to login to a computer system:

INPUT Password
IF NumberOfTries < 5 THEN
IF Password is correct THEN
OUTPUT “Successful Login”
ELSE
OUTPUT “Password was incorrect”
ENDIF
ELSE
OUTPUT “You have made too many attempts”
ENDIF

Nested iteration
This is where there is a loop within a loop.
A nested iteration is needed to initialise a two-dimensional array:

FOR row = 0 TO 7
FOR column = 0 TO 5
SET MyArray (row, column) = 0
NEXT column
NEXT row

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2.2 (f) Understand, create and use subroutines (procedures and functions),
including the passing of parameters and the appropriate use of the return value of
functions

2.2 (g) Use subroutines to modularise the solution to a problem

Subroutine/sub-program
A subroutine is a self-contained section of program code which performs a specific task and is
referenced by a name.

A subroutine resembles a standard program in that it will contain its own local variables, data
types, labels and constant declarations.

There are two types of subroutine. These are procedures and functions.

• procedures are subroutines that input, output or manipulate data in some way;
• functions are subroutines that return a value to the main program.

A subroutine is executed whenever its name is encountered in the executable part of the main
program. The execution of a subroutine by referencing its name in the main program is termed
‘calling’ the subroutine.

The advantages of subroutines.

The advantage of using procedures and functions are that:

• the same lines of code are re-used whenever they are needed – they do not have to be
repeated in different sections of the program.
• a procedure or function can be tested/improved/rewritten independently of other
procedures or functions.
• it is easy to share procedures and functions with other programs – they can be
incorporated into library files which are then ‘linked’ to the main program;
• a programmer can create their own routines that can be called in the same way as any
built-in command.

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2.2 (h) Identify and use recursion to solve problems; show an understanding of the
structure of a recursive subroutine, including the necessity of a stopping condition

2.2 (i) Trace the execution of a recursive subroutine

2.2 (j) Discuss the relative merits of iterative and recursive solutions to the same
problem
Recursion is when a function or a procedure contains a call to itself. Recursion is used when
calculating factorials:

FUNCTION Factorial(n)
IF n = 1 THEN
RETURN 1
ELSE
RETURN n * Factorial(n – 1)
END IF
END

Note that a recursive function needs a ‘stopping condition’ – i.e. a statement that will stop it from
repeating infinitely.

In the Factorial function above the stopping condition is IF n = 1.

Tracing the execution of x = Factorial(3)

01 FUNCTION Factorial(n)
02 IF n = 1 THEN
03 RETURN 1
04 ELSE
05 RETURN n * Factorial(n – 1)
06 END IF
07 END FUNCTION

Note that in the above algorithm, the recursion ‘happens’ on line 05. See tracing table on next
page for this Recursion.

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Iteration compared to recursion

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