THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

COURSE CONTENTS

•Machining Processes and Machine Tools

•Materials and Geometry of Cutting Tools
•Mechanics of Machining Processes
•Tool Wear, Tool Life and Machinability
•Grinding and other abrasive Machining Processes
•Non conventional Machining Processes
•Economics of Machining Processes
 Text and Reference
Books
1. “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing:
Materials, Processes, and Systems, 5/E”,
Mikell Groover, John Wiley & Sons 2013.
2. “Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, 6/
E” S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid, 2009.
3. “Fundamentals of Metal cutting and Machine
Tools” B.I.Juneja, G.S. Sekhon, and N. Seth,
2008.
 Introduction – Metal Cutting
Metals are shaped into usable forms through various processes
NO-CUTTING SHAPING (FORMING) No chip formation takes place,
and the metal is shaped under the action of heat, pressure or both
Ex: Forging, Spinning, Rolling, Drawing, Extruding, etc.
CUTTING SHAPING The components are brought to the desired
shape size by removing the unwanted material from the parent metal
in the form of chips through machining. Ex: Turning, Boring, Milling,
Drilling, Shaping, Planning, Broaching, Sawing, Grinding etc
1- What are the differences between rotational parts and prismatic parts in machining?

ANSWER: Rotational parts are cylindrical or disk-shaped and are machined on a lathe; prismatic
parts are block-shaped or flat and are generally produced on a milling machine, shaper, or planer.

Machined parts are classified as (a) Rotational, or

(b) Non rotational, shown here by block and flat parts.
2- Distinguish between generating and forming when machining workpart
geometries.

ANSWER: Generating refers to the creation of work geometry due to the

feed trajectory of the cutting tool; examples include taper turning, and
profile turning. Forming involves the creation of work geometry due to the
shape of the cutting tool; common examples include form turning and
drilling.
Generating shape in machining: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning,
(c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, and (e) profile milling
Forming to create shape in machining: (a) form turning, (b)
drilling, and (c) broaching
3- Give two examples of machining operations in which generating and forming are
combined to create workpart geometry.

Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a)

thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling
4- What is the difference between threading and tapping? What is the difference
between threading and tapping?

ANSWER A threading operation is performed on a turning machine and produces an

external thread, while tapping is normally performed on a drilling machine and
produces an internal thread.
:

Answer.
5- How does a boring operation differ from a turning operation?

ANSWER: Boring produces an internal cylindrical shape from an existing

hole, while turning produces an external cylindrical shape.

Two forms of horizontal boring: (a) boring bar is fed into a

rotating work part, and (b) work is fed past a rotating
boring bar.
6- What is meant by the designation 12 X 36 inch lathe?

Answer. A lathe has a 12 inch the maximum work diameter that can be
accommodated and a 36 inch the maximum work length that can be held between
centers.

Diagram of an engine lathe, indicating its principal components

 7- Name the various ways in which a workpart can be held in a lathe.

Four work holding methods used in lathes: (a) mounting the

work between centers using a dog, (b) three-jaw chuck, (c)
collet, and (d) faceplate for noncylindrical work parts.
8- How do shaping and planing differ?
Answer: In shaping, the work is stationary during the cut, and the speed motion is
performed by the cutting tool; while in planing, the cutting tool is stationary, and the
workpart is moved past the tool in the speed motion.

(a) Shaping, and (b) planing

9- What is the difference between internal broaching and external broaching?
Answer: Internal broaching is accomplished on the inside surface (hole) of a
workpart; while external broaching is performed on one of the outside surfaces of
the part

Work shapes that can be cut by: (a) external broaching, and (b) internal
broaching. Cross-hatching indicates the surfaces broached.
10- Identify the three basic forms of sawing operation?
Answer: (1) hacksawing, (2) band sawing, and (3) circular sawing.

Three types of sawing operations: (a) power hacksaw, (b) bandsaw (vertical),
and (c) circular saw.
Peripheral milling: (a) slab
milling, (b) slotting, (c) side
milling, (d) straddle milling,
and (e) form milling

11- Describe the difference between up milling and down milling?

Answer. In up milling, the cutter speed direction is opposite the feed direction; in down
milling, the direction of cutter rotation is the same as the feed direction

Two forms of peripheral

milling operation with 20-
tooth cutter: (a) up milling,
and (b) down milling
12- What is the distinguishing feature of a radial
drill press?
Answer. A radial drill has a long radial arm
along which the drill head can be positioned to
allow the drilling of large work parts. The radial
arm can also be swiveled about the column to
drill parts on either side of the worktable.

Upright drill press Radial drill press

13- What can a mill-turn center do that a conventional turning center cannot do?
ANSWER: The mill-turn center has the capacity to position a rotational workpart at a
specified angular location, permitting milling or drilling to be performed at a location on
the periphery of the part.

Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled,

and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn
center: (1) turn second diameter, (2) mill fl at with part in programmed
angular position, (3) drill hole with part in same programmed position,
and (4) cutoff.
 Common Machining
Processes

Some examples of common machining processes.

Machining operations other than turning that are performed on a lathe: (a) facing,
(b) taper turning, (c) contour turning, (d) form turning, (e) chamfering, (f) cutoff, (g)
threading, (h) boring, (i) drilling, and (j) knurling.
(a) Type of part produced on a six-spindle automatic bar
machine; and (b) sequence of operations to produce the part: (1)
feed stock to stop, (2) turn main diameter, (3) form second
diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff.
A vertical boring mill
Two hole types: (a) through
hole and (b) blind hole

Machining operations related to

drilling: (a) reaming, (b) tapping,
(c) counter boring, (d)
countersinking, (e) center
drilling, and (f) spot facing.
Two basic types of milling operations: (a) peripheral or plain milling and
(b) face milling
Face milling: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face
milling, (c) end milling, (d) profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and
(f) surface contouring
 Basic objectives of economic and
efficient machining practice
1. Quick Metal Removal (MRR)
2. High class surface finish
3. Economy in tool cost
4. Less power consumption
5. Economy in the cost of replacement and sharpening of tools
6. Minimum deal time of machine tools
Basic Elements of Machining
Finite Element Simulation of Orthogonal Cutting Process
 Machining Parameters
• Cutting Speed V = π D N /1000 m/min
• Feed rate f = F/N mm/rev
• Uncut chip thickness t = f cos(γs) mm
• Depth of cut d = b cos(γs) mm
• Area of uncut chip Ac = f d mm2
• Metal Removal Rate (MRR) Zw = 1000 f d V mm3/min
• No. of passes m = depth of stock to be removed/depth of cut per pass
• Time of cutting per path Tc = L / (f N) min
• Machining Time Tm = (L + la) / (f N) min
Where; D is the workpiece diameter in mm, N the rotational speed of the workpiece in

rpm, F longitudinal feed rate in mm/min , f feed rate in mm/rev, γs the side cutting
edge angle in degree, b the cutting edge engagement in mm, m no off passes, L the
length of workpiece in mm. la the approach length in mm.
 Evaluate the Machining Parameters
Example 1: Evaluate the machining parameters for the case of cylindrical turning of a 25 mm
diameter brass bar at a spindle speed of 900 rpm. Depth of cut 3 mm, longitudinal feed rate
= 20 cm/min, length of workpiece = 50 cm, stock to be removed = 6 mm and side cutting
angle of the tool 30 degree.

Solution: Cutting speed v = π×25×900 /1000 = 70.68 m/min

Feed rate f = 20×10/900 = 0.222 mm/rev
Uncut chip thickness t = f cos(30)= 0.192 mm
Cutting edge engagement b = 3/ cos(30)= 3.46 mm
Area of uncut chip Ac = 0.222×3= 0.666 mm2
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) Zw = 1000×0.222×3×70.68 = 4.71×105 mm3/min
No. of passes m = 6/3= 2 passes
Total Machining Time Tm = 2 / (0.222×900) min
Classification of machining processes. AJM, abrasive jet machining; WJM, water jet
machining; USM, ultrasonic machining; AFM, abrasive flow machining; MAF, magnetic
abrasive finishing; CHM, chemical machining; ECM, electrochemical machining; EDM,
electrodischarge machining; LBM, laser beam machining; PBM, plasma beam
machining
Classification of machine tools for traditional machining technology
Classification of machine tools for nontraditional machining technology
Two basic types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a) horizontal and
(b) vertical.
Special types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a) universal—overarm,
arbor, and cutter omitted for clarity: and (b) ram type.
Simplex bed type milling machine horizontal spindle.
A universal machining center. Capability to orient the work
head makes this a five-axis machine.
CNC four-axis turning center.
Components of a shaper
Open side planer
Double housing planer
Types of shapes that can cut by shaping and planing: (a) V-groove, (b)
square groove, (c) T-slot, (d) dovetail slot, and (e) gear teeth.
The broaching operation
Thread milling using a form-milling cutter.
Form milling of gear teeth on a starting blank.
Gear hobbing
Gear shaping
Comparison of cutting speeds used in conventional versus high-speed
machining for selected work materials.
A cross-sectional view of the machining process. (b) Tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a)
Single Point versus Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
3D versus 2D Orthogonal Cutting

Chip thickness ratio r = to/tc

 Chip Formation

(a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity diagram
in the cutting zone.
Orthogonal
Cutting

Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process,

or orthogonal cutting. (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-
defined shear plane, also known as the Merchant model; (b)
Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane.
 Types of Chips

Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool

Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and their micrographs: (a) side of a continuous chip produced in
continuous chip with narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear turning.
zone at the tool-chip interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge; (d)
segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip.
Four Types of Shear Formation
 Hardness in Cutting Zone

(a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as
much as three times harder than the bulk workpiece. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a built-up
edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Machining Parameters
Cutting Parameter Relationships
 Cutting Parameters
Cutting Speed:
Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work surface in unit time with
reference to the cutting edge of the tool.
The cutting speed, v is simply referred to as speed and usually expressed in m/
min.

Feed:
The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the workpiece each
time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the surface.
In case of turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution of
the workpiece.
Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also expressed in mm/min
and is called feed rate.

Depth of cut :
It is the distance through which the cutting tool is plunged into the workpiece
surface.
Thus it is the distance measured perpendicularly between the machined surface
and the unmachined (uncut) surface or the previously machined surface of the
workpiece.
The depth of cut d is expressed in mm.
 Selection of cutting speed and feed

The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the

following parameters:

• Workpiece material
• Tool Material
• Tool geometry and dimensions
• Size of chip cross-section
• Types of finish desired
• Rigidity of the machine
• Types of coolant used
Rolling Operations

Schematic outline of various flat-rolling

and shape-rolling operations
 Extrusion

Types of extrusion: (a) direct; (b) indirect; (c) hydrostatic; (d) impact.
(a)-(c)Examples of extrusions and products made by sectioning them,(d) Examples of
extruded cross-sections. Source: (d) Courtesy of Plymouth Extruded Shapes.
 Chip Breakers

(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note

that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the
chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool.
(c) Grooves on the rake face of cutting tools, acting as chip
breakers. Most cutting tools now are inserts with built-in chip-
breaker features.

Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly

curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially
outward from workpiece; and (d) chip hits
tool shank and breaks off.
 Chip Formation in Drilling
Drill
Flutes
Feed Motion
Speed Motion

Chip

WP

Two spiral grooves (flutes) run the length of the drill, and the chips produced are guided
upward through these grooves.
 FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in

orthogonal cutting, and (b) forces acting on the tool that can
be measured.
F ≡ Friction force N ≡ Normal force Fs ≡ Shear force Fn ≡
Normal force Fc ≡ Cutting force Ft ≡ Thrust force
R = R’ = R”≡ Resultant forces
 Cutting Force Analysis and Merchant’s Circle Diagram

(a) Forces acting on a cutting tool in

two-dimensional cutting. Note that the
resultant forces, R, must be collinear to
balance the forces. (b) Force circle to
determine various forces acting in the
cutting zone.

Cutting force Friction coefficient

τ = Fs/As
Fs = R cos(φ+β-α)
Fc = R cos(β-α)
As = tow/sinφ
F=μN [μ ≡ tool/chip interface coefficient of friction
μ = tanβ [β ≡ friction angle]
[τ ≡ shear stress and equals to shear strength S
which cutting occurs, and As ≡ area of shear plane
[ to ≡ chip thickness before cut, w ≡ chip width
φ ≡ shear plane angle]
[ α ≡ rake angle ]
Fc = F sinα + N cosα
Ft = F cosα - N sinα

Fc sinα = F sinα sinα + N cosα sinα

Ft cosα= F cosα cosα - N sinα cosα

Fc sinα + Ft cosα = F
The cutting force (Fc) and the thrust force (Ft) are related
to the shear strength (S) of the work material
Fs = S As = Stow / sinφ
Fs = R cos(φ+β-α)
Fc = R cos(β-α)
Ft = R sin(β-α)

After rearranging the above relations we get:

Theory of Ernst and Merchant

They have assumed that φ adjusts itself to give minimum work.

And for a given set of cutting condition, to, w and α are all
constants. They also assumed that β is independent of φ.
We can either maximize τs or minimize Fc. Therefore in the above
equation the term cos(φ+β-α )sinφ contains only one variable φ.

Merchant Equation
Assumptions of the theory:-
1.Tool edge is sharp.
2.The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear
plane.
3.There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the
shear plane.
4.The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
5.The shear angle ∅ adjusts itself to give minimum work.
6.The friction angle β remains constant and is independent of ∅.
7.The chip width remains constant.
8.The shear strength of the work material is a constant,
unaffected by strain rate, temperature, and other factors
The assumptions in the Merchant equation is violated in practical
machining operations, Equation for obtaining shear plane angle φ must
be considered an approximate relationship rather than an accurate
mathematical equation.

Effect of shear plane angle φ: (a) higher φ with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller φ with a corresponding larger shear plane area.
Approximation of turning
by the orthogonal model:
(a) turning; and (b) the
corresponding orthogonal
cutting.
 VIRTUAL REALITY USING FE SIMULATION
Computer generated simulation of a three dimensional environment that
can interacted with seemingly real or physical way

Basic components of turning and it’s

relation to analysis domain FE simulation model and basic cutting
parameters definition
Cutting inserts indicating the diverse range of: shapes, sizes and geometries
available, with compositions varying from: cemented carbide, ceramics, cermets, to
cubic boron nitride derivatives
 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining

Cutting power (Pc ): Pc = Fc V N.m/s

HPc = Pc/746 hp

Gross power of machine tool motor: Pg = Pc/E

Where E is the Mechanical efficiency

Unit power (specific energy) U or Pu is known as the power per unit

volume rate of metal cut.

Pu = Pc / RMR = Fc/ to w
 Cutting Temperature
Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of
it (~ 98%) is converted into heat. This heat can cause
temperatures to be very high at the tool–chip interface
over 600°C.

High cutting temperatures leads to the following:

1.Reduce tool life.
2.Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator.
3.Increase the possibility of BUE formation.
4.Cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions due to
thermal expansion of the work material.
 Analytical methods to compute cutting temperatures
The equation can be used to predict the increase in
temperature at the tool–chip interface during machining:

Where;
∆T = mean temperature rise at the tool–chip interface
U = specific energy in the operation
v = cutting speed
to = chip thickness before the cut
ρC=volumetric specific heat of the work material
K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
 MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING TEMPERATURE

Experimentally measured
cutting temperatures plotted
against speed for three work
materials,

where T = measured tool–chip interface temperature and v = cutting

speed. The parameters K and m depend on cutting conditions (other
than v) and work material.
• The two main aspects of cutting tool technology are
(1) tool material and (2) tool geometry.
• The two principal locations on a cutting tool where
tool wear occurs: on the top face of the cutting tool
as crater wear and on the side or flank of the tool,
called flank wear.

Diagram of worn cutting tool

 MODES OF CUTTING TOOL FAILURES
1. Fracture failure
Occurs when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive.

2.Temperature failure
Occurs when the cutting temperature
is too high for the tool material.

3. Gradual wear
Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of
tool shape, an acceleration of wearing as the tool
becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a
manner similar to a temperature failure.
 TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS

➢ ABRASION occurs when hard

particles in the work material
gouging and removing small
portions of the tool.

➢ ADHESION (welding) occurs

when two metals are forced into
contact under high pressure and
temperature.
Diagram of worn cutting tool

➢ DIFFUSION causing the tool surface to become depleted of the

atoms responsible for its hardness.
 TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS
➢ CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Due to high temperatures an oxidation layer can result on the rake
face of the tool.

➢ PLASTIC DEFORMATION
The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature
cause the edge to deform plastically.

Stress Distribution on Tool Face

 TOOL WEAR

Examples of wear in cutting tools. (a) Flank wear; (b) crater wear;
(c) chipped cutting edge; (d) thermal cracking on rake face; (e)
flank wear and built-up edge
 TOOL LIFE

Tool wear as a function of

cutting time

Effect of cutting speed on

tool flank wear (FW) for
three cutting speeds
TAYLOR TOOL LIFE EQUATION

Natural log–log plot of cutting speed vs. tool life

 Historical Tool Improvement

Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, with indication of the year
the tool materials were introduced. Note that, within one century, machining time has been
reduced by two orders of magnitude.
 TOOL MATERIALS

The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three

important properties required in a tool material
➢ TOUGHNESS
Capacity of a material to absorb energy
without failing

➢ HOT HARDNESS
Ability of a material to retain its hardness at high
temperatures

➢ WEAR RESISTANCE
Resistance to abrasive wear
 TOOL LIFE CRITERIA IN PRODUCTION
1. Complete failure of the cutting edge.
2. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater wear)
3. Fingernail test across the cutting edge by the operator.
4. Chips become ribbony, stringy, and difficult to dispose of.
5. Changes in the sound emitting from the operation.
6. Degradation of the surface finish on the work.
7. Increased power consumption in the operation.
8. Workpiece count.
9. Cumulative cutting time.
 Acoustic Emission and Wear

Relationship between mean flank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic
emission (noise generated during cutting) as a function of machining time.
This technique has been developed as a means for continuously and
indirectly monitoring wear rate in various cutting processes without
interrupting the operation.
 TOOL MATERIALS

426 oC 760 oC

Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials. Plain carbon steel
shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases. High speed steel is
substantially better, while cemented carbides and ceramics are significantly harder at
elevated temperatures.
Representative values of n and C in the Taylor
tool life equation
 Tool-Life Curves

(a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative

inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations.
(b) Relationship between measured temperature during cutting and tool
life (flank wear).
 Cutting-tool materials with their approximate
dates of initial use and allowable cutting speeds.
1. HIGH-SPEED STEEL (HSS): (a)Tungsten-type HSS (T-grade or T-type), and
(b) Molybdenum HSS (M-grade or M-type).

Typical contents and functions of alloying elements in high-speed steel

2. CAST COBALT ALLOYS: Cast cobalt alloy cutting tools consist of cobalt, around
40% to 50%; chromium, about 25% to 35%; and tungsten, usually 15% to 20%. These
tools are made into the desired shape by casting in graphite molds and then
grinding to final size and cutting-edge sharpness.

3. CEMENTED CARBIDES, CERMETS, AND COATED CARBIDES: Cemented

Carbides are a class of hard tool material formulated from tungsten carbide (WC)
using powder metallurgy techniques. Cemented carbides based on WC–Co,
including WC–TiC–TaC–Co. Cermets are defined as composites of ceramic and
metallic materials. is applied to ceramic-metal composites containing TiC, and TiN.
Coated carbides are a cemented carbide insert coated with one or more thin layers
of wear resistant material, such as TiC, TiN, and/or Al2O3.

4. CERAMICS: Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon nitride (SiN), sialon (silicon nitride
and aluminum oxide, SiN–Al2O3), and aluminum oxide and titanium carbide
(Al2O3–TiC),

5. SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS AND CUBIC BORON NITRIDE (cBN): Synthetic diamond

cutting tools are made of sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD). SPD is fabricated
by sintering fine-grained diamond crystals under high temperatures and pressures
into the desired shape.
Properties of Tungsten-Carbide
Tools

Effect of cobalt content in tungsten-carbide tools on mechanical properties.

Properties of Tool Materials
Troubleshooting Guide for Cutting Tool
Problems
 TOOL GEOMETRY

(a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool for turning. Although these tools
have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they are now replaced by
inserts of carbide or other tool materials of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Back rake angle (αb), side rake angle (αs), end relief angle (ERA),side relief angle (SRA),
side cutting edge angle (SCEA), end cutting edge angle (ECEA) and Nose radius (NR)
 Tool Angles

Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool. The designation

“right hand” means that the tool travels from right to left.

General recommendations
for tool angles in turning.
FEM of Turning Tool
 Inserts

Methods of mounting inserts on tool holders: (a) clamping, and (b) wing
lock pins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted using thread less lock pins,
which are secured with side screws.
Carbide Inserts
 Insert Strength

Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and

breaking of inserts with various shapes. Strength refers to
that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles.

Edge preparations for inserts to improve edge strength.

 Coated Tools

Wear patterns on high-speed-steel uncoated

and titanium-nitride-coated cutting tools. Note Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three
that flank wear is lower for the coated tool. alternating layers of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin
layers of titanium nitride. Inserts with as many as 13 layers of
coatings have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in
the range of 2 to 10 µm.
 Properties of Cutting Tool Materials

Ranges of properties for various groups of cutting-tool materials.

Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or

diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.
Drills
Two common types of drills: (a)
Chisel-point drill. The function of the
pair of margins is to provide a bearing
surface for the drill against walls of
the hole as it penetrates into the
workpiece. Drills with four margins
(double-margin) are available for
improved drill guidance and accuracy.
Drills with chip-breaker features are
also available. (b) Crankshaft drills.
These drills have good centering
ability, and because chips tend to
break up easily, they are suitable for
producing deep holes.

Various types of drills and drilling operations.

 Reamers and Taps

Terminology for a helical reamer.

(a) Terminology for a tap; (b)

illustration of tapping of steel nuts in
high production.
 Broaches
(a) Cutting action of a broach, showing
various features. (b) Terminology for a
broach.

Terminology for a pull-type internal

broach, typically used for enlarging long
holes.
 Saws and Saw Teeth

(a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b)

Types of saw teeth, staggered to
provide clearance for the saw
blade to prevent binding during
sawing.

(a) High-speed-steel teeth welded on a steel

blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed to blade
teeth.
 Gear
Manufacture

(a) Schematic illustration of gear

generating with a pinion-shaped gear
cutter. (b) Schematic illustration of gear
generating in a gear shaper, using a
pinion-shaped cutter; note that the
cutter reciprocates vertically. (c) Gear
generating with a rack-shaped cutter. (d)
Three views of gear cutting with a hob.
 Oblique
Cutting
(a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an
oblique tool. (b) Top view, showing the inclination
angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with
different inclination angles.

The force system in general case of

conventional turning process
Proposed subjects and titles for Machine Tools
and Operations (Project/Report)
1. Modeling and Simulation of Milling Processes.
2. Modelling and Simulation of 2D Turning Processes.
3. Modelling and Simulation of 3D Turning Processes.
4. Modelling and Simulation of Drilling Processes.
5. Modelling and Simulation of Broaching Processes.
6. Modelling and Simulation of Boring Processes.
7. Tool failure Detection Based on Analysis of Metal Cutting
Acoustic Emission Signals.
8. Design Dynamometer of for Measuring Cutting Forces.
9. Tools (Geometry and Material) and Tool Wear.
10. MicroMilling.
11. MicroDrilling.
12. Micro finishing Machines and Operations (Honing, and
Lapping)
13. Thread Cutting Machines and Operations
14. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machines.
15. Gear Cutting Machines and Operations.
16. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM).
17. Virtual Manufacturing Processes.
18. Design of Jigs and Fixtures.
19. Smart Manufacturing and Artificial Intelligence.
20. CAD, Process Planning, and Production Scheduling.
21. Problem Diagnosis in Machines and Equipment.
22. CAD/CAM Systems. 23. Burnishing & Shot Peening
NONCONVENTIONAL MACHINING:
24.Electro discharge Machining (EDM) 25. Electro Chemical Machining
(ECM)
26. Laser Beam Machining (LBM) 27. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
28. Electron Beam Machining (EBM) 29. Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
30. Plasma Beam Machining (PBM) 31. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
32. Wire Discharge Machining (WDM)]
33. Abrasive Jet Electrochemical Machining (AJECM)
34. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM )
1.35. Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Structure of MO ENVIRONMENT
Analyzing manufacturing processes
with DEFORM
 BEFORE YOU BEGIN
Before you begin work on your DEFORM simulation, spend
some time planning the simulation. Consider the type of
information you hope to gain from the analysis. Are
temperatures important? What about die fill? Press loads?
Material deformation patterns? Ductile fracture of the part?
Die failure? Buckling? Can the part be modelled as a two
dimensional part, or is a three dimensional simulation
necessary? Having a definite goal will help you design a
simulation which will provide the information most vital to
understanding your manufacturing process.
Conventional Machining
Advanced Machining
Processes
 CUTTING FLUIDS
A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is applied
directly to the machining operation to improve
cutting performance.

•Removing heat
•Reducing friction
•Washing away chips
•Reducing the temperature of the work part
•Reducing cutting forces and power requirements
•Improving dimensional stability of the work part
•Improving surface finish.
Cutting Fluid Functions:
Coolants and Lubricants.

Coolants are cutting fluids designed to reduce the

effects of heat in the machining operation. The
capacity of a cutting fluid to reduce temperatures in
machining depends on its thermal properties.
Specific heat and thermal conductivity are the most
important properties. Water has high specific heat
and thermal conductivity relative to other liquids,
which is why water is used as the base in coolant-
type cutting fluids.
Lubricants are usually oil-based fluids formulated to
reduce friction at the tool–chip and tool–work
interfaces. Lubricant cutting fluids operate by extreme
pressure lubrication, a special form of lubrication that
involves formation of thin solid salt layers on the hot,
clean metal surfaces through chemical reaction with
the lubricant. Compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and
phosphorous in the lubricant cause the formation of
these surface layers, which act to separate the two
metal surfaces
Chemical Formulation of Cutting Fluids

1.Cutting oils
2.Emulsified oils
3.Semi chemical fluids
4.Chemical fluids
Grinding and Other Abrasive Processes
Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive
particles that are contained in a bonded grinding wheel rotating at very
high surface speeds.

Grinding Wheel

Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing

its structure and grain wear and fracture patterns.
 Five basic parameters
1. Abrasive Material: General properties (high hardness, wear
resistance, toughness, and friability)
Knoop hardness range for various materials and abrasives.

2. Grain Size: Grain sizes 8-600, Grit size 8 very coarse and size
600 is very fine
3. Bonding Materials: Desirable properties: strength, toughness,
hardness, and temperature resistance.
4. Wheel Structure: Pg Proportion of abrasive grain, Pb Proportion of
bon, and Pp Proportion of pores. Wheel structure
measured on a scale that ranges between “open” and “dense.” Scale
ranges from 1 to 15: 1 very dense structure, 15 very open structure
5. Wheel Grade: Scale ranges from A to Z: A soft, M medium, Z hard
 Grinding Wheel Marking System
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This marking system uses numbers
and letters to specify abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure, and bond material.

Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

 Diamond and cBN Marking
System

Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.

Grinding Wheel
Types

Some common types of grinding

wheels made with conventional
abrasives (aluminum oxide and
silicon carbide). Note that each
wheel has a specific grinding face;
grinding on other surfaces is
improper and unsafe.
 ANALYSIS OF THE GRINDING
PROCESS

(a) The geometry of surface grinding, showing the cutting conditions; (b) assumed
longitudinal shape and (c) cross section of a single chip.

Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive processes.

where v surface speed of wheel, m/min; N spindle speed, rev/min; and D wheel diameter, m

where d depth of cut, w the width of the grinding path (cross feed), and Vw the work speed

where lc is the length of the chip; and D wheel diameter, mm

where rg the grain aspect ratio, w’ the width of the triangular cross sectional, and t
the chip thickness

Where nc the number of chips formed per ,and C number of active grits per square
mm on the grinding wheel
Forces and
Energy

Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding.

where Fc the cutting force acting on an individual grain, and K1 a constant

of proportionality

Temperatures at the Work Surface Ts :

where K2 a constant of proportionality

 Abrasive Grains

Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting, (b) Chip formation and plowing
plowing, and (c) rubbing. (plastic deformation without chip
removal) of the workpiece
surface by an abrasive grain.

(a) Grinding chip being produced by a

single abrasive grain. Note the large
negative rake angle of the grain. (b)
Schematic illustration of chip formation
by an abrasive grain. Note the negative
rake angle, the small shear angle, and
the wear flat on the grain.
 Wheel Wear and Grinding
Ratio

where GR the grinding ratio, Vw the volume of work material removed, and Vg the
corresponding volume of the grinding wheel that is worn in the process.
Dressin
g

(a) Methods of grinding wheel dressing. (b)

Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by
dressing it with computer-controlled
shaping features. Note that the diamond
dressing tool is normal to the wheel
surface at point of contact.
 Surface
Grinding

Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a

horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface
grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c) Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder
(also known as the Blanchard-type grinder).

Schematic illustration of a horizontal-

spindle surface grinder.
 Thread and Internal
Grinding

Threads produced by (a) traverse and

(b) plunge grinding.

Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.

Centerless Grinding

(a-c)
Schematic illustrations of
centerless-grinding operations. (d)
A computer-numerical-control
centerless grinding machine.
 Creep-Feed Grinding

(a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large
wheel depth of cut. (b) A groove produced on a flat surface in one pass by
creep-feed grinding using a shaped wheel. Groove depth can be on the order
of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel.
Finishing
Operations
Schematic illustration of the structure of a
coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in
the 16th century, and emery cloth are
common examples of coated abrasives.

Schematic illustration of a honing tool to

improve the surface finish of bored or
ground holes.

Schematic illustration of the

superfinishing process for a cylindrical
part: (a) cylindrical micro honing; (b)
centerless micro honing.
 Lappin
g

(a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat
surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
 1- MECHANICAL ENERGY PROCESSES
Ultrasonic Machining
(Approximately 20,000 Hz
with amplitudes 0.075 mm)

(Ranges from 20% to 60%)

Stock removed to tool wear ratio:

100:1 for cutting glass
1:1 for cutting tool steel

(a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is

removed through microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of
cavities produced by ultrasonic machining. Note the dimensions of cut and the
types of workpiece materials.
Water-Jet Cutting (WJC)
Nozzle opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm
Pressures up to 400 Mpa
Jet velocities up to 900 m/s

Standoff distance is 3.2 mm

Cutting feed: from 5 mm/s to more
than 500 mm/s.
WJC is not suitable for cutting brittle
materials (e.g., glass)

(a) Schematic illustration of water-jet

machining. (b) A computer-controlled
water-jet cutting machine. (c) Examples
of various nonmetallic parts machined by
the water-jet cutting process.

Abrasive water jet cutting AWJC

Nozzle orifice diameters: 0.25 to 0.63 mm

Standoff distances:
1/4 and 1/2 of those in WJC.
 Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM)
A material removal process caused by the action of a high-velocity
stream of gas containing small abrasive particles.

Stream Velocities: 2.5 to 5.0 m/s

Standoff distance: 3 to 75 mm
Gas pressures: 0.2 to 1.4 MPa
Nozzle orifices diameter: 0.075 to 1.0 mm

Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

Used to deburr and polish difficult-to-reach areas using abrasive particles
mixed in a viscoelastic polymer.

other AFM applications include forming radii on sharp edges, removing

rough surfaces on castings, and other finishing operations.
 Abrasive-Jet Machining
(AJM)

(a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b)

Examples of parts produced by abrasive-jet machining; the parts
are 50 mm thick and are made of 304 stainless steel.
2- ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESSES
(ECM)

ELECTROCHEMICAL DEBURRING (ECD) ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING

(ECG)
 Electrochemical Grinding
(ECG)

(a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process.

(b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
 ECM

Schematic illustration of the

electrochemical-machining process. This
process is the reverse of electroplating,
Typical parts made by electrochemical
machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel
alloy, 360 HB; the part on the right is the
shaped electrode; (b) Thin slots on a 4340-
steel roller-bearing cage; and (c) Integral
airfoils on a compressor disk.
 Chemical-Mechanical Polishing

Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process.

This process is widely used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and
integrated circuits, where it is known as chemical-mechanical
planarization. Additional carriers and more disks per carrier also are
possible.
 Chemical Milling

(a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the

stiffness-to-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch
vehicles by chemical milling of aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are
chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into shape, such
as by roll forming or stretch forming. Source: ASM International.
 Chemical
Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that

no forces are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled
cavity by chemical machining.

Chemical
Blanking
Typical parts made by chemical
blanking; note the fine detail.
 3-Thermal Energy
Processes
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE PROCESSES EDM

Electric discharge machining (EDM): (a) overall setup, and (b) close-up view of
gap, showing discharge and metal removal.
 Electrical Discharge Machining
(EDM)

Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
(WEDM)

Schematic illustration of the WEDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be performed with
one reel of wire, which is then recycled.
 EDM
Examples

(a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-

discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes.
The two round parts in the rear are a set of dies for Stepped cavities produced with a
extruding the aluminum piece shown in front; see also square electrode by EDM. In this
operation, the workpiece moves in
the two principal horizontal
directions, and its motion is
synchronized with the downward
movement of the electrode to
produce these cavities. Also shown
is a round electrode capable of
producing round or elliptical
cavities.
 Laser Beam Machining
(LBM)

(a) Schematic illustration of the

laser-beam machining process. (b)
Cutting sheet metal with a laser
beam.

General applications of lasers in

manufacturing.
 Electron-Beam Machining (EBM)

Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process
requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.
 Machining
Economics
Machinability denotes the relative ease with which a metal can be machined using
appropriate tooling and cutting conditions.

Criteria used to evaluate machinability:

(1) tool life
(2) forces and power
(3) surface finish
(4) Ease of chip disposal

A series of tool life tests are conducted on two work materials under identical
cutting conditions, varying only speed in the test procedure. The first material,
defined as the base material, yields a Taylor Tool Life equation , and the
other material (test material) yields a Taylor equation . Determine the
Machinability Rating (MR)
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AFFECT MACHINING
PERFORMANCE
• Hardness:- as hardness increases, abrasive wear of the tool
increases so that tool life is reduced.
• Strength:- as work material strength increases, cutting forces,
specific energy, and cutting temperature increase, making the
material more difficult to machine.
• Metal’s Chemistry:- as carbon is increased, the strength and
hardness of the steel increases; this reduces machining
performance. Chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten form
carbides in steel, which increase tool wear and reduce
machinability.
Low carbon steel, which has relatively low hardness, is often too
ductile to machine well. High ductility causes tearing of the
metal as the chip is formed, resulting in poor finish, and
problems with chip disposal.
The machinability of aluminum varies widely. It is expressed here as MR 5.00, but the
range is probably from 3.00 to 10.00 or more.
Aluminum alloys, brasses, and bronzes also vary significantly in machining
performance. Different grades have different machinability ratings.
 Roughness and Tolerance
Capabilities

Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various

machining processes. Note the wide range within each process
SURFACE FINISH

Range of surface roughness's obtained in various

machining processes. Note the wide range within
each group, especially in turning and boring. .
Typical tolerances and surface roughness values
achievable in machining operations
 Economic
Considerations

Increase in the cost of machining and finishing operations as a

function of the surface finish required. Note the rapid increase
associated with finishing operations.
 Surface finish in machining

Effect of geometric factors in determining the theoretical finish on a work

surface for single-point tools: (a) effect of nose radius, (b) effect of feed, and (c)
effect of end cutting-edge angle.
 Estimation of the Surface
Roughness

where Ri theoretical arithmetic average

surface roughness, mm; f feed, mm; NR
nose radius on the tool point, mm; Ra the
estimated value of actual roughness; rai
ratio of actual to ideal
surface finish from Figure.
A turning operation is performed on
C1008 steel (a ductile steel) using a tool
with a nose radius 1.2 mm. Cutting
speed 100 m/min and feed 0.25 mm/
rev. Compute an estimate of the surface
roughness in this operation.
 Vibration and Machine Tool Factors

Chatter & Vibration

Chatter marks (right of center of

photograph) on the surface of a Relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b) epoxy-granite composite
turned part. material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration and the horizontal scale
is time.

Damping of vibrations as a function of the

number of components on a lathe. Joints
dissipate energy; thus, the greater the number
of joints, the higher the damping..

Possible steps to reduce or eliminate vibration include:-

(1) adding stiffness and/or damping to the setup, (2) operating at speeds that do not cause cyclical forces
whose frequency approaches the natural frequency of the machine tool system, (3) reducing feeds and
depths to reduce forces in cutting, and (4) changing the cutter design to reduce forces.
 MACHINING ECONOMICS
Qualitative plots showing (a) cost per
piece, and (b) time per piece in
machining. Note that there is an
optimum cutting speed for both cost and
time, respectively. The range between
the two optimum speeds is known as
the high-efficiency machining range.

Cutting speed for minimum cost:-

Cutting speed for maximum production rate:-

 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Design guidelines for internal features,

especially as applied to holes. (a)
Guidelines for grinding the internal
surfaces of holes. These guidelines
generally hold for honing as well. (b)
The use of a backing plate for
producing high-quality through-holes
by ultrasonic machining. .

Two machined parts with undercuts: cross

sections of (a) bracket and (b) rotational part.
Also shown is how the part design might be
improved.
Two parts with similar hole features: (a) holes that must be machined from
two sides, requiring two setups, and (b) holes that can all be machined
from one side.