Adaptive Impedance Matching and Antenna Tuning for

Green Software-Defined and Cognitive Radio

(Invited Paper)
Yichuang Sun and James Moritz XiZhu
School of Engineering and Technology Department of Electronic Engineering
University of Hertfordshire Macquarie University
Hatfield Herts ALlO 9AB United Kingdom Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Abstract- Impedance matching between the power amplifier the operating wavelength. While such antennas can often be
and antenna is crucial for efficient power transfer in a green designed with acceptable performance, this usually results in
transmitter. A single antenna with a software-configurable feed-point impedance that differs widely from the value that is
tuning unit can serve the functions of multiple antennas which optimum for good PA efficiency or LNA noise performance.
are otherwise required by multistandard wireless
Therefore a passive impedance matching network is generally
communications. Impedance matching and tuning must be
included between the antenna and transceiver. This might be part of
adaptive and in real time for fast varying frequencies and
surroundings of mobile communications. Small size and low
the antenna structure, or physically separate lumped or distributed
power consumption must also be met in such tuning systems matching components. However, a small antenna with reasonable
for mobile phones and terminals. This paper overviews efficiency inherently has impedance that varies rapidly with
automatic antenna tuning for modern and future generation frequency, and enviromnental effects also cause substantial
mobile communications. Recent advances in impedance impedance variations over time, for example the proximity of a
monitoring methods, fast tuning algorithms and mobile phone handset antenna to the user's body. As a result, it is
programmable matching systems are discussed. Latest effort in not feasible to design a single impedance matching network with
integrating automatic impedance tuning systems on a silicon fixed component values that will provide accurate matching over a
chip is also introduced.
wide range of frequency and operating conditions.
A solution to the matching problem is to incorporate a tuneable
I. INTRODUCTION impedance matching network between the transmitter/receiver and
the antenna This has long been widespread practice in the MF, HF
Research into automatic impedance matching and antenna and VHF ranges where automatic antenna tuners with
tuning has gone through some significant stages, from traditional discrete-component LC networks are used in order to achieve the
HFNHF applications employing electro-mechanical tuning and relatively large inductances and capacitances required at lower
discrete components [1] to the latest research aimed at 4G wireless frequencies [1, 3]. Recently, integrated on-chip matching networks
and mobile applications employing integrated devices at UHF and have been investigated for UHF and microwave transceiver
GHz frequencies. antennas, since it is feasible to produce the smaller components
In any wireless communication system, antennas are inherently required in integrated form. The following sections discuss the
part of the signal path and have a major impact on overall system design and operation of automatic antenna tuning units (AATU) in
performance. Important parameters of transmitting antenna the context of integrated transceivers for wireless applications.
performance include efficiency, radiation pattern and feed point
impedance [2]. In the majority of wireless systems, the same
antennas are used for transmission and reception; due to the II. ANTENNA IMPEDANCE MATCHING AND TUNING
principle of reciprocity, these antenna parameters have an equal
significance for a receiving antenna From the wireless transceiver In order to maximise the transfer of power between transmitter
circuit designer's viewpoint, the most important antenna parameter and antenna, and maximise the signal-to-noise ratio of the received
is the feed point impedance. This is the impedance at the antenna signal, the electrical impedance at the antenna terminals must
terminals, which is the load impedance for the transmitter power match the requirements of the transmitter power amplifier and
amplifier (PA), and the source impedance for the low-noise receiver low-noise amplifier. The degree of impedance mismatch
amplifier (LNA) receiver input stage. is usually represented by the reflection coefficient,

Antenna design is subject to many constraints and trade-offs.

For next generation wireless devices, with demands for small size,
increasing bandwidths and convergence of applications within one (1)
device, particular issues include the decreasing space available for
antennas, and the desire to use a single antenna over a wide where Zant is the impedance of the antenna and Zo is the load
frequency range to facilitate software-defined multi-standard impedance required by the power amplifier. Since both Zant and Zo
operation. Currently, antennas for wireless applications mostly may be complex, r is also a complex number, with magnitude
operate in the UHF range; typically these antennas are "electrically between zero and one. When Zant and Zo are equal, i.e. perfectly
small", that is the dimensions of the antenna are a small fraction of matched, r is zero. The impedance of practical antennas typically

978-1-61284-857-0/11/$26.00
Authorized licensed use limited to: Universität Leipzig. Downloaded on March 08,2024 at 22:10:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply. @2011 IEEE
varies widely with frequency. Fig. 1 is a Smith chart showing the III. MATCHING NETWORK
locus of r and Zant for a particular monopole antenna as the
A large number of reactive impedance-transforming networks
operating frequency varies from 800MHz to 2.8GHz.
exist. The nO network of Fig. 3 is widely used for
discrete-component antenna tuners, and has also been proposed for
on-chip antenna tuning systems [4]; it is possible in principle to
design component values to provide conjugate matching between
any input and output impedances. Also, the nO network provides a
low-pass filtering characteristic, which can be beneficial in reducing
unwanted signal levels.

Source impedance Load impedance

;- --------

"t H,
r = o. x = O !-----+----/-+'\-----j.-=::;lIIa..II

,--------1

x = -1 Figure 3 It-network

Figure I Impedance of an antenna over the range 800MHz-2.8GHz

For the simplified case shown in Fig. 3 where the source and
load impedances are both resistances, the following design formulae
At frequencies around 900 and 1850MHz, the antenna can be used for given RI. R2 and Qo:
impedance is close to the 50n reference value and the curve passes
close to the centre of the chart. However, for frequencies outside
these narrow ranges a large impedance mismatch exists, and
system efficiency would be impaired without additional impedance �+l
matching.
(2)
The objective of the on-chip AATU is to transform the
where XCI. XC2 and XL are the reactance of CI. C2 and L
possible range of values of Zant over the operating frequency range
respectively at the operating frequency. The parameter Qo can be
to values close to Zoo The AATU consists of three major
selected to have any value greater than a minimum:
components (Fig. 2):
• An adjustable matching network, capable of producing the
required impedance transformation
(3)
• An impedance sensor which monitors the voltage and current Thus it is possible to realise the required impedance
relationships in the matching system transformation with an infinite number of different sets of
• A control system, which includes a tuning algorithm that is component values corresponding to different values of Qo. The
capable of adjusting the matching network component values n-network design formulae shown here can be extended to the more
to optimise the impedance match, in response to feedback general case where source and load impedances are complex by
data from the impedance sensor. absorbing the imaginary component of the impedances into the
shunt capacitances [5].
Antenna

It is not currently feasible to implement variable capacitances

TXPA >-----l and inductances as integrated components, so switched arrays of
fixed components are generally used, as shown in Fig. 4, which
provide values adjustable in finite steps. There are practical
limitations on the range of impedances which can be matched, and
the accuracy with which matching can be achieved. Extremely large
or small values of load impedance require large values of
capacitance and inductance, which occupy excessive chip area
Thus, for a given matching network, a matching domain exists.
Figure 2 Automatic antenna tuner system outline Antenna impedances within this domain can be matched, while
those outside the domain cannot [6, 7]. Inside the matching domain,
the accuracy of the impedance match depends on the resolution of
Thus the AATU functions as a feedback system, adjusting the the tuning array. The accuracy with which the required impedance
matching network components to optimise the transformed transformation can be produced depends on the resolution with
impedance at the matching network input. The system can respond which network components can be adjusted; the minimum
to variations in antenna impedance that occur with changes in increment in the values of C or L in the networks of Fig. 4 are
operating frequency, and with environmental changes. limited by circuit parasitics. For example, practical matching
networks at around 2.4GHz might require total capacitances of the

Authorized licensed use limited to: Universität Leipzig. Downloaded on March 08,2024 at 22:10:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
order of picofarads, with inductances of several nanohenries. The
layout parasitics in the capacitor array could be of the order of tens
of femtofarads. Thus, the useful tuning resolution of a capacitor The performance of the switches used for matching network
array would be limited at the order of 1% at this frequency. component selection has a major effect on overall tuning system
performance. The choice of switching technique depends on the IC
technology used. CMOS designs typically use NMOS transistors
operating in the triode region [9, 13]. GaAs or HEMT devices have
also been used with MMIC technologies [11, 14]. Active devices
2L 4L ;1\
used as switches also introduce additional loss and circuit parasitics

�rD---D
and, since they are non-linear, generate harmonics and
intermodulation products. They also place constraints on the
power-handling capability of the matching network due to their
limited breakdown voltages. Active devices perform best when
configured as shunt switches, since the full supply voltage can be
applied as bias between the gate and source electrodes and, since
Figure 4 Binary switched capacitor and inductor arrays
the source is grounded, VGS is not modulated by the signal voltage,
as would be the case for a series switch. This minimises the switch
on-resistance and reduces production of intermodulation products
due to switch non-linearity. Selection of switching transistor
The switched inductor of Fig. 4 is problematic for an on-chip
dimensions is a compromise between increased resistive losses in
application, since it is difficult to provide numerous integrated
switches with small widths, and increased shunt capacitance in
inductors without using excessive chip area, and introducing
larger widths. MEMS switches have also been proposed as low-loss
excessive shunt parasitic capacitance. The series connection of the
matching network switches [10, 12].
switches in the array also leads to a high total switch resistance,
increasing overall losses due to the inductance. For limited
bandwidth applications, the 1t-network with series tuneable inductor
can be replaced with a shunt tuneable capacitor in conjunction with IV. IMPEDANCE SENSORS
impedance inverting networks as shown in Fig. 5 [8], leading to the The impedance sensor provides the automatic tuning control
circuit topology shown in Fig. 6. system with feedback to determine if a satisfactory impedance
To maintain low losses in the matching network, the unloaded match has been achieved. Numerous methods for sensing the
Q factor of the network components should be large compared to Qo impedance match have been used. The simplest scheme is to detect
in (3). Therefore it is desirable to design matching networks with Qo the amplitude of the transmitted signal at the antenna terminals [13];
as low as possible. Integrated inductors in particular have relatively at any given frequency, this amplitude is a function of the
high losses (unloaded Q typically below 10 for standard CMOS transmitter power reaching the antenna, so maximising the
technologies). It is quite possible that the signal losses in the amplitude also maximises radiated power. However, the maximum
matching network will exceed those due to the impedance mismatch power condition does not necessarily coincide with the optimum
that would exist without the matching network for some ranges of load impedance conditions for the transmitter power amplifier. Thus
impedance [7, 9]. A number of designs have therefore favoured the power amplifier may operate with compromised efficiency or
off-chip inductors, using bond wires or inductors fabricated within distortion levels with this scheme and at high power levels may be
LTCC (Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic) substrates forming subjected to electrical over-stress. A phase detector can be used at
part of the chip packaging. the power amplifier output to monitor the phase relationship
between the output voltage and current from the power amplifier.
Shunt tunable
Series tunable The control system then adjusts the matching network for minimum
inductor
phase difference between voltage and current, i.e. making the load

n
;.......... -_ ..: ;_ ............., impedance at the PA output resistive. This scheme does not detect a
-T-��
mismatch in the resistance level. However for high-Q antenna
structures, such as electrically-small loops, the largest proportion of
the impedance mismatch is normally due to the reactive component
.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - � .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - �
Impedance Impedance
of the antenna impedance, and ensuring the antenna system is tuned
inverting network inverting network to resonance in this way results in a substantial improvement in
power transfer [15].
Figure 5 Transformed matching network with shunt tuning capacitor
A directional coupler, equipped with a detector at the reverse

1 "-" �
coupled port, connected between the power amplifier and matching
�PA 1 1 1 fYYY'
YY' 1 -"
1 1 1fY'-+- � lenna network, provides an output signal that is a function of the
reflection coefficient at the input to the matching network [4, 8]. In

{±ir�r� r� ��r� r�r�

this case, the control system minimises the detector output, which
optimises the match to the impedance level for which the coupler is
designed. In one application, the tuning network itself has been
utilised as a six-port coupler, with the non-linear characteristic of
the switching devices also performing an amplitude detection
�oq function, providing the impedance data for the control system [11].

Figure 6 Modified x-network for CMOS on-chip tuner application

Authorized licensed use limited to: Universität Leipzig. Downloaded on March 08,2024 at 22:10:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 V. TUNING ALGORITHMS possible impedance match with the available matching network,
while requiring simple impedance sensors and minimising the
A major challenge in devising tuning algorithms for automatic
number of iterations needed to complete the tuning process.
antenna tuning systems is that only incomplete input data is usually
available to the tuning algorithm. In most cases, impedance sensors
are not capable of providing complete impedance data, but only a REFERENCES
signal that is a function of degree-of-mismatch. Matching network [I] Y. Sun and J. K. Fidler, "High speed automatic antenna tuning units,"
components are subject to large tolerances. Due to the presence of in Proc. lEE International Conference on Antennas and Propagation,
unknown variables in the system, it is normal to use iterative tuning pp 218-222, Eindhoven, Netherlands, 1995.
algorithms that attempt to converge on the best combination of [2] J. D. Kraus and R. J. Marhefka, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, NY, 2002.
network component values. Another important consideration for
[3] J. R. Moritz and Y. Sun, "Frequency agile antenna tuning and
tuning algorithms is speed. The tuning process will cause amplitude matching," in Proc. Eighth International lEE Conference on HF
and phase modulation of the signal radiated as matching network Radio Systems and Techniques, pp 169-174, Surrey, UK, July 2000.
component values are changed [13], so transmitted data may be
[4] J. T. Aberle, B. Bakkaloglu, C. Chakrabarti, S.-H. Oh, G. A. Taylor,
corrupted if tuning occurs during transmission. Therefore it is
H. Song, A. Adhya, K. L. Melde, R. B. Whatley, and Z. Zhou,
desirable to perform tuning during limited idle periods, or at least "Automatically tuning antenna for software-defined and cognitive
minimise loss of data by minimising the duration of the tuning radio," Software Defined Radio Technical Coriference and Product
process. Exposition SDR, Session 5.4, 6 pages, California, USA, Nov. 2005.

In systems where the number of possible matching network [5] Y. Sun and J. K. Fidler, "Design method for impedance matching
networks", lEE Proc. Circuits, Devices and Systems, Vol. 143, No. 4,
component combinations is relatively small, it may be feasible to
pp 186-194, August 1996.
perform an exhaustive search of all possible combinations in order
to find the one producing the optimum impedance match. However, [6] Y. Sun and J. K. Fidler, "Component value ranges of tuneable
impedance matching networks in RF communications systems",
when a large number of possible network combinations exist, or
Proc. 1h lEE International Conference on HF Radio Systems and
there are restrictions on time available for tuning, tuning algorithms
Techniques, pp 185-189, Nottingham, UK, July 1997.
are required that minimise the number of network combinations that
[7] Y. Sun and J. K. Fidler, "Determination of the impedance matching
must be tested. One approach to achieve this is to generate a
domain of passive LC ladder networks: Theory and implementation",
look-up table of matching network data for different operating
J. of the Franklin Institute, Vo1.333(B), No.2, pp.l41-155, 1996.
frequencies during an initialisation phase; the control system then
[8] J. De Mingo, A. Valdovinos, A. Crespo, D. Navarro, and P. Carcia,
selects the appropriate tuning data from the table as the operating
"An RF electronically controlled impedance tuning network design
frequency is varied. This scheme achieves rapid tuning, but is not
and its application to an antenna input impedance automatic matching
capable of responding to variations in antenna impedance that occur systems," IEEE Trans Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vo1.52,
over time without repeating the initialisation process. Functional No.2, pp 489-497, 2004.
tuning algorithms have been developed that utilise impedance
[9] A. Chamseddine, J. W. Haslett, and M. Okoniewski, "CMOS
sensor outputs as feedback data in order to iteratively converge on silicon-on-sapphire tunable matching networks", EURASIP Journal
the optimum matching network values [8]. Rapid convergence is on Wireless Communications and Networking, Vol. 2006, Article ID
facilitated by using an impedance sensor that provides both signal 86531, Il pages, 2006.
amplitude and phase information for the tuning algorithm. More [10] N. Deve, A. B. Kouki, and V. Nerguizian, "A compact size
complex sensors are required to achieve this [16]. Simple sensors reconfigurable 1-3 GHz impedance tuner suitable for RF MEMS
typically provide only amplitude information to the tuning applications", Proc. I6'h IEEE International Coriference on
algorithm. The algorithm must then use a partly "trial-and-error" Microelectronics ICM2004, pp 101 - 104, December, 2004.
procedure, since no feedback information is provided regarding the [Il] R. N. De Lima, B. Huyart, E. Bergeault, and L. Jallet, "MMIC
relative magnitude and phase of the antenna impedance, only the impedance matching system", lEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 36, No.
degree of impedance mismatch. Genetic algorithms [17] have been 16, pp 1393-1394, 2000.
applied to this type of tuning algorithm; initially, the system must [12] K. L. Lange, J. Papapolymerou, C. L. Goldsmith, A. Malczewski, and
perform many iterations to achieve a satisfactory impedance match. J. Kleber, "A reconfigurable double - stub tuner using MEMS
With continued operation, the genetic algorithm adapts to the devices", IEEE MTT-S Digest, Paper TU4C-5, pp 337 - 340,
system and changing antenna parameters, and achieves matching Phoenix, Arizona, USA, 200I.
with fewer iterations without requiring explicit rules to achieve [13] P. Sjoblom and H. Sjoland, "An adaptive impedance tuning CMOS
impedance matching. circuit for ISM 2.4-GHz band", IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems-I, Vol. 52, No. 6, pp illS-1124, June 2005.
[14] C. E. McIntosh, R. D. Pollard, and R. E. Miles, "Novel MMIC
source-impedance tuners for on-wafer microwave noise-parameter
VI. CONCLUSIONS
measurements", IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
On-chip automatic antenna tuning is not yet widely deployed in Techniques, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp 125-131, 1999.
wireless systems. However, with the trend for software-defined, [IS] A. Zolomy, F. Mernyei, J. Erdelyi, M. Pardoen, and G. Toth,
multi-standard, multi-band, wide bandwidth operation, and "Automatic antenna tuning for RF transmitter IC applying high Q
continual pressure to reduce the size of antennas while retaining antenna", IEEE Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium,
overall power efficiency, it is likely that integrated automatic paper TU4D-4, pp 501-504, June, 2004.
antenna tuning systems will soon become useful or essential. [16] J. R. Moritz, D. Lauder, and Y. Sun, "Measurement of HF
Significant challenges exist in providing low-loss matching network antenna impedances" lEE ColloqUium on Frequency Selection and
components and switching, especially for fully-integrated designs, Management Techniques for HF Communications, Ref no. 1999/017,
where it is difficult to fabricate high-Q inductive and capacitive pp 14/1-14/7, London, UK, March, 1999.
components while also achieving adequate power handling in [17] Y. Sun and W. K. Lau, "Automatic impedance matching using
current Ie technologies. Tuning algorithm design also remains an Genetic Algorithms", Proc. lEE Coriference on Antennas and
area for further study, with the objectives of obtaining the best Propagation, pp 31-36, York, UK, Aug. 1999.

Authorized licensed use limited to: Universität Leipzig. Downloaded on March 08,2024 at 22:10:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.