Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Lee Yee Loon

Muthulingam Subramaniyan
K. Gunasekaran Editors

Advances in
Construction
Management
Select Proceedings of ACMM 2021
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Volume 191

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Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Lee Yee Loon · Muthulingam Subramaniyan ·
K. Gunasekaran
Editors

Advances in Construction
Management
Select Proceedings of ACMM 2021
Editors
Lee Yee Loon Muthulingam Subramaniyan
IIC University of Technology Indian Institute of Technology Ropar
Phnom Penh, Cambodia Rupnagar, Punjab, India

K. Gunasekaran
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
ISBN 978-981-16-5838-9 ISBN 978-981-16-5839-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6

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Preface

We would like to present, with great pleasure, the selected proceedings of ACMM
2021, Advances In Construction Management. This work is published in the book
series Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, and is devoted to the gamut of sustainable
construction issues, from theoretical aspects to application-dependent studies and
the validation of emerging sustainable construction materials.
This new book work was envisioned and founded to represent the growing needs
of sustainable construction of buildings by using novel materials as an emerging
and increasingly vital field. Its mission is to become a voice of the civil engineering
community, addressing researchers and practitioners presenting new construction
materials, findings, and solutions.
This book comprises 49 contributions, connected by a unifying theme: Advances
In Construction Management. Specifically, the presented contributory articles can
be categorized into the following parts:
• Architecture Management
• Town Planning
• Project Management
• Building Automation
• Analytical Case Study
Many researchers and academicians have contributed to the creation and the
success of this book compilation. We are very thankful to everybody who supported
the idea of creating a new LNCE contributory book subline—Sustainable Construc-
tion Materials. We are certain that this very first issue will be followed by many
others, reporting new developments in the civil engineering field. This issue would
not have been possible without the great support of the Editorial Board members,
and we would like to express our sincere thanks to all of them. We would also like
to express our gratitude to the LNCE editorial staff of Springer, in particular Daniel
Joseph Glarance and Priya Vyas, who supported us at every stage of the work. It is

v
vi Preface

our hope that this fine collection of articles will be a valuable resource for Sustainable
Construction Materials readers and will stimulate further research.

Chennai, India K. Gunasekaran

July 2021
Contents

Architecture Management
Planning, Analysis, and Design of Smog-Free Tower with Louvers
in Kolkata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sija Arun, Rukhsar, Utkarsh Anand, and Pathikrit Bhattacharjee
Assessing the Role of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Resilience
and Climate Change Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Kiranmayi Raparthi and Ranee Vedamuthu
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil
Nadu, India Using Remote Sensing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan
Evaluation of Operational BRTS System in Bangalore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Smitha Krishna, S. Sathvik, and S. Suchith

Town Planning
A Study on the Assessment of Risk Management in High-Rise
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu
Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Rakshit Srivastava, A. Edwin, and R. Ramasubramani
Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building with Reduced Beam Section . . . . . 69
Karthikeyan Rajendiran, R. Deby Linsha, and S. Pradeep
Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid Tube
System Subjected to Seismic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Karthikeyan Rajendiran, B. Vijayashanthi, and S. Pradeep

vii
viii Contents

Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam with Restrained

Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Sunny Mathur, M. SenthilPandian, and K. Karthikeyan
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour
of Coconut/Steel Fiber Using Reinforced Concrete Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Rajesh Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani
Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre,
Pragati Maidan, New Delhi”, Using ETABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Kanuj Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Project Management
Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid Waste
in Thanjavur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
D. Deepa, P. Sharmila, and S. Mary Rebekah Sharmila
Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought
Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
D. Deepa, Boddu Venkata Sai Prakash, Chandragiri Sai Neeraj,
Kothamasu Akhil, and K. Sasireka
The Freezing Point of Soils and the Factors Affecting its Depression . . . . 157
Rufaidah Shah and Bashir Ahmed Mir
Blast Loads and Their Effects on Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
George Vincent Jasmine, Markandeya Raju Ponnada,
and Siba Prasad Mishra
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure and Composite Structure
by Pushover Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi
Feasibility Study on Subgrade Stabilization of Pavement Using
Lime and Fly Ash as Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Sistla Vinay Krishna, Aayushi Parashar, and J. S. Sudarsan
Treatment of Seawater Using Electrochemical Mediated
Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
V. M. V. Sai Krishna and K. Prasanna
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment
Resisting Frames Under the Effect of Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Bethapudi Suvarna Susan and A. Arun Kumar
Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area
of Thiruvallur, Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
P. Eshanthini, S. Nandhakumar, and Rachita Nath
Contents ix

Ground Water Modelling of Poondi Micro-Watershed, Thiruvallur,

Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
P. Eshanthini, S. Nandhakumar, and Ritesh Bandari
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced Stabilization (EIS)
in Improving the Strength Characteristics of Weak Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Nehaun, K. Prasanna, Nihit Omprakash Prajapathi, Maaz Rafi Ashraf,
and V. M. V. Sai Krishna

Building Automation
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique as an Effective Sustainable
Treatment for Wastewater: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
J. S. Sudarsan, Radhika Kumkumwar, Shraddha Kademwar,
Nowel Bose, Akash Chobe, and Rishikesh Salunke
Comparative Statistical Analysis to Determine the Impact
of COVID-19 Lockdown on PM2.5 Concentration in Chennai City,
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Sandhya Giri and Sija Arun
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency, Growth
Characteristic and Biomass Cultivation of Two Microalgal Strains
Provided with Optimal Conditions in Agricultural Wastewater . . . . . . . . 279
R. V. Anusha Gowri, S. Dhanasekar, and R. Sathyanathan
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance
the Building Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Prerna Sharma, V. R. Prasath Kumar, and L. Krishnaraj
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Anmol Basnett, S. Sathvik, Prerna Sharma, V. R. Prasath Kumar,
and L. Krishnaraj
Modelling Residential House Pricing Using Regression Analysis . . . . . . . 321
M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan
An Ant Colony-Based Optimization Model for Resource-Leveling
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Asha Duraiswamy and Gopinath Selvam
Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving
Resource-Leveling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
R. S. Gokula Krishnan and Gopinath Selvam
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis
and Occupational Safety and Health Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
M. G. Soundarya Priya, K. S. Anandh, and K. Prasanna
x Contents

Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix

Concrete Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
S. Senthamizh Sankar, K. S. Anandh, S. Raja Pandian,
and K. S. Aravinth
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique for Construction
Projects Using GERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan
Integrating Lean and Sustainability Approach for Construction
Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
S. Anandh, S. Sindhu Nachiar, Preethiba Mariappan,
and C. S. Sai Abeshek

Analytical Case Study

Identification of the Mitigation Methods to Be Adopted
that Prevents Time Overrun in Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
G. Siva Subramani, S. Manikanda Prabhu, R. Gowtham, and Sumpa Dey
Introducing Safety on Construction Industry Along with Lean
Construction Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
S. Anandh, S. Sindhu Nachiar, C. S. Sai Abeshek,
and Preethiba Mariappan
Implementation of Lean Techniques in Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . 425
J. Rajprasad, Pagadala Saimohanreddy, N. Pannirselvam, and S. Manivel
Consequence of Communication Problem for Higher Authority
of Construction Industry in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
J. Rajprasad, Manish Prasad, and N. Pannirselvam
Influence of Intellectual Behaviour of Labour in Construction
Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
J. Rajprasad, Ummadisettisaisravan, N. Pannirselvam, and S. Manivel
Impact of Risk Assessment in Project Execution and Its Mitigation
Strategies Using Modern Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Praddyumna Shrikrishna Shendurkar, Mayur Shirish Jain,
and J. S. Sudarsan
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies
in Enhancing Communication to Get Quality Human Resources . . . . . . . 465
Rabee Abo Fakher and K. S. Anandh
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects . . . . . . 481
Albaraa Alasskar and P. Jagannathan
Contents xi

Effective Ways to Handle the Change Management for Cost

in Various Types of Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
S. Sree Nandini, R. Varadharajan, S. Kishore Kumar, and L. Krishnaraj
Investing the Application of Resource-Constrained Project
Scheduling Problem in a Single-Mode Construction Project . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Priyanka Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian
Identification of Cost Over Run Issue in Preventive Management
in Construction Workplace––Chennai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
M. Balasubramanian, T. L. Abinaya, V. R. Prasath Kumar,
and S. Gopinath
Estimation of Probability on Delay in Desalination Plant
Construction Projects in Lakshadweep Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
P. Divya and G. Beulah Gnana Ananthi
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution in Coastal
Water and Sediment of Chennai, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time Using
GIS and MSSTT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
A. Jackulin Mahariba, R. Annie Uthra, and R. Golda Brunet
Correction to: Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid
Waste in Thanjavur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1
D. Deepa, P. Sharmila, and S. Mary Rebekah Sharmila
About the Editors

Dr. Lee Yee Loon is currently working as a Professor at University Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Dr. Lee has completed his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from
University Technology Malaysia (2000). His major areas of research interest are
Biomass aggregate concrete, Controlled density geopolymer concrete for pontoon,
road on soft soil and peat, Pervious concrete, Engineered stone column, Fastening
system for IBS, NDT, Structural appraisal and health monitoring and Engineering
management beyond critical path. He is also a member of Professional Associations
such as FCSM (Past President, Concrete Society of Malaysia, 2008–2010), MACRI
(Life member of Malaysia Association of Creativity & Innovation) and MBIC (Board
member of Malaysia Biomass Industries Confederation).

Dr. Muthulingam Subramaniyan is working as Assistant Professor in Indian Insti-

tute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar. He obtained BE in Civil Engineering from
National Institute of Technology Trichy 2002; M.Tech. in Structural Engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, 2005 and Ph.D. in Structural Engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology Madras, 2014. His major areas of research
interest are advanced design of steel and concrete structures, Reliability and risk
assessment of new and existing infrastructure systems, Stochastic finite element anal-
ysis, Stochastic deterioration modelling of RC structures, Spatio-temporal structural
reliability, Progressive collapse analysis of structures and Probabilistic risk analysis
of structures exposed to blast loading.

Dr. K. Gunasekaran is currently working as Professor at SRM Institute of Science

and Technology (formerly known as SRM University), Kattankulathur campus. He
has obtained DCE in Civil from Directorate of Technical Education 1988, DCT in
Concrete Technology from Annamalai University 1990, AMIE in Civil Engineering
from The Institution of Engineers (India) 1992; M.E. in Structural Engineering from
Anna University, 2004 and Ph.D. in Structural Engineering from SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, 2011. His major areas of research interest are Lightweight

xiii
xiv About the Editors

concrete, Coconut shell concrete, High strength concrete, Self-compacting concrete

and Steel-concrete-steel double skin elements. He has published more than 46 papers
in peer reviewed international journals.
Architecture Management
Planning, Analysis, and Design
of Smog-Free Tower with Louvers
in Kolkata

Sija Arun, Rukhsar, Utkarsh Anand, and Pathikrit Bhattacharjee

Abstract Pollution in our environment is one of the most primary issues with which
everyone have been dealing with. Among all the types of pollution, pollution in air is
of utmost importance. It is the leading cause of the rise of different lung diseases and
various other diseases in human beings and other problems in plants and vegetation.
Formation of smog plays a huge part in causing air pollution. Smog is formed due to
many reasons, some of them being natural and others being man made. In order to curb
this form of pollution, lot of preventive measures have been taken and introduced.
So, the idea of constructing an eco-friendly smog-free tower was taken. A lot of
historical places in India have been losing their beauty because of smog, affecting
the white marbles, which were used to build it. In order to enhance the economic and
tourist activities near to the Victoria Memorial in Kolkata constructing smog tower
is an attractive solution.

Keywords Air Quality Index · Air pollution control · Smog · Smog-free tower ·
Particulate matter

1 Introduction

Smog is a composite mixture of harmful solid particles and gases in air [1]. The
harmful particles include emission from automobiles, chemicals released from facto-
ries and other suspended particles. Bad air quality is the reason of death of a huge
number of people. According to WHO (World Health Organization), 4.2 million

S. Arun · Rukhsar (B) · U. Anand

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Arun
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Bhattacharjee
MBA, IFHE-IBS Campus, Donthanapally Shankarapalli Road, Hyderabad 501203, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 3
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_1
4 S. Arun et al.

people lost their lives due to decreasing quality of air worldwide, especially in second
and third world countries [2–4]. Smoke forming inside the house from burning of
coal, biogas and cigarette is an ongoing cause of all the major lung problems in
these countries [5, 6]. Air pollution has been the leading cause of numerous health
diseases from cancer to micro-cardial infection affecting over 40% of the population
all over the world [7]. Although the working principle of tower is simple but it is
expensive, but not as expensive as human life [8]. The need of clean air has led to a
stage where in upcoming decade installing average of one tower in one metro city
will be necessary [9].

2 Literature Study

2.1 Air Quality Index

The AQI is the index which is used to determine the quality of air on daily basis
and is used by government agencies to tell common people the extent of pollutant
present in air. The comparison of acceptable value and observed value of pollutant
is shown in (Table 1) from the references [10, 11].
To calculate AIQ of the desired location, Eq. (1) is used. AIQ at Victoria Memorial
was calculated as 252.
 
(P M obs − P M min ) × (AQ I max − AQ I M I N )
AI Q = + AQ I min (1)
P M max − P M min

where;
PMobs = Observed 24-h average concentration in µg/m3 .
PMmax = Maximum concentration of AQI color category that contains PMobs .
PMmin = Minimum concentration of AQI color category that contains PMobs .
AQImax = Maximum AQI value for color category that corresponds to PMobs .

Table 1 Comparison of acceptable value and observed value of pollutants

Pollutants in smog Acceptable value of pollutant in Observed value of pollutant in
atmosphere (µg/m3 ) atmosphere (µg/m3 )
Particulate matters (PM) 2.5 40–60 107.6
Particulate matters (PM) 10 60–100 184.5
Carbon mono oxide 204 320
Nitrogen di oxide 4080 176.29
Ground level ozone 100–180 6.33
Sulfur di oxide 50–80 5.28
Source Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
Planning, Analysis, and Design of Smog-Free Tower … 5

Table 2 Classification of air

Air quality index Level of health Health effects
quality index value
value concern
0–50 Good Little or no risk
50–100 Moderate Acceptable Quality
100–150 Unhealthy for General public not
sensitive groups likely affected
150–200 Unhealthy All may experience
some effects
200–250 Very unhealthy All may experience
more serious effects
250–300 Hazardous Emergency condition
Source Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

AQImin = Minimum AQI value for color category that corresponds to PMobs .
AQI around Victoria Memorial Hall 1, Queens Way, Kolkata, West Bengal dated
on 27th January 2020 is 252 (Poor). By the reference of below Table 2, it is determined
that the site has very unhealthy levels of health concerns, and the health effects that
may be experienced by all age group of people have more serious effects.

2.2 Working Principle of Smog-Free Tower

In smog-free tower, wet scrubbers are installed inside the tower to clean the air.
These scrubbers clean the air by introducing the polluted air stream with a scrubbing
liquid (mostly water). Air from the environment is siphoned by the louvered sides
of the tower. The air is trapped inside a wet scrubber. Wet Scrubbers are efficient
air pollution control devices used for removing particles and gases from industrial
exhausts smog. Wet Scrubber removes dust particles by capturing them in liquid
droplets, then these pollutants are collected in the scrubbing liquid. The purified air
is released from each levels of the smog-free tower through the top of the tower into
air. The water used as scrubbing liquid must be treated before reusing or disposing
away as it contains harmful pollutants which should be treated or else can cause
harmful side effects. Reed treatment bed is used for treating the polluted water. The
polluted water is allowed to pass through the bed and clean water is collected in a
water tank. This treated water is used again in the scrubbers. Its efficiency depends
upon the power supply provided, low energy scrubbers can collect particles larger
than 5 micro-meter, while devices with more power supply can collect 1 micro-meter
or less-sized particles. They are also known as absorbers, they require a good gas to
liquid contact to attain higher removal efficiency.
6 S. Arun et al.

Fig. 1 Plan of smog-free

tower RCC underground
water tank and reed
treatment bed

3 Result and Discussion

3.1 Planning and Dimensioning of Tower and Reed Water

Treatment Bed

The detailed plan with dimensions of smog-free tower and reed water treatment bed
was prepared using Auto CADD software. The top view, front view and section view
of the SFT are prepared. The plan of SFT, RCC UWT and RTB is shown in (Fig. 1),
elevation and sectional view of SFT is shown in (Figs. 2 and 3), respectively.

3.2 Analysis

The structural analysis of SFT was done using STAAD Pro software. Various loading
conditions were used to analyze the SFT which are acting on it. The analysis result
was found to be safe, and the maximum shear force, bending moment and deflection
are used to design the beams and columns of SFT manually (Fig. 4 and Tables 3, 4).
Different types of load acting on smog-free tower [10, 11]:
• Dead loads
• Live loads
• Seismic loads
• 1.5 × (Dead load + Live load)
• 1.2 × (Dead load + Live load + Seismic loads along X-direction)
• 1.2 × (Dead load + Live load + Seismic loads along Z-direction)
Planning, Analysis, and Design of Smog-Free Tower … 7

Fig. 2 Elevation of smog-free tower with louvers

Fig. 3 Sectional view of smog-free tower

3.3 Artificial Reed Treatment Bed

Reed beds are naturally formed habitats found in flooded, waterlogged areas and estu-
aries. Artificial reed beds are employed to treat polluted water containing pollutants.
Reed beds are only used to treat liquids; if they contain any solid pollutants, they need
to be first settled in a sedimentation tank and the liquid effluents will discharge to the
reed treatment bed and the solids effluents will be treated in sewage treatment plant,
or composition of that solid effluent will occur. Reed beds consists of the aquatic
8 S. Arun et al.

Fig. 4 Various loads acting

on Smog-Free Tower

Table 3 Critical Bending

Direction of Maximum Maximum Load
Moment Values
B.M positive B.M negative B.M Combination
(kN-m) (kN-m)
My 9.401 9.401 1.5 × (D.L +
L.L)
MZ 36.73 16.78 1.5 × (D.L +
L.L)

Table 4 Critical Shear Force

Direction of Maximum Maximum Load
Values
S.F positive S.F negative S.F Combination
(kN) (kN)
Fy 22.78 9.41 1.5 × (D.L +
L.L)
FZ 5.424 5.424 1.5 × (D.L +
L.L)
Planning, Analysis, and Design of Smog-Free Tower … 9

Fig. 5 Artificial reed treatment bed

plants that helps bacteria, fungi and algae to clean the sewage by digesting it in the
treatment beds [4]. The diagrammatic representation of artificial reed treatment bed
is shown below in (Fig. 5).

3.4 Louvers Selection

• A louver is a blind or shutter window with horizontal slats designed to admit light
and air, but to keep away rain and direct sunlight. The angle of the slats can be
adjustable or fixed, usually in blinds and windows.
• Modern louvers also consist of steel, metal, wood or glass. Through a metal
handle, pulleys or by motorized operators, they can be opened and closed.
• Factors to be considered when choosing louvers: air volume, speed, free area,
drop pressure and penetration of water.
• The louver size chosen for use is 3.5 inches or 88.9 mm.
• The type of louvers selected and arranged is shown in (Figs. 6 and 7).

Fig. 6 Louvers
10 S. Arun et al.

Fig. 7 Louvers in middle

section of SFT

3.5 Volume of Air Purified

The tower is divided into three sections; each section consists of two wet scrubbers,
and on an average, one wet scrubber can clean 50 m3 /h.
Therefore, volume of air purified = 3 × 2 × 50 = 300 m3 /h

4 Conclusion

The outdoor Air Pollution is among the top ten health risks in India, with an estimated
695,000 annual premature deaths from respiratory illnesses, compromised immune
systems and cardiovascular conditions (IHME). To control this, a smog-free tower
is very necessary at the high pollutants emitting zones of the country. Wet scrubbers
are used in treatment of smog. Wet scrubbers use water as scrubbing liquid to collect
the pollutants and release cleaned air. By constructing a tower of 10 m height and
100 m2 , volume of purified air is 300 m3 /h. It can clean up to 75% of the air [1]. In
addition to this, the air purification is also helpful for reducing global warming and
acid rain. The power requirement in the tower is low, therefore less energy is wasted.
The water used in the tower is reused by treating in reed beds, therefore less wastage
of water and no harmful pollutants are released in the surroundings. Tower has low
initial cost and low running cost. Some other benefits that are also provided to the
government is the attractive tourist spot that will help in strengthening the country’s
economy. Reed treatment bed will help to reuse water which is used in wet scrubber
as scrubbing liquid. All together by reducing pollution, we can achieve a balanced
ecosystem and great future.
Planning, Analysis, and Design of Smog-Free Tower … 11

References

1. Andre R, & Recentre, R. (2016). The Smog Free Tower « Solution » of Daan Roosegaarde *.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1328.8168. (August 2015).
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and analysis of the challenges. Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering, 3(1).
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review paper. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 4(2), 3251–3255.
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2020, at 11.50 am IST.
7. http://www.Aventurine.Com/smog-free-towers-pollution-killer. Retrieved January 27, 2020, at
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at 11.50 am IST.
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pm IST.
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revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Assessing the Role of Nature-Based
Solutions in Urban Resilience
and Climate Change Adaptation

Kiranmayi Raparthi and Ranee Vedamuthu

Abstract Cities are rapidly urbanizing and face immense social, economic and
environmental challenges. These challenges amplify the climate change impacts,
thereby posing a serious threat to urban and social resilience. With regard to climate
change, ecological researchers globally advocate that nature-based solutions inte-
grate with various ecosystems based approaches, provide biodiversity benefits and
address societal challenges. However, the potential of nature-based solutions to build
urban resilience and address climate change through urban planning has remained
research rhetoric. This research puts forth an effort to assess the ability of nature-
based solutions in building urban resilience and addressing climate change. This
research incorporates a quantitative research methodology by undertaking a tech-
nical and scientific literature review about nature-based solutions, urban resilience
and climate change adaptation. Accordingly, the characteristics, dimensions, areas
of application, the challenges and opportunities are highlighted. The key research
gap between urban resilience and nature-based solutions is identified by developing
a socio-spatial framework that focuses on nature-based solutions tradeoffs and its
response to urban resilience. This renewed approach highlights that nature-based
solutions are cost-effective multifunctional ecosystem services and offer inclusive
benefits, ranging from regenerating urban spaces to improving quality of life and
reducing pollution. However, this research limits the application of nature-based
solutions for urban resilience to local level urban planning and does not focus on
master level urban planning. This research emphasizes nature-based solutions as an
effective urban policy tool and reinforces its inclusion in local level urban planning
for building climate change and urban resilience.

Keywords Nature-based solutions · Cities · Urban resilience · Climate change

Adaptation · Policy perspectives

K. Raparthi (B) · R. Vedamuthu

Department of Architecture, School of Architecture and Planning, Anna University,
Chennai 600025, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 13
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_2
14 K. Raparthi and R. Vedamuthu

1 Introduction

Climate change is a multidimensional observable fact and is regarded as one of the

greatest challenge human society is facing in the twenty-first century. Cities are
rapidly urbanizing and they face immense environmental, social and economic chal-
lenges. These challenges are further amplified by the impacts of climate change,
thereby posing a serious threat to social and urban resilience [1]. Ecological
researchers globally advocate that Nature-based Solutions through the integration
of various Ecosystems based Approaches, provide biodiversity benefits and address
societal challenges. However, the potential of nature-based solutions in building
urban resilience and addressing climate change adaptation through urban planning
has remained research rhetoric [2].
This research puts forth an effort to assess the ability of nature-based solutions in
building urban resilience and addressing climate change adaptation. Accordingly, the
paper first reviews the existing literature on nature-based solutions, urban resilience
and climate change adaptation. Later, through the lens of urban resilience and climate
change adaptation, the complexity and multifunctional aspects of nature-based solu-
tions is highlighted. Following this, the ability of nature-based solutions in building
urban resilience and climate change adaptation is discussed.
Accordingly, the research gap between urban resilience and nature-based solutions
is identified by developing a socio-spatial framework that focuses on nature-based
solutions tradeoffs and its response to urban resilience. This research emphasizes
nature-based solutions as an effective urban policy tool and reinforces its inclusion
in local level urban planning for building climate change and urban resilience. This
research implies that it is necessary to mainstream nature-based solutions in local
level urban planning.

2 Nature-Based Solutions and Urban Resilience

Nature-based solution is an emerging concept that integrates various ecosystem

services and management strategies to address the societal challenges related to
climate change, food and water security, quality of life and human wellbeing.
Ecosystem services refer to the benefits provided by nature to people [3]. According
to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report 2005, ecosystem services are clas-
sified into four categories based on the services they provide to the surroundings.
They are, namely, provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting. Accordingly,
nature-based solutions have the ability to improve the quality of life and increase
urban resilience through the delivery of ecosystem services [4].
Resilience of urban areas is mainly dependent upon the ability of urban areas to
adapt and adjust to the change [5]. Urban resilience embraces the city’s ability to
respond to the chronic stresses, abrupt socioeconomic change and acute shocks due
to natural disasters [6]. Accordingly, urban resilience is not only related to rebuilding
Assessing the Role of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Resilience … 15

or recovering. It relates to the ability of an urban area to thrive during normalcy and
adapt, reorganize and grow in response to a disruption or change [7].
One of the most important aspects of urban policy is urban resilience. It is neces-
sary to increase urban resilience by integrating long-term approaches, mechanisms
and disciplines that have an ability to explore feasible transition paths in urban plan-
ning and development [8]. Literature regarding implementation of urban resilience
highlights the necessity to understand the issues and relationship between new prac-
tices and policies related to resilience [9]. Moreover, governance plays a major role
and it is necessary to incorporate proactive and anticipatory approaches to mainstream
urban resilience in urban planning and development [10].

3 Multifunctional Aspects of Nature-Based Solutions

and Climate Change Adaptation

In this section, the benefits and multifunctional aspects of nature-based solutions

towards building urban resilience and responding to climate adaptation with regard
to the three aspects of climate change vulnerability is highlighted. First aspect relates
to exposure and highlights the extent of a community, region or resource exposure
to the vulnerability. The second is sensitivity and relates to the degree to which
community, region or resource is either responsive or affected to the effect. The third
dimension is the adaptive capacity. It highlights the ability of the community, region
or resource to either innovate or adjust to the changing conditions.
Within the human settlements context, nature-based solutions by protecting,
restoring natural wetlands, there is a possibility of reducing flood risk, soil erosion
and ground water recharge, and through constructed wetlands, contribute towards
flood reduction and decrease surface flooding.
Urban green spaces, bioretention areas, green infrastructure and permeable areas
have the ability to enhance the extent of social interaction, cohesion building and
thereby contribute positively to the social, physical wellbeing and quality of life.
Moreover, nature-based solutions’ adaptive capacity is highlighted by its ability in
empowering marginalized groups through efficient management of common pool
resources and development of urban green spaces, green roofs and practising home
gardening [11].
As such, nature-based solutions either through natural processes or hybrid
approaches by integrating natural process with technical-based solutions have the
ability to foster climate change adaptation and urban resilience.
16 K. Raparthi and R. Vedamuthu

4 Nature-Based Solutions Trade Offs

Nature-based solutions literature highlights that nature-based solutions are context-

oriented and site-specific. Moreover, due to the multifunctional benefits, tradeoffs
exists amongst various aspects in terms of the priorities of each solutions. Tradeoffs
with regard to nature-based solutions and urban planning refer to the land use choices
that are made to increase or gain from the delivery of one or more nature-based
solutions at the expense of losing or diminishing the delivery of the other nature-based
solution [12].
This research has categorized nature-based solutions tradeoffs as time-based
tradeoffs, spatial tradeoffs, functional tradeoffs, normative ethical (social equity)
tradeoffs and species tradeoffs. Time-based tradeoffs highlights that a specific nature-
based solution for a specific time has the ability to affect or alter the opportunities
in the future. These tradeoffs have both short-term as well as long-term outcomes.
For instance, planning for an increase in sea-level through restoration of wetlands
has short-term outcome which involves provision of retention space for storm surge
flows. On the other hand, alleviating the rate of erosion by increasing the elevation
with coastal sediments and growing organic matter is a long-term outcome.
Spatial tradeoffs are related to both scales and cross scales. These tradeoffs occur
at various geographical locations and highlight that a nature-based solution for a
specific area may cause either a positive or a negative impact in another area. For
instance, an urban green space may have a positive impact at one scale by contributing
to the inhabitants’ quality of life but it may have a contrary effect at another scale by
displacing the lower-income households due to the increase in housing costs because
of the urban green space [13].
Functional tradeoffs highlight the function of one or many nature-based solution.
As such, based on the function, the solution needs to be prioritized. For example,
coastal landscapes can function to support recreation and also reduce sea-level rise.
Supporting recreation can be carried out through improved walkways and park devel-
opment but this function may lead to the loss of coastal wetlands and mangroves
which may lead to sea-level rise. Normative ethical tradeoffs are associated with
the proximity and provision of ecosystem services. Species tradeoffs emphasize that
certain solutions support certain types and ignore others [14].

5 Research Gaps and Challenges Governing Nature-Based

Solutions

Emerging evidence highlights that nature-based solutions deliver low-cost solu-

tions to most of the climate change impacts through the delivery of ecosystem
services. Thereby, provide advantages over grey engineered solutions in building
urban resilience. However, it has been identified that there are several knowledge
gaps, and limited research has been undertaken till date in addressing nature-based
Assessing the Role of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Resilience … 17

solutions tradeoffs and its integration in urban planning [15]. This research focuses
on the fact that rather than highlighting nature-based solutions as an alternative to the
hard-core engineering solutions, it is necessary to identify synergies among different
solutions and the possibilities of its integration in urban planning [16].
One main research gap that was identified in the research is the difficulty in
identifying indicators for nature-based solutions social–ecological effectiveness. For
instance, the effectiveness of nature-based solutions in reducing the flood impact due
to increased precipitation is inclined towards various contextual and socioeconomic
factors (intensity and frequency of the rainfall, institutional capacity and financial
capital to respond to the interventions and the ability to deliver the ecosystem services
due to spatial changes) that change over a period of time. As such, the social–
ecological effectiveness of NbS varies across various scales and so it is necessary to
formulate context-specific strategies at the local level.
The other research gap is the lack of an appropriate framework to estimate the
cost-effectiveness of NbS. As a result, the economic benefit of nature is usually
underestimated, especially during the long term [17]. This research highlights that
due to the multifunctional aspects of NbS, it is often difficult to predict the cost
and monetize due to the non-market value of the ecosystem services (such as flood
control, water security, urban agriculture and green roofs).
Moreover, nature-based solutions are flexible and also offer long-term solutions
with benefits that might not be obtained instantly unlike the grey infrastructure and
engineering services. In view of the multifunctional aspects of nature-based solutions,
there is a growing consensus among landscape architects, urban planners, engineers
and ecologists, that rather than viewing nature-based solutions and engineered solu-
tions in isolation, a synthesis of both the nature-based and engineered solutions may
be a viable alternative in many contexts.

6 Socio-Spatial Framework for Addressing

the Nature-Based Solutions Tradeoffs

The above sections have described the ability of nature-based solutions to enhance
urban resilience and climate change adaptation. This research highlights that lack
of a socio-spatial framework addressing the evidence-based practical nature-based
solutions tradeoffs might have halted its integration in urban planning. In this regard,
it is necessary to bridge the gap between theory (benefits of nature-based solu-
tions) and practise (nature-based solutions tradeoffs) and highlight strategies to
deal with nature-based solutions tradeoffs and its response to urban resilience. This
research puts forth an effort to synergize urban planning and nature-based solu-
tions. Accordingly, this research proposes a socio-spatial framework that guides the
implementation of nature-based solutions, emphasizes nature-based solutions as an
effective policy tool and reinforces its inclusion in urban planning for urban resilience
and climate change adaptation. Table 1 highlights the Socio-spatial framework for
addressing the nature-based solutions tradeoffs.
18 K. Raparthi and R. Vedamuthu

Table 1 Socio-spatial framework for addressing the nature-based solutions tradeoffs

Tradeoffs Characteristics of the Addressing the trade off Examples
tradeoffs through urban planning
Time-based Short-term actions and Understand the short- Planning for sea-level
tradeoffs long-term actions and long-term outcomes rise through wetlands
and how the function, and mangroves and
form and scale change reefs have various
over a period of time short-term,
Conduct stakeholders medium-term and
meeting and evaluate long-term benefits
the policies frequently ranging from
institutional to
community and
protection of coastal
areas
Spatial tradeoffs Place-based Collection of Planning for sea-level
approaches operational socioeconomic, data rise through offshore
at various scales [18] and information related breakwaters can have
to demographics and adverse impacts in
geological services another area
Functional Prioritization of the Creating overlay land Coastal landscapes can
tradeoffs outcomes and develop use map, land use land function to support
a balance amongst the cover map over a period recreation and also
preferred solutions [19] of time reduce sea-level rise
Normative ethical Providing a utilitarian Conducting potential Green gentrification,
tradeoffs approach for stakeholder meetings urban renewal and
acknowledging the for dialogue on which regeneration projects
conflict between the Nbs provides maximum have incorporated
economic efficiency social equity to the green and blue
and the social aspect identified issue infrastructure and
[20] services as elements of
upgrading over the
general provision of
the green and blue
services
Species tradeoffs Providing a utilitarian Understand the type of Ecosystem
approach for native that are inherent management actions
acknowledging the to the area and collect tend to favour certain
conflict between the data regarding the species and ignore
economic efficiency biodiversity and land others
and the use land cover
ecological aspect of the
proposed solution [21]
Source Developed by the author
Assessing the Role of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Resilience … 19

7 Discussions

The socio-spatial framework for addressing the nature-based solutions tradeoffs

(Table 1) highlights ability of nature-based solutions in addressing urban resilience
and emphasizes its integration in urban planning for urban resilience and climate
change adaptation. However, the challenge perseveres in the accessibility and avail-
ability of the required information and data. The required information and data may
not be available at all, or the data may not be reliable and validated. The data may
not be site- and context-specific and local decision-making may be difficult [22].
Moreover, the stakeholders may not be aware of the cobenefits and the tradeoffs to
support decision-making.
Moreover, given the multifunctional aspects of nature-based solutions, there may
be certain challenges related to understanding in-depth the strategy and the function
technically too. In this regard, it is necessary for inter- and transdisciplinary collabo-
rations amongst planners, engineers, landscape architects, urban designers, environ-
mental scientists and ecologists in identifying the nature-based solutions based on
its benefits and trade offs, and implementing the nature-based solutions [23].
This research has highlighted various examples illustrating the trade-offs and
cobenefits and how planning can address the tradeoffs. The examples used were
mostly related to sea-level rise to emphasize that, in practical situations the multiple
tradeoffs and benefits of nature-based solution may either exacerbate or amplify
their selection. The complexity of nature-based solutions reinforces the need and
importance of urban planning as a response to enable equitable and effective decision-
making and management of nature-based solutions.

8 Conclusions

This paper demonstrates the role of nature-based solutions in building urban

resilience and climate change adaptation. The paper highlights the strategies to and
its implementation through urban planning. The research puts forth various mech-
anisms and strategies to address the nature-based solution tradeoffs and compre-
hensively implement in urban areas. Accordingly, by strategically understanding the
tradeoffs, identifying the necessary urban planning and management approaches to
address the trade off and by categorizing the vulnerabilities through implementation,
evaluation and monitoring of the existing urban master plans, nature-based solutions
can respond towards urban resilience and adapt to climate change.
The key research gap between urban resilience and nature-based solutions is iden-
tified by developing a socio-spatial framework that focuses on nature-based solutions
tradoffs and its response to urban resilience. The research highlights that for nature-
based solutions to effectively support its implementation, contemporary multidisci-
plinary practices of research are required. This renewed approach highlights that
nature-based solutions are cost-effective multifunctional ecosystem services and
20 K. Raparthi and R. Vedamuthu

offer inclusive benefits, ranging from regenerating urban spaces to improving quality
of life and reducing pollution.
However, this research limits the application of nature-based solutions for urban
resilience to local level urban planning and does not focus on master level urban
planning. This research emphasizes nature-based solutions as an effective urban
policy tool and reinforces its inclusion in local level urban planning for building
climate change and urban resilience. This research implies that it is necessary to
mainstream nature-based solutions in local level urban planning.

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Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization
in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India Using
Remote Sensing Data

M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Abstract Rapid urbanization in developing countries is leading to urban sprawl

along the fringes of the cities. The land use of the regions surrounding the Chennai
metropolitan area is changing drastically. It is vital to monitor and quantify the land-
use change and the urban expansion process to achieve cities with proper planning,
efficiency and sustainability. This paper aims to determine the land-use change in the
study area for the years 1998, 2009 and 2019 using remote sensing data. Shannon’s
entropy was utilized to assess the nature of urban growth happening in the study area.
The study region was divided into 50 zones of concentric circles drawn from the
central business district point. The rate of urbanization in each zone shows gradual
increasing trend from 2009 to 2019, moving outwards with a maximum value of
36.9% in the last zone. Whereas from 1998 to 2009, the rate of urbanization increases
rapidly to attain a maximum value of 85.6% in the 31st zone and thereafter the value
got decreased. Relative Shannon’s entropy asserted that the city displayed a dispersed
development from a distance of 12, 14 and 18 km from the city centre for the years
1998, 2009 and 2019, respectively.

Keywords Urbanization · Shannon’s entropy · Relative Shannon entropy · Urban

sprawl

1 Introduction

There is a large-scale shifting of rural population to urban population worldwide.

Especially in developing countries, the shift is profound. The urban cities are
expanding beyond their geographical limits. Rapid urbanization has caused radical
changes in the landscapes [1]. Historically, urbanization is the biggest driver of land

M. B. Sridhar (B) · R. Sathyanathan

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Sathyanathan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 23
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_3
24 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

use land cover changes [2]. Changes in land cover and rapid urbanization results in
food and water scarcity, environmental deterioration, loss of farming lands, demo-
lition of forests, encroachment of waterways and surface water bodies, changes in
biotic diversity. These changes cannot be well understood without the knowledge of
urbanization that causes them.
The development of a scattered and isolated piece of land surrounded by vacant
lands is considered urban sprawl [3]. Ewing et al. [4] state sprawl as strip develop-
ment along highways and leapfrog includes low density urban developments. Remote
sensing has been extensively used to facilitate the studies related to land use land
cover changes, urban growth and sprawl identification [5]. Thematic images from
satellite data are availed to understand the land use land cover changes occurring
over time [6–8]. While classifying the images, impervious land surfaces such as
buildings, pavements and other infrastructure facilities are mapped as urban areas
[9]. The extent of urban land cover change over the decadal period was determined
using land cover analysis. Many metrics were proposed to differentiate, identify and
quantify the nature of urbanization. Urbanization can be either of compact nature
or sprawling nature. Compact development is considered sustainable and a desired
way of urbanization, whereas sprawling is considered as an undesired way of urban-
ization. The lack of consensus in the definition of sprawl has made its quantitative
measurement a problematic task. The relative comparison of the quantified sprawl
values among different cities have also been hindered by the lack of consensus and
definitive technologies [10]. Spatial metrics such as percentage of landscape, largest
patch index, patch density, edge density, patch cohesion index and landscape shape
index are being utilized to evaluate the nature of the urbanization [11–13].
Shannon’s Entropy is a spatial metric widely used to measure urban sprawl [1,
14–17]. It is used to measure the degree of dispersion among the variables. Shannon’s
entropy value helps to understand better the nature of urbanization, viz., compact or
dispersed (sprawl).
In this study, Shannon’s entropy is utilized to study the nature of urbanization
happening in the Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India for a decadal period (1998–2009).
Relative Shannon entropy is used to determine the zone in which the transition of
urban development from compact to sprawl happened for each decade.

2 Study

Chennai is the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu in India. It is situated on the east
coast of India at a latitude and longitude of 13.0827° N, 80.2707° E. Established as
Madras corporation in 1688, Chennai is the oldest municipal body in India. As per
the 2011 census, the Chennai district covered an area of 178.2 km2 and a population
of 4.64 million. (Fig. 1) shows the shapefile of Chennai administrative boundary as
per census 2011 along with the 50 km radial buffer. The study area considered covers
an area of 4088 km2 .
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu … 25

Fig.1 Study region for

Chennai

3 Methodology

The satellite images were projected to UTM (WGS-84) coordinate system. The
satellite images were enhanced by edge enhancement. The study region is extracted
from the enhanced satellite images. A combined classification technique is utilized to
classify land use land cover into five categories, viz., water bodies, urban, vegetation,
agriculture and barren. Unsupervised classification is performed to divide the satellite
images into 100 bands. Each band is then manually evaluated with the ground truth
data and it is recoded into one of the mentioned classes. This method of classification
has produced higher user’s accuracy.

3.1 Shannon’s Entropy

The study region was divided into 50 zones of concentric circles with a 1 km incre-
mental radius. The concentric circles are drawn from the centre of Chennai at a
latitude and longitude of 13.0827° N, 80.2707° E. Each circle is clipped with the
study area shapefile so that only a portion of the concentric circles that cover the
26 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Fig. 2 50 zones of the study

region

land area is retained for the study purpose. The 50 zones which are considered for
this study are given in (Fig. 2).
Shannon’s entropy gives the measure of variability among the variables possible
outcomes [18].
n
Hn = Pi log(Pi )
i=1

Pi is the proportion of the build-up area in the ith zone, n represents the number of
zones. Pi is the ratio between the urban area in the ith zone to overall urban area. The
value of Shannon’s entropy varies from 0 to log n. The values closer to 0 indicates
compact development and the values closer to log n indicate dispersed development.
As the number of zones considered for this study is 50, the log n value corresponding
to log 50 is 1.69897.

3.2 Relative Shannon Entropy

Relative Shannon entropy is calculated using the formulae [10]

Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu … 27

 Hn
H n =
loge (n)

Hn is the Shannon entropy value and n represents the number of zones. The value of
relative Shannon entropy varies between 0 and 1. 0.5 is considered as the threshold
that differentiates compact development and urban development. The zone at which
this threshold point is reached is generally measured to identify the location after
which sprawl occurs.

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Land Use Land Cover (LULC) Classification

The land use land cover classification for the years 1998, 2009 and 2019 is depicted
in the (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). It is observed that the urban area has increased by 71.77%
between 1998 and 2009 and 36.91% between 2009 and 2019. There is a reduction in
the land areas covered by water bodies, vegetation, agriculture and barren land over
the last 20 years. Table 1 illustrates the area of various LULC for the years 1998,
2009 and 2019.

Fig. 3 LULC of 1998

28 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Fig. 4 LULC of 2009

Fig. 5 LULC of 2019

Table 1 Results of land use

Land class\year 1998 (km2 ) 2009 (km2 ) 2019 (km2 )
land cover analysis
Water bodies 357.319 295.478 161.345
Urban 363.632 624.619 855.180
Agriculture 1323.660 1543.035 1189.660
Vegetation 976.088 617.224 862.838
Barren 1067.950 1008.294 1019.627
Total 4088.65 4088.65 4088.65
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu … 29

4.2 Urban Area

The land use land cover image is cropped for each zone and each year separately. The
urban area is determined for all the 50 zones of each year. The difference between
the urban areas for 1998 and 2009 for the first eight zones was less than 10%.
There was a profound difference in the urban areas of 1998 and 2009 from zone 9
onwards. The urban area difference, which was 12% in zone 9, steadily increased to a
difference of 85% in zone 26. The minimum difference in the early years is because
the central core areas have already been urbanized to the maximum extent. Most
of the urbanization between 1998 and 2009 has happened from zone 9 to zone 26.
In other words, maximum urban development was witnessed between 9 and 26 km
from the centre of the city. In contrast, the urban difference between 2009 and 2019
is evenly spread among all the zones. The urban difference has gradually increased
and reached a maximum of 36% in the last designated zone. The nature of urban
growth also gradually increases from the centre zones to the peripheral zones. This
highlights that the outer edges of the city are getting urbanized at a rapid phase. The
comparison of the urban area in each zone for the three different years is represented
in (Fig. 6).

Urban area of zones Urban area of zones

800
800
Urban area, sq.km
Urban Area, sq.km

1998 2009 2019

600 1998 2009 2019 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Zones Zones
a b

Urban areas of zones Urban areas of zones

800 1998 2009 2019 800 1998 2009 2019

Urban area, sq.km

Urban area, sq.km

600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Zones Zones
c d

Fig. 6 a Urban area comparison, 1–12 zones, b Urban area comparison, 13–25 zones, c Urban
area comparison, 26–37 zones, d Urban area comparison, 38–50 zones
30 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

4.3 Shannon Entropy

The Shannon entropy value up to each zone for the three different years (1998, 2009
and 2019) is given in (Table 2). The Shannon entropy values for the entire region
are 1.668, 1.650, 1.680 for the years 1998, 2009 and 2019, respectively. The study
region being huge, the direct interpretation of the Shannon entropy value would not
convey the necessary understanding. The values of 1.668, 1.650 and 1.680 are very
near to the maximum possible value of log n (1.69), which interprets the likelihood
of maximum sprawl for all three years.
The Shannon’s entropy value of the three years for different zones is depicted in
(Fig. 7). It is evident the Shannon entropy value got reduced in the year 2019 when
compared to 1998 and 2009, which envisages that urban development has become
more compact from 2009 to 2019.

4.4 Relative Shannon Entropy

Relative Shannon entropy is adopted to find the pattern of growth. Generally, 0.5
is considered as the threshold relative Shannon entropy value. If the entropy value
is less than 0.5, it is considered as compact development. If the value of entropy is
more than 0.5, it is considered as disperse [19]. Table 3 gives the zones at which the
threshold value had reached for the examining years. In 1998, sprawling development
happened after zone 12; in 2009 and 2019, it had happened beyond zone 14 and zone
18, respectively.
From this, it is evident that the distance from the city centre to the point where the
compact urban development happened had also increased over the years. In 1998, the
compact urban development was witnessed till 12 km radius, and in 2009 and 2019,
it was witnessed upto 14 km and 18 km radius, respectively, from the city centre. The
important location names are represented along the threshold boundaries in (Fig. 8).

5 Conclusion

This study investigated the nature of urbanization happening in the city of Chennai.
Remote sensing data combined with Shannon’s entropy facilitates the measurement
of spatial extents of urbanization pattern. The calculated land cover analysis indicated
that the rate of urbanization during the years 1998 to 2009 was 71.77%, whereas it was
36.91% for the years between 2009 and 2019. Further, the study region was divided
into 50 zones of concentric circles with a 1 km incremental radius to determine the
zonal urbanization. Urbanization during the years 1998 to 2009 had increased more
than 50% for each zone from zone 14 onwards, and for the years 2009 to 2019, a
gradual increase in urbanization was witnessed for each zone, with a maximum of
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu … 31

Table 2 Shannon entropy and relative Shannon entropy value for 50 zones
Zones Shannon entropy (Hn ) Relative Shannon entropy (H n )
1998 2009 2019 1998 2009 2019
1 0.012 0.008 0.008 – – –
2 0.043 0.029 0.026 0.142 0.095 0.086
3 0.085 0.058 0.052 0.178 0.122 0.109
4 0.134 0.091 0.081 0.223 0.151 0.134
5 0.187 0.128 0.114 0.268 0.183 0.163
6 0.244 0.168 0.150 0.313 0.216 0.193
7 0.297 0.211 0.188 0.352 0.249 0.223
8 0.348 0.255 0.227 0.386 0.282 0.251
9 0.400 0.303 0.268 0.419 0.317 0.280
10 0.449 0.353 0.309 0.449 0.353 0.309
11 0.494 0.401 0.347 0.474 0.385 0.333
12 0.539 0.455 0.389 0.499 0.422 0.361
13 0.578 0.510 0.430 0.519 0.458 0.386
14 0.614 0.564 0.469 0.536 0.492 0.409
15 0.645 0.616 0.502 0.548 0.524 0.427
16 0.681 0.671 0.539 0.566 0.557 0.447
17 0.714 0.717 0.581 0.580 0.583 0.472
18 0.748 0.763 0.627 0.596 0.608 0.500
19 0.787 0.806 0.671 0.615 0.630 0.525
20 0.826 0.851 0.715 0.635 0.654 0.550
21 0.862 0.892 0.756 0.652 0.674 0.572
22 0.895 0.930 0.798 0.667 0.693 0.594
23 0.927 0.968 0.839 0.681 0.711 0.616
24 0.960 1.009 0.881 0.695 0.731 0.639
25 0.989 1.041 0.919 0.707 0.745 0.657
26 1.017 1.072 0.955 0.719 0.758 0.675
27 1.048 1.104 0.994 0.732 0.771 0.694
28 1.076 1.132 1.028 0.744 0.782 0.710
29 1.103 1.160 1.063 0.754 0.793 0.727
30 1.128 1.192 1.100 0.764 0.807 0.745
31 1.152 1.218 1.133 0.773 0.817 0.760
32 1.176 1.240 1.163 0.781 0.824 0.772
33 1.201 1.264 1.193 0.791 0.832 0.786
34 1.228 1.287 1.225 0.802 0.840 0.800
35 1.254 1.311 1.256 0.812 0.849 0.813
(continued)
32 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Table 2 (continued)
Zones Shannon entropy (Hn ) Relative Shannon entropy (H n )
1998 2009 2019 1998 2009 2019
36 1.279 1.333 1.284 0.822 0.857 0.825
37 1.304 1.354 1.308 0.832 0.863 0.834
38 1.329 1.378 1.333 0.841 0.873 0.844
39 1.356 1.401 1.362 0.852 0.880 0.856
40 1.384 1.429 1.395 0.864 0.892 0.871
41 1.415 1.455 1.425 0.877 0.902 0.884
42 1.445 1.483 1.458 0.890 0.914 0.898
43 1.473 1.508 1.490 0.902 0.923 0.912
44 1.500 1.531 1.521 0.913 0.932 0.926
45 1.529 1.554 1.554 0.925 0.940 0.940
46 1.558 1.575 1.582 0.937 0.947 0.951
47 1.585 1.594 1.606 0.948 0.953 0.960
48 1.610 1.612 1.630 0.957 0.959 0.970
49 1.638 1.632 1.656 0.969 0.965 0.980
50 1.668 1.650 1.680 0.982 0.971 0.989
Overall 1.668 1.650 1.650

Shannon entropy
1.800

1.600

1.400

1.200
Shannon entropy

1.000

0.800

0.600

0.400
1998 2009 2019

0.200

0.000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
Zones

Fig. 7 Shannon entropy for the various zones in 1998, 2009 and 2019
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urbanization in Chennai City, Tamil Nadu … 33

Table 3 Threshold distance

Years The distance at which threshold is reached (km)
1998 12
2009 14
2019 18

Fig. 8 Threshold
boundaries for years 1998,
2009 and 2019

36% in the 50th zone. From the threshold Shannon entropy value, it was observed
during the year 1998 the Chennai city has undergone compact development up to 12
km radius from the city centre and sprawl development beyond that. Similarly, in
the year 2009, there was a compact development up to 14 km radius, and for 2019,
the compact development was up to 18 km radius from the city centre. The exterior
regions of the city beyond the administrative district boundary are undergoing rapid
urbanization, which requires proper planning and regulation of urban development.
Comparing the Shannon entropy values for the three years, it was observed that the
urban development had become more compact during 2019.
34 M. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

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Evaluation of Operational BRTS System
in Bangalore

Smitha Krishna, S. Sathvik, and S. Suchith

Abstract Bengaluru, Karnataka, India is known as the “City of Two Wheelers”

because of its large two-wheeler population; additionally, during rush hour the city’s
traffic is notoriously congested, resulting in traffic jams and lengthy travel times. To
address this issue, the Bengaluru Municipal Corporation devised a plan to imple-
ment the BRTS in December 2006, and it was successfully implemented on a 16-km
stretch, making Bengaluru the first city in India to do so. This system has dedicated
bus lanes and signaling, and is thus independent of on-road traffic, to encourage
Bengaluru motorists to take the BRTS instead of driving, with the goal of reducing
traffic congestion and pollution. Currently, with a total system length of 66 km,
and some more which is proposed, and 92 stations, sanctioned under the Jawa-
harlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), BRTS is now one of
the most significant transportation systems in Bengaluru. BRTS compares the cost,
length, stations across each route, etc. between them. Each line of BRTS has different
lengths, different corridor widths, and different number of stations. This study is for
comparing these key factors through graphs, and then analyzing them.

Keywords BRTS routes · Transportation systems · Operational system ·

Quantitative scores · Qualitative scores

1 Introduction

The Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) is a mass rapid transit system that has been
implemented with great success in many developed countries [1, 2]. While providing
the speed and dependability of rail systems, it also provides the convenience and
adaptability of bus systems. A total of Rs.521.22 billion has been allocated to urban
transportation in the twelfth five-year plan. From this, about 57 percent, or Rs.296.03
billion, is the estimated investment for BRTS projects in India’s cities [3]. The
construction of bus infrastructure, which includes bus bays, depots, terminals, and

S. Krishna · S. Sathvik (B) · S. Suchith

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 35
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_4
36 S. Krishna et al.

workshops, has been estimated to cost an additional 17% (Rs. 87.6 billion) [4, 5]. In
the next 10 years, it is expected that an additional Rs. 69.65 crore will be invested
in the BRTS systems across 14 cities. In India, the Twelfth Five-Year Plan estimates
that about 1,480 km of BRTS networks will be needed.
Additionally, there is also a requirement for the construction of 5,230 depots,
2,360 terminals, and 74 workshops. Within the next decade, it is estimated that
approximately 1,243 km of BRTS road networks will be built across 14 cities [6, 7].
This covers six expansions and eight new projects, resulting in the construction of
922 bus stations. In addition, support infrastructure is being planned in a number of
cities. As part of the BRTS projects in these cities, three terminals are being built in
Ahmedabad, Surat, Pimpri-Chinchwad, and Visakhapatnam. In addition, two depots
and workshops in Hosur and Hubli’s Gokul Road, as well as one in Dharwad, are
being proposed [9, 10]. When completed, these depots will have a capacity of 120
regular buses and 30 BRTS buses, as well as a terminal in Naya Raipur.
Further, a major study is conducted for evaluation of Operational system consisting
of 21 minor factors under three broad categories, namely, BRTS bus ways, bus
stations, and buses. A visual observation study has been carried out by visiting
various BRTS routes across various places in Bengaluru city [11]. Field survey was
conducted for each BRTS lane, and all the factors were keenly verified by means of a
prepared checklist to check whether the BRTS routes are provided with all necessary
service elements across the categories. Following the physical observations around
routes, points were assigned to various facilities based on availability of the prescribed
service parameters [12, 13]. Thus quantitative scores are determined, and based on
the total scores, the routes were ranked for operational performance the best BRTS
routes, moderate and poor performing routes were identified within the system. Fig. 1
shows the typical cross section.

Fig. 1 Typical cross section for BRT on 30 m wide road

Evaluation of Operational BRTS System in Bangalore 37

Fig. 2 BRTS route map

Bengaluru is India’s eighth-largest city and the state of Karnataka’s second-largest

city after Mumbai. In this area, the automotive industry is particularly prominent
[14]. Figure 2 shows the BRTS route map. All aspects of the automotive industry are
represented, resulting in Bengaluru’s designation as India’s “Motor City,” or India’s
Detroit. Bengaluru also has a thriving software industry, with massive development
center run by multinational corporations. With over a hundred educational institutes
and nine universities, Bengaluru has earned the moniker “SJB Institute of Science
and Technology,” with students studying in the University of Bengaluru’s colleges
from all over the world. Bengaluru has the greatest number of schools, colleges, and
universities of any city on the planet.
Bengaluru’s BRTS system: Bengaluru is a city with a total area of 470.79 square
kilometer (Metropolitan). As of June 2009, the population was estimated to be around
73,250,000. According to records, there were 16,47,364 vehicles on the road in
February 2007, with 11,23,898 two-wheelers. This number is increasing at a rate
of 60,000 units per year. Within Metropolitan Bengaluru, travelling a distance of
5 km could take up to 3 h at certain times of the day. With all of these pressing
reasons in mind, as well as the city’s desire to decongest its roads and make it easier
for the local public to commute, it was clear that the new bus system would win
people’s confidence at first [15, 16]. After Ahmedabad, which opened the country’s
first BRTS in 2010, and for which the BBMP began plying pilot routes in December
2006, Bengaluru is the second city in India to experiment with a fully operational
Bus Rapid Transit system. In May 2006, the Bengaluru Municipality devised a plan
38 S. Krishna et al.

to implement the BRTS, and after completing the design and planning stages, it
was implemented on the vital Banashankari section, which spans 13.5 km, in 2008
[16]. The bus rapid transit system known as Rainbow BRTS serves the twin cities of
Bengaluru and Mandya in Karnataka, India.
The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) manages the system. The
Bengaluru Municipal Corporation is in charge of the highways (BMC). Currently, the
project envisions 113 kms of dedicated bus corridors, as well as the necessary number
of buses, bus stations, terminals, and an intelligent transit management system. The
Rainbow BRTS project is funded by the Government of India’s Jawaharlal Nehru
National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) [17, 18]. Additionally, some of the
project’s unique components in Mysore Road are being financed through the Ministry
of Urban Development’s “Sustainable Urban Transport Project,” which is sponsored
by the World Bank, UNDP, and the Global Environment Facility.
The features of Rainbow BRT include.
• Buses—Over 800 special Rainbow BRT buses with doors on both sides, and more
standing space, that ply smoothly, and rapidly in reserved lanes.
• Bus stations in the BRTS Lanes are covered, and protected from rain and sun,
they are well lit, have a ramp at the entrance, and signage boards with information
about the BRTS corridors.
• Tickets at stations—The ticket required to travel is to be bought at the ticket
counter inside the station before boarding the bus itself. Smart Cards are also
proposed in the next phase.
• Level Boarding—The height of the bus platform, and the BRTS station platform
are kept at the same level. So that the passengers do not have to climb steps to
board the bus, a feature similar to metro rail.
• Automatic Doors—Automatic doors are also installed on BRT stations such that
bus doors open only when the bus is properly docked at the station.
• The crossings from the footpath to the BRT stations have been installed with many
signals at different locations or they have speed tables so that vehicles have to
slow down to allow passengers to cross safely.
• Bus Numbers, Bus Arrival, and Station Information—Information of bus arrivals
is displayed on screens at the bus stations. Display screens, and audio announce-
ments in buses give information about the next stop. Route numbers appear on
LED displays on the front, back, and the sides of buses.
• Intelligent Transit Management System—All BRT Buses have GPS, and stations
are linked with the BRTS control room at Sawar gate which tracks bus movement
and gives feedback to the drivers to improve their service.
• Security and Traffic Management—Security persons are present at each BRT bus
station. A survey form is prepared including various features of above factors
across BRTS Routes in Bengaluru, and the data is collected through site visits.
The scores are assigned to various routes based on the operational element’s
availability, non-availability, and the ranking is given to various routes based on
the total score of the operational performance.
Evaluation of Operational BRTS System in Bangalore 39

2 Methodology

BRTS Bengaluru has six Corridors, the survey was conducted by site visits around
BRTS corridors. The major components such as BRTS route, Bus stations, Buses are
surveyed, and empirical data was collected in the pre-prepared format/checklist. The
initial survey was started from Banashankari to Whitefield route as a sample for the
initial study of how BRTS Bengaluru operates. Sirsi Circle to Mysore road lengths
for 8 km with 25 bus stations, the BRTS corridors which were of 8 km stretch was
divided into two parts. The factors for the study were selected from the literature
review and observation of the corridor [19, 20]. Surveying of bus stations for the
selected factors and rating them on the scale of one to five, one being the least rated,
and five being best rated. The survey was conducted for the RAINBOW BRTS buses,
and the whole route in the same process.
Once the survey of the sample route was completed, and the further process was
continued, the survey was conducted for the remaining five corridors.
• Jayanagar to Whitefield road route is lane 2 of the BRTS corridor with length
10.25 km with 20 stations.
• Banashankari to Jayanagar route is lane 3 of the BRTS corridor with length 14
km with 17 stations.
• Jayanagar to Koramangala route is lane 4 of the BRTS corridor with length 12 km
with 18 stations.
• Jayanagar to Banaswadi is lane 5 of the BRTS corridor with length 14 km with
13 stations.
• Banashankari to Koramangala is lane 6 of the BRTS corridor with length 8 km
with 9 stations.

2.1 Data Collection

BRTS is divided into six lanes. For the study, each lane was divided into two parts;
accordingly, in each part, two random stops were studied based on the above factors
mentioned in Sect. 2.1. The final checklist was prepared after doing keen observation
and studying the literature review [21]. By site visits, the components such as BRTS
routes, Bus stations, Buses are surveyed, and empirical data was collected in the
pre-prepared format/checklist. During this verification, some factors were available;
these available factors were rated as 1, and the factors which were not available were
rated 0. Further, the factors rated as 1 (available with the system) were checked for
their highest quality of services on a Likert scale of rating 1 to 5, 5 for best services
provided, and 1 for least services provided. This process was continued for all the
lanes, and final scores were obtained; these were then compared to an ideal situation
where all the factors being present, and the services being provided.
40 S. Krishna et al.

3 Data Analysis and Interpretation

The routes which are selected for the study were surveyed based on the three main
factors that are Roadway, Bus way, and Bus stations.

3.1 Stretch Between Banashankari and Banaswadi

The corresponding level of service was marked for the factors from the scale 1–5, 1
being poor condition, and 5 being excellent. In this stretch, the factors are divided
among three groups such as Roadway, Bus stations, and Buses. In the Roadway, the
boom barrier was available being excellent in condition, bus boarding level being
very good in condition, signpost display, advertisement, and passenger information
system were available in good condition [22]. While there was a lack of underway
or skyway for the passengers to reach the bus station, where the passengers find it
difficult to cross the road.
The bus stations are in the middle of the right way, and security personnel were
available at the station. Passenger information system, and Ramps for the disabled
people were available in good condition. Patrols of BRTS stations were available,
being average. The bus station was missing a CCTV camera which sometimes maybe
difficult for the passengers to travel at night due to security reasons [23]. There was
no problem with boarding as the passengers had to follow the queue to board the
bus. The BRTS lanes, which were supposed to be specifically made for the BRTS
buses, were also used by the local vehicles, which lead to delay in buses, and also
sometimes the accidents occurred between the bus, and the other vehicles.
The BRTS Buses have a comfortable seating arrangement with low floor boarding
being good in condition. The average speed of the bus is more than 30 km per hour
more than that. The buses were missing an air conditioning system, due to which
the passengers may feel tiring during the journey. There was non-availability of bus
parking at the stations. Frequency of buses in Peak and Non-peak hours is very less.
In Roadway, out of 6 factors, 5 factors were available which are quantitative. While
the qualitative score is 21 out of 30. In Bus stations, out of 8 factors, 5 factors were
available which are quantitative. While the qualitative score is 23 out of 40. In Buses,
out of 7 factors, 3 factors were available which are quantitative. While the qualitative
score is 9 out of 35. As shown in (Table 1), therefore, the total score of Lane 6 is 13
out of 21 for quantitative, and for qualitative 53 out of 105.

4 Conclusions

This study is mainly focused on analyzing the operational factors of the Bengaluru
BRTS which were extracted by conducting site visits and studying literature review.
Here, we study all the six BRTS corridors which is in current operation. The factors
Evaluation of Operational BRTS System in Bangalore 41

Table 1 Ranking of lanes

BRTS stretch RANK
Lane 1 (Indiranagar to Whitefield) 1
Lane 6 (Banashankari to Koramangala) 2
Lane 5 (Jayanagar to Banaswadi) 3
Lane 3 (Banashankari to Jayanagar) 4
Lane 2 (Jayanagar to Whitefield road) 5
Lane 4 (Jayanagar to Koramangala) 6

were mainly categorized under three categories, i.e., BRTS station, BRTS roadways,
BRTS buses consisting of a total 21 factors.
Each lane was divided into two parts, in each part two random segments were
studied, and rated accordingly by the use of Likert scale. Similarly, all the other
lanes were studied, and total score was calculated; this total score included both
quantitative, and qualitative scores. Ranking was done based on the total score and
were evaluated against the ideal score. Lane 1 (Indiranagar to Whitefield) was found
to be the best among all the 6 lanes, which got a quantitative score of 15 out of 21,
and a qualitative score of 53 out of 105. Lane 4 (Jayanagar to Koramangala) was
found to be the last among all the 6 lanes with a quantitative score of 10 out of 21, and
qualitative of 38 out of 105. There was a huge difference in the frequency of buses,
and advertising on the roadways from the highest ranked lane, i.e., lane 1(Indiranagar
to Whitefield) to the other lanes. Lane 6 (Banashankari to Koramangala), and lane
5 (Jayanagar to Banaswadi) can be slightly improved in the areas of maintenance,
and advertisement. Boom barriers being the best facility should be maintained in the
same way in all the corridors, and skyway or underpass to reach the BRTS station [8],
the worst factor among all the lanes, must be improved. Provisions of skyways or
underpasses to reach the BRTS stations should be constructed at all stations.
These scores were individually interpreted and justified for their value, based on
this final conclusion. From the literature review, and the suggestions from the experts,
the factor chart is prepared, and each factor is rated based on their quality. Each lane
was ranked according to the scores. Following is the Factors:
• Signpost display, an advertisement
• Entry path to the bus station, and the boarding level
• Passenger information system, and CCTV surveillance
• Separate lane for BRTS buses
• Ramps for disabled people
• Patrol of BRTS stations, and availability of security personnel at station
• Comfortable seating arrangements for communities
• Bus parking system
• Average bus speed
• Bus frequency at station (Peak hours, and Non-peak hours).
42 S. Krishna et al.

5 Recommendation

• BRTS stations and buses must be maintained in a clean and proper manner.
• Advertising in stations and along the bus ways must be encouraged, as they are a
source of revenue generation.
• Awareness must be created among the road users to avoid usage of BRTS corridors.
• Automatic doors and passenger information system must be duly maintained in
a proper way.
• The passenger information system can be modified such that it also shows the
real-time bus tracking.
• During the non-peak hours, school buses can be allowed to use the corridors.
• Implementation of ticket counter in the stations rather than providing in the bus.
• Providing security to the users by installation of CCTV for real-time surveillance.
• Extending the connectivity further.
• This study can be used for further implementation of further corridors.

6 Scope for the Future Work

• During the study, some of the corridors were not in use due to construction of the
metro, so there might be change in results if the study is conducted later.
• Cost benefit analysis can be conducted on these lanes based on usage. Further
study can be conducted once Bengaluru metro becomes fully operational.
• Comparative study of Bengaluru BRTS and Bengaluru metro can be carried
out. This study was conducted using Excel, but it can also be done using other
softwares.
• The questionnaires can be done online, and this can be shared with experts for
their rating. This study includes only 21 factors, so more factors can be added,
and study can be conducted.
• This study was conducted using a random sampling method; this can be
improvised by taking more samples for better accuracy of results.

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Town Planning
A Study on the Assessment of Risk
Management in High-Rise Buildings

J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

Abstract Construction activities in general, high-rise building construction in

particular, come with a variety of risks. The reason for the enhanced risk factors could
be attributed to the complexity and dynamic nature of the construction work involving
high-rise buildings. Construction activities in high-rise buildings accounts for the
majority of the accidents every year. In this work, an effort is taken to accurately assess
and analyze different risk management factors like Physical Factors (PF), Organi-
zational Factor (OF), Work Environment (WE), Safety Environment (SE), Design
Factors (DF), Safety Protection (SP), Safety Behavior (SB), and Quality Factor (QF)
in the construction of high-rise buildings in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The study used
quantitative survey method to collect the data from the key stakeholders. To study
the influence of different risk management factors, 250 responses from construction
personnel, clients, contractors and consultants were collected and analyzed using
statistical tools. The reliability analysis show that all the risk management factors
have Cronbach’s Value above 0.7, indicating that the factors are reliably measuring
the underlying constructs. The results of the empirical analysis show that work envi-
ronment is the most dominant factor affecting the risk management in construction
projects based on the mean value. Based on the CFA-SEM analysis, it is inferred that
all the factors like Work Environment (WE), Physical Factors (PF), Organizational
Factor (OF), Safety Environment (SE), Design Factors (DF), Safety Behavior (SB),
Quality Factor (QF), and Safety Protection (SP) contributes significantly to the Risk
Management Factors at 0.01 level. CFA Analysis shows that Design Factors (B =
0.880), Physical Factors (B = 0.866) and Safety Environment (B = 0.847) have
significant contribution toward Risk Management Factors at 0.01 level. The find-
ings of the study have several implications for managing risk factors in the high-rise
building construction projects. The findings enrich the existing body of literature on
risk management factors in the construction of high-rise buildings.

J. S. Raamkumar (B) · B. Indhu

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamilnadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Indhu
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 47
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_5
48 J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

Keywords Construction safety · High-rise building projects · Risk management

factors

1 Introduction

The construction activities continues to remain as one of the most dangerous indus-
trial sectors in the world, accounting for about 30 to 40% of fatal accidents despite
employing just over 7% of the total workforce [1]. The highest percentage of
workplace casualties (around 25.3%) occur in construction sites in Korea [2]. The
construction site accidents account for the third-highest number of fatalities in the
United States [3], and the fourth-highest fatalities in Australia occur in construc-
tion projects [4]. Construction industry is riskier next only to coal mining industry in
China [5]. Tall buildings are becoming increasingly prevalent around the world. With
high-altitude operation and excavation of deep foundation pits, high-rise building
construction poses a major safety problem, resulting in far higher accident rates and
severe incidents than medium- and low-rise buildings. Falls and the impact of falling
objects are a continuous danger, resulting in injuries and deaths. Fast developing
economy like India with massive progress in urbanization is witnessing increased
volume of construction projects involving development of high-rise buildings and
structures.
Risk management has become an indispensable process in the construction
projects. Risk assessment, contingency planning, and risk control are all part of the
risk management process. In general, different qualitative and quantitative methods
are used to quantify risk factors. Risk management is a systemic approach to
detecting, evaluating, and reacting to project risk, which involves optimizing the
probability and consequences of positive attributes while decreasing the probability
and consequences of negative attributes.

2 Review of Literature

Li et al. [8] have determined the key success factors (CSFs) in safety management for
high-rise building construction projects. They also investigated relationships between
these CSFs. The study identified six CSFs that are critical in high-rise construction
projects, namely, management measures, management organization, technical and
management plan, worker safety behavior, safety climate, and worker safety quality.
Management organization was identified as the most important factor influencing
construction safety management and it directly influenced worker safety behavior.
Goh et al. [6] have identified and assessed different risk factors in construction
projects in Egypt. The study found that delay, cost overrun, schedule overrun are
the main risk factors in construction projects. Hair et al. [7] have identified different
risk management factors in construction like design changes, environmental factors,
A Study on the Assessment of Risk Management … 49

management factors, resources, etc. Li et al. [8] identified different risk management
factors in building construction like climate conditions, safety environment, financial
factors, design factors, etc. Nunnally [9] discovered that critical risk factors have
a broad impact on overall productivity in the construction of high-rise buildings.
The study identified primary factors affecting the construction of high-rise building
that included technological risk (44.2%), followed by environmental risk (48.2%),
physical risks (48.8%), financial risks (49.2%), socio-political risks (51.2%), and
constructional hazards (52.8%). Rezakhani [10] has conducted a quantitative study
and collected responses from project manager, onsite project engineer, and other site
engineers to identify the major risk factors. The study identified important factors
affecting the high-rise construction that included technical hazards, financial risks,
physical risks, and constructional hazards.
From the synthesis of the review of literature, eight factors were identified and
hypothesized. These factors have significant impact on the risk management in high-
rise construction projects. The factors identified were Physical Factors (PF), Orga-
nizational Factor (OF), Work Environment (WE), Safety Environment (SE), Design
Factors (DF), Safety Protection (SP), Safety Behavior (SB), and Quality Factor (QF).

3 Methodology

3.1 Research Design

The study used quantitative research design method [11, 12] and a survey instrument
developed by the researcher was used to collect data from the key stakeholders like
Contractors, Employees, Consultants, and Clients. The survey instrument included
40 items to measure each of the eight factors. Thus, five items were used to each
factor. The study adopted Likert scale type of instrument in which the respondents
were asked to rate on a scale of one to five (Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree).

3.2 Population and Sample

The population of the study consisted of key stakeholders involved in the construction
of high-rise buildings in the Chennai region, [13] Tamil Nadu. Using a simple random
sampling, 300 respondents representing the five different regions of Chennai, Tamil
Nadu were identified for data collection. The entire Chennai region was divided into
five zones as North, South, Central, East, and West. Data was collected from 60
samples from each of the four zones. However, only 250 responses were considered
for final analysis, as few response sheets were not obtained and few had incomplete
details. The response rate was 83.3%. Thus, the total number of sample of respondents
was limited to 250.
50 J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

Table 1 Profile of the

Variable Category Frequency Percent
respondents
Gender Male 207 82.8
Female 43 17.2
Age 18–28 150 60.0
28–38 67 26.8
38–48 33 13.2
Qualification Higher Secondary 20 8.00
and Below
Under Graduate 102 40.80
Post Graduate 75 30.00
Diploma and 53 21.20
Certification
Stakeholder type Contractors 36 14.4
Employees 101 40.4
Consultants 68 27.2
Clients 45 18.0

4 Data Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Profile of the Respondents

The demographic profile and professional affiliation are presented in (Table 1).
Majority of the study respondents were male (82.8%) and female constituted only
17.2%. The study included majority of the respondents (60%) from young age group
of 18–28 years. 26.8% of the respondents were from the age group of 28–38 years
and 13.2% were from 38–48 years. With respect to the qualification of the respon-
dents, majority were Under Graduates (40.8%) and Post Graduates (30.0%). The
study also included respondents with Diploma and Certification (21.20%) and Higher
Secondary and Below qualification (8.00%). The study collected the details of profes-
sional affiliations of the respondents. 40.4% of the respondents were Employees and
engineers of the construction companies, 27.2% of respondents were Consultants,
and 14.4% were Contractors. The study also included client respondents of 18.0%.

4.2 Descriptive Statistics

The study identified that eight factors viz. Physical Factors (PF), Organizational
Factor (OF), Work Environment (WE), Safety Environment (SE), Design Factors
(DF), Safety Protection (SP), Safety Behavior (SB), and Quality Factor (QF) were
A Study on the Assessment of Risk Management … 51

Table 2 Descriptive statistics (N = 200)

Safety Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation Skewness Kurtosis
management
factors
Physical Factors 3.40 5.00 4.29 0.45 0.34 −0.70
(PF)
Organizational 3.20 5.00 4.04 0.38 1.02 1.16
Factor (OF)
Work 3.80 5.00 4.30 0.40 0.75 −0.74
Environment
(WE)
Safety 3.40 5.00 3.99 0.50 1.13 0.01
Environment
(SE)
Design Factors 3.00 5.00 3.84 0.61 1.07 −0.26
(DF)
Safety 2.80 4.60 3.68 0.54 0.11 −0.96
Protection (SP)
Safety Behavior 2.60 5.00 3.80 0.48 0.17 0.89
(SB)
Quality Factor 2.00 5.00 3.70 0.60 0.48 −0.06
(QF)

mainly influencing the risk management process in high construction projects. The
descriptive statistics of the study is shown in (Table 2).
From the (Table 2), it is inferred from the mean rating of the respondents that
Work Environment (WE) is the top-rated factor with mean value (M) of 4.30 and
standard deviation (SD) of 0.40. This was followed by Physical Factors (PF) (M
= 4.29, SD = 0.45) and Organizational Factor (OF) (M = 4.04, SD = 0.38). All
the factors were rated above mean rating of 3.5. The least rated factor was Safety
Protection (SP) (M = 3.68, SD = 0.54). The values of Skewness and Kurtosis were
below the prescribed limits of ± 2 for all the factors signifying that the data are
normal and suitable for further statistical analyses.

4.3 Reliability Analysis

The statistical measure, namely, “Cronbach’s Alpha” coefficient was used to measure
the reliability of the survey instrument. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha above 0.7
indicates that the instrument is reliable [14]. The results of reliability analysis as
shown in (Table 3) indicates that the Cronbach’s Alpha values for all the factors
exceeds the threshold limit of 0.7. Thus, the survey instrument is reliable and can be
conveniently used in the study.
52 J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

Table 3 Reliability analysis

Smart city factors No. of items Cronbach’s alpha
Work Environment (WE) 5 0.803
Physical Factors (PF) 5 0.883
Organizational Factor (OF) 5 0.953
Safety Environment (SE) 5 0.933
Design Factors (DF) 5 0.901
Safety Behavior (SB) 5 0.751
Quality Factor (QF) 5 0.801
Safety Protection (SP) 5 0.851

4.4 Structural Equation Model (SEM) Analysis

AMOS 21.0 was used to develop confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model of SEM
using various risk management factors in the construction of high-rise buildings. The
variables used in the model were Work Environment (WE), Physical Factors (PF),
Organizational Factor (OF), Safety Environment (SE), Design Factors (DF), Safety
Behavior (SB), Quality Factor (QF), and Safety Protection (SP). Figure 1 shows the
standardized estimates for the model on risk management factors. From the above
CFA model of SEM, it is clear that the loading value of each variable exceeds 0.4
indicating that the model is valid.
The regression weights (both unstandardized and standardized) of the CFA-SEM
Model are shown in (Table 4). The contribution of the individual variables like Work
Environment (WE), Physical Factors (PF), Organizational Factor (OF), Safety Envi-
ronment (SE), Design Factors (DF), Safety Behavior (SB), Quality Factor (QF), and
Safety Protection (SP) toward Risk Management Factors was found to be significant
as the p-value is less than 0.05.
From the above Table 4, it is inferred that Design Factors (DF) has the highest
contribution towards Risk Management Factors with standardized factor loading
of 0.880, followed by Physical Factors (PF) with a standardized factor loading of
0.866, and Safety Environment (SE) with a standardized factor loading of 0.847.
The significant of the all the loading was 0.01. Work Environment (WE) with a
standardized factor loading of 0.543, Organizational Factor (OF) with a standardized
factor loading of 0.523, and Safety Behavior (SB) with a standardized factor loading
of 0.415 have lower contribution toward Risk Management Factors.

4.5 Model Fit Summary

The goodness of fit of the model is shown in (Table 5). Hence, the model is considered
as a good fit model. The values obtained for the indices like CFI (Comparative Fit
Index), GFI (Goodness of Fit Index), AGFI (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index), TLI
A Study on the Assessment of Risk Management … 53

Fig. 1 Standardized regression coefficient

(Tucker-Lewis Index), NFI (Normed Fit Index), and RFI (Relative Fit Index) are
better than the recommended value of 0.9 indicating that the model is perfectly fit
(Daire et al. 2008). Similarly, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation)
value was less near the recommended value of 0.2 [7], which again proves that the
model is fit. Overall results of the analysis of fit indices values indicate that the
generated values of the model are in conformance with standard values. Thus, the
values for measurement variables are conforming to the recommended values. It is
concluded that the CFA model is valid. The selected factors contribute significantly
to the Risk Management Factors.

5 Conclusion

The design and construction of high-rise buildings is a complicated process that is

affected by a variety of factors. Identification of risk management factors is critical
to the success and sustenance of high-rise construction projects. This study has
54 J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

Table 4 Regression weights of the SEM model

Observed Latent Standardized Unstandardized S.E C.R P
variable variable estimate estimate
Quality Factor < –- Risk 0.811 1.000
(QF) management
factors
Safety < –- Risk 0.415 0.413 0.063 6.566 ***
Behavior (SB) management
factors
Safety < –- Risk 0.668 0.742 0.065 11.359 ***
Protection (SP) management
factors
Design Factors < –- Risk 0.880 1.113 0.068 16.441 ***
(DF) management
factors
Safety < –- Risk 0.847 0.875 0.056 15.576 ***
Environment management
(SE) factors
Work < –- Risk 0.543 0.444 0.050 8.860 ***
Environment management
(WE) factors
Organizational < –- Risk 0.523 0.414 0.049 8.489 ***
Factor (OF) management
factors
Physical < –- Risk 0.866 0.805 0.050 16.074 ***
Factors (PF) Management
factors

Table 5 Goodness of
Variable Recommended value Obtained value
FIT–AMOS model (Industry)
Chi-square value − 90.911
P value p > 0.05 0.000
RMSEA <0.2 0.128
RMR <0.08 0.014
GFI >0.90 0.942
AGFI >0.90 0.905
CFI >0.90 0.924
TLI >0.90 0.902
RFI >0.90 0.914
NFI >0.90 0.908
Chisq/df <5.0 4.54
A Study on the Assessment of Risk Management … 55

successfully identified the eight factors like Physical Factors (PF), Organizational
Factor (OF), Work Environment (WE), Safety Environment (SE), Design Factors
(DF), Safety Protection (SP), Safety Behavior (SB), and Quality Factor (QF) that
have significant impact in the construction of high-rise buildings.
The data for the study was collected from key stakeholders like contractors,
employees, consultants, and clients using a quantitative survey. Based on the mean
rating, the study found that Work Environment, Physical Factors, and Organizational
Factors are the top-rated risk management factors in high-rise construction projects.
These factors play a crucial role in the performance of projects; hence, it is important
that that these risk factors should be managed by adequate risk assessment techniques.
However, the validity of the study findings has to be evaluated in future with larger
sample size involving larger number of projects.
The findings of the study have both theoretical as well as practical implications.
In terms of theoretical contributions, the findings add to the vast body of literature
on safety and risk management in high-rise construction projects. The significance
of the different risk factors was measured by CFA-SEM analysis. Design factors has
the highest loading of 0.88 on the risk management factors, followed by Physical
Factors (PF) and Safety Environment (SE). Safety Behavior (SB) has the lowest
contribution toward Risk Management Factors. In terms of practical contributions,
the findings suggest that risk management in high-rise construction projects can be
greatly enhanced if the Design factors, Physical Factors, and Safety Environment are
given proper consideration in the high-rise construction projects.

References

1. Abd El-Karim, M. S. B. A., Mosa El Nawawy, O. A., & Abdel-Alim A. M. (2017). Identification
and assessment of risk factors affecting construction projects. HBRC Journal, 13(2), 202–216.
2. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2013). Fatal Occupational Injuries by Industry and Event
or Exposure, All United States 2014. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cft
b0286.pdf.
3. Chougule, A., & Waghmare, A. (2015). Risk management in high-rise building construction.
International Journal for Scientific Research and Development, 3(6), 601–602.
4. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. (2003). Research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
5. Daire, H., Joseph, C., & Michael, R. M. (2008). Structural Equation Modeling: Guidelines for
Determining Model Fit. The Electronic Journal of Bussiness Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.
6. Goh, C. S., Abdul-Rahman, H., & Abdul Samad, Z. (2013) Applying risk management work-
shop for a public construction project: Case study. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, 139(5), 572–580.
7. Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., Black, W. C. & Babin, B. J. (2006). Multivariate
data analysis (pp. 734–735). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
8. Li, Y., Ning, Y., & Chen, W. T. (2018). Critical success factors for safety management of
high-rise building construction projects in China. Advances in Civil Engineering.
9. Nunnally, J. C. (1975). Psychometric theory—25 years ago and now. Educational Researcher,
4(10), 7–21.
10. Rezakhani, P. (2012). Classifying key risk factors in construction projects. Buletinul Institutului
Politehnic din lasi. Sectia Constructii, Arhitectura, 58(2), 27.
56 J. S. Raamkumar and B. Indhu

11. Safe Work Australia. (2013). Work-Related Traumatic Injury Fatalities Australia 2012.
Retrieved from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Docume
nts/811/Traumatic-Injury-Fatalities-2012.pdf.
12. Sakthiniveditha, V., & Pradeep, T. (2015) A study on risk assessment in the construction of
high-rise buildings. International Journal of Science and Engineering Research (IJOSER),
3(2), 0–4.
13. Sunindijo, R. Y., & Zou, P. X. W. (2012) Political skill for developing construction safety
climate. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 138(5), 605–612.
14. Yi, J., et al. (2012) A suggested color scheme for reducing perception-related accidents on
construction work sites. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 48, 185–192.
Analysis of Duplex House
with Underground Parking

Rakshit Srivastava, A. Edwin, and R. Ramasubramani

Abstract A Duplex House is one of the type of dwellings that has apartments
with separate entrances (main doors) for two different families. In simple words, it
has two separate flats within the same structure. Apartments of this type are more
economical to build. Underground Parking is a structured parking built below the
ground level. The vehicle is prevented from heat, rain and other external forces.
On the other hand, the space that is saved on the ground can be used for garden,
lawns and other purposes. The plan, section and elevation of the building have been
made in the AutoCAD; keeping in mind the NBC norms. The 3D structure of the
building has been analyzed in the STAAD. Pro; and shear force and bending moment
diagrams have been studied. After considering financial and economic factors, it was
found that the duplex house is more economical for metropolitan cities like Chennai,
Mumbai, Kolkata, New Delhi, Bangalore and Hyderabad; where population density
is very high. Preservation of the prime real estate is one of the long-term benefits of
underground parking; that offers convenient parking and removing parking structures
from street frontage (thus enhancing the facade of the structure).

Keywords Duplex house · Underground parking · Retaining wall · Lateral earth

pressure · Safebearing capacity of soil

1 Introduction

To provide affordable lifestyle in limited area of land in the metropolitan cities,

duplex houses are being constructed on larger scale these days. The analysis was
done using the STAAD. Pro software. The building (duplex house) is subjected to

R. Srivastava (B) · R. Ramasubramani

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
R. Ramasubramani
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Edwin
Xavier Institute of Management & Entrepreneurship, Bangalore, Karnataka 560100, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 57
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_6
58 R. Srivastava et al.

both the vertical load as well as horizontal load. Dead loads of the structural members
(beams, columns, slabs) and live loads are the two types of vertical loads. The lateral
earth pressure is the horizontal load. Wind load has negligible effect on this structure.
The structural members were designed and analyzed using Limit State Design. The
total area of the plot is 90 m2 (963 square feet). Setback distance of 0.5 m has been
provided on all the four sides of the building. Nine main columns of square cross-
section (0.3 m × 0.3 m) have been designed and one additional column has also been
provided inside. A short straight ramp lets the cars enter the underground parking
area, where two cars and two bikes can be easily parked. Parapet wall of height 0.5 m
has been erected on the terrace. Multi-storey car parking and underground car parking
have become very essential in the modern apartments’ culture. Raft Foundation has
been provided throughout the area of the plot. The maximum and minimum values
of bending moment and shear force have been tabulated.

2 Literature Review

Retaining wall has been analyzed under static and seismic conditions. This wall
has to face the lateral pressure of soil and has various applications in hydraulic
structures, railways, highways and tunnels. Only the retained soil mass exerts the
lateral earth pressure (in the static condition); and therefore, the deformation due
to static loading may be negligibly small. The force that is seismically induced
has greater influence on lateral earth pressure in earthquake prone areas. In the
recent decades, permanent deformations have been caused to so many retaining wall
type structures [1, 2]. In some cases, during earthquake, retaining walls have been
collapsed with disastrous physical and economic consequences; so the dynamic earth
pressure has to be evaluated accurately.
Active earth pressure (for cohesion-less soil) has been evaluated under different
boundary conditions. To determine the impact of active earth pressure on the retaining
structures, various soil parameters like ϕ, α, β and height of the retaining structure
(H) have to be studied in detail. When ground elevation has the desired change,
which exceeds the angle of repose (or to retain the backfill), retaining structures are
constructed to resist the lateral pressure of backfill material. Therefore, all the factors
that influence the magnitude of lateral earth pressure must be thoroughly studied and
examined. Using Graphical Solution of Culmann, the magnitudes (positive as well as
negative values) of pressure under various cases were analyzed graphically and were
compared with those obtained using Elastic Theory; that clearly shows the decrease
in active earth pressure with the increase in load distance (0.3H, 0.5H, 0.7H) from
the face of the retaining wall [3–5].
Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking 59

3 Planning

The plan for the duplex house has been prepared in AutoCAD, keeping in mind the
NBC norms. The location plan is shown in (Fig. 1).
The area of the plot is 90 m2 . The selected site lies in Anna Nagar, Chennai, which
falls under Seismic Zone III (moderate intensity), and the soil is clayey (generally
brick red in color) with a small amount of Titanium in it. The plan of underground
floor is shown in (Fig. 2).
A short straight ramp lets the vehicles enter the underground parking area, where
two cars and two bikes can be easily parked. The dimension of the slot for car parking
is 4 m × 3 m. The plan of the ground floor is shown in (Fig. 3).
The entrance gate for the first floor has been provided next to the staircase of
ground floor. Both of the rooms and kitchen of the ground floor are directly connected
to the Hall. The staircase can be accessed from the hall too.
The plans of the ground and first floors shown in (Fig. 4) are quite similar. Balcony
has been provided on the first floor that faces the roads on both sides. Sunlight can
enter inside the flat from all the four sides.
This is the front view of the building shown in (Fig. 5). The parapet wall of 0.5 m
has been provided at the terrace on all the four sides.

Fig. 1 Location of the plot

60 R. Srivastava et al.

Fig. 2 Plan of the underground floor

Fig. 3 Plan of the ground floor

4 Analysis

The structure was analyzed using STAAD.Pro software, and Shear Force Diagram
and Bending Moment Diagram were studied as shown in (Fig. 6).
Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking 61

Fig. 4 Plan of the first floor

Fig. 5 Elevation

For structural members, M25 grade of concrete and Fe415 grade of reinforcement
(HYSD bars) have to be used. External walls are 230 mm thick with 12 mm plaster
(including both sides of wall). The value of Ec is 2,500 N/mm2 . Height of each storey
is 3.3 m and magnitude of various loads are given below in the (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14 and 15).
62 R. Srivastava et al.

Fig. 6 3D diagram of the

structure along with the
retaining walls

Fig. 7 Axial Force diagram

1. Live load: 4.0 kN/m2 .

2. Floor finish: 1.0 kN/m2 .
3. Terrace finish: 1.0 kN/m2 .
4. Water proofing: 2.0 kN/m2 .
Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking 63

Fig. 8 Shear Force diagram

along Y-axis

Fig. 9 Bending Moment

diagram along Z-axis

5 Results

Below, the details of Axial Force, Shear Force Torsion and Bending Moment have
been shown in Table 1.
64 R. Srivastava et al.

Fig. 10 Reinforcement details of the footing

Fig. 11 Reinforcement details of the column

Fig. 12 Reinforcement details of the beam

Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking 65

Fig. 13 Reinforcement details of the two-way slab

Fig. 14 Deflection diagram of the column

66 R. Srivastava et al.

Fig. 15 Deflection diagram of the beam

Table 1 Table showing the values of Axial Force, Shear Force, Torsion and Bending Moment
Axial Shear Shear Torsion Bending Bending
Max Fx Max Fy Max Fz Max Mx Max My Max Mz
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN m) (kN m) (kN m)
Column Max + ve 324.507 6.453 6.752 0.009 12.662 12.088
0.30 × Max − ve − 1.129 − 6.453 − 3.455 − 0.009 − 11.786 − 12.088
0.30
Beam Max + ve 3.997 22.457 0.043 0.173 0.096 21.068
0.17 × Max − ve − 2.387 − 22.457 − 0.043 − 0.173 − 0.097 − 12.497
0.25
Beam Max + ve 4.119 22.846 0.019 0.193 0.049 21.275
0.17 × Max − ve − 2.497 − 22.908 − 0.019 − 0.193 − 0.049 − 13.225
0.25
Analysis of Duplex House with Underground Parking 67

6 Conclusions

The duplex house (a type of residential building) is suitable for metropolitan cities
like Chennai and Delhi, where affordable lifestyle in limited area of land can be
experienced. By providing underground parking, the space on the ground which
is saved can be used for other purposes such as gardens and lawns. Underground
parking space can also be utilized for storing the items.
Retaining walls are compulsory for the underground floor to withstand the lateral
pressure of the soil and backfill (brick masonry walls cannot withstand such loads),
and to protect the building from seismic forces upto some extent.

References

1. Thakur, A., & Chattopadhyay, B. C., et al. (2017). Active earth pressure on cohesion-less
soil: theoretical and graphical considerations. International Journal of Engineering Trends and
Technology, 49(6), 394–397.
2. Chetan, V., KeerthiGowda, B. S., et al. (2014). Analysis of underground parking structure.
International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Development, 3(4), 838–843.
3. IS 456. (2000). Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice (Fourth Revision), Bureau of
Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi-110002.
4. IS 875 (Part 1). (1987). Code of Practice for Design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings
and Structures (Dead Loads), Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar
Marg, New Delhi-110002.
5. Jongo, J. S., Tesha, D., & Luvara, V. G. M., et al. (2018). Fire safety preparedness in building
construction sites in Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania. International Journal of Engineering Trends and
Technology, 66(3), 154–169.
Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building
with Reduced Beam Section

Karthikeyan Rajendiran, R. Deby Linsha, and S. Pradeep

Abstract Pre-Engineered buildings are being widely used as industrial structures

due to their light weight, column free spaces and various other benefits. The incorpo-
ration of reduced beam Section in industrial moment resistant frames is not presented
in India. Using Reduced Beam Section connection, the seismic performance of indus-
trial structures which have high importance factor is enhanced. This led to the anal-
ysis of Pre-Engineered building with reduced beam section for different spans. The
parameter s in this study is RBS profile dimension. The dimensions of reduced section
are varied for each span and analysed using the computer program, STAAD.Pro. The
analysis observed that stress concentration at beam column joint is less in models
with reduced beam section. Maximum response of the structure is at the reduced
sections which ensure ductile behaviour under seismic excitations.

Keywords Ductile · Pre-engineered building · Reduced beam section · Seismic

performance

1 Introduction

One of the prequalified moment connections suggested by investigators post the

Northridge and Kobe earthquakes is the Reduced Beam Section (RBS) connection.
It was developed as an alternative to the conventional connections in steel moment
frames which have poor seismic performance. It is a weakening strategy wherein a
portion of beam flanges are cut down at appropriate distance from column face as
shown in the Fig. 1. This forces the plastic hinge formation at the reduced section
and promotes stable yielding. Stress concentrations occur at these weaker zones still
allowing large rotations at plastic hinges necessary for ductile behaviour. Thus, the

K. Rajendiran (B) · R. D. Linsha · S. Pradeep

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
S. Pradeep
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 69
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_7
70 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 1 Reduced beam

section

beam column joint remains intact under seismic loads preventing the collapse of
entire structure.
The performance of RBS moment connection has been analysed and experimen-
tally verified by various researchers. The study of such a connection for Indian profiles
is in initial stages [1]. Different flange cut geometries were studied and radius cut
reduced section was found to be more adequate [2].
A brief explanation on the various parameters affecting the response of RBS
connection such as connection strength, RBS profiles, use of deep columns have
been presented [3]. Further research works have been carried out on connection
strength and deep columns [4] but not on RBS dimensions. Moderately strong panel
zone is selected for appropriate performance as it is a major influencing factor in
the cyclic performance of RBS connection [5]. Welded connection is used widely as
experimental results show bolted connection perform poorly due to premature brittle
fracture of beam flange [6]. Requirements of plastic joint rotation were met without
the use of continuity plates [7].
With the many favourable benefits of pre-engineered buildings (PEB) they find
applications in warehouses, factories, aircraft hangers, railway platform shelters, etc.
The advantages of RBS moment connection have not been used for Indian Profiles.
The fabrication of radius cut reduced section is relatively simple and can be done at
the factory along with PEB. Thus, in this paper the applicability of such a connection
is being studied for industrial moment resistant frames.
Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building with Reduced Beam Section 71

Table 1 Adequate section

Span (m) Adequate section
for different spans of PEB
15 WPB 550 × 300
20 WPB 700 × 300
25 WPB 900 × 500
30 WPB 900 × 500

Table 2 Section properties

Section Area Depth Width Web Flange Inertia Inertia
(cm2 ) (mm) (mm) thickness thickness about about
(mm) (mm) X-axis Y-axis
(cm4 ) (cm4 )
WPB 300 149.1 300 300 11 19 25,166 8562.8
WPB 500 238.6 500 300 14.5 28 107,176 12,623.9
WPB 550 254.1 550 300 15 29 136,691 13,076.9
WPB 700 240.51 700 300 17 32 256,888 14,440.8
WPB 900 371.3 900 300 18.5 35 494,065 15,815.9

2 Modelling

2.1 Analysis and Design of PEB

Pre-engineered buildings satisfy the requirement of large column free spaces. The
typical span ranges from 15 to 80 m. In this paper, 2D portal frames of span 15, 20,
25 and 30 m are selected for analysis. Ideal eave height of PEB as 6 m with roof
slope of 1:10 is chosen. Wind force as per IS 875 (Part III) [8] and seismic forces
as per IS 1893 (Part I) [9] was considered and analysed for each span. Using the
Stiffness Analysis Program (SAP), the adequate section for each span is determined
by trial and error. The sections are chosen from Indian Standards IS 12778 [10] having
yield stress of 415 MPa. Hot rolled wide parallel flange (WPB) I beam sections are
widely used for steel structures in India. The suitable section for each span and their
properties are listed in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.

2.2 RBS Geometry/Profile

Generally, the RBS connection implements radius cut to minimise stress concentra-
tion preventing fracture of the reduced section. The beam flange reduction parameters
include the distance from column face ‘a’, the length of reduced section ‘b’ and the
depth of reduction ‘c’ as shown in Fig. 2. The length of reduced section is dependent
on the depth of the member.
72 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 2 Reduced beam

section profile

According to ANSI/AISC 385-10, the limits of RBS dimension a, b and c is:

0.5bf ≤ a ≤ 0.75bf
0.65d ≤ b ≤ 0.85d
0.1bf ≤ c ≤ 0.25bf
where bf and d are the breadth and depth of section, respectively.

2.3 RBS Parameters

The panel zone strength, connection type, use of deep columns, continuity plates are
some of the parameters studied earlier by researchers. Much of the research work
has been concentrated in these areas while the RBS sizing has been left unattended.
Hence, in this paper, the RBS dimensions distance from column face, length of
reduced section and depth of cut are considered. The dimensions are chosen within
the limits specified by ANSI/AISC 385-10. The reduced sections are designated as
RBS 1, RBS 2 and RBS 3 and without reduced beam section as WRBS. Table 3
shows the Flange reduction parameters.
Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building with Reduced Beam Section 73

Table 3 Flange reduction parameters

Span/section Model Distance from Length of RBS Depth of cut ‘c’ Radius of cut
(m/mm) column face ‘a’ ‘b’ (mm) (mm) ‘R’ (mm)
(mm)
15 RBS 1 150 357.5 30 547.52
WPB RBS 2 195 412.5 45 495.15
550 × 300
RBS 3 225 467.5 75 401.76
20 RBS 1 150 455 30 877.6
WPB 700 × RBS 2 195 525 45 788.12
300
RBS 3 225 595 75 627.54
25 RBS 1 150 585 30 1440.94
WPB 900 × RBS 2 195 675 45 1228.12
300
RBS 3 225 765 75 1012.87
30 RBS 1 150 585 30 1440.94
WPB 900 × RBS 2 195 675 45 1228.12
300
RBS 3 225 765 75 1012.87

3 Analytical Study

3.1 STAAD.Pro Model

For PEB analysis, STAAD.Pro software is a very useful tool. For each span of PEB,
four models are analysed. One conventional without reduced beam section WRBS
model and other three reduced beam section models RBS 1, RBS 2 and RBS 3 of
different dimensions. The modulus of elasticity considered is equal to 210 kN/mm2
and Poisson ratio is 0.3. The member properties are user defined as per IS 12778
[10] having yield stress of 415 MPa. The supports are pinned. The Fig. 3a shows the
conventional moment connection PEB WRBS. The RBS connections are modelled

Fig. 3 Model of a PEB WRBS b PEB RBS

74 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 4 Model of PEB a RBS 1 b RBS 2 c RBS 3

by dividing the length of reduced section into equal sections. Tapered beam sections
are assigned to each element. For a portal frame, plastic hinge is formed at the beam
column joints and ridge. So, the RBS connections are located at a distance from
column near the joints and from apex of the structure as shown in Fig. 3b. A detailed
view of the three reduced sections for 30 m span is seen in Fig. 4a–c. In this work,
response spectrum analysis has been done on all 16 models using the computer
programme STAAD.Pro.

4 Analysis Results

4.1 Base Shear

Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected lateral force on a structure due to
seismic ground motion. It depends on the soil conditions, ductility, weight of structure
and natural time period. In RBS connection, the beam flange area is reduced. This
reduces base shear which implies an equivalent reduction in forces applied to the
foundation. The base shear values of the four models for each span is plotted and
shown in Figs. 5a, b and 6a, b.

Fig. 5 Base shear comparison graph a 15 m b 20 m

Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building with Reduced Beam Section 75

Fig. 6 Base shear comparison graph a 25 m b 30 m

4.2 Time Period

The fundamental natural period is an inherent property of a building. In RBS connec-

tion, there is a reduction in area hence the time period is shorter (less than 0.4 s).
The time period values of first six modes for spans 15, 20, 25 and 30 m are plotted
in Figs. 7a, b and 8a, b. For all spans in the first mode time period decreases for RBS
connections.

Fig. 7 Time period graph a 15 m b 20 m

Fig. 8 Time period graph a 25 m b 30 m

76 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 9 Stress intensity at beam column joint for a 15 m b 20 m

Fig. 10 Stress intensity at beam column joint for a 25 m b 30 m

4.3 Stress Concentration

From the analysis results, it is clear that the stress concentration at the reduced
sections is more with a considerable reduction in stress at the beam column interface.
As seen from earlier studies, the stress concentration will be uniformly distributed
in radius cut RBS unlike other straight and taper cut reduced sections. So, there is
less probability of fracture in radius cut reduced section. The stress intensity at beam
column joint of all the four models of each span are plotted and shown in Figs. 9a,
b and 10a, b.

4.4 Maximum Response

The beam elements are interconnected at points called nodes. The response spectrum
analysis gives the displacement at these nodes which are quite small and are shown
in millimetre (mm). From analysis results it is seen that displacement is less for
PEB with reduced sections as shown in Figs. 11a, b and 12a, b. The maximum
displacements occur at the reduced sections for RBS connections, while for WRBS,
it occurs at the peak.
Behaviour of Pre-engineered Building with Reduced Beam Section 77

Fig. 11 Displacement graph a 15 m b 20 m

Fig. 12 Displacement graph a 25 m b 30 m

5 Conclusion

The analytical studies reveal that the PEB with reduced beam section connection
was much superior to connection without reduced section under seismic excitation.
The maximum lateral force on the industrial structure with reduced section is less
due to reduction in self-weight. The sections are chosen from Indian Standards IS
12778 [10] having yield stress of 415 MPa. The reduced beam section dimensions
are chosen within the limits specified by ANSI/AISC 385-10. The sections are not
available according to our Indian codes but can be used from ANSI/AISC 385-10
code of practise. The use of RBS is very less in India hence can be used to enhance
the seismic performance of the structure. The stress concentration at beam column
joint of structure with RBS moment connection is less than conventional moment
connection. Using RBS, the stress concentration at beam column joint is reduced by
about 25% approximately. This implies that under seismic loads the connection is
protected against early fracture. The nodal displacement values are about two times
less in PEB with reduced sections. From mode shapes, it is clear that in PEB with
RBS maximum displacement occurs at the beam span and column remains relatively
stiff. Thus, PEB with reduced section can be used for Indian profiles in high seismic
zones.
78 K. Rajendiran et al.

References

1. Swati, A. K., & Gaurang, V. (2014). Study of steel moment connection with and without
reduced beam section. Case Studies in Structural Engineering, 1(1), 26–31
2. Swati Ajay, K., & Gaurang, V. (2013). A study of reduced beam section profiles using finite
element analysis. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 01–06.
3. Sophianopoulos, D. S., & Deri, A. E. (2011). Parameters affecting response and design of steel
moment frame reduced beam section connections: An overview. International Journal of Steel
Structures, 133–144.
4. Shen, J.-H. J., Astaneh-Asl, A., & McCallen, D. B. (2002). Use of deep columns in special
steel moment frames. AISC.
5. Lee, C.-H., Jeon, S.-W., Kim, J.-H., Kim, J.-H., & Uang, C.-M. (2004). Seismic performance
of reduced beam section steel moment connection: Effects of panel zone strength and beam
web connection method (p. 3449).
6. Jones, S. L., Fry, G. T., & Engelhardtc, M. D. (2000). Reduced beam section welded steel
moment frames. In 12 WCEE.
7. Adan, S. M., & Reaveley, L. D. (2004). The reduced beam section moment connection without
continuity plates (p. 1504).
8. IS 875 (Part III). (1987). Indian standard code of practice for design loads for buildings and
structures. In Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.
9. IS 1893 (Part-I). (2002). Indian standard code of practice for criteria for earthquake resistant
design of structures. In Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.
10. IS 12778. (2004). Hot rolled parallel flange steel sections for beam, column and bearing piles-
dimensions and section properties. In Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
11. ANSI/AISC 358-10. (2010). Prequalified connections for special and intermediate steel
moment frames for seismic applications. In American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago.
Comparative Study on Framed Tube
System and Diagrid Tube System
Subjected to Seismic Load

Karthikeyan Rajendiran, B. Vijayashanthi, and S. Pradeep

Abstract Most significant modern development in construction methods, materials,

structural system and analytical methods for analysis and design aided the growth
of high-rise structures. In recent times, various structural systems like shear wall
system, braced frame system, framed tube system and Diagrid structural system
are used in high-rise structures for resisting lateral loads, structural performance
and aestheticism. Framed tube system consists of closely spaced exterior column
in outer perimeter which forms a tube-like structure which resists lateral load and
the inner core resists gravity loads. In Framed tube system, there is a problem
of shear lag in the exterior column that can be reduced by replacing the Diagrid
elements. In Diagrid tube system, the outer perimeter consists of inclined diagonal
elements, which resists both gravity and lateral loads. Diagrid structure involves
simple construction techniques. The paper presents the seismic behaviour of the
Diagrid tube system comparing with framed tube system with various parameters
such as displacement, drift, stiffness, etc., using analytical software ETABS.

Keywords Diagrid · Framed tube system · Gravity loads · Lateral loads · Seismic

1 Introduction

The speedy growth of population and increasing demand for business and residential
space leads to development of tall buildings. As the building height increases, the
lateral load acting on it also increases. As a result, the lateral load resisting mechanism
takes precedence over gravity load. Moment resisting frames, shear wall systems,
braced frame systems, framed tube systems and Diagrid systems are some of the most
commonly used lateral load resisting systems. One of the most important advances
in tall building technology is the framed tube system. The tube system consists of

K. Rajendiran (B) · B. Vijayashanthi · S. Pradeep

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
S. Pradeep
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 79
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_8
80 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 1 a A on centre, b capital gate

2–4 m from centre-to-centre columns in the outer perimeter, which are linked at
each floor by spandrel beams. The lateral loads acting on the framed tube framework
are countered by a very stiff moment-resisting force that creates a tube around the
structure’s perimeter. This structural shape is suitable for buildings with 60–100
storeys. The tube and the inner columns are also subjected to gravity loading. When
the lateral load is acting, the perimeter frame aligned in the loading direction acts
as web, and those aligned in the opposite direction act as flange. The most notable
example of framed tube system is Aon centre and the world trade tower as in Fig. 1a.
The vertical columns are removed in Diagrid systems. Because of their triangu-
lated arrangement, the diagonal members in Diagrid systems can bear both gravity
and lateral force, while the diagonal in a standard braced framework can only carry
lateral loads. As compared to traditional tubular frame structures without diagonals.
Diagrid structures are efficient in reducing shear deformation because shear is carried
by the axial motion of the diagonal members, while shear is carried by the bending
of vertical columns in traditional framed tubular structures. The number of structural
elements needed on the building’s facade is reduced as a result of this structural
configuration [1].
Diagrid has good aesthetic appearance and structural efficiency as in Fig. 1b.
This also eliminates the need for corner columns, allowing for greater versatility.
As compared to traditional construction, Perimeter Diagrid saves 20% of structural
steel [2].
The diagrid system has diagonal elements which resist the lateral load from the
seismic forces, the diagonal element reduces the shear acting in the structure thereby
enhancing the stability of the structure under lateral loads [3]. The diagrid system has
more lateral stiffness compared to the braced structure to resist the lateral loads from
the earthquakes. The stiffness of the diagrid elements is much greater than braced
structure [4].
The number of structural elements needed on the building’s facade is reduced
as a result of this structural configuration. This also eliminates the need for corner
columns, allowing for greater versatility. Diagrid structures’ behaviour is influenced
Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid … 81

by their diagonal angle. For a 60-storey house, the ideal angle for the Diagrid structure
is 65° to 75°. The building has a 7-aspect ratio [5]. The majority of the loads are
resisted by peripheral diagonal columns, while gravity is resisted by both internal
and peripheral columns. As a result, the internal column must be configured solely
for vertical loads [6].
In Framed tube system, there is a problem of shear lag due to closely spaced
column in the outer perimeter. So, the vertical columns are replaced by the diagonal
elements to reduce the shear lag and to improve the structural efficiency of the
structure. A 60-storey steel building of framed tube system and Diagrid tube system
subjected to seismic load is analysed using ETABS. The seismic analysis of Diagrid
tube system is compared with the framed tube system with the various parameters
such as displacement, drift, stiffness, etc.

2 Material Specification

A Framed tube system and Diagrid Tube System are designed with steel framing
members. This includes the beam and column sections. The wide flange parallel
beam sections are used for designing the systems. The sections are selected from IS
800 [7] and IS 12778 [8]. Structural steel’s properties are determined by its chem-
ical composition as well as its manufacturing system, which includes prefabrica-
tion production. Product specifications specify the composition, quality and output
boundaries, which designers use or assume.
For modelling of Framed tube system, the built-up sections of WPB 900X300
with plate of 450 mm width and 25 mm thickness on top and bottom flange of I
sections have been used for all the beam in the structure. The built-up sections of
WPB900X300 with plate of width 900 mm and thickness of 25 mm on four sides of
intersected I section has been used for all the column of the structures. The built-up

(a) (b)

Fig. 2 a Built-up beam section, b built-up column section

82 K. Rajendiran et al.

Table 1 Properties of Steel

Sl. No Properties Built up beam Built up column
section
1 Area of the 585.6 cm2 1619.2 cm2
section
2 Inertia about 955,480.9 cm4 1,755,267.3 cm4
major axis
3 Inertia about 53,537.5 cm4 1,758,186.1 cm4
minor axis

Table 2 Properties of Steel

Sl. No Properties Built up beam Built up
section
column/diagrid
1 Area of the 663.6 cm2 1961.2 cm2
section
2 Inertia about 1,130,014.2 cm4 2,254,065.7 cm4
major axis
3 Inertia about 105,793.8 cm4 2,268,546.7 cm4
minor axis

section is as shown in Fig. 2a, b. The properties of steel sections which are used for
framing the structure are given in Tables 1, 2.
For modelling of Diagrid tube system, the built-up sections of WPB 900X300 with
plate of 600 mm width and 25 mm thickness on top and bottom flange of I sections
have been used for all the beam in structure. The built-up sections of WPB900X300
with plate of width 900 mm and thickness of 35 mm on four sides of intersected I
section has been used for all the interior column and exterior Diagrid of the structures.
The built-up sections are as shown in Fig. 3a, b.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3 a Built-up beam section, b built-up column section

Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid … 83

3 Modelling and Analysis

The modelling of Framed Tube system has been stimulated as shown in Fig. 4c. The
system consists of 60 storeys with a plan dimension of 36 m × 36 m as per aspect ratio
(H/L) is 6. The system consists of inner core and outer perimeter column. The outer
perimeter consists of closely spaced column at 3 m centre to centre forms a tube.
The inner core consists of closely spaced columns. The inner core has a dimension
of 12 m × 12 m, which resists the gravity loading while the outer perimeter column
resists the lateral loading. The columns are fixed at base (see Fig. 4).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 4 a Plan of Framed tube system, b plan of Diagrid tube system, c Model of framed tube
system, d model of Diagrid tube system
84 K. Rajendiran et al.

The modelling of Diagrid Tube system has been stimulated as shown in Fig. 4d.
The system consists of 60 storeys with a plan dimension of 36 m × 36 m as per
aspect ratio (H/L) is 6. The system consists of inner core and outer diagonal element.
The outer perimeter consists of Diagrid element of angle 74° at 6 m spacing along
the perimeter for entire structure. The inner core consists of closely spaced columns.
The inner core has a dimension of 12 m × 12 m, which resists the gravity loading
while the outer Diagrid resists the lateral loading. The columns and Diagrid are fixed
at base.
ETABS software is used for modelling and analysis. And IS 875 [9, 10] (Part 1)
are used to calculate the dead and live loads (Part 2). Two models were subjected to
response spectrum analysis. The input values are in compliance with the IS1893 (part
1) [11] Indian standard. With a zone factor of 0.16, the configuration is classified
as Zone III. The value of Importance Factor I is 1.5. For special moment-resisting
frames, the response reduction factor R is 5. The medium soil type 2 is chosen.
Because of internal friction and absorbed energy, the amplitude of the structure’s
vibrations decreases. For steel structures, this damping is assumed to be 5%. The
SRSS (square root of sum of squares) modal combination approach is chosen.

4 Result and Discussion

The results of the study are described here in terms of storey displacement, storey
drift, storey stiffness and time span.

4.1 Storey Displacement

The storey displacement of 60-storey Diagrid tube system and framed tube system
is shown in Fig. 5. The top storey displacement for framed tube system is 421.4 mm
and Diagrid tube system is 278.4 mm. It is observed that the displacement of Diagrid
tube system is 1.5 times lesser than framed tube system. This Fig. 5) represents that
the Diagrid tube system has the higher resistance to seismic loading than the framed
tube system.

4.2 Storey Drift

The storey drift of 60-storey Diagrid tube system and framed tube system is shown in
Fig. 6. It is observed that the inter storey drift of Diagrid tube system is less compared
to framed tube system. Table 4 represents the storey drift for the framed tube system.
Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid … 85

Fig. 5 Storey displacement

Fig. 6 Storey drift

It is observed that the maximum drift has occurred between 24 and 30 Storeys. The
maximum drift for framed tube system is 0.00236, which is within the permissible
limit (H/250).

4.3 Storey Stiffness

The storey stiffness of 60 storeys Diagrid tube system and framed tube system is
shown in Fig. 7. The storey stiffness of Diagrid tube system is two times higher than
the framed tube system. So, Diagrid tube system has 22 times the higher stiffness
than framed tube system. The maximum stiffness has occurred between base and
sixth storey as shown in Fig. 7.
86 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 7 Storey stiffness

Fig. 8 Storey shear

4.4 Storey Shear

The storey shear for the 60-storey Diagrid tube system and framed tube system is
presented in Fig. 8. The storey shear of Diagrid tube system is 50180 kN and for
framed tube system is 50891 kN. Hence, base shear of Diagrid tube system is 1.015
times less than framed tube system.

4.5 Time Period

The time period for the 60-storey Diagrid tube system and framed tube system is
shown in Fig. 9. The first mode period for Diagrid tube system is 3.847 s.
Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid … 87

Fig. 9 Time period

4.6 Shear Lag

Consider the case of a bending thin wall beam. Shear stresses and strains in thin-
walled beams are much higher than in solid beams, resulting in significant shearing
deformations. The plane of bending distorts as a result of the large shear strains.
The bending stresses would not be equal to the distance from the section’s neutral
axis due to this distortion. Since the wall panel lacks shear stiffness, the stress at the
centre of the Flange’s lags behind the stress near the web. Shear lag is a phenomenon
that affects the uniformity of the flange’s compressive and tensile stresses.
These stresses must differ linearly along every panel (flange or web). In contrast
to the column in the middle panel, the magnitude of axial stress at the corner side of
the flange panel is high. As a result, axial tension in the flange panel middle columns
lags behind that of the corner columns. Shear lag refers to the non-linear distribution
of axial stress along the flange plates.
The shear lag for the ground storey of framed tube system has occurred in flange
panel due to the lateral loads acting on the structure as shown in Fig. 10.

5 Conclusion

The seismic analysis of 60-storey Diagrid tube system and framed tube system has
been completed. From this result, it is clear that from both the structures modelled,
from this study, it is observed that Diagrid tube system possesses maximum stiffness
of 43,570,632 kN-m and has minimum value of lateral displacement of 278.4 mm.
The storey drift and base shear are less for Diagrid tube system compared to Framed
tube system. Better resistance to lateral loading, due to the diagonal columns on its
periphery, makes the system effective. Shear lag effect that occurred in frame tube
system is eliminated by replacing Diagrid (inclined diagonal) member in the exterior
perimeter. The structural stability of Diagrid tube system is more compared to the
88 K. Rajendiran et al.

Fig. 10 Shear lag effect in flange panel

frame tubed system, this is due to the diagonal element present in the periphery of
the structure that resists the lateral load from the seismic forces. This can be seen
from the response spectrum analysis carried on both the system which shows the
displacement and base shear of the diagrid frame system is less compared to the
frame tube system. Also, the stiffness of the diagrid frame system is more compared
to the frame tube system which shows that lateral stiffness to resist the lateral load
is high for diagrid tube system. Diagrid tube system has increased the structural
efficiency, and the seismic performance of the structure has improved.

References

1. Lee, K.-K., Loo, Y.-C., & Guan, H. (2011). Simple analysis of framed–tubed structures with
multiple internal tubes. Journal of Structural Engineering, 127, , 450–460.
2. Moon, K. S. (2007). Diagrid structural system for tall buildings: Characteristics and method-
ology for preliminary design. Wiley Interscience, 16, 205–230.
3. Moon, K. S. (2011). Diagrid structures for complex-shaped tall buildings. Proceedia Engi-
neering, 14, 1343–1350
4. Rafey, M. A., & Azeem, M. A. (2018). Comparative analysis of a diagrid structure and a
conventional structure with chevron bracing. International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research, 12311–12317.
5. Leonard, J. (2008). Investigation of shear lag effect in tall buildings. In CTBUH 8th world
congress, Dubai.
6. Jani, K., & Patel, P. V. (2013). Analysis and design of diagrid structural system for high rise
steel buildings. Procedia Engineering, 51, 92–100.
7. IS: 800. (2007). General construction in steel–code of practice. In Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi (pp. 1–144).
8. IS: 12778. (2004). Hot parallel flange steel sections for beams, columns and bearing piles–
dimensions and section properties. In Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi (pp. 1–15).
9. IS: 875. (1987). Code of practice for design loads (Other than Earthquake) for buildings and
structures, Part 1: Dead loads. In Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi (pp. 1–38).
Comparative Study on Framed Tube System and Diagrid … 89

10. IS: 875. (1987). Code of practice for design loads (Other than Earthquake) for buildings and
structures, Part 2: Imposed loads. In Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi (pp. 1–18).
11. IS: 1893. (2002). Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures-general provisions and
buildings Part-1. In Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi (pp. 1–39).
Static and Dynamic Analysis
of Corrugated Beam with Restrained
Boundary Conditions

Sunny Mathur, M. SenthilPandian, and K. Karthikeyan

Abstract Implementation of corrugated steel beam have increased in the past few
years in all types of structures utilizing the new fabrication techniques. Corrugated
beams are a type of I section with thin corrugated web and wide thick plate flanges.
Stress distribution in corrugated beam is different from that of an I section both in
case of flexure and shear. Due to the accordion effect, the participation of web in
bending moment resistance is neglected. The advantage of corrugated web beams is
the increased resistance to shear buckling without the need of web stiffeners. In this
study, the main focus is to do static and dynamic analysis of corrugated beams with
trapezoidal corrugation profile and varying different parameters beam like aspect
ratio and corrugation angle. This paper tries to find the best possible combination of
the parameters which performs best in the analysis. The analysis is done on ANSYS
18. The corrugation beam would be having an aspect ratio of (0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2)
and corrugation angles as (35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°). The results show that aspect
ratio and corrugation angle have a major effect on deflection and amplitude of the
beam, further various comparisons are provided to help engineers design an efficient
corrugated beam.

Keywords Finite element analysis · Corrugated beams · Aspect ratio ·

Corrugation angle · I-section

S. Mathur · M. SenthilPandian (B) · K. Karthikeyan

School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai 600127, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Mathur
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Karthikeyan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 91
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_9
92 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 1 Top view of

corrugation

1 Introduction

Research on corrugated beams started in 1956 as a replacement for airplane wings

[1]. After this, only they gained importance in civil engineering, especially in bridges.
Corrugated beams undergo the accordion effect [2], which is conventionally assumed
to make the web unable to resist the longitudinal normal stresses. As, a consequence
the bending resistance is to be provided by flanges, due to which they are thicker
compared to I section beam [3]. The major advantage of corrugated beam is increase
in resistance to shear buckling that too without the use of weld stiffeners [4]. This
helps with the management of beam weight without a compromise in strength. In
bridge construction, composite bridges of different cross section is made possible due
to corrugated beam. Corrugated beams can be of different profiles, e.g., sinusoidal,
trapezoidal, square; for this study, we have chosen trapezoidal.
Although corrugated beams are used extensively around the world no proper code
is available for design, this leaves the end open for researcher. In this study, we are
going to take corrugated beam with trapezoidal profile and varying aspect ratios and
corrugation angles. The material of the beam will be S355 steel [5–7]. Our basic
work is to analyze and find out which aspect ratio and corrugation angle give the best
result in stress distribution, Deformation, shear stress, natural frequency, ultimate
load, and amplitude. The length of the beam is going to be 5 m and dimensions are
going to be similar as ISMB 300 section. We are going to take aspect ratio (a/b) as
0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, where “a” and “b” is shown in Fig. 1, while the corrugation
angle(α) will be 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°.

2 Procedure

2.1 Preparation of Model

A three-dimensional finite element model is developed to study the behavior of the

beams in ANSYS 18 [8]. A uniformly distributed load of 1 MPa has been applied over
the complete span of the beam which is 5000mm. As the span of the beam is on larger
side, the boundary conditions are taken as fixed at both ends, which means all transla-
tion and rotations are restrained. Static analysis is performed to determine the deflec-
tion, stress distribution, and shear stress. Dimension provided on Table 1 and the clear
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 93

Table 1 Dimensions of beam

Properties Value (mm)
Length of beam 5000
Breadth of flange 140
Thickness of flange 12.4
Height of web 275.2
Thickness of web 7.5
Total height 300

view of dimensions in Fig. 2, material properties are mentioned in Table 2. Dynamic

analysis is performed to determine natural frequency, ultimate load, and amplitude.
Aspect ratio which is a/b has been kept as 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2, where the
length of “b” was fixed at 100 and the length ‘a’ was changed from 80 to 120.
Corrugation angles were 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, and 55°.
A total of 25 models will be generated and analysis of the same would be carried
out.

Fig. 2 Dimensions

Table 2 Material properties

Engineering properties Value
Young’s modulus 2.1 × 105 MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Yield strength 355 MPa
Ultimate strength 490 MPa
Bulk modulus 1.75 × 105 MPa
Shear modulus 8.0769 × 104 MPa
Density of steel 7850 kg/m3
94 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 3 Typical meshed beam

2.2 Static Analysis

After modeling was completed, analysis is carried out using ANSYS18 software, and
results are obtained for values of deformation, stress distribution, and shear stress.
From these results, graphs are prepared and analyzed for comparison.
Tetrahedral meshing was done using ANSYS18 and default element size of
element was kept and loading is applied as pressure to determine the uniformly
distributed load. The support condition was applied as per Fig. 3. The static results
are provided in Table 3.
Following is a table containing the output values for deflection, stress, and shear.

2.3 Results from ANSYS

Figure 4 gives the typical idea of the meshed shape of the beam; the Fig. 5 shows
the boundary condition applied to the model at the preprocessing stage. Figures 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 shows stress, shear stress, and deflection obtained from
ANSYS workbench postprocessing mode.

2.4 Compilation of Results

Following are graphs for similar aspect ratio but different corrugation angles
(Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18).
Following are graphs with similar corrugation angle but different aspect ratios
(Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23).
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 95

Table 3 Static results

Specimen Deflection (mm) Stress (MPa) Shear (MPa)
a80b100c35 36.236 378.07 191.59
a80b100c40 52.637 405.34 179.71
a80b100c45 45.7 392.56 182.87
a80b100c50 49.348 395.66 201.88
a80b100c55 50.543 402.54 196.65
a90b100c35 33.299 382.08 190.73
a90b100c40 48.831 400.45 179.82
a90b100c45 39.195 387.59 187.95
a90b100c50 46.359 397.09 196.26
a90b100c55 53.677 408.34 191.19
a100b100c35 23.786 419.35 189.41
a100b100c40 44.613 390.71 178.36
a100b100c45 24.332 365.33 187.79
a100b100c50 39.37 385.46 182.58
a100b100c55 32.849 368.64 168.9
a110b100c35 58.088 415.53 203.62
a110b100c40 33.798 377.63 194.95
a110b100c45 48.013 404.43 183.01
a110b100c50 39.719 382.38 186.7
a110b100c55 53.237 432.22 191.51
a120b100c35 30.057 373.64 193.28
a120b100c40 40.28 389.87 176.85
a120b100c45 45.706 396.41 196.51
a120b100c50 47.318 387.73 169.82
a120b100c55 48.219 397 195.01

Fig. 4 Loading and support conditions

96 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 5 Deflection a80b100c35

Fig. 6 Stress a80b100c45

Fig. 7 Shear a90b100c40

Fig. 8 Deflection a90b100c50

Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 97

Fig. 9 Stress a100b100c35

Fig. 10 Shear a100b100c50

Fig. 11 Deflection a110b100c45

Fig. 12 Stress a110b100c55

98 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 13 Shear a120b100c40

Fig. 14 Aspect ratio of 0.8 0.8 Aspect Ratio

800
Load (N/m) 600 35
400 40
200 45
0 50
0 20 40 60
55
Deformation (mm)

Fig. 15 Aspect ratio of 0.9 0.9 Aspect Ratio

800
Load (N/m)

600 35
400 40
200 45
0 50
0 20 40 60
55
Deformation (mm)

Fig. 16 Aspect ratio of 1 1 Aspect Ratio

800
Load (N/m)

600 35
400 40
200 45
0 50
0 20 40 60
55
Deformation (mm)
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 99

Fig. 17 Aspect ratio of 1.1 1.1 Aspect Ratio

800

Load (N/m)
600 35
400 40
200 45
0 50
0 20 40 60
55
Deformation (mm)

Fig. 18 Aspect ratio of 1.2 1.2 Aspect Ratio

800

Load (N/m)
600 35
400 40
200 45
0
50
0 20 40 60
55
Deformation (mm)

Fig. 19 Corrugation angle 35̊ Angle

of 35˚ 800
Load (N/m)

600 0.8

400 0.9
200 1
0 1.1
0 20 40 60
1.2
Deformation

Fig. 20 Corrugation angle 40̊ Angle

of 40˚ 800
Load (N/m)

600 0.8
400 0.9
200 1
0
0 20 40 60 1.1

Deformation (mm) 1.2

Fig. 21 Corrugation angle 45̊ Angle

of 45˚ 800
Load (N/m)

600 0.8
400 0.9
200 1
0
1.1
0 20 40 60
Deformation (mm) 1.2
100 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 22 Corrugation angle 50̊ Angle

of 50˚ 800

Load (N/m)
600 0.8
400 0.9
200 1
0
1.1
0 20 40 60
1.2
Deformation (mm)

Fig. 23 Corrugation angle 55̊ Angle

of 55˚ 800

Load (N/m)
600 0.8
400 0.9
200 1
0
1.1
0 20 40 60
Deformation 1.2

Fig. 24 Maximum stress Stress

450
35
400
MPa

40
350
45
300 50
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
55
Aspect Ratio

The Figs. 24 and 25 shows the maximum stress and maximum shear.

2.5 Dynamic Analysis

The analytical model investigated the natural frequency and harmonic response, the
maximum values of natural frequencies are tabulated (Table 4).

2.6 Results from ANSYS

Figures 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32 show the different mode shapes of different
corrugated beams.
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 101

Fig. 25 Maximum shear Shear

300
35
200

MPa
40
100
45
0
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 50

Aspect Ratio 55

Table 4 Dynamic results

Specimen Frequency (Hz)
a80b100c35 124.9
a80b100c40 123.75
a80b100c45 123.59
a80b100c50 123.29
a80b100c55 122.35
a90b100c35 125.1
a90b100c40 124.39
a90b100c45 124.07
a90b100c50 123.89
a90b100c55 122.79
a100b100c35 125.86
a100b100c40 124.87
a100b100c45 125.14
a100b100c50 124.45
a100b100c55 123.86
a110b100c35 125.19
a110b100c40 125.59
a110b100c45 124.85
a110b100c50 125.09
a110b100c55 123.97
a120b100c35 126.23
a120b100c40 125.45
a120b100c45 125.62
a120b100c50 124.8
a120b100c55 124.83

2.7 Compilation of Results

Following are amplitude graphs for similar aspect ratio but different corrugation
angles Figs. 32, 33, 34, 35, and 36).
102 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 26 Mode shape 1 of a80b100c35

Fig. 27 Mode shape 2 of a90b100c40

Fig. 28 Mode shape 3 of a100b100c45

Fig. 29 Mode shape 4 of a110b100c50

Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 103

Fig. 30 Mode shape 5 of a120b100c55

Fig. 31 Mode shape 6 of a120b100c35

Fig. 32 Aspect ratio of 0.8 0.8 Aspect Ratio

6.00E-01
Amplitude (mm)

35
4.00E-01
40
2.00E-01
45
0.00E+00 50
0 50 100 150
-2.00E-01 55
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 33 Aspect ratio of 0.9 0.9 Aspect Ratio

2.50E-01
Amplitude (mm)

2.00E-01 35
1.50E-01 40
1.00E-01
45
5.00E-02
0.00E+00 50
-5.00E-02 0 50 100 150
55
Frequency (Hz)
104 S. Mathur et al.

Fig. 34 Aspect ratio of 1 1 Aspect Ratio

2.50E-01

Amplitude (mm)
2.00E-01 35
1.50E-01
40
1.00E-01
45
5.00E-02
0.00E+00 50

-5.00E-02 0 50 100 150 55

Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 35 Aspect ratio of 1.1 1.1 Aspect Ratio

4.00E-01

Amplitude (mm)
3.00E-01 35

2.00E-01 40
1.00E-01 45
0.00E+00 50
-1.00E-01 0 50 100 150
55
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 36 Aspect ratio of 1.2 1.2 Aspect Ratio

8.00E-01
Amplitude (mm)

6.00E-01 35

4.00E-01 40
2.00E-01 45
0.00E+00 50
-2.00E-01 0 50 100 150
55
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 37 Corrugation angle 35̊ Angle

of 35° 8.00E-02
Amplitude (mm)

6.00E-02 0.8
4.00E-02 0.9
2.00E-02 1
0.00E+00 1.1
0 50 100 150
1.2
Frequency (Hz)

Following are amplitude graphs with similar corrugation angle but different aspect
ratios (Fig. 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41).
This is a bar chart of maximum natural frequency (Fig. 42).
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 105

Fig. 38 Corrugation angle 40̊ Angle

of 40°
4.00E-02
0.8

Amplitude (mm)
3.00E-02
2.00E-02 0.9
1.00E-02
1
0.00E+00
0 50 100 150 1.1
Frequency (Hz) 1.2

Fig. 39 Corrugation angle 45̊ Angle

of 45° 2.00E-01

Amplitude (mm)
0.8
1.50E-01
0.9
1.00E-01
1
5.00E-02
1.1
0.00E+00
0 50 100 150 1.2
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 40 Corrugation angle 50̊ Angle

50° 4.00E-01
Amplitude (mm)

0.8
3.00E-01
2.00E-01 0.9
1.00E-01 1
0.00E+00 1.1
-1.00E-01 0 50 100 150
1.2
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 41 Corrugation angle 55̊ Angle

of 55° 8.00E-01
Amplitude (mm)

0.8
6.00E-01
4.00E-01 0.9
2.00E-01 1
0.00E+00 1.1
-2.00E-01 0 50 100 150
1.2
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 42 Maximum natural Natural Frequency

frequency 128
35
126
40
hZ

124
45
122 50
120 55
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
106 S. Mathur et al.

3 Discussions

A parametric study on corrugated beam was conducted and aspect ratio and corruga-
tion angle were the varying parameters. In this study, much models were made and
lot of comparisons were done depending on various parameters. These comparisons
and graphs can be summed up in the following points:
• Highest deflection of 58.088 mm is shown by a110b100c35 model, while lowest
deflection of 23.786 mm is shown by a100b100c35 model.
• Highest stress of 432.22 MPa is shown by a110b100c55 model, while lowest
stress of 365.33 MPa is shown by a100b100c45 model.
• Highest shear of 203.62 MPa is shown by a110b100c35 model, while lowest shear
of 168.9 MPa is shown by a100b100c55 model.
• Highest frequency of 126.23 Hz is shown by a120b100c35 model, while lowest
frequency of 122.35 Hz is shown by a80b100c55 model.
• Highest amplitude of 0.6001 mm is shown by a120b100c55 model, while lowest
amplitude of 0.000574 mm is shown by a80b100c40 model.
• Constant aspect ratio models with higher corrugation angle mostly show higher
deflection.
• With constant corrugation angle, aspect ratio of 1 constantly showed least deflec-
tion, whereas aspect ratios of 0.8 and 1.2 constantly showing high deflection
values, which implies to higher the difference in values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ higher the
value of deflection.
• With aspect ratio as constant, the value of von Mises stress mostly increases with
increase in corrugation angle.
• With corrugation angle as constant, von Mises stress is least with aspect ratio as
1 and keeps on increasing as aspect ratio moves away from 1.
• The trend which is shown by shear stress is very much like that of von Mises
stress.
• Aspect ratio as constant amplitude of beam increases with increasing corrugation
angle.
• With constant corrugation angle, aspect ratio of 0.8 and 1.2 shows highest
amplitude most of the times.
• With constant aspect ratio, lower corrugation angles give higher natural frequency
and as corrugation angle is increased natural frequency decreases.
• Constant corrugation angle natural frequency increases with increase in aspect
ratio.

4 Conclusions

The analysis of corrugated steel web beams for stresses, shear, deflection, natural
frequency and amplitude was carried out using ANSYS18 software, and the modeling
was also done on the same. The purpose of this study was to compare different
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Corrugated Beam … 107

corrugation angles in web at different aspect ratios and find the best for different use
case scenario. Therefore, a number of analysis were performed to find the same and
conclusions made from this study are as follows:
• Compiling the results, it shows that Aspect Ratio of ‘1’ is constantly performing
better in all parameters and as the difference in values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ increases
results become worse for all the parameters of study.
• Corrugation angle of ‘45’ is best, lower values of angle perform good in static
analysis but natural frequency being more for the same it is concluded angle of
‘45’ is best to use due to its load dispersion.
• The percentage increase from the model with least value to the model with highest
value for each parameter is as follows:

– Deflection—144.21%
– Stress—18.3%
– Shear—20.55%
– Natural Frequency—3.17%
– Amplitude—104,447.03%
• This shows that amplitude and deflection should be a major deciding factor while
choosing the dimensions of beam for use in project.

References

1. Mathur, S., Senthilpandian, M., & Karthikeyan, K. (2021). Static and dynamic analysis of steel
beams with web openings. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1716, 012016.
2. Manoj Kumar, U., Pradeep Reddy, D., Patel, R. R., Pandian, S., & Kothandapani, K. (2018). A
study on flexural capacity of steel beams with corrugated web. International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 9(4), 679–689.
3. Inaam, Q., & Upadhyay, A. (2020). Flexural behaviour of steel I-girder having corrugated webs
and slender flanges. Structures, 27, 12–21.
4. Jáger, B., Dunai, L., & Kövesdi, B. (2017). Flange buckling behaviour of girders with corrugated
web Part I: Experimental study. Thin-Walled Structures, 118, 181–195.
5. Shao, Y.-B., Zhang, Y.-M., Hassanein, M. F. (2020). Strength and behaviour of laterally-
unrestrained S690 high-strength steel hybrid girders with corrugated webs. Thin–Walled
Structures, 150, 106688.
6. Aggarwal, K., Wu, S., Papangelis, J. (2018). Finite element analysis of local shear buckling in
corrugated web beams. Engineering Structures, 162, 37–50.
7. Chen, D. H. (2012). The collapse mechanism of corrugated cross section beams subjected to
three-point bending. Thin-Walled Structures, 51, 82–86.
8. Lopes, G. C., Couto, C., Real, P. V., Lopes, N. (2017). Elastic critical moment of beams with
sinusoidally corrugated webs. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 129, 185–194.
Experimental Investigation on Torsional
Behaviour of Coconut/Steel Fiber Using
Reinforced Concrete Beam

Rajesh Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

Abstract This study examines and investigates the outcomes for coconut fiber/steel
fiber concrete beams As compared to traditional concrete beams, which are applied to
torsion. Four beams, two of them with coconut fiber/steel fiber concrete and another
two of them with traditional concrete with manufactured sand were developed and
tested. The research contains specific cracking features, pre-cracking performance
including analysis, post cracking performance and evaluation, limited torsional rein-
forcing, torsional reinforcing, ductility, crack width and stiffness. These were noted
that coconut shell concrete’s torsional activity is compared with that of traditional
concrete. Compared with ACI projection, Macgregor’s proposed method is more
cautious in measuring torsional resistance to deformation. And for calculating the
ultimate torque force ACI projection are more moderate Contrasted to the Macgregor
proposed formula. In this respect, Indian standard is also progressive, but it has
been undervalued in comparison with ACI and the Macgregor constants. Reasonable
torsional reinforcement for beams is required to ensure the beam does not failure to
crack. The influence of 5, 10, 15, 20% fiber contents by mass of cement and fibers
length of 13 mm is researched.

Keywords Coconut fiber · Steel fiber · Reinforcement · Torsion · Ductility ·

Concrete · Cracks

1 Introduction

1.1 General

The experimental investigation of introduction of coconut/steel fiber in the normal

reinforced concrete beams to enhances its torsional strength. Fibers are randomly
throughout the matrices and are generally discontinuous [1, 8]. The research has

R. Mocharla · R. Ramasubramani (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 109
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_10
110 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

concluded that adding of coconut fibers to concrete mix leads to improves concrete
mechanical performance. In comparison of behaviour of torsion for coconut/steel
fiber reinforced concrete beams has been carried over normal reinforced concrete
beams. In the present work the behaviour of torsion for coconut/steel fiber compared
with conventional reinforced concrete beams under pure torsion. The various
percentage of reinforcement to be consider for torsional behavior [9, 11].

1.2 Torsional Importance

Torsional importance has been an important and interesting aspect in structural

behaviour. The study of torsional behaviour in structural member is important [6]. In
a conventional concrete where independent theories have been developed based on
loading situations such as axial load, flexural, shear and torsion and these loading situ-
ations are established in combinations of basic effects. Torsion has been considered
as second importance in reinforced concrete structural systems [4].

2 Coconut Fiber

Concrete is used for construction material, most widely all over the world. In a
construction industry with science and technology, the structural material of concrete
has widened. Adding of various types of fibers to concrete makes strong, durable, and
economical. Use of coconut fiber in cement concrete leads to improvement and this
study comprise with traditional concrete and coconut fiber concrete. The influence
of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10% fiber contents by mass of cement and fiber of length 5 cm is
investigated. Table 1 shows the results of compressive and split tensile strength of
cubes and Table 2 shows the results of compressive strength of cylinders. Figure 1a
sample of coconut fibre (Fig. 1b) steel fibre.

Table 1 Results for compressive strength of cubes

% of coconut/steel The average The average The average
fiber (%) compressive strength compressive strength compressive strength
(N/mm2 ) of cubes for (N/mm2 ) of cubes for (N/mm2 ) of cubes for
3 days 7 days 28 days
0 16.9 24.8 34.4
5 17.23 25.26 36.65
10 21.38 28.23 39.38
15 19.26 26.12 34.68
20 13.7 19.85 25.73
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour … 111

Table 2 Results for split tensile strength of cylinders

% of coconut/steel The average split The average split The average split
fiber (%) tensile strength tensile strength tensile strength
(N/mm2 ) of cylinders (N/mm2 ) of cylinders (N/mm2 ) of cylinders
for 3 days for 7 days for 28 days
0 0.951 1.44 2.12
5 1.09 1.66 2.22
10 1.23 1.92 2.48
15 1.11 1.72 2.31
20 0.94 1.47 2.01

Fig. 1 a Coconut fiber b steel fiber

3 Steel Fiber

Steel fibers are strengthen concrete by resisting tensile cracking. Steel fibers can
be used as reinforcing for industrial concrete for floor slabs and it’s considered for
structural purpose in reinforcement slabs on tunnels, piles and shear reinforcement
in prestressed elements. Steel fiber mechanical properties are influenced by type of
fiber, size and shape of fiber, amount of fiber and size of aggregate. It exhibits better
crack resistance, higher resistance to spalling, higher first crack strength and higher
post crack flexural strength. The influence of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10% of steel fiber by mass
of cement and fiber length of 1.3 cm is investigated.
112 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

4 Experimental Program

4.1 Testing Program

Totally four beams, two with normal CC (CC1-CC2) and two with CF/SF (CF/SF
3-CF/SF 4) were tested. The research covers basic cracking features, pre-cracking
activity and analysis, post-cracking activity and analysis, limited torsional reinforce-
ment, stiffness, torsional reinforcement, cracking breadthand ductility.

4.2 Reinforcement Details for Specimen

The cross-sectional size of the beam was defined as 200 × 275 mm and the beam
length too was take as 1200 mm Center-to-center both to CC and CF/SF beams [4,
5]. For both cases, the concrete grade was considered to be M30. Table 1 shows the
results of compressive and split tensile strength of cubes and Table 2 shows the results
of compressive strength of cylinders and Table 3 shows the diameter and number
of bars utilized in longitudinal reinforcing, Diameter as well as space between bars
used in transverse reinforcement and also the percentage of total volumetric torsional
reinforcement, accordingly. The diagram and top view of the specimen with loading
points was shown in Fig. 2. In order to prevent failure of the portion, the cantilever of
the beam must be strong, especially at joints between cantilever portion and beam.
Figure 3 shows the cross-sectional reinforcement details and cantilevered portion.

4.3 Instrumentation for Testing

The 40 tones of frame capacity the testing was done. The 25 tones of load was applied
using hydraulic jack. The 20 tones capacity of proving ring was used for measuring
the load. By using of dial gauges, the twists meter was fixed at both sides of beam,
and least count of 0.001 mm.

Table 3 Reinforcement ratio

Beams Reinforcement of Reinforcement of
longitudinal transverse
CC1 and CF/SF 1 2–8 mm Ø at top 8 mm at 150 mm
2–12 mm Ø at c/c
bottom
CC2 and CF/SF 2 2–12 mm Ø at top 8 mm at 90 mm c/c
2–12 mm Ø at
bottom
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour … 113

Fig. 2 Plan view of the beam specimen

Fig. 3 Cantilever beam of cross section

4.4 Conduct of Experiments

The diagram of the loading frame was conducted and explained here in detailed
manner was shown in Fig. 4. The beam is placed inside the frame and steel saddles
is ready to hold the beams and to be tested on either ends for twist where torque is
applied on it.
114 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram for loading frame

The research was conducted out over a 40 ton load—carrying device. The load
was distributed using a hydraulic jack of 25 tonnes. The load was assessed utilized
a proving ring of 20 tonnes. The beam twisting were tracked using dial gages, these
are attached to the twist meter on either side. The beam to also be evaluated was
raised and placed within the charging frame where steel saddles were fitted. To hold
the beams at both ends to allow torsion when the torque is applied. Mild steel rods
of 12 mm diameter were used to develop twists between the steel saddles. Hydraulic
jack with a capacity of 25 T were positioned over ISMB I75 of use with the 20 T
ability test ring is Placed in the middle of the hydraulic jack above. The beam was so
balanced that is the center of the testing ring then the beams used the plumb bob was
in the same position [5]. Twist meter was positioned 15 cm away from one of support.
In the vertical position, two dial gauges was fixed to the opposite ends of the twist
meter to calculate the angle of twist. Now that the arrangement was prepared for the
experiment and the dial gages had already been set to zero before the experiments
began. Torque was often distributed via a hydraulic jack. The ISMB used transmitted
the load to its edges similarly. Beams were allowed and continuously increased in
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour … 115

applied load until the maximum torque was achieved. A compact microscope with
only an optical magnification of 40X and a tolerance of 0.01 mm was used to examine
crack widths. Figure 5 shows the Arrangements for the specimen, Fig. 6 shows the
Testing of the specimen in side view, Fig. 7 shows the Specimen during testing (Spiral
Crack), Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11 shows the Torque versus Twist for conventional beam
and CF/SF beams.

Fig. 5 Arrangements for the specimen

Fig. 6 Testing of the specimen in side view

116 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

Fig. 7 Specimen during testing (Spiral Crack)

Fig. 8 Torque versus Twist 20

for CC1 beam
Applied load (knm)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Twist x 10-3 (rad/m)

Fig. 9 Torque versus Twist 20

for CC2 beam
Applied torque (knm)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Twist x 10-3 (rad/m)
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour … 117

16
14

Applied torque (knm)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Twist x 10-3

Fig. 10 Torque versus Twist for CF/SF 1 beam

16
14
Applied torque (knm)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40
Twist x 10-3 (rad/m)

Fig. 11 Torque versus Twist for CF/SF 2 beam

5 Results and Discussion

Prior discussing the study, the researcher believes the tradition of torsion theories
known elsewhere needs to be refreshed. They were two theories i.e.; space truss
analogy and skew bending which helps in torsional problems. When comparison to
ACI 318-1989 torsional provisions with ACI 318-1985 were substantially improved
[2]. ACI 318-95 has introduced new torsion guidelines is idealized as a tube were
beam cross sectional is more rational [3]. The space truss analogy and thin wall tube
is a new method which is helpful in both reinforcement and prestressed structures.
118 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

Table 4 Torsional strength at initial cracking and at ultimate

S.NO Beam Total volumetric Cracking at initial Ultimate
details reinforcement Torque Twist (rad/m) Torque Twist (rad/m)
ratio (%) kNm kNm
applied applied
1 CC1 1.367 7.8 19.198 13.2 45.593
2 CC2 1.517 8.4 25.69434 13.8 39.62924
3 CF/SF 1 1.367 7.8 19.198 13.2 45.593
4 CF/SF 2 1.517 8.4 25.26926 13.8 37.43251

5.1 General Characteristics for Cracking

The first crack was appeared where the beam with shorter face was failed. The cracks
with spiral were at 45° as the applied torque increases and spread in the test area
where the beam is strengthened.

5.2 Minimum Torsional Reinforcements

The beam does not fail during cracking where the minimum torsional reinforcement is
necessary. To prevent such a sudden loss, the torsional reinforcement for the minimum
should be increased by 1% and specimen fail at 1.2 times more than of cracking load
suggested by Hsu and Hwang and shown in Table 4. The reason that due to the
lack of reinforcement. It is provided 1% greater for all the beams expect CC1 and
CF/SF 1. To avoid sudden failure this study suggested that torsional reinforcement
of minimum should be provided 1% greater suggested by Hsu and Hwang.

5.3 Ductility

The imminent failure of a structure, before it fails it receives a warning for important
parameter is knows as ductility. That ductility of a torsional beam shall be called the
deformable ability that could be used as the torsional angle of 90 percent of the final
torque Torsion is subjected to ductility of the beam. Ductility improves as torsional
strengthening ratios increase for both CC and CF/SF beams. The calculation of ACI
method is moderate in maximum twist and Macgregor method of maximum twist of
calculation is miscalculated [10].
Experimental Investigation on Torsional Behaviour … 119

Table 5 Stiffness comparison

S. No. Beam details Ultimate Exp stiffness Stiffness using
Applied torque Twist (rad/m) × kNm Park and Paulay
kNm 10−3 method

1 CC1 13.2 45.593 289.51 172.71

2 CC 2 13.8 39.629 348.22 172.71
3 CF/SF 1 13.2 45.593 289.51 172.71
4 CF/SF 2 13.8 37.43251 368.663 172.71

5.4 Stiffness

The stiffness is calculated in both CC and CF/SF specimen as thewas computed as for
the ratio of an ultimate torque to a angle of rotation of a specific experimental data [7].
The theoretical stiffness was measured using the concept of Park and Paulay indicated
(Table 5) indicates the experimental rigidity and theoretical rigidity measured for
comparison. The experimental rigidity of the CC and CF/SF specimens’ samples
was about equivalentand the theoretical rigidity measured as Park and Paulay had
indicated was moderate.

6 Conclusion

Fourbeams (two in coconut fiber/steel fiber and the next two using conventional
concrete aggregate) with the reinforcement ratios were tested in torsion. The results
were made based on conclusions. In general, it is similar when subjected to torsion CC
beams is similar to CF/SF beams. The cracking torque strength is to calculate for both
CC and CF/SF beams as Macgregor’s ACI calculation and equation are conservative.
In the event that the equation by Macgregor is more conservative when compared to
ACI prediction. The coconut fibers are more ductility than conventional aggregate.
Similarly, equation suggested by Macgregor and ACI calculation is more cautious
to calculate the strength of ultimate torque. To prevent sudden failure, the torsional
reinforcement should be increased by 1%. Conventional specimens compared with
CF/SF specimens have more ductility. This is due to the reason of natural fibers
present in coconut fiber. Crack width of CF/SF beams is somewhat higher than
Conventional beams. Experimental stiffness of Conventional and CF/SF specimens
are almost equal and theoretical stiffness suggested by park and paulay is moderate.
The results of coconut/steel fiber in a beam is subjected to torsion. Hence in this
study only two beams of conventional and CF/SF are studied.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful for the opportunity given by SRM University, for
their support. The study that completes directly I appreciates you taking the time to do this study.
And also, grateful to thank Associate professor, Dr. P. R. Kannan Rajkumar, civil, SRM University
for helping this research works during the progress in reviews.
120 R. Mocharla and R. Ramasubramani

References

1. Jain, A. K. (1995). Reinforced concrete, limit state design. New Chand & Bros, Roorkee, ©
1993, reprinted 1995 (p. 305).
2. ACI Committee 318. (1989). Building code requirements for reinforced concrete and
commentary. Farmington Hills, United States of America: American Concrete Institute.
3. ACI Committee 318. (1995). Building code requirements for structural concrete and commen-
tary. Farmington Hills, United States of America: American Concrete Institute.
4. Gunasekaran, K., Ramasubramani, R., Annadurai, R., & Prakash Chandar, S. (2014). Study
on reinforced lightweight coconut shell concrete beam behavior under torsion. Materials and
Design, 57, 374–382.
5. Hsu, T. T. C., & Hwang, C. S. (1977). Torsional limit design of spandrel beams. ACI Structural
Journal, 74(2), 71–79.
6. IS: 2386 (Part 1). (1963). Indian standard for methods of test for aggregates for concrete (part
1) of particle size and shape.
7. IS 456. (2000). Indian standard plain and reinforced concrete–code of practice. New Delhi:
BIS.
8. Park, R., & Paulay, T. (1994). Reinforced concrete structures. A Wiley-Interscience Publication.
9. Macgregor, J. G., & Ghoneim, M. G. (1995). Design for torsion’. ACI structural Journal, 92(2),
211–218.
10. Purushothaman, P. (1986). Reinforced concrete structural elements, behavior, analysis and
design. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, © 1984, reprinted 1986
(p. 169).
11. Punmia, B. C., Jain, A. K., & Jain, A. K. (2011). Limit state design of reinforced concrete.
Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.: New Delhi, © 2007, reprinted 2011 (p. 194).
Analysis of “Integrated
Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre,
Pragati Maidan, New Delhi”, Using
ETABS

Kanuj Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Abstract Analysis is done to intuit the response of erection under various load
combinations. Principle purpose of this work is to examine the “Redevelopment
of ITPO Complex into Integrated Exhibition-cum-Convention Centre at Pragati
Maidan, New Delhi”, consisting of long column, deck slab, RCC slab, truss, shear
walls, etc. The out-turn of seismic push on structure with various units have been
studied using ETABS. Load combinations is done as per norms. Grade of concrete
and steel is taken as per need. There are several factors affecting the performance of
erection in which storey drift, base shear and storey displacement have a major part
in finding the response of erection against the seismic loads in various regions.

Keywords Analysis · Truss · Storey displacement · ETABS

1 Introduction

The vibrations produced by earth tremor are grouped by volatility, as the loam pulsate
in the prone zones in all routes, which lead san alterable ground easing and affecting
the ground of origin sited in the earth tremor zone because of which the units of
the erection vibrates and causes internal forces according to acceleration caused
by the earth tremor and also by the mass of these units [1]. There are two main
categories in seismic analysis they are ‘static analysis’ and ‘dynamic analysis’. This
study examines the “Redevelopment of ITPO Complex into Integrated Exhibition-
cum-Convention Centre at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi”, consisting of long column,
deck slab, RCC slab, truss, shear walls, etc. The modelling is done using ETABS
and for reinforcement Fe500, Fe415, M35 and M50 grades of concrete and UC and
UB is adapted for steel members. The effect of seismic forces is calculated and load
combinations are done according to code book. The layout of the conventional centre
has been shown in the ‘Fig. 1’.

K. Thenua (B) · M. Shanmuga Sundaram

School of Civil Engineering, Vellor Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Chennai 632014, India
M. Shanmuga Sundaram
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 121
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_11
122 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Fig. 1 Integrated Exhibition-cum-Convention Centre, Pragati Maidan, New Delhi

2 Objective

To carry out analysis and study the behaviour of structure under seismic zones, soil
type, and other factors, the ‘Fig. 2’ shows the front view of the conventional centre.
• Storey displacement
• Storey drift
• Storey shear

3 Redevelopment of ITPO Complex into Integrated

Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre at Pragati Maidan,
New Delhi

The conventional centre is located at the Pragati Maidan, New Delhi, which is to
be reengineered to a world-class Integrated Exhibition-cum-Convention Centre. The
budget of the project is Rs. 2254 crore, ‘Fig. 3’ shows a tri column. This centre
will be of 32.4 m tall with a capacity of 7000 people and also has an amphitheatre
with capacity of 3000 people. It also includes 22 conference rooms, special areas
for international dignitaries and has a rooftop helipad. ‘Fig. 4’ shows the slab Truss
members.
Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 123

Fig. 2 Front View of Convention Centre

Fig. 3 Long column (Tri column)

124 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Fig. 4 Truss member

Fig. 5 Load combinations

4 Methodology

The grade used for reinforcement is Fe500 and Fe415, in case of concrete M35 and
M50 and for steel members UC and UB are used. ‘Figure 8’ shows basement plan,
the preliminary details of the conventional centre are given in Table 1.
• IS456:2000–Plain and Reinforced concrete
• IS226:1975, IS808:1964, IS801:1975, IS2062:1984-Structural Steel Codes
• IS875-Part 1 for Dead load
Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 125

Fig. 6 Basement plan

• IS875 -Part 2 for Live load

• IS875 -Part 3 for Earthquake load
• IS 1893: 2016—Part 1 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Some load and load combination applied are:
1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
3. EQinx direction
4. EQiny direction
5. Load combinations as shown in ‘Fig. 5’.

Following figures show the plan of the structure at various levels (Figs. 6–12).
126 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Fig. 7 Ground-level plan

Fig. 8 Level 2 plan

Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 127

Fig. 9 Level 3 plan

Fig. 10 Level 4 Plan

128 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Fig. 11 Roof level plan

Table 1 Preliminary details

S. no Name Dimension
of convention Centre
1 Length 189.18 m
2 Breadth 150.335 m
3 Height above GL 34.35 m
4 Basement (Level 0) -5.75
5 GL (Level 1) + 0.00
6 Level 2 + 6.4
7 Level 3 + 15.4
8 Level 4 + 22.3
9 Terrace level + 30.19

5 Results and Discussion

Following analysis considerations are assumed as per code given below, Tables 2
and 3 give the various results obtained in analysis.
• Seismic zone (Z): II, III, IV, V
• Soil Type: I, II, III
Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 129

Table 2 Maximum and minimum displacements

Levels Storeyheight Z(V) Z(V) Z(V) Z(V)
S(III) S(III) S(III) S(III)
MaxX MinX MaxY MinY
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Roof 35.54 158.169 21.693 123.139 27.648
Level (30.19)
Level 4 (22.3) 27.65 88.258 12.775 76.142 11.725
Level 3 (15.4) 20.75 45.878 16.24 52.782 23.871
Level 2 (6.4) 11.75 26.102 7.83 24.122 19.991
Ground level 6.35 7.235 2.2 22.115 15.925
Basement 0 0 0 0 0

Fig. 12 3D model (Front view)

• Importance factor (I):1.2

• Response Reduction Factor (R):5

5.1 Graphs

The following graphs are obtained after analysing the structure, (Figs. 13–18) are
given below.
130 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

Z(II)S(I)-x
Displacement(0.9DL+1.5a) Z(II)S(II)-x
Z(II)S(III)-x
40 Z(III)S(I)-x
Z(III)S(II)-x
35 Z(III)S(III)-x
Z(IV)S(I)-x
30 Z(IV)S(II)-x
Z(IV)S(III)-x
25 Z(V)S(I)-x
Height(m)

Z(V)S(II)-x
20 Z(V)S(III)-x
Z(II)S(I)-y
Z(II)S(II)-y
15 Z(II)S(III)-y
Z(III)S(I)-y
10 Z(III)S(II)-y
Z(III)S(III)-y
5 Z(IV)S(I)-y
Z(IV)S(II)-y
0 Z(IV)S(III)-y
Z(V)S(I)-y
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Z(V)S(II)-y
Displacement(mm) Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 13 Displacement (0.9DL + 1.5a)

Displacement(1.5DL+1.5D) Z(II)S(I)-x Z(II)S(II)-x

40 Z(II)S(III)-x Z(III)S(I)-x

35 Z(III)S(II)-x Z(III)S(III)-x

30 Z(IV)S(I)-x Z(IV)S(II)-x

25 Z(IV)S(III)-x Z(V)S(I)-x
H eight(m)

20 Z(V)S(II)-x Z(V)S(III)-x

15 Z(II)S(I)-y Z(II)S(II)-y

10 Z(II)S(III)-y Z(III)S(I)-y

5 Z(III)S(II)-y Z(III)S(III)-y
Z(IV)S(I)-y Z(IV)S(II)-y
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Z(IV)S(III)-y Z(V)S(I)-y
Displacement(mm) Z(V)S(II)-y Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 14 Displacement (1.5DL + 1.5D)

Drift(0.9DL+1.5a) Z(II)S(I)-x Z(II)S(II)-x

Z(II)S(III)-x Z(III)S(I)-x
40
Z(III)S(II)-x Z(III)S(III)-x
35
Z(IV)S(I)-x Z(IV)S(II)-x
30
Z(IV)S(III)-x Z(V)S(I)-x
Height(m)

25
Z(V)S(II)-x Z(V)S(III)-x
20
15 Z(II)S(I)-y Z(II)S(II)-y

10 Z(II)S(III)-y Z(III)S(I)-y

5 Z(III)S(II)-y Z(III)S(III)-y

0 Z(IV)S(I)-y Z(IV)S(II)-y
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 Z(IV)S(III)-y Z(V)S(I)-y
Drift Z(V)S(II)-y Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 15 Drift (0.9DL + 1.5a)

Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 131

Drift(1.5DL+1.5D) Z(II)S(I)-x Z(II)S(II)-x

Z(II)S(III)-x Z(III)S(I)-x
40
35 Z(III)S(II)-x Z(III)S(III)-x

30 Z(IV)S(I)-x Z(IV)S(II)-x
Z(IV)S(III)-x Z(V)S(I)-x
Height(m)

25
20 Z(V)S(II)-x Z(V)S(III)-x

15 Z(II)S(I)-y Z(II)S(II)-y

10 Z(II)S(III)-y Z(III)S(I)-y

5 Z(III)S(II)-y Z(III)S(III)-y

0 Z(IV)S(I)-y Z(IV)S(II)-y
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 Z(IV)S(III)-y Z(V)S(I)-y
Dri Z(V)S(II)-y Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 16 Drift (1.5DL + 1.5D)

StoreyShear(0.9DL+1.5a) Z(II)S(I)-x Z(II)S(II)-x

Z(II)S(III)-x Z(III)S(I)-x
40
Z(III)S(II)-x Z(III)S(III)-x
35
Z(IV)S(I)-x Z(IV)S(II)-x

Z(IV)S(III)-x Z(V)S(I)-x
25
Height(m)

Z(V)S(II)-x Z(V)S(III)-x

Z(II)S(I)-y Z(II)S(II)-y
15
Z(II)S(III)-y Z(III)S(I)-y
10
Z(III)S(II)-y Z(III)S(III)-y
5
Z(IV)S(I)-y Z(IV)S(II)-y
0
-40000 -30000 -20000 -10000 0 10000 Z(IV)S(III)-y Z(V)S(I)-y

Shear(kN) Z(V)S(II)-y Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 17 Storey shear (0.9DL + 1.5a)

6 Conclusion

The analysis of the convention centre is performed in ETABS to study the behaviour of
structure under different seismic zones and soil types which gives the data including
displacement, drift and shear. The obtained results are studied and the following is
concluded:
• Maximum displacement is observed in load combination (0.9DL + 1.5a) in
Z(V)S(III) in x and y directions in comparison to other seismic zones and soil
types at Roof Level.
• Minimum displacement is observed in load combination (0.9DL + 1.5a) in
Z(V)S(III) in x and y directions in comparison to other seismic zones and soil
types at Ground Level.
132 K. Thenua and M. Shanmuga Sundaram

StoreyShear(1.5DL+1.5D)
40 Z(II)S(I)-x Z(II)S(II)-x

Z(II)S(III)-x Z(III)S(I)-x
35
Z(III)S(II)-x Z(III)S(III)-x
30
Z(IV)S(I)-x Z(IV)S(II)-x
25 Z(IV)S(III)-x Z(V)S(I)-x
Height(m)

20 Z(V)S(II)-x Z(V)S(III)-x

15 Z(II)S(I)-y Z(II)S(II)-y

Z(II)S(III)-y Z(III)S(I)-y
10
Z(III)S(II)-y Z(III)S(III)-y
5
Z(IV)S(I)-y Z(IV)S(II)-y
0
Z(IV)S(III)-y Z(V)S(I)-y
-30000 -20000 -10000 0 10000 20000
Shear(kN) Z(V)S(II)-y Z(V)S(III)-y

Fig. 18 Storey shear (1.5DL + 1.5D)

• Maximum drift is observed in load combination (0.9DL + 1.5a) in Z(V)S(III) in

comparison to other seismic zones and soil types at Level 4 in x direction and at
Level 2 in y direction.
• Minimum drift is observed in load combination (0.9DL + 1.5a) in Z(V)S(III) in
comparison to other seismic zones and soil types at Level 4 in x direction and at
Ground Level in y direction.
• Maximum store y shear is observed in load combination (0.9DL + 1.5a) in Z(V)
S(III) in x and y directions in comparison to other seismic zones and soil types at
Level 2.
• As zone and soil type increase, there is a simultaneous increase in the values of
displacement, drift and shear.

References

1. Pellicane, P. J. (2000). Comparison of ASD and LRFD codes for wood members. III: connections.
Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, ASCE, 5(2), 66–69.
2. Roeder, C. W. (1990). Comparison of LRFD and allowable stress design methods for steel
structures. In 5th Seminariode Ingenieria E structural, San Jose, Costa Rica.
3. Shahawy, M. A., & Batchelor, B. D. (1996). Shear behaviour of full-scale prestressed concrete
girders: Comparison between AASHTO specifications and LRFD code. PCI Journal, 41(3),
48–62.
4. Malhas, F. A., & Rahman, A. (2003). A comparative investigation of the provisions of the ACI
and EC2 for flexural deflection. In ACI special publication,s SP-210 (pp. 93–114). American
Concrete Institute.
Analysis of “Integrated Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre … 133

5. Miller, L. J., & Durham, S. (2008). Comparison of standard load and load and resistance factor
bridge design specifications forburied concrete structures. Transportation Research Record,
2050, TRB.
6. Washington, D. C., Nielsen, R. J., & Schmeckpeper, E. R. (2002). Single-spanprestressed girder
bridge: LRFD design and comparison. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 7(1), 22–30.
Project Management
Greenhouse Gases Emission
from Municipal Solid Waste
in Thanjavur

D. Deepa, P. Sharmila, and S. Mary Rebekah Sharmila

Abstract The topic of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from municipal solid waste
(MSW) is important in the sense of climate change. In all of India’s megacities, popu-
lation growth is outpacing municipal solid waste production. With a population of
2.56 lakhs in 2019, Thanjavur is one of Tamil Nadu’s oldest and fastest growing
cities, with an 8.5% growth rate over the last decade. Every day, approximately 105
tonnes of urban solid waste are produced. In the existing scheme, there are no scien-
tific techniques for treating and disposing of solid waste. The solid waste collected
will be transported to the Srinivasapuram disposal site without discrimination (5 kms
from the city). This endangers people’s health and degrades the urban climate. Inven-
tory of Thanjavur site-specific emission factors using IPCC and LandGEM models
and site-specific measurements based on appropriate activity data. These models are
used to measure the emissions of methane, total landfilll gas, non-methane organic
compounds, carbon dioxide, and other MSW air contaminants.

Keywords IPCC model · LandGem model · Greenhouse gases (GHG) · Municipal

solid waste (MSW)

The original version of this chapter was revised: An affiliation correction for the author “S. M. R.
Sharmila” has been incorporated. The correction to this chapter is available at
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_49

D. Deepa (B) · P. Sharmila

School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamilnadu,
India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Sharmila
e-mail: [email protected]
S. M. R. Sharmila
Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Chennai, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022, 137
corrected publication 2022
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_12
138 D. Deepa et al.

1 Introduction

The anaerobic waste oxidation produces greenhouse gases as a result of microbial

activity [12]. These deposition sites are one of the largest anthropogenic sources
of greenhouse gases, in particular methane gases, with 21 times the global carbon
dioxide heating capacity [9]. CH4 is generated due to poor CO2 management. The
municipal solid waste is 3–4% annually responsible for worldwide anti-growth emis-
sions of greenhouse gases. With increasing population and GDP, solid waste disposal
emissions are projected to grow [10]. Weather and climate variability have already
adapted human communities to some extent. Consequently, it is important to iden-
tify places where residents cannot cope with current and severe climate variations,
such as floods, droughts, and thermal waves [11]. This highlights the need for urgent
action. Improving one’s ability to deal with current climate variability would almost
definitely boost one’s ability to deal with long-term climate change. The bulk of
methane produced by landfills and dumps is directly released into the atmosphere
[9, 2]. Mismanagement of urban waste management is undeniably related to green-
house gas emissions [6, 5]. Methane (CH4 ), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and nitrous oxide
(N2 O) are the main elements of greenhouse gases. The GHG emissions were calcu-
lated based on data obtained in 2009. In order to find a way to reduce both GHG
emissions and waste volume in sites of waste disposal, two scenarios were also
developed [7–13].

2 Study Area

Thanjavur is a city located 315 km south of Chennai. This city’s population and
density have increased dramatically, resulting in increased solid waste production
and exerting immense pressure on local authorities in terms of best solid waste
management practices. Around 105 tons of solid urban waste are being made every
day in this town. Increased development of solid waste, notably Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW), is a significant concern, particularly in urban areas, which is exacer-
bated due to poor waste disposal plans. Corresponds to the collection and disposal
of solid waste by the local municipalities [1–11]. The bulk of solid waste produced
in Thanjavur is residential and commercial waste. Thanjavur Municipal Corporation
(TMC) faces a major challenge in disposing of rising volumes of urban solid waste.
The city’s new solid waste disposal system does not meet scientific standards, posing
a danger to the environment and sanitation.
Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid Waste in Thanjavur 139

3 Methodology

3.1 Present Scenario

Thanjavur is a town 315 km south of Chennai. The population and density of this town
have grown significantly, resulting in increased volume of solid waste and great pres-
sure on local authorities as regards best practices for managing solid waste. Around
105 tons of municipal solid waste is generated every day. Increased production of
solid waste, in particular the MSW, is a grave concern, particularly in urban areas,
and the problem has been worsened by poor disposal plans. The collection and waste
management should be properly carried out by urban local authorities [7, 8]. In
Thanjavur, the majority of solid waste is generated from residential and commercial
areas. Thanjavur Municipal Corporation (TMC) faces a major challenge in disposing
of rising volumes of urban solid waste. The city’s new solid waste disposal system
does not meet scientific standards, posing a danger to the environment and sanitation.
TMC has a population of around 2.40 lakhs, according to the 2011 census, with an
annual decadal growth rate of 8.59%. The selected plan for Srinivasapuram dump-
yard is 36 years long, based on a detailed waste management plan in Thanjavur. TMC
is a local government in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Table 1 shows the population and
waste generation rate. Thanjavur has been a special grade municipality since 1983,
and it is responsible for solid waste management. Thanjavur’s main dump yard is
in Srinivasapuram, and it has been in service for the past 36 years. Push carts and
tricycles are used to transport waste to the dumping site in Srinivasapuram, but there
is no decentralized system in place. The overall length of roads is approximately
754 km, with 276 km of tar roads and 35 km of cement roads being swept every day.
There are 51 wards that make up the municipal corporation.
The sanitary supervisor and sanitary inspectors oversee each ward, which is
managed by conservancy staff. The garbage is being delivered to the city’s land-
fill ground. Table 2 shows the facilities in TMC for MSW transportation. In order
for LandGem software to calculate the amount of methane emissions, the weight of
waste produced during planned period needs to be carefully evaluated, and LandGem
specifies the quantity of methane released dependent on the quantity of waste and
methane power generation [6].

Table 1 Shows the population size and waste generation rate

S. no Year Pop (in lakhs) Generation rates Quantity of waste generation
1 1981 1.84 300 g/p/day 552tpd
2 1991 2.05 320 g/p/day 656tpd
3 2001 2.21 350 g/p/day 773.5tpd
4 2011 2.40 400 g/p/day 960tpd
5 2021 2.59 400 g/p/day 1036tpd
(Estimated)
140 D. Deepa et al.

Table 2 Solid waste

S. no Type of vehicles No of vehicles
collection and transportation
Infrastructure in Thanjavur 1 Auto 25
Municipal Corporation 2 Lorry 2
3 Tractor 1
4 Mini Lorry 3
5 Tipper 5
6 Dumper placer 3

3.2 LandGEM Model

The LandGEM model is based on a first-order decomposition rate equation for

the quantification of emissions from decomposition of landfilled waste in MSW
deposits. The application provides an easy way to measure emissions of waste pumps.
LandGEM uses the first decomposition rate equation below to estimate annual emis-
sion over a time frame of your choice. This decomposition Eq. (1) defines model
parameters k and Lo further [3, 4, 12, 14].


n 
1  
Mi −kti j
QC H 4 = k L0 e (1)
i=1 j=0.1
10

where
I mean an increase in time for one year.
n = (year calculated)-—year calculated) (initial year of waste acceptance).
j is a 0.1-year time increase.
k = production rate of methane (year-1).
(m3 /Mg) = capacity to produce potential methane.
Mi refers to last year’s acceptance of waste (Mg).
tij is the age of the jth waste section Mi accepted during the last year (decimal years,
e.g., 3.2 years).

3.3 IPCC Model

In this case the mass of degradable organic carbon, decomposable in anaerobic condi-
tions, is proportional to the amount of reactant remaining in the first order decline
reaction (DDOCm). DOC decomposable from waste disposing data can be measured
using the below Eq. (2) [7, 8, 15].

DDOCm = W ∗ DOC ∗ DOCf ∗ MCF (2)

Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid Waste in Thanjavur 141

where
DDOCm is the deposited mass of decomposable DOC, Gg.
W is the quantity of urban waste.
DOC is the decomposable organic carbon, Gg.
DOC.f = DOC fraction decomposable (fraction).
MCF = element of degradation CH4 for the year of deposition (fraction).

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 LandGEM Model

In the current situation, the default values used by the US Environmental Protection
Agency were used Table 3 lists the constant value terms used in the model. The

Table 3 Emission of Greenhouse gases based on LandGEM model

Year Total Methane Carbon Year Total Methane Carbon
landfill gas dioxide landfill gas dioxide
Mg/Year Mg/Year Mg/Year Mg/Year Mg/Year Mg/Year
2011 0 0 0 2021 6.06E + 04 1.62E + 04 4.44E +
04
2012 7.27E + 03 1.94E + 03 5.33E + 2022 6.54E + 04 1.75E + 04 4.79E +
03 04
2013 1.42E + 04 3.80E + 03 1.04E + 2023 7.00E + 04 1.87E + 04 5.13E +
04 04
2014 2.09E + 04 5.59E + 03 1.53E + 2024 7.44E + 04 1.98E + 04 5.45E +
04 04
2015 2.73E + 04 7.29E + 03 2.00E + 2025 7.86E + 04 2.10E + 04 5.76E +
04 04
2016 3.34E + 04 8.92E + 03 2.45E + 2026 8.26E + 04 2.21E + 04 6.05E +
04 04
2017 3.93E + 04 1.05E + 04 2.88E + 2027 8.63E + 04 2.31E + 04 6.33E +
04 04
2018 4.49E + 04 1.20E + 04 3.29E + 2028 8.99E + 04 2.40E + 04 6.59E +
04 04
2019 5.03E + 04 1.34E + 04 3.69E + 2029 9.33 + 04 2.49E + 04 6.84E +
04 04
2020 5.55E + 04 1.48E + 04 4.07E + 2030 9.66E + 04 2.58E + 04 7.08E +
04 04
2031 9.97E + 04 2.66E + 04 7.31E +
04
142 D. Deepa et al.

Fig. 1 Gas emission from Srinivasapuram dump yard using LandGem model

annual methane production from the disposed site is shown in the table. In 2012,
methane production was 1.94E + 03 Mg/year, and by 2031, it had risen to 2.66E +
0 Mg/year. Figure 1 depicts the pattern of total gas emission, methane, and carbon
dioxide emissions at the dump site over the course of the project. The annual methane,
Nonmethane Organic Compound (NMOC) and CO2 production from the disposed
site is shown in the (Fig. 1).

4.2 IPCC Model

India was given as the nation, and Asia-South Central was given as the region. The
climate was dry tropical, meaning it was hot and the average annual rainfall was less
than 1000 mm. Table 4 displays the constant value terms used in the following model.
The annual methane production from the disposed site is shown in the (Fig. 2). In
2012, methane production was 3 Gg/year, but by 2031, it had risen to 36 Gg/year.

5 Conclusion

It has been observed that the existing facilities for solid waste management in Than-
javur are inadequate to cope with the city’s rising population and waste generation.
From the LandGEM model, it was found that the annual methane production from
Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid Waste in Thanjavur 143

Table 4 Emission of greenhouse gases based on IPCC model

Year Methane (Gg/year) Year Methane (Gg/year) Year Methane (Gg/year)
2011 0 2018 20 2025 30
2012 3 2019 22 2026 31
2013 6 2020 24 2027 32
2014 9 2021 26 2028 33
2015 11 2022 27 2029 34
2016 14 2023 28 2030 35
2017 17 2024 29 2031 36

Fig. 2 Gas emission from Srinivasapuram dump yard using IPCC model

the disposed site is shown in the table. In 2012, methane production was 1.94E +
03 Mg/year, and by 2031, it had risen to 2.66E + 0 Mg/year, whereas from the
IPCC model, in 2012, methane production was 3Gg/year, but by 2031, it had risen
to 36 Gg/year. This is due to temperature has a smaller impact on LFG generation
than precipitation and should not be assigned equal weight in assigning climate cate-
gories and Potential Evapotranspiration Data (PET) data are usually not available
and should not be a basis for assigning climate in temperate regions even if they are
scientifically more valid. To reduce waste load on the compost yard, the site’s waste
segregation should be strengthened in terms of biodegradable and non-biodegradable
waste. New methods can be used to enhance existing facilities for solid waste collec-
tion, segregation, and transportation. It is also evident that lack of understanding,
144 D. Deepa et al.

technological expertise, and enforcement of the legal framework for an integrated

SWM system are major impediments to proper solid waste management.

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Evaluation of Meteorological Drought
Impact Using Drought Indices

D. Deepa, Boddu Venkata Sai Prakash, Chandragiri Sai Neeraj,

Kothamasu Akhil, and K. Sasireka

Abstract Drought is said to occur when there is a lack of water or when there
is less precipitation than usual. Drought is typically triggered by changes in envi-
ronment and human activities; its severity can vary from place to place and this
intensity will be measured using drought indices. This study used rainfall data from
the last 100 years of five districts in Andhra Pradesh, namely, Kadapa, Prakasam,
Krishna, East Godawari and Visakhapatnam, and drought severity is measured using
indices such as the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), China Z Index (CZI) and
Statistical Z-score (SZ Score). The SPI is known to be the world’s standard drought
measurement index, but the calculation of the SPI is very complex compared to other
indices. Thus, by using all these three indices, drought is measured, and compara-
tive analysis is done to find the best alternative for the five districts to find drought
severity. The implementation of each index is compared in this analysis, and the
findings indicate that CZI and SZ score can provide similar results in East Godawari
and Visakapatnam districts, whereas SZ score can provide similar results in Krishna,
Prakasam and Kadapa districts, and shows slight deviation to the SPI for all time
scales.

Keywords Precipitation · Drought · Standard Precipitation Index · China Z

Index · Statistical Z-score

D. Deepa (B) · B. V. S. Prakash · C. S. Neeraj · K. Akhil · K. Sasireka

SASTRA Deemed To Be University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. V. S. Prakash
e-mail: [email protected]
C. S. Neeraj
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Akhil
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Sasireka
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 145
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_13
146 D. Deepa et al.

1 Introduction

In a developing country like India, the majority of the population lives in rural areas,
with agriculture as their primary source of income. Seasonal variations affect agri-
cultural yield. But, now-a-days, seasonal changes do not occur properly, leading to
shortages of water. This water shortage phenomenon is known as drought. Drought is
a period of time in which an area experiences rainfall below its usual value. Drought
is one of the most critical problems to be tackled. Droughts are known as meteo-
rological droughts, hydrological droughts, agricultural droughts and socioeconomic
droughts. Based on the rainfall data of an area, meteorological drought is assessed.
Many drought indices are available for evaluating drought characteristics, including
the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI), China Z Index (CZI), Statistical Z-score,
Standard Precipitation Evaporation Index (SPEI) and Palmer Drought Severity Index
(PDSI) [1] .
The authors assessed dry and wet periods for Thanjavur city using Standard precip-
itation index (SPI), statistical Z-score and China Z index (CZI) and compared these
indicators in different time scales; from this study, it is concluded that the results of
CZI and Z-score are close to each other for annual and seasonal rainfall data and
they are different from SPI in Thanjavur city [2]. The study explains each and every
basic detail of drought like types of droughts, how to study drought, different types of
drought indices, deciles [3, 4]. This study compared SPI, EDI, SZI, CZI, Reclamation
Drought Index (RDI) and RDDI for their suitability in drought-prone districts of ken
river basin. Multiple steps are applied to compute the severity for the five-time steps
of 1,3,6,9 and 12 months and compared with each other. The process of calculation
of drought index with all different indices is also explained [5–7]. The author has
taken the monthly rainfall data (from June to October for 39 years) of two districts
in Andhra Pradesh, namely, Ananthapur and Khammam as they were found to be
low and high rainfall areas, respectively. They also found that SPI showed moderate
dryness instead of extreme dryness and moderate wet instead of extreme wet, when
the SPI values are compared with the actual rainfall of the two districts. They also
concluded that SPI as a stand-alone indicator needs to be interpreted with caution
to assess intensity of drought [8, 9]. The author states that calculation of SPI is not
much easier when compared to other indices. In this paper, CZI and Z-score were
used to assess drought impact along with SPI and final results were compared. The
main aim of this paper is to find better alternative for SPI in their area for assessing
drought.

2 Study Area

Andhra Pradesh is a state in India’s south-east coastal region. Andhra Pradesh is made
up of two principal regions: the southern region of Rayalaseema in the south-west,
and the coastal region that is bordered on the east and north by the Bay of Bengal.
Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought Indices 147

There are nine districts in Coastal Andhra and four in Rayalaseema that make up the
entire state. The current study utilizes four districts from Coastal Andhra (Prakasam,
Krishna, East Godawari and Visakhapatnam) plus one district from Rayalaseema
(Kadapa) for its research.
The climate of Kadapa is semi-arid. It has a tradition of getting up to a temper-
ature of over 46 degrees. Living in a hot and humid environment can be extremely
unpleasant in the summer. Temperatures range from a minimum of 24 °C to a
maximum of 43 °C during this period. It is not unusual for temperatures to exceed
43 degrees Celsius during heat waves. Daytime temperatures vary, with highs in the
low to mid-thirties. 75% of the time, humidity is between 75 and 80% during the
season. During the monsoon season, the region gets a great deal of rain. The city
of Prakasam, with an average temperature of 24.5 degrees Celsius and an average
rainfall of 975 mm by the monsoons arriving from the north-east and south-west,
has an average temperature of 24.5 degrees Celsius. It is 44 °C hot. The dry winter
months are normal (Fig. 1).
Because of its exceptionally hot summers and moderately hot winters, Krishna
is known as tropical. The months of April to June have the hottest temperatures.

Fig. 1 Location of Study Area. Source https://i.pinimg.com/originals/cf/6c/e7/cf6ce7c4f5221d2

2a4dbe956366b10f3.gif
148 D. Deepa et al.

The south-west monsoon contributes to rainfall, with an annual rainfall of about

1030 mm in the country. East Godawari has a 144-km coastline. As it is situated in
the coastal belt, the temperature remains humid for the majority of the year. Andhra
Pradesh’s green belt is situated in this district. It is covered with deciduous forests.
Visakhapatnam has a tropical climate with both wet and dry seasons. The average
mean temperature is between 24 and 30 degrees Celsius. The months of May and
January have the highest and lowest temperatures, respectively. The highest and
lowest temperatures ever recorded were 42 °C in 1978 and 20 °C in 1904. Rainfall
comes from the south-west and north-east monsoons, with an annual rainfall of
1118.8 mm.

3 Methodology

Monthly Rainfall data of past 100 years, i.e. from year 1901 to year 2000 is collected
from India water portal for all the five districts, i.e. Kadapa, Prakasam, Krishna, East
Godawari and Visakapatnam. Drought intensity is measured by using indices like
SPI, CZI and Z-score. The detailed procedure for calculation of each index is shown
in Fig. 2.

3.1 Standard Precipitation Index (Spi)

The SPI is used as a standard measure for assessing dry and wet times. As a result, SPI
is the most commonly used measure for estimating and characterizing meteorological
drought around the world. It compares measured total precipitation amounts for an
accumulation period of interest with the long-term historic rainfall record for that
period to assess precipitation anomalies at a given location.
  
lnln (x)
A = lnln x− − (1)
n
  
1 4A
α= 1+ 1+ (2)
4A 3
x
β= (3)
α
1
x α−1 e− β
x
gx = (4)
β α (α)
Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought Indices 149

Data CollecƟon

Analysis of Data

Drought Indices

Standard methods Other methods

StaƟsƟcal
SPI CZI
Z Score

Comparision of all methods to choose best and simplest method for study area

Results and Discussions

Conclusion

Fig. 2 Flow chart of methodology

x x
1
x α−1 e− β d x
x
Gx = gx d x = α (5)
β (α)
0 0

where x = Mean precipitation.

n = Number of precipitation observations.
α (shape factor) parameter of the gamma probability density function.
β (scale factor) parameter of the gamma probability density function.
gx = gamma probability distribution function.
G x = cumulative probability distribution function.
150 D. Deepa et al.

3.2 Z-score

This index is determined by subtracting the long-term mean from a single rainfall
value and then dividing the result by the standard deviation. The data does not need
to be modified by fitting it to the Gamma or Pearson Form III distributions while
using the Z-score. Z-score has been used in many drought studies due to its ease of
measurement and effectiveness.
xi j − x i
ϕi j = (6)
σi

1
n
2
σi = xi j − x i (7)
n j=1

n
1
x− = xi j (8)
i n j=1

where ϕi j = Z-score.
xi j = Precipitation of jth month for period i.
σi = Standard deviation.

3.3 China Z Index

The CZI is related to the Wilson-Hilferty cube-root transformation. Assuming that

precipitation data obey the Pearson type-III distribution. After calculating values of
each indices, moisture categories have to be assessed using Table 1.
  13
6 Csi 6 Csi
Zi j = ϕi j + 1 − + (9)
Csi 2 Csi 6

Table 1 Ranges of SPI,

Index Moisture category
China Z index and statistical
Z-score for drought > 2.0 Extremely wet (EW)
categorization 1.50 to 1.99 Very wet (VW)
1.00 to 1.49 Moderately wet (MW)
−0.99 to 0.99 Normal (N)
−1.49 to −1.00 Moderately dry (MD)
−1.99 to −1.50 Severely dry (SD)
<−2.0 Extremely dry (ED)
Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought Indices 151

n 3
j=1 xi j − x
Csi = (10)
n ∗ σi3

where Zij – CZI.

ϕij = z score.
Xij = precipitation of j month for period i.
Csi =Coefficient of skewness.
σi =Standard deviation.

4 Results and Discussions

Using SPI, all five districts’ measured moisture categories were determined. In the
Kadapa district, normal moisture levels have only occurred in 68 of the past 100 years.
In 10 and 6 years, respectively, there are mild dry and wet periods. In the last 6
and 5 years, there have been exceptionally dry and rainy phases. In 1 and 4 years,
respectively, extreme dry and wet cycles are observed. In the Prakasam district,
normal moisture levels have only occurred in 68 of the past 100 years. In 9 and
9 years, respectively, mild dry and wet cycles are observed. In the last 5 years, there
have been particularly dry and rainy periods. Extremely dry and rainy cycles occur
every 2 years and every 2 years, respectively. In the Krishna district, normal moisture
levels have only occurred in 63 of the past 100 years. In 5 and 10 years, respectively,
mild dry and wet cycles are observed. In 9 and 5 years, respectively, there have been
exceptionally dry and rainy phases. In 0 and 3 years, there are extreme dry and wet
periods, respectively.
In the East Godawari district, normal moisture levels have only occurred in 59
of the past 100 years. In 18 and 12 years, mild dry and wet cycles are observed,
respectively. In the last 5 and 4 years, there have been exceptionally dry and rainy
phases. In 2 and 0 years, respectively, extreme dry and wet cycles are observed. In the
Visakapatnam district, normal moisture levels have only occurred in 66 of the past
100 years. In 11 and 12 years, respectively, mild dry and wet periods are observed.
In 1 and 5 years, respectively, exceptionally dry and rainy cycles have occurred. In 4
and 1 years, respectively, extreme dry and wet cycles are observed. Drought indices
are compared using graphs with historic years on the x-axis and drought indices
values on the y-axis. Different coloured lines are drawn here, such as red for SPI,
yellow for Z-score and green for CZI. Annual trends of SPI, CZI and Z-score values
for Kadapa and East Godawari are depicted in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
In Fig. 3, SPI and Z-score are barely differentiated but CZI shows more deviations
from SPI. SPI and Z-score exposed very few number of extreme dry condition when
compared to CZI. Prakasam and Krishna districts followed the same pattern as of
Kadapa district.
In Fig. 0.4, all three indices, i.e. SPI, CZI and Z-score curves are in same pattern.
Visakapatnam district followed the same pattern as of East Godawari district. Z-score
152 D. Deepa et al.

Fig. 3 Annual Pattern of three drought indices of Kadapa District

Fig. 4 Annual Pattern of three drought indices of East Godawari District

is showing more normal values when compared to CZI and SPI as its calculation is
based on standard deviation. In some months, the rainfall may be heavy and in some
low. Finally, it is giving average values coming to SPI, it shows more EW, VW, ED
and VD. Even if the rainfall of the place is moderately wet, it shows EW and VW.
China Z index shows more Normal, MW and MD categories.

4.1 Regression Analysis

Figures 5 and 6 depict the regression analysis of SPI vs Z-score and SPI vs CZI
of Kadapa district, respectively. Regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score is 0.9912
Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought Indices 153

Fig. 5 Linear regression analysis of SPI versus Z-Score of Kadapa

Fig. 6 Linear regression analysis of SPI versus CZI of Kadapa

whereas that of SPI vs CZI is 0.7675. This shows that Z-score depicts the same values
of SPI with precision of 0.0088.
From the regression analysis of SPI vs Z-score and SPI vs CZI of Prakasam
district, regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score is 0.9898 whereas that of SPI vs CZI
is 0.8056. This shows that Z-score depicts the same values of SPI with precision of
0.0101.
From the regression analysis of SPI vs Z-score and SPI vs CZI of Krishna district,
regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score is 0.9937 whereas that of SPI vs CZI is
0.7475. This shows that Z-score depicts the same values of SPI with precision of
0.0063.
154 D. Deepa et al.

Figures 7 and 8 depict the regression analysis of SPI vs Z-score and SPI versus
CZI of East Godavari district, respectively. Regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score
is 0.996 whereas that of SPI vs CZI is 0.9977. This shows that Z-score and CZI
depict the same values of SPI with precision of 0.004 and 0.0023, respectively.
From the regression analysis of SPI vs Z-score and SPI vs CZI of Visakhapatnam
district, regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score is 0.9941 whereas that of SPI vs
CZI is 0.9993. This shows that Z-score and CZI depict the same values of SPI with
precision of 0.0059 and 0.0007, respectively.

Fig. 7 Linear regression analysis of SPI versus Z-score of East Godawari

Fig. 8 Linear regression analysis of SPI versus CZI of East Godawari

Evaluation of Meteorological Drought Impact Using Drought Indices 155

5 Conclusions

The drought intensities of the five districts have been assessed with the help of three
drought indices, i.e. SPI, CZI and Z-score. Different moisture categories are assessed
for each of the five districts under study area by considering the time period of 1, 3, 4
and 12 months. Based upon drought indices values, moisture categories are classified
as Extreme Dry (ED), Very Dry (VD), Moderate Dry (MD), Normal (N), Moderate
Wet (MW), Very Wet (VW) and Extreme wet (EW).
SPI is a standard method but it is very complex and laborious to calculate. So, for
assessing an easier and simpler method which shows similar values as SPI, Annual
values of CZI and Z-score are compared with that of SPI for each district in our
study area. There are so many methods available to compare these indices. In our
present study, simple graphical comparison of indices and linear regression analysis
are taken. From graphical analysis, it is evident that the graphs of Kadapa, Prakasam
and Krishna have similar pattern and graphs of East Godawari and Visakapatnam
are similar. In the graphs of Kadapa, Prakasam and Krishna, SPI and Z-score curves
coincided, whereas CZI showed more deviations at extremes. In the graphs of East
Godawari and Visakapatnam, all the three indices curves coincided, i.e. all indices
show similar behaviour.
From regression analysis graphs, it is evident that for Visakhapatnam and East
Godawari Districts, regression coefficients are around 1 for both CZI vs SPI graph
and Z-score vs SPI graph. So, we can rely on both CZI and Z-score for evaluating
drought characteristics instead of SPI for Visakapatnam and East Godawari. For
Krishna, Prakasam and Kadapa Districts, regression coefficient of SPI vs Z-score
graph is around 1, whereas regression coefficient of SPI vs CZI graphs are 0.74, 0.80
and 0.76, respectively. This implies Z-score values are very nearer to SPI, whereas
CZI values show more deviation from SPI. So, we can rely on Z-score rather than
CZI for Krishna, Prakasam and Kadapa. So, Z-score can be used for evaluation of
drought instead of laborious and complex SPI for the five districts.

References

1. Suribabu, C. R., & Neelakantan, T. R. (2018). Assessment of dry and wet periods using selected
rainfall-based drought indicators–a case study. ISH J Hydraulic Engg, 1, 1–8.
2. Eslamian, S., Ostad-Ali-Askari, K., Singh, V. P., Dalezios, N. R., Ghane, M., Yihdego, Y.,
Mohammed, M. (2017). A review of drought indices. International Journal of Constructive
Research in Civil Engineering (IJCRCE) 3(4), 48–66.
3. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and Global Water Partnership (GWP) (2016) Hand-
book of drought indicators and indices. Svoboda, M., Fuchs, B. A (ed) integrated drought
management programme (IDMP), integrated drought management tools and guidelines series
2, Geneva.
4. Jain, V. K., Pandey, R. P., Jain, M. K., & Byun, H.-R. (2015). Comparison of drought indices
for appraisal of drought characteristics in the Ken River Basin. Weather and Climate Extremes,
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5. Dogan, S., Berktay, A., & Singh, V. P. (2012). Comparison of multi-monthly rainfall-based
drought severity indices, with application to semi-arid Konya closed basin, Turkey. Journal of
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6. Pai, D. S., Sridhar, L., Guhathakurta, P., Hatwar, H. R. (2011). District-wide drought climatology
of the South-West monsoon season over India based on Standardized precipitation index. Nat
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7. Naresh Kumar, M., Murthy, C. S., Sesha Sai M. V. R., Roy, P. S. (2009). On the use of standardized
precipitation index (SPI) for drought intensity assessment. Meteorologist Application, 16 381–
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sent monthly rainfall in africa for drought monitoring applications. International Journal of
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9. Hong wu, Hayes MJ, Weiss A, Qi Hu (2001) An evaluation of the standardized precipitation
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745–758
The Freezing Point of Soils
and the Factors Affecting its Depression

Rufaidah Shah and Bashir Ahmed Mir

Abstract Determination of freezing point is the prerequisite for any laboratory or

field study on the freeze–thaw behaviour of soils. Depression in the freezing point
of soil pore water as compared to pure water (which freezes at 0 °C) in a two-phase
or a three-phase soil system is associated with several factors such as water content,
mineralogical composition, salinity of pore water, pore size, plasticity of soil, etc. An
experimental study was conducted on three types of soils of different plasticity and
gradation to study the effects of water content, salinity of pore water and plasticity
of soil on the freezing point depression. The results showed that the freezing point
significantly depresses only when water content decreases beyond a certain value.
The freezing point also showed depression with increasing soil plasticity and a linear
depression with increasing salinity of pore water. The study is a part of extensive
laboratory investigation on frost susceptibility of soils in Kashmir.

Keywords Seasonally frozen grounds · Freezing point depression · Salinity ·

Plasticity · Freeze–thaw test

1 Introduction

Soils and rocks present in cold regions of the world that experience seasonal frost
are required to be tested for freeze–thaw susceptibility. In such regions, the ground
freezes in the coldest month of the year and remains in an unfrozen state for the
rest. This seasonal freezing and thawing of soils prove detrimental to engineering
structures, particularly pavements [1]. This, therefore, demands freeze–thaw testing
of soils to device proper measures and modifications for a particular site.

R. Shah (B) · B. A. Mir

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Jammu and Kashmir,
Srinagar 190006, India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. A. Mir
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 157
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_14
158 R. Shah and B. A. Mir

Determination of freezing point is the prerequisite for any laboratory or field

study on freeze thaw behaviour of soils [2, 3]. It helps the recognition of the freezing
front and determination of total frost penetration in a laboratory freeze–thaw setup.
It is also an important design parameter for constructions which involve artificial
freezing of grounds like construction of frozen earth walls for deep excavation and
for management of ground water seepage at the construction site [4].
Before actual freezing of soil, it is necessary for the temperature to go down
below the freezing point of soil pore water (T f ) to a temperature T sc , where the
super-cooled pore water exists in a metastable state until triggered to turn into ice
in a process called nucleation (Fig. 1). Accumulations of water molecules or soil
particles may act as nucleation centres that trigger water to ice transformation [5].
The crystallization results in the release of latent heat that raises the temperature of
soil to T f , the actual freezing point of soil. All the free pore water then freezes at
this temperature, T f . The temperature then starts decreasing further depending on
the ambient temperature [6, 7].
Unfrozen soil, whether saturated or not, usually freezes at a temperature below
0°C. The depression in the freezing point of soil pore water as compared to pure
water in a two-phase or three-phase soil system is primarily because of soil grain
matrix effect and osmotic effect [8]. This is associated with the number of factors
such as water content, mineralogical composition, salinity of pore water, plasticity
of soil, etc. [7, 9, 10].
An experimental study was conducted on three types of soils of different plasticity
and gradation to determine the freezing point of soils under different conditions of
water contents and pore water salinity. The objective of the study was to recognize
the role of water content, salinity of pore water and plasticity on depressing the
freezing point of soil. This paper presents the details of the testing procedure, the
results obtained and the conclusions drawn therein from the study.

Fig. 1 Typical cooling curve of soil

The Freezing Point of Soils and the Factors … 159

2 Materials and Methodology

For achieving the objectives of the study, three different soils were used of distinctly
different composition in terms of their particle size and plasticity. The basic properties
of the three soils used in this experiment are shown in Table 1.
The soil S-1 has 42% sand content and is of least plasticity while S-2 and S-3
have <1% coarse-grained fraction with S-3 having the highest plasticity of the three
samples. After obtaining the basic properties required for classification of the soils as
per Indian system of soil classification, the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content using light compaction test as per Indian standard code [11] were
obtained. The compaction curves of the three soils are shown in Fig. 2. The maximum
dry density decreased while the optimum moisture content increased with increasing
plasticity of the soil.

Table 1 Basic soil properties

S-1 S-2 S-3
of the three soils used in this
study Specific gravity (G) 2.67 2.61 2.60
Sand % 41.8 0.9 0
Silt % 54.2 92.1 73
Clay % 4 7 27
Liquid limit (wl ) 25 35 57
Plastic limit (wp ) 20 25 30
Plasticity index (I P ) 5 10 27
IS classification CL-ML ML-MI MH
Max. dry unit weight*, kN/m3 18.25 16.4 14.6
Optimum moisture content*, % 15.5 19 23.8
*obtained using Light Compaction Test (IS: 2720 Part
VII-1980)

Fig. 2 Compaction curves 20

(and corresponding ZAV S-1 S-2 S-3
lines) of the soils used in this
Dry unit weight, γd (kN/m3)

study 18

16

14

12
5 15 25 35 45
Moisture content, w (%)
160 R. Shah and B. A. Mir

Fig. 3 Sample preparation. a sample compacted in a test tube upto 20 mm height; b an NTC
thermistor; c thermistor inserted in the test tube containing soil; d Arduino mega 2560 connected
to PC; e streaming data in MS excel using data streamer add-in

2.1 Sample Preparation and Determination of Freezing Point

For the determination of freezing point, a weighed amount of oven dry soil sample
was mixed with pre-determined quantity of water as per the desired moisture content
and dry density. It was then compacted in a test tube up to a height of 20 mm (Fig. 3).
For obtaining continuous temperature change within this soil sample, a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor (Fig. 3b) was used. The thermistor was
carefully inserted through 10 mm into the soil placed in the test tube (Fig. 3c). For
soils prepared on dry side of optimum, a small hole, 10 mm deep, was made using
a nail prior to the insertion of thermistor. The thermistor was connected through
Arduino Mega 2560 to obtain temperature change directly into Microsoft Excel
using Data Streamer Add-in (Fig. 3).
The test tube containing the soil sample and the temperature sensor was then
placed in a water bath at 0 °C until the temperature of soil stabilized. The test tube
was then placed in the water bath at −3 °C (in some cases at −5 to −7 °C). This
resulted in the lowering of soil temperature beyond the actual freezing point. In some
cases, the super-cooled state did not exist for long, and the temperature jumped up
to the actual freezing point without any external instigation, while in most cases the
nucleation was initiated by striking the test tube with the wall of water bath while
The Freezing Point of Soils and the Factors … 161

keeping it immersed in the water bath coolant. The freezing point of the soil was
obtained from the graph of temperature sensor readings (in °C) with time (t) as shown
in Fig. 4.
The different combinations of water contents and solute concentrations tested
are shown in Table 2. The test Series 1 covers the tests performed on the soils at
different moisture contents without any solute added to the water. Series 2 tests were
conducted on the three samples at moisture content specified in Table 2 with solute
(NaCl) concentration of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 5%. For these tests, the salt solution of
desired concentration was first prepared, and then the dry sample of soil was mixed
with the pre-determined quantity of this solution to obtain desired moisture content.

2 2

Time Time
0 Temperature (°C) 0
Temperature (°C)

-2 -2

-4 S-1 -4 S-1
Tf = -1.1°C Tf = -0.35°C
Tsc = -3.8°C (a) Tsc = -2.7°C (b)
-6 -6
2
0
Time
Time
Temperature (°C)

0
Temperature (°C)

-2
-2

-4
-4 S-2 S-3
Tf = -0.5°C Tf = - 0.7°C
Tsc = -3.2°C (c) Tsc = - 3.5°C (d)
-6 -6
0 0
Time Time
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)

-2 -2 S-3
Tf = - 3.9°C
Tsc = - 5.3°C

-4 -4
S-3
Tf = - 2.0°C
Tsc = - 3.0°C (e) (f)
-6 -6

Fig. 4 Cooling curves of soils obtained at specific water and solute content; a S-1, wc = 5%, S =
0%; b S-1, wc = 20%, S = 0%; c S-2, wc = 20%, S = 0%; d S-3, wc = 20%, S = 0%; e S-3, wc =
20%, S = 2%; f S-3, wc = 20%, S = 5%
162 R. Shah and B. A. Mir

Table 2 Description of tests

Water content, wc (%) Solute concentration, S%
performed
Series 1
S-1 5, 10, 20, 30 –
S-2 5, 10, 20, 30 –
S-3 10, 20, 30 –
Series 2
S-1 5%, 10%, 20% 0.5, 1, 2, 5
S-2 20% 0.5, 1, 2, 5
S-3 20% 0.5, 2, 5

3 Results and Discussions

Some selected graphs showing variation of temperature, in °C, within the sample as
recorded using the NTC thermistor at different water contents and solute concentra-
tions is shown in Fig. 4. Similar graphs were observed for the other combinations
(Table 2) considered in this study.
From the graphs in Fig. 4, one can observe the jump in the temperature of the
soil sample as the sample is super-cooled to a temperature T sc . As the spontaneous
nucleation takes place at T sc , the latent heat of crystallization is released, resulting
in abrupt rise in temperature to T f . The latent heat slows down the cooling till most
of the free water is frozen [7]. The degree of neutralization between the latent heat
release and the effect of outside cooling rate is the deciding factor for the length
of equilibrium temperature stage at T f . Thus, the temperature will not rise to T f
spontaneously until the latent heat is enough to increase the system temperature to
T f [10]. Thus, the supercooling, defined as (T f – T sc ) has been correlated to cooling
rates, in addition to pore water solution [12], plastic limit, mass and water content of
the soil [9]. It is important, however, to note here that T sc , and not T f , is a function
of the cooling rate.
Figure 5 shows the variation of freezing point, in °C, with water content for the
three soils. It can be observed that the freezing point for all the three soils showed
significant decrease when the water content decreased beyond a certain value, which
was close to the optimum moisture content of that soil. It can be inferred that the
soils prepared on the wet-side of optimum had no influence of water content on their
freezing points.
However, the freezing points of S-1 (having the least plasticity and more than 40%
coarse-grained fraction) were higher than S-2 and S-3 for all water contents observed.
While S-3, which is of highest plasticity of the three, showed greater depression in
freezing point compared to other two soils for the same values of water content.
The reason for lower freezing points in S-3 compared to S-2 and S-1 can be
explained by the specific surface area of the soil particles. The nucleation of super-
cooled water is a function of water activity [13]. More the specific surface area,
greater is the adsorption of water and thicker is the water film (bound water) on
The Freezing Point of Soils and the Factors … 163

Water content (%)

0 10 20 30 40
-0

- 0.5

-1
Temperature (°C)

-1.5
S-1 (data)
-2
S-2 (data)
- 2.5 S-3 (data)
S-1 (fitting curve)
-3 S-2 (fitting curve)
S-3 (fitting curve)
- 3.5

Fig. 5 The variation of freezing point with water content for the three soils

the surface of soil particle which results in lower freezing point as amount of free
water decreases. As the grain size increases, the adsorption and the bound water
film decreases and the soil freezes at a higher temperature. Thus, at the same water
content, S-1 showed highest freezing point followed by S-2 and S-3.
The fitting curve for the variation of freezing point with water content is a power
function of the form:

T f = −A × wo B (1)

where, T f = the freezing point in degree Celsius and

wo = the percentage of initial water content.
The values of the fitting curve parameters A and B for the three soils are given in
Table 3.
Figure 6 shows the variation of freezing point with the solute concentration of the
three soils, each having 20% water content. A linear decrease in T f can be observed
with increasing solute concentration (S%). From the values of the slope, m, and the
intercept, c, for the three linear fitting curves, it can be inferred that for the same
water and solute content, the freezing point is slightly higher for low plastic soil, but
this difference decreases with increasing solute concentration.
Using theoretical analysis to understand the effect of pore diameter on freezing
point, Xiao et al. [13] demonstrated that the freezing point decreased with decreasing

Table 3 Values of
A B R2 value
parameters A and B of Eq. 1
for the three soils S-1 3.7526 −0.782 0.9205
S-2 9.4458 −0.952 0.9477
S-3 63.787 −1.456 0.9719
164 R. Shah and B. A. Mir

Salt content (%)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
S-1
Freezing point (°C) -1 S-2
S-3
Fitting (S-1)
-2 Fitting (S-2)
Fitting (S-3)
-3

-4

-5

Fig. 6 The variation of freezing point with solute concentration for the three soils at wc = 20%

pore diameter as interfacial forces came into play. For the same water content in a
soil, the freezing point is influenced by concentration and type of salt [14].
The variation of freezing points, in °C, with solute concentration, S%, for the soil
S-1 is shown in Fig. 7. At a particular salt content, the reduction in water content
increases the salt concentration thereby reducing the freezing point further. It can be
observed from Fig. 7 that for lower water content, the depression in freezing point
with increasing salinity was greater compared to that for higher water content. Also,
as the water content decreases, water is retained easily in smaller pores than larger
pores and the effect of pore size [14] increases, thus reducing the freezing point.
Also, from Figs. 5 and 7, it can be deduced that for higher values of water content,
the freezing point is more influenced by solute concentration in pore water than the
initial water content of the soil, which almost had no influence when the water content
is above the critical water content.

Salt content (%)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
wo = 5%
-1 wo = 10%
wo = 20%
Freezing Point (°C)

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

Fig. 7 The variation of freezing points with solute concentration for soil S-1
The Freezing Point of Soils and the Factors … 165

4 Conclusions

An experimental investigation was carried out on three types of soils for the assess-
ment of effects of water content and solute concentration in pore water of the soils on
freezing point depression. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results
obtained.
1. The freezing points (T f ) of the three soils at their optimum moisture contents
(wopt ), i.e. 15.5, 19 and 23.8% is −0.35, −0.50 and −0.70 °C, respectively.
When water content increased beyond wopt , there was no significant change
in the freezing points of the three soils. However, a decrease in water content
beyond optimum resulted in a rapid decrease in freezing points of the soils. For
S-3, there was approximately 9 times decrease in the freezing point when water
content was lowered to 5%. Similarly, T f was about 3 times and 5 times lower
for S-1 and S-2 at 5% water content compared to that at their respective wopt .
It can therefore be concluded that the effect of water content is significant on
the depression of freezing point of soils only when the value of water content is
less than the wopt of that soil. Increasing the water content beyond this critical
value for a particular soil, does not influence the freezing point of that soil.
2. By increasing the solute concentration (S) in pore water, there is a linear decrease
in T f of the three soils. However, the rate of depression (ΔT f /ΔS) increased
with decreasing wo of the soil. For S-1, the rate of depression ranges from 0.82–
2.5 °C/% with higher value for lower water content (wo = 5%), that means, 1
°C depression in freezing point was caused by almost 1.5% increase in solute
concentration at higher water content (20%), but the same level of depression
was caused by only 0.4% solute concentration at lower water content (5%).
3. For the similar moisture and solute concentrations, the freezing point was lower
for fine-grained, high plastic soil compared to low plastic and coarse-grained
soils. This is due to presence of more bounded water in fine-grained soil with
higher specific surface area resulting in greater adsorption compared to coarse-
grained soils having lesser specific surface and lower adsorption. Lesser adsorp-
tion of water results in thinner water film (bounded water) around the soil
particle. As the amount of free water is more in a coarse-grained soil, it freezes
at a higher temperature. The effect of plasticity and grain size on the freezing
point of soil, however, decreased with increasing water content.
166 R. Shah and B. A. Mir

References

1. Simonsen, E., & Isacsson, U. (1999). Thaw weakening of pavement structures in cold regions.
Cold RegNs Sci Technol, 29(2), 135–151.
2. Arenson, L. U., & Sego, D. C. (2006). The effect of salinity on the freezing of coarse-grained
sands. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 43(3), 325–337.
3. ASTM (2006) International, standard test methods for frost heave and thaw weakening
susceptibility of soils D5918. Annual Book of ASTM Standard.
4. Bell, F. (1993). Grounf freezing. CRC Press.
5. Andersland OB, Ladanyi B (2013) An introduction to frozen ground engineering. Springer
Science & Business Media
6. Ming F et al. (2020) Investigation into freezing point depression in soil caused by NaCl solution.
Water 12(8):2232
7. Wan, X., Liu, E., & Qiu, E. (2021). Study on ice nucleation temperature and water freezing in
saline soils. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 32(1), 119–138.
8. Liyang W et al. (2021) A simplified model for the phase composition curve of saline soils
considering the second phase transition. Water Resour Res 57(1) e2020WR028556.
9. Kozlowski, T. (2009). Some factors affecting supercooling and the equilibrium freezing point
in soil–water systems. Cold RegNs Sci Technol, 59(1), 25–33.
10. Bing, H., & Ma, W. (2011). Laboratory investigation of the freezing point of saline soil. Cold
RegNs Sci Technol, 67(1–2), 79–88.
11. Indian standard (2011) Methods of test for soils. determination of water content—dry density
relation using light compaction, 2720 (Part VII). 1980. fifth reprint: Aug 1997
12. Liu, Z. (1986). Freezing point of wet soil and its measurement. J China Min Technol Chin, 3,
24–31.
13. Koop T et al. (2000) Water activity as the determinant for homogeneous ice nucleation in
aqueous solutions. Nature 406(6796):611–614
14. Xiao, Z., Lai, Y., & Zhang, M. (2018). Study on the freezing temperature of saline soil. Acta
Geotechnica, 13(1), 195–205.
Blast Loads and Their Effects
on Structures
George Vincent Jasmine, Markandeya Raju Ponnada,
and Siba Prasad Mishra

Abstract The main objective is to investigate the present proceedings on the blast
loads on the civil structures as an act of terrorism, industrialization or mining actions.
Explosives are detonating materials that explode with high pressure on ignition. The
blast explosion inside or at a proximity distance of a structure damages the struc-
ture physically, incurring trauma/death to the inmates or people in the surrounding.
During the present Anthropogenic epoch, the act of terrorism has surged targeting
mainly the commercial units, high-rise buildings, 5-star hotels and crowded places.
The bombing action is done through a small packet bomb to suicidal trucks or even
aeroplanes. Customarily while designing the imposed loads on a structure, the struc-
tural engineers consider the dead, live, lateral and seismic loads but do not consider
the blast load. In designing important and high rising structures, it has become perti-
nent to consider blast loads (dynamic loads) along with other loads. Since it was not
warranted, there was no code provision for the blast load in the design of structures.
The present research is an attempt to review all the old literature available and to find
the research gap before proceeding with the calculation of blast loads in the design
of a structure. The conclusions derived from the research gap shall be helpful to
understand the behaviour of blast loads on structures and can be useful in designing
the important structures.

Keywords Blast load · Impact load · Dynamic loads · Collapse analysis

G. V. Jasmine
Department of Civil Engineering, Centurion University of Technology and Management,
Paralakhemundi, Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. R. Ponnada (B)
Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous), Vizianagaram,
Andhra Pradesh 535005, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. P. Mishra
Civil Engineering, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi,
Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 167
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_15
168 G. V. Jasmine et al.

1 Introduction

Blast loads are dynamic in nature and they cause catastrophic damage to the struc-
tures. An explosion releases a lot of energy in the form of light, heat, sound and shock
waves. These waves can propagate through the structure in a very short duration and
lead to the collapse of the structure. So, there is a significant need to design the
structure as a blast-resistant structure. Structural irregularities also play a prominent
role in designing blast-resistant structures. Therefore, it is important to understand
these factors before designing. In this paper, we gathered the available literature on
the blast loads on the structures and explained the special problems while defining
the loads.
Terrorists attack by explosive loading along border territory by targeting both
government buildings and also civilian houses. On the safety issue, the vulnerability
of structures to blast loads must be protected. The explosives during a blast release
huge kinetic energy and also produce heavy blast waves comprising of the pressure
of about 3–5 kPa or even more [1].

1.1 Aims of the Study

The myth of blast is catastrophic causing loss of life and permanent structures. The
residuals left after a blast pose threat to the environment for a long period. Increasing
blast loads of the twenty-first century like the Beirut explosion and WTC blasts are
the burning examples. India had to suffer from Improvised Explosive Device (IED)
blasts in 337 numbers (2017), 268 (2015), 190 (2014), 283 (2013) and 365 (2012),
respectively, as per NBDC data (National Bomb Data Centre, India). Therefore, it
is high time that either we have to think of dissolution methods, or we shall have
controlled blasting. For terrorist blast loads, structures must be blast-resistant (The
Economic Times news, S. K. Gurung, Jul 12, 2018, 10:34 PM).

1.2 The Objective of the Present Paper

The following are the objectives of the present paper:

• To review the studies done by the various researchers on blast load effects on
different RC and Steel-framed structures.
• To review various works done on blast effect on framed structures with different
irregularities, viz., Geometric, Stiffness, Mass irregularities, etc.
• To review the blast loads and blast-affected structures.
Blast Loads and Their Effects on Structures 169

2 Literature Review

Terrorism is one of the major threats to humanity and its property. Gradually, the
Naxal/terrorist groups are becoming unstructured and hostile to use blast loads to
attack the public and their structural possessions like bridges, towers and structures.
The summary of timeline key inferences obtained from the various literature
survey done from 1995 to 2018 is shown in Table 1.

2.1 Recent Studies on Blast Loads

Kumar et al. [41, 43] studied the performance of symmetric RC space framed build-
ings subjected to seismic and impact loads. They used time history analysis to study
the response of the considered building. From their study, it has been observed that
the maximum lateral displacement for a surface blast of 2500 kg TNT and seismic
load were comparable at all storey levels. This maximum lateral displacement was
obtained at 5 s in buildings subjected to the Northridge earthquake, while it was
obtained at 0.5 s in the same building subjected to a surface blast of 2500 kg TNT.
Applied Element Method-based software was used for their study.
Vangipuram et al. [44] observed that Blast loads do not act uniformly and may be
symmetrical or skew. While designing for blast loads the reflected peak pressure and
temperature varies at different points in a structure with diminution of the standoff
distance.
Megha and Ramya [45] studied the impact of the blast load on buildings. A six-
storey building is considered for the study. The building is modelled using ETABS
2016. The building is subjected to different charge weights of 200 g, 400 and 600 kg
with a standoff distance of 20, 40 and 60 m. Blast parameters are determined as per the
guidelines of IS:4991–1968. The time history analysis is carried out and the response
of the structure is determined in terms of displacement versus time, velocity versus
time and acceleration versus time. To make the building more resistible against blast
load, shear walls and steel bracings were implemented. The results conclude that the
storey displacement, storey drift and column forces are high when the blast is at a
distance of 20 m from the building. The displacement and drift are more when the
charge weight and distance are less.
Sunita and Bharati [46] have studied the effects of surface blasts on multi-storey
buildings. Four seismically designed RC structures with 3, 6, 9 and 12 heights were
considered. The parameters considered are standoff distance and charge weight. The
non-linear time history analysis is used to obtain the response of the building. For
analysis, SAP2000 software has been used. Charge weights of 500 kg TNT and
1000 kg TNT at a standoff distance of 5, 10, 15, 30, 40 and 60 m were considered for
analysis. The results conclude that base shear produced by ground shock is greater
than the base shear produced by air pressure for all the standoff distances in both
170 G. V. Jasmine et al.

Table 1 Chronological inferences derived from the literature survey

Timeline Reference Progress during investigation Key Inference
1995 Dharaneepathy et al. Critical ground zero distance Critical blast load demand.
[2] was established.
1998 Hatem et al. [3] A new discrete element tool Appropriate numerical
Corley et al. [4] was established to model tool.
separation of materials. General protection for
Recommendations were blasts.
made such as jacketing of
columns & in compartments.
1999 Krauthammer et al. [5] Explosion wave’s negative Impact on cladding
phase studied and the systems.
vulnerability of glass panels.
2002 Krauthammer [6] Developed progressive AEM could be a suitable
Meguro et al. [7] collapse and damage tool for collapse analysis.
assessment methodology.
AEM was used to model
blast loads on structures.
.2003 Alexander Studied different numerical A numerical application of
et al. [8] methods to predict explosion blast demand.
effects on buildings.
2004 Elkholy and Meguro AEM improved with larger AEM becomes faster and
[9] element sizes making it efficient.
Luccioni et al. [10] possible to analyze large Blast demand.
buildings.
Collapse analysis is
modelled using AUTODYN.
2005 Kirk and Farid [11] Studied general science of
Alex and Timothy [12] blast loading and reviewed
general blasts.
Blast loads on buildings and
the effects of it on adjacent
buildings were studied
2006 Pandey et al. [13] Effects of external blast External blast is more
loads on the concrete shell of critical.
a nuclear reactor.
2007 Khadid et al. [14] Used FEM/ CDM for Numerical modelling, the
Ngo et al. [15] modelling blasts on plates. study of different buildings
Zhu and Lu [16] Several buildings and blasts and material models
have been studied under involved.
extreme conditions.
Characteristics of explosion
loads on buildings with
different constitutive
relations
(continued)
Blast Loads and Their Effects on Structures 171

Table 1 (continued)
Timeline Reference Progress during investigation Key Inference
2008 Van der Meer [17] & MDOF modelling of BLEVE The incapability of SDOF
Nitesh et al. [18] blast load achieved. systems and design
Zeynep et al. [19] The design aspect of the theories to prevent collapse
Henera et al. [20] blast-resistant structures. due to blast.
Koccaz et al. [21] Worked on structural plan Buildings in symmetry are
irregularities stable against blast effects.
Architectural Blast resistant
building theories.
2010 Nassret et al. [22] Blast wave characters of Blast demand.
Hussein [23] typical charge weight and
Assal [24] standoff distances were
Jayasilake et al. [25] examined
Studied analytical/ SDOF
methods for blast loads
Non-linear dynamic response
of high rise Buildings was
studied (SDOF method of
the blast)
Blast and earthquake loads
were compared for Six
storied building
2011 Raparla et al. [26] Progressive collapse due to Proving AEM a better tool
Khalil et al. [27] EQ loads in 2D AEM. over FEM for collapse
modelling.
2012 Helmy et al. [28] A comparative study of AEM could be an effective
In 2013 [30] AEM and FEM tool for collapse analysis.
Mohammed et al. [29] AEM is proved to be the Dynamic response of
most effective tool for SIFCON frame better than
collapse analysis. RCC frame.
Studied the response of
SIFCON and RCC frames
against blast.
2013 Subin et al. [31] Using FEM, the explosion Blast and earthquake
Jayashree et al. [32] effects and earthquake demand on buildings.
loading was studied. Reduced +ve phase
Compared the blast wave duration with an increase
parameters at various charge of intensity of blast
weights at different ranges. depends on the height.
2014 Amy Coffield Earthquake designed framing Blast and earthquake loads
et al. [33] systems subjected to blast using AEM.
Kulkarni et al. [34] loads using AEM. Studied about the
Shallan et al. [35] Dynamic response of high vulnerability of irregular
rise building with high-rise buildings.
irregularities subjected to
blast load
(continued)
172 G. V. Jasmine et al.

Table 1 (continued)
Timeline Reference Progress during investigation Key Inference
2015 Amy Coffield and Studied different steel frame Recommendation of
Hojjatadeli [36] with bracings subjected to structural systems for blast
blast loadings loads
2016 Madonna et al. [37] Used alternative path method Dampers or stiffeners can
Chiranjeevi for design to prevent the be used to resist impact
et al. [38] Swathi [39] structure from damage from loads.
Habib and Alam [40] the blast. L-shaped structure has
Studied the effect of plan max base shear &
irregularity (L,T and U overturning moment.
shape) on RC buildings
2017 Kumar and Rambabu Studied behaviour of RC Blast and earthquake loads
[41] space framed building with applied on irregular
vertical irregularity to buildings using AEM.
seismic and impact loading
using AEM
2018 Kumar and Rambabu Studied the performance of Blast and EQ loads applied
[42] symmetric RC Space framed on regular buildings using
Singh [43] building subjected to seismic AEM
and impact loads using AEM The resistance of regular
Studied the behaviour of buildings are higher than
vertical irregular buildings irregular buildings
under blast load

high-rise and low-rise buildings. With the increase in charge weight, the effect of the
ground shock increases more than air pressure.

2.2 Models Developed

Models are developed for finding the parameters of the shock waves generated by
the blast loads based upon the scaled distance, and they are compartmentalized as
Airburst (free air) and Surface burst models. The different burst models are the Brode
mode (Brode [48]), Henrych and Major mode (Henrych et al. [49]), Held’s Model
(Held [50]), Mill’s mode (Mills [51]), Sadovskiy mode (Sadovskiy et al. [52]), Bajie
model (Bajie [53]) and Kinny & Graham model (Kinny et al. [54]) which is the
development of the US Army TM5-855–1 model [55].
Similarly, the surface burst models developed by different researchers are
Newmark & Hansen model (Newmark et al. [56]), Swisdak model (Swisdak [57]),
Wu and Hao model (Wu and Hao [58]), Siddiqui and Ahmad model (Siddiqui et al.
[59]), Iqbal and Ahmad model (Iqbal et al. [60]) and Badshah model (Badshah [61]).
Blast Loads and Their Effects on Structures 173

2.3 Lapses and Research Gap

Investigating the past works, it is ascertained that a large number of works have
been done on blast loads on regular and irregular structures, standoff distances and
charge weight variations and behaviour on different types of buildings (SIMCON or
SIFCON) than RCC structures. However, it is found that the impact on blast loads
on the framed structure was meagre.

3 Preface to Blast Loads

3.1 Blast Materials

The blast materials (explosives) are a solid or liquid base that should have the prop-
erties as follows: The material is normal at ground state but undergoes a chemical
change when stimulated, mainly Tri-nitro Toluene main base structure. This reaction
may yield a very high temperature, huge amount of gases and produces explosion
and undergoes exothermic reaction. The controlled explosions are intended during
quarry blasting, demolition of structures, shaping foundation and tunnel excavation
within a mountainous base.
The health issues (trauma/death) associated with improvised explosive device
(IED) spasm are overpressure damage (heart, lungs, abdomen and other sensitive
organs); fragmentation injuries from flying debris; thermal injuries, impact injuries,
fall injuries and toxic exposure injuries (John Pichtel [62]).

3.2 Field Test Results

To have experimented on blast loads, it is difficult to conduct and generally mili-

tary laboratories are preferred. Field tests are conducted by various researchers for
different blast materials and the results are summarized in Table 2.
Regarding Table 2, the notation followed is as follows:
RCC: Reinforced cement concrete;
RC + ACJ: Reinforced concrete with advanced composite jackets;
ALFC: Reinforced cement concrete with aluminium foam claddings;
FRC: Fibre-reinforced concrete;
SFRC: Steel fibre-reinforced concrete;
LCFRC: Long carbon fibre-reinforced concrete.
174 G. V. Jasmine et al.

Table 2 Field tests for different specimens, explosives and standoff distance researches in the past
S. Specimen Material Mix Blast type Charge Standoff Reference
No. type made of ratio/size wt. (kg) distance
(m) (m)
1 Columns RC and 1:01 AFNO 558 4.36 Rodriguez-Nikl
RC + [63]
ACJ
2 Slabs RC 1.22 × TNT 1.16 and Contact Wei et al. [64]
1.22 1.71
3 Slabs RC and 1:01 TNT 1000 20 Schenker et al.
FRC [65]
4 Panels RC and 0.6 × 0.6 N/A 1 0.6 Yusof et al. [66]
SFRC
5 Slabs RC 1:1, TNT 0.19–0.94 0.4 and 0.5 Wang et al. [67]
1:1.25 & 0.3,
1:1.67
6 Panels RCC and 1.83 × AFNO 38.5 1.065,1.37 Tabatabaei et al.
LCFRC 1.83 and 1.675 [68]
7 Slabs RCC 1×1 TNT 0.2, 0.31 0.4 Zhao et al. [69]
and 0.46
8 Panels RCC and 6 × 1.5 TNT 25 0.45 Foglar et al.
FRC
9 Columns RCC 1:01 Gelamon 12.3 0.6 1.5 Codina et al.
10 Slabs RCC and 2 × 0.8 TNT 6, 8 and 1.5 Wu and Hao
RCC + 12 [58]
ALFC Rigby et al. [70]

3.3 Discussion

Structures could not be completely safe and riskless. It is always against a distinct
risk level. The distresses occurred to the building by an earthquake, blast loads and
hurricane loads can be at a reduced level, and the distresses caused to the building
shall be less. The mitigation strategies for the reduction of the threat level from blast
loadings are strict surveillance through diligent intelligence, well vigilant security
system, enhancing standoff distance between the approach to the target, constructing
blast walls for attenuation of shocks, proper landscaping with the optimized align-
ment of the structure and constructing structural elements, to absorb the blast load
impact.

4 Conclusions

After studying the above literature, the following conclusions have been drawn:
Blast Loads and Their Effects on Structures 175

1. As the standoff distance increases, the blast pressure decreases and vice versa.
2. As the charge weight increases, the blast pressure increases.
3. The regular structure has higher resistance than the irregular structure.
4. The dynamic behaviour of SIMCON buildings is better than RCC buildings.
5. Dampers or stiffeners can be used to resist such heavy loads, and also joints
should be designed to resist such heavy moments.
6. The dynamic behaviour of the SIFCON frame is better than that of the RCC
frame.
From the literature review, it has been observed that no studies are made on the
performance of Reinforced Concrete Framed structures subjected to blast loads by
considering Soil-Structure Interaction.

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Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure
and Composite Structure by Pushover
Analysis

N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Abstract Irregular systems make up a significant portion of urban infrastruc-

ture. As a result, irregular structures, especially those in seismic zones, become
a matter of concern. Buildings with irregular shapes are more likely to be designed
than buildings with regular shapes, as the architectural element of a building has
become more important than the structural safety of the building in recent years.
According to studies, irregularity plays a significant role in seismic behaviour, forcing
a comprehensive investigation in structural design. The present research addresses
the study and behaviour of structures with composite columns–concrete-filled steel
tube columns (CFST) having irregularities in plan and elevation, subjected to ground
motion. In this paper, a study on how composite column–concrete-filled steel column
meets seismic demands in five irregular structures and its advantages over RCC has
been carried out by pushover analysis in ETABS.

Keywords CFST columns · Irregular buildings · Pushover analysis · Seismic

1 Introduction

The structural configuration of a multi-storey building has a significant impact on

its behaviour during a strong earthquake. As a result, irregular structures, especially
those in seismic zones, are a cause of concern. The irregularity in structures can be
created by an irregular distribution of mass, weight, and stiffness across the height
of the structure [1]. The design and examination of such structures becomes more
complicated when they are built in high seismic zones. The two types of irregu-
larity are plan irregularity and vertical irregularity, with vertical irregularities being
one of the most significant causes of failure. However, it is unavoidable due to the

N. Pannirselvam (B) · M. Sreelekshmi

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu, 603 203
Kattankulathur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Sreelekshmi
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 179
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_16
180 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

recent demand for aesthetically distinguished building structures in terms of plan,

configuration, and other geometrical features [2, 3]. Reinforced concrete structures
are commonly used in India because they are the most convenient and cost-effective
structure for low-rise building. However, due to increase in dead load, less stiffness,
span limitations, and other factors, this type of structure is no longer economically
viable for medium- to high-rise buildings.
Steel and concrete have been used to construct composite member beams and
columns. Multi-storey commercial structures often use steel and concrete structures.
Composite structures are becoming more prominent and preferred by structural engi-
neers as the disadvantages of using solely steel or purely concrete structures are
reduced. As a result, the drawbacks of using solely steel or concrete structures can be
reduced. Concrete filled steel tube columns, a composite construction that combines
the benefits of steel and concrete, are widely used in high-rise and multi-storey
buildings [4].
Long-term seismic design will be influenced by the development of specialized
nonlinear techniques for large critical structures, which will impact seismic design.
As a result, pushover analysis will help identify members that are more critical during
an earthquake, requiring serious consideration in design and detailing.
Modelling of an irregular reinforced cement concrete structure as well as an
irregular composite structure with CFST columns will be carried out in this article,
accompanied by seismic and pushover analyses on both structures. A comparison of
the effects and results was conducted.

1.1 Reinforced Concrete Structure

Reinforced concrete is a durable composite material which is one of the most widely
used in modern construction. Reinforced concrete structures are made up of concrete
and steel members such as columns, beams, and slabs. Concrete resists compression
in the members, while steel resists tension, resulting in a joint action. This type of
construction, on the other hand, is ideally suited to medium- to high-rise structures
and not cost-effective [5]. Following the achievement of such structures for safety
factors and design requirements in accordance with international standards, the most
important consideration in the design of structures is the economic cost of engineering
projects. There are many types of structural systems such as earthquake resistance,
and structural systems that were typically referred to as systems used in the design of
public and private structures, but in the design of RC high-rise buildings, we use those
structural systems regardless of the number of floors, type of foundation soil, or other
factors. The cracking behaviour of concrete does affect the load capacity of concrete
structures. Concrete belongs to the category of brittle materials since its tensile
strength is much smaller than its compressive strength, but it is not entirely brittle.
Since concrete is known as a semi-brittle material, it is important to consider not
only tensile strength but also tensile toughness when studying its cracking behaviour
[6].
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 181

Disadvantages of reinforced concrete structures

• Increased dead load for structures
• Imparts lesser stiffness for higher structures
• Large span restriction
• Uneconomical for high-rise structures
• Slower construction procedures

1.2 Composite Structure

In composite structures, beams and columns are constructed of two different mate-
rials, such as steel and concrete. In the construction of multi-storey commercial
buildings, steel and concrete structures have a wider range of applications. Composite
structures are becoming more popular and preferred by structural engineers as the
disadvantages of using purely steel or purely concrete structures are reduced. Steel
composite columns like CFT (Concrete Filled Tubular) columns proved to be effi-
cient in terms of seismic performances [4]. When it comes to sustaining load during
a fire, CFT columns outperform normal columns. It has also been stated that CFT
columns made of ultra-high strength concrete can withstand high static loads at high
temperatures. The post-yield axial ductility of circular steel tubes is much higher
than that of square or rectangular tube sections. Smaller D/t ratios provide a large
improvement in yield load and more desirable post-yield behaviour for small dimen-
sional CFT columns [7]. Because of their excellent strength, ductility, and construc-
tional flexibility, structures with concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have
been commonly used for decades. The beam-column connection is the most integral
component of a CFST frame structure. The seismic activity of connections has a
significant impact on a building’s reliability.
Advantages of composite structures
• Increased stiffness
• Enables speedy construction
• Economic in structural system with durability
• Rapid erection and its seismic performance
• Enables lesser deflections and longer span
• Good fire-resistant capacity.

1.3 Irregular Structure

Irregular structures have become an important part of modern urban development.

Such structures are often built for both functional as well as for aesthetic purposes.
Irregular structures have an irregular distribution of mass, weight, and stiffness over
the building’s height. When such structures are built in high seismic zones, their
182 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

design and analysis become more difficult. Plan irregularity and vertical irregularity
are the two forms of irregularity, with vertical irregularities being one of the leading
causes of structural collapse during earthquakes [7, 8]. The structures considered
for study are L-shaped, T-shaped, plus-shaped, and two vertically irregular setback
buildings as shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Fig. 1 L-shape

Fig. 2 Plus-shape
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 183

Fig. 3 T-shape

Fig. 4 Setback 1

2 Objective of the Work

The project’s main objective is to investigate the seismic response of irregular struc-
tures with composite columns and to compare irregular reinforced cement concrete
structures with composite structures, as well as to examine the feasibility of concrete-
filled steel columns in irregular structures. The current research focuses on the action
of structures subjected to ground motion that have irregularly formed composite
184 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Fig. 5 Setback 2

columns. Vertical geometric irregularity and stiffness were among the vertical irreg-
ularities investigated. The horizontal irregularity that is being considered is the re-
entrant corner. The re-entrant corner is the horizontal irregularity that is being consid-
ered. Difference in the pushover curves of the irregular reinforced concrete structures
and composite structures with CFT columns, estimate of force and displacement, and
identification of failure mechanisms and critical regions are to be determined.

3 Methodology

This research work is aimed at irregular structures with plan irregularity and vertical
irregularity. Models of G + 30 structures have been developed. Framed components
include beams and columns, which are restrained in all six degrees of freedom.
Membrane thin elements are referred to as slabs. Initially, response spectrum analysis
and linear static analysis were performed and the results were compared to IS code.
Each structure was subjected to a pushover analysis, and the results were compared.
Tables 1, 2, and 3 show the material properties, geometrical details, and structural
details, respectively.
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 185

Table 1 Material properties

Specimen Material
Column M 60
Beam M 40
Slab M 40
Rebar Fe500
Steel F 345

Table 2 Geometric details

Number of stories 30
Storey height 3.2 m

Table 3 Details of structures

Type Dimension Columns in mm Beams in mm Slabs in mm
“m” RCC Composite RCC Composite RCC Composite
L-shape 35 × 25 600 × 300 mm, t = 8 mm 350 × ISMB350, 160 mm 120 mm
600 mm 650 ISMB250
T-shape 40 × 35 800 × 600 mm, t = 0 mm 350 × ISMB350, 200 mm 150 mm
800 mm 650 ISMB250
Plus-shape 35 × 35 1000 × 800 mm, t = 10 mm 350 × ISMB350, 200 mm 150 mm
1000 mm 650 ISMB250
Setback 1 35 × 35 800 × 600 mm, t = 10 mm 350 × ISMB350, 200 mm 150 mm
800 mm 650 ISMB250
Setback 2 40 × 25 800 × 600 mm, t = 10 mm 350 × ISMB350, 200 mm 150 mm
800 mm 650 ISMB250

4 Modelling

All the 30 storey structures were modelled using ETABS 18. Three buildings were
having irregularity in plan with re-entrant corner L-shape, T-shape, plus-shape, and
two buildings were vertically irregular with setbacks—setback 1 and setback 2. Grade
of concrete assigned for slabs and beams was M40 and M60 for columns. Rebars
were assigned with Fe 500. Composite structures were modelled with circular CFT
columns and secondary beams were provided for all composite buildings. Structures
have been modelled in accordance with IS codes and Eurocode.

4.1 Linear Static Analysis

Linear static analysis, also known as equivalent static analysis, is a type of static
analysis that uses formulas from code of practise. The procedure begins with the
calculation of base shear and is then spread across the building’s height. Base shear
186 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Table 4 Seismic Definition

Zone factor 0.36
Response reduction factor 5
Importance factor 1
Site type II

Fig. 6 Displacement Displacements (mm)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 7 Drift Drift

0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Vb, seismic coefficient Ah, response reduction factor R, zone factor Z, importance
factor I, response acceleration coefficient Sa/g, and undamped natural time period T
are all important parameters for the study and can be found in IS: 1893. The structure
is believed to be in fundamental mode of vibration in this study. As a result, drift
storey, storey shear, overturning moment, and storey displacement were discovered.
Table 4 shows the seismic data considered. Results obtained are shown in Figs. 6, 7,
8, and 9.

4.2 Response Spectrum Analysis

Since multiple mode shapes of buildings are taken into account, response spectrum
analysis, which is a linear dynamic analysis, is also known as the modal approach. The
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 187

Fig. 8 Base shear Base shear (kN)

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 9 Overturning moment Overturning moment (kNm)

27000000
22000000
17000000
12000000
7000000

RCC COMPOSITE

undamped natural time and damping values are plotted against the response which
is maximum [9]. Relative velocity, absolute acceleration, and relative displacement
which are maximum are used to show the results. The results obtained are shown
below from Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13.

Fig. 10 Displacement Displacements (mm)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

RCC COMPOSITE
188 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Fig. 11 Drift Drift

0.0035
0.003
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 12 Base shear Base shear (kN)

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 13 Overturning Overturning moment (kNm)

moment 25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0

RCC COMPOSITE

5 Pushover Analysis

Pushover analysis is a nonlinear static analysis that allows structures to behave

in-elastically. It is used to calculate demand distribution, strength, drift capability,
seismic demand, and the adequacy of new structural design for existing buildings. It is
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 189

Fig. 14 L-shape L Shape

7000

6000

BASE SHEAR(kN)
5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m)
RCC COMPOSITE

possible to obtain response characteristics such as force and displacement estimates,

failure sequence, structural stability, and critical area identification. The results of
the modelled structures of RCC and Steel composite structures have been compared.
According to most engineers, the importance and use of nonlinear static analysis
approaches in the structural analysis are unavoidable to minimize dynamic analysis
problems [8, 10]. This form of analysis is more accurate than conventional static anal-
ysis, and its results are much easier to interpret than nonlinear dynamic analysis. If
the structure’s performance objective results in a large non-elastic strain–stress curve,
linear approaches are ineffective due to uncertainty enhancement, and a nonlinear
analysis should be used to achieve higher accuracy. This form of analysis is more
accurate than conventional static analysis, and its results are much easier to inter-
pret than nonlinear dynamic analysis [11]. If the structure’s performance objective
results in a large non-elastic strain–stress curve, linear approaches are ineffective
due to uncertainty enhancement, and a nonlinear analysis should be used to achieve
higher accuracy. From the Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, it is seen that the lateral
displacement is reduced for composite structure than the RCC structure (Table 5).

5.1 Results and Discussions

See (Figs. 19, 20, and 21).

190 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Fig. 15 T-shape T Shape

6000

5000

BASE SHEAR (kN)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24
ROOF DISPLACEMENT(m)

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 16 Plus-shape Plus Shape

7000

6000
BASE SHEAR(kN)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
ROOF DISPLACEMENT(m)

RCC COMPOSITE

6 Conclusions

1. Response spectrum analysis shows lower base shear and storey displacements
than linear static analysis.
2. Pushover analysis yields a higher base shear than response spectrum analysis
or linear static analysis.
3. Compared to the RCC, the structural weight of steel composites is found less.
4. As compared to RCC, the composite structure has a higher stiffness. As a
result, the composite structure’s storey stiffness has been decreased, and the
storey drift obtained is within the acceptable range of 5. Base shear values
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 191

Fig. 17 Setback 1 SET BACK 1

9000
8000
7000

BASE SHEAR (kN)

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m)
RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 18 Setback 2 SET BACK 2

8000

7000

6000
BASE SHEAR (kN)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
ROOF DISPLACEMENT(m)
RCC COMPOSITE

Table 5 Yield deflection and yield base shear

Type of structure Yield displacement, mm Yield base shear, kN
RCC Composite RCC Composite
L-shape 176 99 5560 4120
T-shape 224.3 184.22 5988 4100
Plus-shape 158 100.35 5910 3675.43
Setback 1 337 226.90 7673.5 6813.50
Setback 2 256 167.30 7490 6467.34
192 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

Fig. 19 Base shear Base shear (kN)

20000
15000
10000
5000
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 20 Time period Time period (secs)

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

RCC COMPOSITE

Fig. 21 Displacement Displacements (mm)

400
300
200
100
0

RCC COMPOSITE

obtained is higher in RCC than the composite structures because composite

structures are light in weight.
5. In composite structure, the dead weight is found to be lower than that of an
RCC structure, resulting in lower seismic forces.
6. The secondary beams produced just below the composite slab also provide
more stiffness than the structure with RCC. As the stiffness of a composite
structure is increased, the lateral displacement is reduced.
Study on Irregular Tall RC Structure … 193

7. Since composite structures are more flexible than reinforced concrete struc-
tures, it takes longer for them to start oscillating back and forth after lateral
forces are applied.
8. The lateral displacement of the composite structure is found to be lower than
that of the RCC structure.
9. RCC has more structural weight than composite structure, therefore over-
turning moment is higher for RCC.
10. For both RCC and composite structures, linear static analysis results such as
storey drift, storey shear, storey displacement, and overturning moment were
found to be higher in vertically irregular setback building 1. Out of the five
structures, the L-shaped plan irregular building had the lowest values.
11. In composite structure, yielding started at displacement lesser than yielding
started in RCC structure.
12. Due to the lower ductility of RCC, plastic hinges were formed earlier in the
stages than in composite structures. In composite structures, the number of
plastic hinges formed was less.
13. From the results and comparison, for irregular structures, composite structure
exhibits better performance in higher seismic zones.
14. It is possible to enhance the behaviour of structures by adding bracings, shear
wall along with the composite structures.

References

1. Naveen ES, Abraham NM, Kumari SA (2019) Analysis of irregular structures under earthquake
loads. Procedia Struct Integr 14 806–819
2. Das PK, Dutta SC (2020) Seismic behavior of plan and vertically irregular structures: state of
art and future challenges. Nat Hazards Rev-ASCE 1527–6988
3. Pena LA, Carvalho (2015) Influence of the concrete structural configuration in the seismic
response. IBRACON Struct Mater J 8:800–826
4. Denavit MD, SM, Hajjar JF (2012) Nonlinear seismic analysis of circular concrete-filled steel
tube members and frames. J Struct Eng 138:1089–1098
5. Katkhoda, A., & Knaa, R. (2012). Optimization in the selection of structural systems for the
design of reinforced concrete high-rise buildings in resisting seismic forces. Energy Procedia,
19, 269–275.
6. Lu X, Li Y, Guan H (2017) Progressive collapse analysis of a typical super-tall reinforced
concrete frame-core tube building exposed to extreme fires. FireTechnol 53:107–133
7. Patel, V. I., Liang, Q. Q., & Hadi, M. N. S. (2014). Nonlinear analysis of axially loaded circular
concrete-filled stainless steel tubular short columns. ELSEVIER J Constr Steel Res, 101, 9–18.
8. Mohod, M. V. (2015). Pushover analysis of structures with plan irregularity. J Mech Civ Eng,
12(4), 46–55.
9. Lewandowski, R., & Pawlak, Z. (2018). Response spectrum method for building structures
with viscoelastic dampers described by fractional derivatives. Engineering Structures, 171,
1017–1026.
194 N. Pannirselvam and M. Sreelekshmi

10. Mahmoud, S., Abdallah, W., Hanna, N., & Abdelaa, A. (2016). Seismic response evaluation
of connected super-tall structures. Proceedings of the institution of civil engineers-structures
and building, 169(11), 840–852.
11. Cimellaro GP, ASCE AM, Giovine T, Lopez-Garcia D (2014) Bidirectional pushover analysis
of irregular structures. J Struct Eng ASCE 140(9)
Feasibility Study on Subgrade
Stabilization of Pavement Using Lime
and Fly Ash as Admixtures

Sistla Vinay Krishna, Aayushi Parashar, and J. S. Sudarsan

Abstract The nature of the underlying layers of the pavement determines its life.
Among these layers, the subgrade plays a very crucial role in aiding the load transfer
mechanism as well as facilitates the drainage mechanism. India, being a developing
nation, has focused a lot on infrastructure development of which highways are a huge
part. Being an agriculturally driven nation, the available land for development of these
pavements is agricultural in nature with soils of poor mechanical properties. Thus,
in order to keep up with this pace, there’s a need for an innovative solution and such
solution is the soil stabilization technique. The work is focused on identifying the
impact of lime and fly ash-induced admixture’s impact on the various parameters of
soil including the CBR, Maximum Dry Density (MDD), Liquid Limit (L.L), Plastic
Limit (P.L), etc..,. black cotton soil was blended by varying lime at 2% for three
trials by keeping the fly ash constant at 7% of the total weight of the soil sample. The
percentage increase in moisture content is 9.09% from soil to blended soil. MDD
decreased with a percentage of 8.43% from soil to that of blended mixture. CBR
increased by a steeping 92.83% from soil to blended soil i.e., from 1.59 to 22.19.
The trend stayed the same for both lime and fly ash in the determination of the above
properties. The results show that both lime and fly ash are suitable for enhancing the
properties of soils that are clayey in nature.

Keywords Flexible pavement · Black cotton soil · Lime · Fly ash · CBR

1 Introduction

In India, currently, most of the highway widening and expansion projects were green-
field projects and the land turns out to be of agricultural in nature. The quality and the
life of pavement are greatly affected by the type of filling materials used as subgrade,
subbase, and base course [1]. Among these layers, the subgrade rather plays a very
important role as the load from the top layers gets transferred to this layer, which,

S. V. Krishna (B) · A. Parashar · J. S. Sudarsan

National Institute of Construction Management and Research (NICMAR), Pune, Maharashtra
411045, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 195
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_17
196 S. V. Krishna et al.

in addition, also needs to facilitate the drainage mechanism of the road. With rapid
industrialization and increasing demand for infrastructure due to population growth,
roads turned out to be the network connecting the important places in the country. As
a result of this, most of the expansion and new age projects required a vast amount
of area, and agricultural land is to be occupied as India is an agricultural-based
economy. But the problem arises due to the low bearing capacity of these soft strata
clayey soils [2].
Soil replacement technique is one of the most practiced indemnification measures
used to treat the problems that arise due to soils with lower mechanical properties.
The existing soil is replaced by an equivalent but a stable mechanized feature. But
this cannot be an ample solution as it can increase the project cost by a huge value
as the highway projects expand to kilometers and thus it was not promoted in many
projects [3]. Another method used to overcome this problem is the institution of soil
stabilization methods, in which the mechanical and geotechnical properties of the
soil were improved as a result of the same and this was widely adapted in case of
highly expansive soils [4, 5]. Several methods of soil stabilization were employed in
the field and in the literatures [6–9]. But the most common and most beneficially used
soil stabilization is by the use of waste materials that are derived from the processing
industries [10, 11], and the waste product used here in this experimental study is the
fly ash produced from the thermal power plant alongside lime [12, 13].
The current scope of work focuses on conducting experimental procedures on
such soft clay, i.e., black cotton soil. In evaluating the shrinkage and the FSI of the
expansive soil, the microstructure always plays a very key role as it directly gives us an
opportunity in enhancing the mechanical properties of the soil in stabilization projects
as it aids in the selection of a more suitable and reliable material for stabilization.
Other properties such as heat of hydration and other possible chemical reactions are
to be taken into consideration while the selection of the same [14]. The most difficult
type of soil to stabilize is the highly organic soils even for a chemical stabilizer due
to their rapid interaction with water. Cement has a higher reaction rate with water,
which is rapid whereas lime has a slower reaction with the same. Alongside lime,
polymer can also be one of those soil stabilization techniques to be adopted [15].
The impact of addition of lime and fly ash [16, 17] on the mechanical properties of
the soil is determined in this research. Lime has many applications. Stabilization of
soil in foundation and for the strength improvement of highways and runways, lime
is used in the construction industry. Around 1.6 million metric tonnes of lime were
used for stabilization purposes in the United States in 2003 [18].
Greater the CBR value, the lesser will be the thickness of the pavement, and our
focus is glued in achieving the same. Indian Standard [19, 20] had been referred
in regards to the adoption of the procedure of testing. In India, highways count is
constantly increasing, and the length of the highways has been increasing every year
in an exponential manner, pavement design being the major component. It contributes
to nearly one third to one half of the total cost of construction [21]. A consolidated
subgrade layer supposedly acts as a load transfer belt, received from the top surface
to the bottom layers. For better road conditions, good pavement is used, which can
easily bear the load as well easily transmit it. As a part of the green field approach, part
Feasibility Study on Subgrade Stabilization … 197

of agricultural land is also being taken for the sole purpose of highway construction.
Since the soil is fertile, there arises a problem with the pavement thickness as mainly
black cotton soil is present, which has a very low CBR strength [22]. As the thickness
of the pavement increases, scope of the problem also increases as failure due to load
is going to play a major role. We aim at increasing the bearing capacity of soil, viz.,
CBR, which, in the end, helps in reducing the thickness of the pavement [23].

2 Methodology

Fig. 1 depicts the detailed methodology followed for the project.

Initially, geotechnical properties such as dry density, liquid limit, plastic limit,
specific gravity, and OMC are analyzed. CBR test is conducted on the soil sample in
soaked and condition at different OMCs. We clearly know that the governing factor
for both strength and thickness of the pavement is CBR. For finding CBR, Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) is to be calculated by Standard Proctor Test. After finding
OMC, using it Compaction is done and the mould is kept soaked under water for 3
days in order to find the soaked CBR value. At 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration, load
is taken and thus CBR @ 2.5 mm and @5mm is found out by the formula and higher
value is taken into consideration:
CBR @ 2.5 mm penetration = {(Load @ 2.5 mm penetration) × 100}/1370 @ 5
mm penetration = {(Load @ 5 mm penetration) × 100}/2055

Collection
of • Black Cotton Soil, Lime, Fly Ash
Materials

Testing of
Plain Soil
• Soil Properties such as OMD, LL, PL, CBR

Blending
of Soil • Mix proportions of Lime & Fly Ash in varying amounts

Testing of
Blended • Soil Properties such as OMD, LL, PL, CBR for various trials
Soil

Compariso • Plain Soil and Blended Soil results were compared

nn of test
results

Conclusion • Results and Discussion, Conclusion

Fig. 1 Methodology
198 S. V. Krishna et al.

3 Results and Discussion

In order to figure out the soil strata and their subsequent mechanical properties, the
following tests were conducted, and the results were interpreted as below:
Free Swell Index, Grain Size Distribution, Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit, Maximum
Dry Density, California Bearing Ratio were to name a few. Initially, the Free Swell
Index (FSI) is found out to be 87%. This FSI value shows that the water absorption
capacity is relatively higher placing it in the clayey soil category, with high plasticity,
which is to be confirmed by further experimentation. The FSI was used only to get
an idea about the nature of the soil. This was followed by the Grain Size Distribution
Curve test where the graph below is plotted (Table 1).
Wet Sieve Analysis is carried out in order to find the percentage finer in the soil
sample taken for the experiment, and the particle size distribution curve is plotted
as shown in Fig. 2. The amount of soil passing through the 4.75 mm sized sieve is
95.2% out of which 40.5% have passed through the 0.075 mm or 75micron sieve.
It can be inferred from this that the percentage finer is relatively higher. Further
properties of the soil such as, the Liquid Limit (L.L), Plastic Limit (P.L), Maximum
Dry Density (MDD), Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), Specific Gravity, and
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) were determined. The results were tabulated below,

Table 1 Grain Size

IS Sieve size (mm) % Finer
Distribution data
4.75 95.2
2.36 93.4
1.18 88.4
0.600 80.1
0.300 61.4
0.150 43.8
0.075 40.5

100
90
80
70
60
% Finer

50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size(mm)

Fig. 2 Particle size distribution curve

Feasibility Study on Subgrade Stabilization … 199

and respective graphs are also plotted. Shown below are the compaction curves and
CBR of the soil followed by those of the blended soil mixture.
It was observed that the soil had a moisture content of 20% and the dry density at
20% moisture is 1.59 kg/m3 , which was the highest among all the tested samples. This
is nothing but the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and the corresponding moisture
content are known as Optimum Moisture Content (OMC). The same can be noted
from the graph above titled Fig. 3.
It can be observed from the graph above, i.e., Fig. 4, the maximum load borne by
the soil was 46.12 kg, which is very less when compared with the traffic load that is
to be received on the roads. The load at 2.5 mm penetration was 21.72 kg whereas
the load at 5 mm penetration was 29.86Kg. The CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is
1.59, whereas at 5 mm penetration is 1.45. The CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is
considered as it is higher.
The compaction curves for the blended soil of proportions—(2% lime + 7% fly
ash), (4% lime. + 7% fly ash), and (6% lime + 7% fly ash) are drawn as shown in
Fig. 5. We can see a shift toward the right in Fig. 5. This is because of the addition
to the soil we can observe an increase in the moisture content from 20 to 22%,

1.595
Mix:0
1.59
Dry Density (Kg/m3)

1.585
1.58
1.575
1.57
1.565
1.56
1.555
0 5 10 15 20 25
Moisture Content (%)

Fig. 3 Compaction curve of soil

California Bearing Ratio(Soaked)

Mix-0
50

40
Load (Kg)

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Penetration (mm)

Fig. 4 CBR of soil

200 S. V. Krishna et al.

1.65
Mix:01
1.6
Mix:0
Dry Density (Kg/m3)

1.55 Mix:02
Mix-03
1.5

1.45

1.4

1.35

1.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Content (%)

Fig. 5 Compaction curves of blended soil in comparison with soil

24%, and 26%, respectively, for soil and blended soils, which confirms the reaction
between water and lime, thus making the soil require more water for compaction,
hence the rise in OMC. The MDD also decreased from 1.59 kg/m3 to 1.520 kg/m3 ,
1.456 kg/m3 , and 1.423 kg/m3 .
From Table 2, it is observed that the Plasticity Index (PI) of the soil to blended
soil varies from 17.6, 3.07, 2.86, and 2.3 respectively. The Liquid Limit of the plain
soil was found to be 54.38, which is very high, and it conclusively affirms from the
fact that a 40% finer soil passing through the 75 micron sieve and 87% FSI followed
by this level of L. L puts the soil in the highly plastic and clayey soils. Thus, the
soil can be classified as CH (fat clay). Specific gravity isn’t changing much and it’s
staying around 2.73.
From the CBR curves shown in Fig. 6, the maximum load-bearing capacity of
the soil started to increase gradually in response to the blended soil, which clearly

Table 2 Properties of soil and blended soil

S.No Property Mix-0 (pure Mix-01 (Lime = Mix-02 Mix-03
sample) 2%, Fly ash = (Lime = 4%, (Lime = 6%,
7%) Fly ash = 7%) Fly ash = 7%)
1 Dry density 1.590 1.520 1.456 1.423
(Kg/m3)
2 Liquid limit 54.38 37.64 35.45 32.98
(L.L)
3 Plastic limit 36.78 34.57 32.59 30.68
(P.L)
4 Specific 2.75 2.73 2.73 2.73
gravity
5 OMC 20 22 24 26
6 CBR (soaked) 1.59 22.19 23.81 18.23
Feasibility Study on Subgrade Stabilization … 201

California Bearing Ratio(Soaked)

Mix-0 Mix-1 Mix-2 Mix-3
900
800
700
600
Load (Kg)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Penetration (mm)

Fig. 6 CBR comparison of all mixes

confirms the effect of lime and fly ash on the weaker or expansive nature of the soil.
It can also be observed that the L.L, P.L readings have dropped from 54.38 to 32.98
and 36.78 to 30.78, respectively, which shows a significant drop, thus reducing the
water clogging capacity as well as the expansive swell, i.e., the plasticity of the soil,
which, in turn, enhances the bearing capacity of the soil. The loads at 2.5 and 5 mm
were (21.72,29.86), (266.07,456.12), (300.29,489.36), and (206.34,374.67) Kg, and,
thus, it is safe to say that the load-bearing capacity of the soil has hugely increased
from a mere 21.72 to 206.34 kg for 2.5 mm penetration and from 29.86 to 374.67 kg
for 5 mm. Greater the load bearing capacity of the soil, higher the CBR. The value of
CBR of the pure sample is 1.59, which is nearly 93% lesser than the blended soil’s
value of 22.19 in the Mix-01 of the blended soil.

4 Conclusion

The following conclusions were drawn based on the experimental studies carried out
in this investigation.
Based on the Grain sieve analysis and the plasticity index value, the soil can be
classified as CH (Clay of high plasticity). Now for the blended soil, the PI came down
to 3.07 from 17.60 with a percentage decrease of 82.56%. The percentage increase
in Moisture Content is 9.09% from soil to blended soil. The trend stayed the same
for both lime and fly ash. MDD decreased with a percentage of 8.43% from soil to
that of blended mixture. The trend stayed the same for both lime and fly ash. CBR
increased by a steeping 92.83% from soil to blended soil, i.e., from 1.59 to 22.19.
The trend stayed the same for both lime and fly ash. The results show that both lime
and fly ash are suitable for enhancing the properties of soils that are clayey in nature.
202 S. V. Krishna et al.

References

1. Singh DV, Murty AVSR (1998) Fly ash in India—problems and possibilities. In: Proceedings
of experience sharing meet on use of fly ash in roads and embankments. CRRI, New Delhi 1–9.
2. Anadurai, R., Kamalanandhini, M., Sudarsan, J. S., & Golda, P. V. P. (2018). Feasibility study
of marine clay treated with lime for construction purpose. J Adv Res Dyn Control Syst, 10,
616–619.
3. Gobinath R, Ganapathy GP, Akinwumi II, Kovendiran S, Hema S, Thangaraj M (2016) Plas-
ticity, strenth, permeability and compressibility characterisitcs of black cotton soil stabilized
with precipitated silica. J CentL South Univ 2688–2694
4. Dang, L. C., Fatahi, B., & Khabbaz, H. (2016). Behaviour of expansive soils stabilized with
hydrated lime and bagasse fibres. Proc. Eng., 143, 658–665.
5. Estabragh AR, Naseh M, Beytolahpour I, Javadi AA (2012) Strength of a cly soil and soil-
cement mixture with resin. proceedings of institution civil engineers. Ground Improv 108–114
6. Arora, K. R. (2003). Soil mechanics and founation engineering (pp. 94–109). Standard
Publishers Distributors.
7. Mutaz E, Dafalla M (2014) Utilizing chemical treatment in improving bearing capacity of
highly expansive clays. In: International conference on sustainable civil infrastructure, Hubei,
China, 62–66
8. Mirzababaei M (2009) Effect of polymers on swelling potential of expansive soils.proceedings
of institution civil engineers. Ground Improv 162(3):111–119
9. Moghai AA, Chittiiri BC, Basha BM (2018) Effect of fibre reinforcement on CBR of lime-
blended expansive soils: reliability approach. Road Mater Pavement Des 690–70
10. Cokca E (2001) Use of class C fly ashes for the stabilization of an expansive clay. J Geotech.
Geoenviron Eng 127(7): 568–573
11. Kate M (2005) Strength and volume change behaviour of expansive soils trated with fly ash.
geo-frontriers congress, Austin, TX, USA, 94–100
12. Seda JH, Lee JC, Carraro AH (2007) Benefial use of waste tire rubber for swelling potential
mitigation in expansive soils. Geo-denver 2007 new peaks in geotechnics Denver, CO, USA,
55–58
13. Sridharan, A., Prashanth, J. P., & Sivapullaiah, P. V. (1997). Effect of fly ash on the unconfined
compressive strength of black cotton soil. Ground Improv, 1(3), 169–175.
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stabilization using calcium-based stabilizer materials (CSMs): a comprehensive review. Adv
Mater Sciemce Eng 1–23
15. Tan EH, Zarhran EMM, Tan SJ (2020) A review of chemical stabilisation in road construction.
In: IOP Conference series: materials science and engineering, 1–10
16. Irene S (2005) Proc Uses of Coal Fly ash—Benefits and Barriers. INSB, Australia, 411–416
17. Kumar A, Prasad G (2009) Use of lime cement stabilized pavement construction. Indian Journa1
Eng Mater Sci. JNTU Kakinada 18 269–276
18. M. Miller (2004) Lime U.S. geological survey minerals yearbook USGS, 12–18
19. 2. IS (1983) Part-5 Method of test for soil determination of liquid limit and plastic limit
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relation using a heavy Compaction & light compaction
21. Brown, F. S. (1996). Soil mechanics in pavement engineering. Geo Technique, Canada, 46,
383–426.
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of IGC-99, Calcutta, 324–326
23. Mallela J, Harold VQ, Smth KL, Consultants E (2004) Consideration of lime- stabilized
layers in mechanistic-empirical pavement design. The National Lime Association, Arlington,
Virginia, USA, 45–48
Treatment of Seawater Using
Electrochemical Mediated Desalination

V. M. V. Sai Krishna and K. Prasanna

Abstract One of the most vulnerable resources in nature is WATER. Due to global
warming, the water gets evaporated from different sources drastically. The avail-
ability of fresh water sources is polluted by anthropogenic activities. So, the scarcity
of drinking water also increases and the heavy metals, organic pollutant influence
are very high in drinking water. Hence this requires high technological treatment
to remove the pollutants before it is used for drinking purpose. The best way to
overcome the scarcity of water is converting the seawater into drinking water, as
of now so many methods are there for converting the seawater. Among all the
existing methods, membrane process (desalination process) is most commonly used
for converting the seawater into the drinking water due to its flexibility and easy oper-
ational process. But, the major drawback of this method is membrane cost, membrane
lifetime, membrane clogging and electricity cost. To overcome these drawbacks, a
new, emerging and effective technology to treat the seawater is Electrochemical
Mediated Desalination (EMD). In this method, to treat the seawater with the help
of graphite electrodes with 9 V DC supply were used. Here, achieve the maximum
efficiency of this method with two different trails are 10.55% (trail—1) and 15.33%
(trail—2) on the basis of reduction of chloride content present in the solution.

Keywords Desalination · EMD process · Graphite electrodes · Chlorides ·

Seawater

1 Background

In this globe, freshwater is needed for biotic components for their sustain life. But
nowadays we are facing a lot of problems due to the scarcity of freshwater sources.
The reason behind that day by day increasing global warming due to drastically
increasing the industrial activities for meeting the present demands of people who
want to live with extravagant things. Even the small amounts of available freshwater

V. M. V. Sai Krishna (B) · K. Prasanna

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamilnadu 603 203, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 203
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_18
204 V. M. V. Sai Krishna and K. Prasanna

Table 1 Global water distribution. Adopted from Ref. [5]

Sources Percentage (%)
Saltwater 97.5
Freshwater 2.5
(a) Glaciers & permanent snow cover 68.9
(b) Fresh ground water 29.9
(c) Others [including soil moisture, swamp water & permafrost] 0.9
(d) Freshwater lakes & river storages [only this portion is renewable] 0.3

sources are also contaminated due to anthropogenic activities [1, 2]. The recent
studies on the status of water distributed globally by the United Nations conclude
one-third of world’s population is living in water-stressed regions [3]. Even more,
they are estimated from the above range by 2025 it will become as two-thirds of
world’s population and not only for arid and developing regions, the countries are
which are living in water rich environments [4] now, also takes place on this list, this
type of situation continues (Table 1).
The above table clearly shows the way to provide or supply a huge amount of
freshwater while converting the seawater into the freshwater for various purposes of
domestic and industrial purposes. The available ground water also reached down due
to over sucking. At the same time so many technologies are found for treating the
wastewater but, the only conversion of contaminated water for reusing not sufficient
to the meet the demand due to the growth of population. For treating the seawater
also many technologies are find like thermal desalination, ion exchange [6], Nano
filtration [6], pervaporation [7], reverse osmosis [8] (membrane technology) etc.,
among all the existing technologies now a day’s most commonly used method is
membrane technology due to its wide range of applications and its flexibility for
operation and maintenance. But, the major drawback is membrane cost, membrane
lifetime, frequent clogging and the most important one is electricity and pre-treatment
cost.

2 Introduction

A new emerging and effective method Electrochemical Mediated Desalination

(EMD) is used for treating the seawater. [9] have reported that EMD provides a
number of benefits relative to existing desalination technologies. Since EMD is
membraneless technology, it reduces capital cost and consumption of energy [9]. The
schematic representation of ionic reduction near Y-intersection is shown in below
Fig. 1.
Treatment of Seawater Using Electrochemical Mediated Desalination 205

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of ionic redirection near Y-intersection of A desalination device.

adapted from Ref. [10]

Fig. 2 Layout of desalination device

3 Materials and Methodology

3.1 Experimental Setup

The desalination device which is used for this technique is made up of plexiglass
or acrylic sheet. Figure 2 shows the experimental setup of the scale up model of
lengthwise 1:100 and widthwise of 1:500 (inlet, desalted and brine channels). The
graphite rods of height 6 cm and diameter 1.5 cm are used as anode and cathode
respectively. Both inlet and outlet channels having same height from the base.

3.2 Procedure

Keep the barriers near the Y-intersection at outlets with a 1 mm gap at the bottom to let
the water to the out and given the head in inlet zone is maintained the gravimetrical
velocity 0.016 m/s. Fill the inlet zone with seawater solution. Insert the graphite
electrodes near the Y-intersection and pass 9 V DC supply through the electrodes.
The chloride ions present in the solution are oxidized and it diverted the brine channel
206 V. M. V. Sai Krishna and K. Prasanna

which is 30° inclined to the desalted channel. Collect the desalted and brine through
separate channels. Find the chlorides present in the desalted water. Compare the
result with initial one to find the efficiency of the device.

4 Results and Discussion

To initiate desalination, 9 V DC supply voltage is applied between the electrodes.

This voltage results in the oxidation of Cl− [9]

2Cl− − 2e− ↔ Cl2 (1)

Two types of trails are used for the experiment. As shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
The results of the trail—I are shown in below Table 2.
The results of the trail—II are shown in below Table 3.
The Pictorial Representation for better understanding for comparing the trails
used for experiment among the samples of seawater shown in below Fig. 5.
In the time of the process is going on we clearly inhale the smell of HOCl near
the intersection and the treated water also contains this HOCl odor. The following
reaction shows the hydrolysis process for producing HOCl.

NaCl + H2 O → HOCl + Na+ (ion) + H+ (ion) (2)

Fig. 3 Trail—I
Treatment of Seawater Using Electrochemical Mediated Desalination 207

Fig. 4 Trail—II

Table 2 Results of seawater treated with trail—I

S.No Initial chloride (mg/L) Final chloride (mg/L) Efficiency (%) Energy consumed (V)
1 2,377.63 2,126.76 10.55 1.53
2 10,969.09 10,618.33 3.20 1.64
3 12,441.14 12,073.23 2.96 1.92
4 13,627.27 13,229.40 2.92 1.83
5 4,675.05 4,326.91 7.45 1.44

Table 3 Results of seawater treated with trail—II

S.No Initial chloride (mg/L) Final chloride (mg/L) Efficiency (%) Energy consumed (V)
1 2,377.63 2,076.82 12.65 1.35
2 10,969.09 9,303.76 15.18 1.32
3 12,441.14 10,540.33 15.28 1.62
4 13,627.27 11,538.42 15.33 1.23
5 4,675.05 4,078.24 12.77 1.24

5 Conclusions

In summary, we conclude that EMD is the most common method for treating the
seawater in future. The reasons are mentioned below:
• From the above tables, we clearly observe trail—2 gives the maximum efficiency
when compared to the trail—1. There is a decrease in energy consumption for the
trail—2.
208 V. M. V. Sai Krishna and K. Prasanna

Fig. 5 Graphical representation of difference between initial and final chloride content treated with
trail—I and trail—II

• Importantly, the only pre-treatment is enough to perform EMD is sedimentation

of silt and sand particles for avoiding the obstruction in the channel near the
electrodes.
• Another important notable point is Cl− oxidation Eq. (1) results in a Cl2 generation,
which subsequently undergoes hydrolysis to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl),
a common water disinfectant [11].

Acknowledgements The authors thankfully acknowledge to the HOD of civil engineering, SRM
University and the project Coordinator for allowing me to do the new concept. My sincere thanks
to the faculty of environmental engineering for giving continuous support and timely suggestions
to complete this experiment. Finally, I thank Prof. R.M. Crooks and K.N. Knust for introducing this
concept for desalination in the micro scale model.

References

1. Schwarzenbach, R. P., Escher, B. I., Fenner, K., Hofstetter, T. B., Johnson, C. A., Von Gunten,
U., & Wehrli, B. (2006). Science, 313, 1072–1077.
2. J.F. Kenny, N.L. Barber, S.S. Hutson, K.S. Linsey, J.K. Lovelace, M.A. Maupin, Estimated
Use of Water in the United States in 2005, U.S. Geological Survey, (2005).
3. United Nations, World Water Development Report 2, (2006).
4. The World’s Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, Vol.7 (Ed.: P.H. Gleick),
Island Press, (2012).
5. Gleick, P. H. (2013). Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Freshwater Resources. University
Press.
6. Rodrigo Bo´rquez, Javier Ferrer, Desalination and water Treatment, (2016).
7. Nick Wynn, Pervaporation comes of age, www.cepmagazine.org, Oct. (2001).
8. Public Health and the Environmental World Health Organization, Geneva (2007).
9. R.M. Crooks, K.N. Knust, M.R. Stanley, F.J. Carrillo, D. Hlushkou and U. Tallarek, 18th Int.
Conference on Miniaturized Systems for Chemistry and Life Sciences, Oct. 26–30, (2014).
10. Kyle, N. (2014). Knust, DzmitryHlushkou, Ulrich Tallarek, and Richard M. Crooks, Chem-
ElectroChem, 1, 850–857.
11. Geise, G. M., Lee, H. S., Miller, D. J., Freeman, B. D., McGrath, J. E., & Paul, D. R. (2010).
J. Polym. Sci. part B, 48, 1685–1718.
Assessment of Energy Dissipation
Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting
Frames Under the Effect of Earthquake

Bethapudi Suvarna Susan and A. Arun Kumar

Abstract In recent years, earthquake engineering was introduced and showed the
path for energy concepts, these concepts have applications in evaluating the vulner-
ability of the structures under earthquake vibrations and also in optimization design.
Now-a-days, energy dissipation capacity is estimated by either empirical equations or
experimental way which are not sufficient and considered effective for the study and
also numerical analysis which is considered difficult to use in practice. In the present
study, nonlinear dynamic analysis is obtained to investigate the distribution of damage
and dissipation capacity in the structure and also to find out the maximum storey drift
and storey displacement. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the energy dissipa-
tion capacity of steel moment resisting frames under earthquake motions. The more
the structure height increases, the dissipation capacity increases. The stress levels at
top stories are high which are controlled by potential and kinetic energy and balanced
with damping.

Keywords Moment resisting frames · Seismic design · Response spectrum

analysis · Nonlinear dynamic analysis · Energy dissipation capacity

1 Introduction

Assessing the structural behavior at times of earthquake, plays an important role in

earthquake engineering. One of the concepts found by researchers in recent years was
Energy Concept. This concept was introduced by Housner [1] in which he proposed
energy method based on limit design. His affirmation is that the absorption of energy
against earthquake was said to be the safety factor of its own building, and the Energy
input during the earthquake will lead to some parameters like kinetic and potential
energies. Energy dissipation is mostly considered in seismic and dynamic analysis in

B. S. Susan (B)
Structural Engineer SCE, VIT, Chennai 600127, India
A. Arun Kumar
School of Civil Engineering, VIT, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 209
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_19
210 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

which hysteric behavior was represented by viscous damping and global damping of
the structure. Gerami and Abdollahzadeh [2] carried out a research on energy dissi-
pation for steel frames at near- and far-fault regions and concluded that damping
plays powerful role in energy dissipation for high-rise structures. In seismic design
methods, the parameters are earthquake duration and frequency, some of the struc-
tural requirements are hysteresis behavior, damping and ductility. Abdollahzadeh
[3], concluded that hysteric energy at lower stories will be higher when compared to
higher stories. Hysteric energy shows the level of damage in a structure but cannot
specify the damage at different locations or parts of the structure, where this energy
is wasted when the structural members reach its beyond yielding point. The whole
behavior is said to be inelastic behavior, which is to be taken care when structure is
subjected to Nonlinear dynamic analysis. Benavent [4] defined a model to show the
damage level of the structural members and hysteresis behavior at different earth-
quake records, where he concluded that the damage occurs due to inter story drift and
hysteric energy. Storey drift is one the causes for waste of energy. Idels and Taiyari
[5, 6] defined about the Steel Moment resisting frames (SMRF), in their study they
said that SMRF have a great capacity on holding the dissipated energy and have resis-
tance against the lateral forces (earthquake forces). This study is to focus on energy
dissipation capacity of steel structures using seismic design of nonlinear dynamic
analysis, which shows the energy wasted through inelastic behavior and the damping
forces that are balanced when the input energy is absorbed into the structure at times
of earthquake. The main objective of this paper is to find out the maximum story
drift, maximum story displacements and the cumulative energy dissipation capacity
for both the structures.

2 Modelling

The selected plan and models for research are five and ten storey steel structures. They
were analyzed and designed by using ETABS software on the basis of Indian Standard
codes. All the material, section properties and loads of the selected structures were
taken under IS code and are mentioned below. The modelled structures used for this
study were taken from the observation of many traditional buildings and constructions
in and around India. The layout of the created plan and models was based on the
assumptions which are suitable for seismic regions as shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
The grid lines taken for X- and Y-direction are 9 and 6. The grid spacings taken
were 8 in X-direction including stair case and 5 in Y-direction as shown in Fig. 1.
2.0.1 X-Direction
• Spacings for A–B and H-I are 4 m and Spacing for B-C was taken as 4.2 m
• Spacing for C-D was taken as 3.5 m and Spacing for D-E was taken as 4.8 m
• Spacing for E–F was 3 m—stair case
• Spacing for F-G was 5 m and Spacing for G-H was 5.5 m
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting Frames … 211

Fig. 1 Plan of steel structures

Fig. 2 3D model of five

storey building

All the spacings taken in X-direction were based on codes, while the variations
in spacing is due to different trail methods the appropriate values have been chosen.
2.0.2 Y-Direction
• Spacing between 1–2 and 5–6 is 4 m and Spacing for 2–3 is 4.4 m
• Spacing for 3–4 is 5 m and Spacing for 4–5 is 5.2 m
Spacing in Y-direction was taken as shown above, the variation in spacing is due
to plan adopted, and due to many trails, these dimensions were chosen. Structural
detailing has been considered on the basis of IS code. The storey heights for both
five and ten story steel structures were 3 m.
212 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

Fig. 3 3D model of ten

storey building

2.1 Details of Preliminary Data

• For steel Fe250

• Reinforcement HYSD 415

2.2 Structural Detailing

2.2.1 For G + 5 Storey

• For Beam—ISLB 300

• For column—ISLB 600

All the dimensions were taken according to the Codal provisions [7] and steel
book.

2.2.2 For G + 10 Storey

• For Beam—ISLB 350

• For column—ISMB 600

The approximate dimensions are given in the table.

3 Analysis and Design of Steel Models in ETABS

For analyzing the selected steel structures, time history and non-linear dynamic
analysis were considered.
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting Frames … 213

3.1 Parameters Considered for Building

For this design,

• Zone selected was II with zone factor 0.1, Type of soil selected was 2
• Reduction factor as 5, Damping as 5% and Importance factor 1 and 1.2.
• Dead load and Live load are given as per IS 875 (Part I) and (Part II) 1987 [8, 9],
respectively. Seismic Loading is taken as per IS 1893:2016 [10]
• Earthquake loads (EQ X, EQ–X, EQ Y, EQ-Y) were considered under the basis of
Indian Standard codes (IS). Other loads like snow and wind were not considered
in the seismic design.
Plastic hinges play an important role in Energy dissipation, they help in finding
out whether the structure can withstand or not when effected by heavy lateral forces.
In this paper, the structures were analyzed for El Centro time history function as
mentioned by Rathod [11]. All the members in the steel structure were passed for all
the applied loads, material and section properties given.

3.2 Deformed Shape of Five and Ten Storey Building

The below shown models were deformed models obtained after the load application
(Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 Deformed G + 5
building
214 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

Fig. 5 Deformed G + 10
building

Fig. 6 Storey Drift for five storey building

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Maximum Storey Drift for Time History in X and Y

Directions

4.1.1 For Five Storey Building

Maximum Story drift for time history analysis in X and Y directions were under the
limit. According to the IS code limit check is done using the formula (0.004h), “h”
is the height of the story.
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting Frames … 215

Fig. 7 Storey Drift for ten storey building

4.1.2 For G + 10 Storey Building

Maximum Storey drift shown in Figs. 6 and 7 for time history analysis in X and Y
directions were under the limit by using the formula (0.004 h), “h” is the height of
the storey.

4.2 Maximum Displacement for Time History in X and Y

Directions (mm)

4.2.1 For G + 5 Building

Displacement obtained were checked by H/500 from codal provision (IS 1893:2016),
where H is height of the building. And both the graphs were linearly increasing from
the base to the top stories.

4.2.2 For G + 10 Building

Displacement obtained were checked by H/500 from codal provision (IS 1893:2016),
where H is height of the building. And both the graphs were linearly increasing from
the base to the top stories.
See Figs. 8 and 9.
216 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

Fig. 8 Displacement (mm) for G + 5 building

Fig. 9 Displacement (mm) of G + 10 building

4.3 Cumulative Energy Dissipation in X and Y Directions

4.3.1 For G + 5 Building

Cumulative Energy dissipations (KN-m/sec) in X and Y directions are shown in

Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13, where the blue color area is potential energy and the pink
color area is global damping of the structure. Whenever the building is effected by
earthquake, stresses increase in structure and cause local failures; these stresses can
be balanced by maximizing the global damping in order to decrease the potential
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting Frames … 217

Fig. 10 Energy Dissipation TH-X direction

Fig. 11 Energy Dissipation TH-Y direction

218 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

Fig. 12 Energy dissipation TH-X direction

energy or kinetic energy. Then energy dissipation will be maximum and structure
will be safe from total collapse. Damping energy helps in balancing the building
when the input energy is absorbed from the lateral forces.

4.4 Cumulative Energy Dissipation in X and Y Directions

4.4.1 For G + 10 Building

Cumulative Energy Dissipations in both X & Y directions were quite impressing,

they have shown the damping nature of G+10 storey Structure at times of earthquake.
See Figs. 12 and 13.

4.5 Discussion

Storey drift and story displacements were checked using the formulas based on code
book. 0.004 h and H/500, where “h” is height of story and “H” is height of building.
Assessment of Energy Dissipation Capacity of Steel Moment Resisting Frames … 219

Fig. 13 Energy dissipation TH-Y direction

Storey drift at lower stories (1st stories) was observed as 0.042 and 0.022 where
the limit was exceeded, but remaining all the stories were under the limit. This was
due to the effect of heavy depth of beams and also due to seismic loads application.
Which can be decreased by reducing the depth of beams.
When the structure is subjected to the lateral forces like earthquake, dissipation
occurs. The more the structure height increases, the more the dissipation capacity
increases. For every structure, kinetic energy, potential energy, damping force and
viscous damping is present. Whenever the building is effected by earthquake, stresses
increase in structure and cause local failures; these stresses can be balanced by
maximizing the global damping in order to decrease the potential energy or kinetic
energy. Then energy dissipation will be maximum and structure will be safe from total
collapse. Damping energy helps in balancing the building when the input energy is
absorbed from the lateral forces. In the above Figs. 5 and 7, the percentage increase
was 10%. Here from the observation, maximum the damping area increases, the
stresses in the structure decrease, safety of the structure increases and resist toward
the external forces.
220 B. S. Susan and A. Arun Kumar

5 Conclusion

From the time history, non-linear dynamic analysis for the selected steel structures
five and ten stories, maximum story drift, maximum story displacement (mm) and
cumulative energy dissipation were studied. In this analytical study, the following
results were obtained.
• Maximum story drift for five story building was 0.042 and Maximum story drift
for ten story building was 0.022, where at lower stories, drift has been exceeded
the limit and can be reduced by reducing the depth of beams. Storey drift is unitless
as it is relative displacement from one level to the other level.
• Maximum story displacements (mm) obtained were acceptable but also can be
reduced by providing shear wall to the buildings.
• Energy dissipations in the buildings are balanced by damping, whereas for five
story building it was 8% in X-direction and even less in Y-direction.
• For ten story building, the global damping was 18% in X-direction and even less
in Y-direction.
• One thing which was observed was the cumulative energy dissipation capacity
was less in five story building when compared to ten stories, it can be increased by
reducing the stresses which are in the form of potential energy and kinetic energy.
• Further study can be done by extending the research by providing the bracings and
infills in the buildings, which improves the stiffness during seismic excitations.

References

1. Housner, G. (1956). Limit design of structures to resist earthquake. In First World Conference
on Earthquake Engineering, California
2. Gerami, M. (2014). Numerical study on energy dissipation of steel moment resisting frames
under effect of earthquake vibrations (p. 13). Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
3. Abdollahzadeh, G. (2016). Comparing hysteretic energy and inter-story drift in steel frames
with V-shaped brace under near and far fault earthquakes. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 8.
4. Benavent-Climent. (2007). An energy-based damage model for seismic response of steel
structures. Wiley InterScience, 16.
5. Idels, O. (2020). Performance based formal optimized seismic design of steel moment resisting
frames. Computers and Structures, 13.
6. Taiyari, F. (2019). Seismic behaviour assessment of steel moment resisting frames under near-
field earthquakes. International Journal of Steel Structures, 10.
7. IS 800:2007. (2007). General construction in steel. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian standards.
8. IS 875:1987 part 1. (1987). Dead load unit weight of materials. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian
standards.
9. IS 875:1987 part 2. (1987). Design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures,
imposed load. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian standards.
10. IS 1893:2016 part 1. (2016). Criteria for earthquake resistant design. New Delhi: Bureau of
Indian standards.
11. Rathod, K. V. (2020) A nonlinear time history analysis of ten storey RCC building. International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8.
Assessment of Ground Water Quality
in Industrial Area of Thiruvallur, Tamil
Nadu

P. Eshanthini, S. Nandhakumar, and Rachita Nath

Abstract Water is an important resource for the survival of human on the earth.
Of all the sources of water available on the earth, groundwater plays a vital role for
domestic water supply. Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation are the two important
reasons for the diminishing of water quality. The chemicals and heavy metals which
are released from the industries leads to severe water pollution. So, the present
study focuses on analysing the different physiochemical parameter of groundwater
in Thiruvallur. From the study area, ten water samples were collected and analysed
for different water quality parameters such as pH, Total Hardness, Calcium, Total
alkalinity, Chloride, Magnesium, Total Dissolved solids, Turbidity, Sulphate, Iron
and Manganese. The test results are compared with Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS:
10,500:2012). The major pollutants in the groundwater sample are Total hardness,
Chlorides and Total dissolved solids and its value is in the range of 1041 mg/l,
1625 mg/l and 3644 mg/l. The results of analysis shows that except sample 4 for all
other samples the concentration was within the permissible limit suggested.

Keywords Bureau of Indian Standards · Ground water · Industrialisation · Heavy

metals · Water quality

1 Introduction

Groundwater is the natural form of fresh water, but the availability of groundwater on
earth is limited which complicates the decision-makers in order to allocate the water
among different users of groundwater such as irrigation, drinking and Industries [1,
2]. This limited availability of groundwater also requires sustainable management of
groundwater for long-term use [3, 4]. The various influencing factors in the formation
of groundwater are type of soil, geological formation, lithology and type of land use
available in that area. The purification of the ground water is done by natural filtration

P. Eshanthini (B) · S. Nandhakumar · R. Nath

Department of Civil Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamilnadu 600 119, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 221
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_20
222 P. Eshanthini et al.

process through the different soil layers which makes the water free from impurities
[5, 6].
Many researchers carried out water quality analysis study in various parts of India.
Contamination of groundwater has crossed permissible limits in urban areas and
metropolitan zones. The major factors influencing the contamination of groundwater
are rapid increase in human populace, industrialisation, utilisation of composts in
agribusiness and various man-made activities [7, 8]. The specific issue on account of
water quality checking is the intricacy related with examining the enormous number
of estimated factors and high inconstancy because of anthropogenic and natural
influences [9–11]. The various techniques available to investigate and classify the
quality of water are Water Quality Index (WQI), statistical analysis, and spatial
analysis in GIS platform [12, 13]. The selection of particular method is based upon
data objectives, the sort of tests and the size of the examining study area [14, 15].

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area

Thiruvallur is a town in Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu. The latitude and longitude
of the study area are 13.2544° N, 80.0088° E. The city is located near to Chennai city
and it is one of the fast developing district in Tamil Nadu. Since, the district is near
to Chennai city, the town is having special industrial and commercial importance.
The district has 11 industrial estates. The major industries in the study area are steel,
fertiliser, motors and chemical industries. Figure 1 shows the study area map and

Fig. 1 Study area map

Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area … 223

Fig. 2 the map sampling location. The details about sampling locations have been
given in Table 1.

Insert Figure without frame

Fig. 2 Sampling locations

Table 1 Details of sampling locations

S. No Locations Sample no Latitude Longitude Source Month and year
1 Kakulur Avadi Sample 1 13.1370 79.9198 Borewell Feb 2021
bypass
2 Chinna Kaadu Sample 2 13.1441 79.9187 Borewell Feb 2021
3 Mahalakshmi Sample 3 13.1441 79.9180 Borewell Feb 2021
Nagar
4 Kakulur sipcot Sample 4 13.1310 79.9312 Borewell Feb 2021
5 Ramapuram main Sample 5 13.7582 79.5641 Borewell Feb 2021
road
6 Ikadu kakulur Sample 6 13.1384 79.9291 Borewell Feb 2021
7 Ikadu kakulur Sample 7 13.1383 79.9287 Borewell Feb 2021
8 Poonga Nagar Sample 8 13.1201 79.9227 Borewell Feb 2021
9 Nggo colony Sample 9 13.1202 79.9230 Borewell Feb 2021
10 Maruthi new town Sample 10 13.1251 79.9259 Borewell Feb 2021
224 P. Eshanthini et al.

2.2 Water Sample Collection and Testing

The water samples were collected using cleaned polyethylene bottle from the study
area. The collected samples were tested for different physiochemical parameters
immediately after the sampling as per APHA [16]. The parameters are pH, Ca2+ ,
Mg2+ , Na+ , SO4 2− , Cl− , TDS, Total Hardness (TA), Turbidity, Total Alkalinity (TA),
Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe). Table 2 shows physiochemical parameter of collected
water samples, Table 3 shows drinking water standards given by BIS and Table 4
gives methods used to test various water quality parameters.

3 Results and Discussion

pH
The pH value represents the concentration of hydrogen ion in water. The required
amount of pH in drinking water controls the metabolic process in human body. The
Bureau of Indian standards describe the range of pH value should lie between 6.5 and
8.5 for drinking water. The test results show the pH values to be within the permissible
limit for all the ten samples. Figure 3 shows the comparison of pH values for all the
ten samples. Sample 10 shows the highest pH concentration among all the collected
samples.
Total hardness
From Fig. 4, the total hardness value of sample 4 is 1041 mg/l which is beyond the
maximum limit; for all other samples, the hardness value is less than the permissible
limit. The important health effect of excess amount of hardness in water is skin
irritation and food becomes poor in quality.
Calcium
From Fig. 5, the concentration of Calcium in the collected water sample was in the
range of 36 to 165 mg/l. The lowest concentration was observed in sample 1 and
highest concentration was in sample 4. From the water quality analysis, it is evident
that except sample 1, for all other sample the concentration was within the limit, and
for sample 1, the concentration of calcium was well below the desirable limit.
Total Alkalinity
From Fig. 6, the concentration of Alkalinity for the collected water samples varies
between 130 and 462 mg/l, and the highest concentration of total Alkalinity was
present in sample 3 and lowest concentration was in sample 1. The acceptable limit
of alkalinity is 200 mg/l and permissible limit is 600 mg/l. The test result shows that
for all the collected samples, the total Alkalinity value was within the permissible
limit.
Table 2 Physiochemical parameter
S. No. Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7 Sample 8 Sample 9 Sample 10
pH 7.4 7 7.2 7.2 7.3 6.9 6.7 7.2 7.5 7.6
Total hardness (CaCO3) mg/l 131 363 420 1041 449 350 300 501 440 539
Calcium (Ca) mg/l 36 106 145 165 137 106 117 82 125 137
Total alkalinity mg/l 130 273 462 315 357 189 180 410 330 284
Chloried (Cl-) mg/l 81 314 223 1625 333 228 218 1012 320 318
Magnsium (Mg)-mg/l 10 24 14 153 26 21 20 72 22 48
Total Dissolved Solids-mg/l 348 1116 1148 3644 1358 952 980 2518 1400 998
Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area …

Turbidity (NTU) 2 8 <1 <1 1 <1 1 1 1 <1

Sulphate (SO4 )-mg/l 39.6 168 98.6 262 203 209 207 216 200 52.1
Iron (Fe) -mg/l 0.24 0.53 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.1 0.05
Manganese (Mn)- mg/l 0.02 0.11 BDL 0.05 BDL BDL 0.06 0.14 0.12 0.05
BDL—Below Detection Level
225
226 P. Eshanthini et al.

Table 3 Bureau of Indian

S. No. Parameter Permissible Acceptable limit
Standards
limit (mg/l) (mg/l)
1. pH (no units) 6.5-8.5(no unit) No relaxation
2. Total hardness 200 600
(CaCO3 )
3. Calcium (Ca) 75 200
4. Total alkalinity 200 600
5. Chloried (Cl-) 250 1000
6. Magnesium 30 100
(Mg)
7. Total Dissolved 500 2000
solids
8. Turbidity 1 5
9. Sulphate (SO4 ) 200 400
10. Iron (Fe) 0.3 No relaxation
11. Manganese 0.1 0.3
(Mn)
Turbidity Nephelometric
unit-NTU- turbidity unit
Source Bureau of Indian Standards [5]

Table 4 Methods used for

S. No Parameter Methods used
analysis of quality parameters
for the water samples 1. pH pH meter
2. Total hardness Atomic absorption
spectrometry
3. Calcium Atomic absorption
spectrometry
4. Total alkalinity Neutralising with
standard HCl
5. Chloride Mohr’s method
6. Magnesium Atomic absorption
spectrometry
7. Total dissolved solids Evaporation method
8. Turbidity Turbidity meter
9. Sulphate Spectrophotometry
10. Iron Atomic absorption
spectrometry
11. Manganese Atomic absorption
spectrometry
Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area … 227

Fig. 3 Concentration of pH

Fig. 4 Concentration of
total hardness

mg/l

Fig. 5 Concentration of
calcium 200
165
145 137 137
150 125
117
106 106
100 82

50 36

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Samples

Fig. 6 Concentration of
total alkalinity
228 P. Eshanthini et al.

Fig. 7 Concentration of
chloride

Chloride
The acceptable and permissible range of chloride was in the range of 250–1000 mg/l.
Figure 7 shows that for sample 2, sample 4, sample 5, sample 8, sample 9 and sample
10, the chloride concentration was more than the permissible limit, and sample 1,
sample 2, sample 6 and sample 7 show lowest chloride content. The increase in
chloride content of water will affect the taste of drinking water.
Magnesium
From Fig. 8, the highest Magnesium concentration was observed in sample 4 and the
least concentration was observed in sample 1. The permissible limit of Magnesium
is 100 mg/l and from the test result, the concentration of Magnesium in sample 4 is
153 mg/l.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total dissolved solids includes salts such as carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates of
calcium, Magnesium and small amount of inorganic matter and dissolved gases.
From Fig. 9, except for sample 1, in all other samples the concentration is not within
the desirable limit. The maximum concentration of TDS in the collected water sample
is 3644 mg/l present in sample 4.

Fig. 8 Concentration of
magnesium
Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area … 229

Fig. 9 Concentration of
TDS

Turbidity
Turbidity is the presence of suspended and dissolved particles in the water. The
turbidity value above the desirable limit makes the drinking water unsuitable for
drinking. The desirable limit of Turbidity in drinking water is 1 NTU. Figure 10
shows the variation of turbidity in all the collected samples. From Fig. 6, it is sample
1 and sample 2 that have more turbidity value which needs more water treatment
before drinking. The high concentration of Turbidity was due to the presence of steel
industry near to sample 2.
Sulphate
The variation of Sulphate concentration for the ten samples is shown in Fig. 11. The
maximum value of Sulphate in sample 4 is 262 mg/l and lowest value 39.6 mg/l was
present in sample 1. The permissible limit of Sulphate in drinking water is 400 mg/l.
The comparison of water sample with BIS standard shows the Sulphate concentration
was within the range for all the collected samples.
Heavy Metals
The presence of heavy metal in drinking water beyond the desirable limit is toxic. The
essential heavy metals which are required for human body are cobalt, copper, Zinc
and Manganese. The heavy metals are also called as trace elements. The analysis

Fig. 10 Concentration of
turbidity
230 P. Eshanthini et al.

Fig. 11 Concentration of
sulphate

of water sample shows the presence of only two heavy metals, namely, Iron and
Manganese, and concentrations of all other elements are Below Detection Level.
The permissible limit of iron and Manganese is 0.3 mg/l. From Figs. 12 and 13,
except for sample 2, in all other samples the Iron concentration is less than the
permissible limit, and the concentration of manganese was within the permissible
limit for all the collected water samples.

Fig. 12 Concentration of
iron

Fig. 13 Concentration of
manganese
Assessment of Ground Water Quality in Industrial Area … 231

4 Conclusion

The analysis of the result shows that the concentration of Calcium, Chloride,
Manganese, Total dissolved solids, Total hardness and Sulphate in sample 4 was
above the permissible limit by Bureau of Indian Standards. Sample 4 located very
near to the steel industry was the main reason for high concentration of various
parameters. The concentration level can be reduced in the study area by adopting
secondary treatment of water in the industry before discharging it. The significant
pollutants in the groundwater sample in the study area are Total hardness, Chlorides
and Total dissolved solids. The concentrations of these parameters are 1041 mg/l,
1625 mg/l and 3644 mg/l. The pH range was within the standard limit, and in most
of the samples, the chloride concentration was more than the permissible limit. The
test on heavy metal concentration in the collected sample shows the presence of
small quantity of manganese and Iron in water; all other heavy metal concentration
was below detection level. Even though the concentration was within the permissible
limit, the concentration was more than acceptable levels given by Bureau of Indian
Standards. So, necessary steps have to be taken to protect further contamination
of ground water and maintain the concentration of different parameters within the
permissible limit.

References

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ground water of Amaravathi river basin-Karur, Tamilnadu India. Journal of Chemical and
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Ground Water Modelling of Poondi
Micro-Watershed, Thiruvallur, Tamil
Nadu

P. Eshanthini, S. Nandhakumar, and Ritesh Bandari

Abstract Ground water is one of the major source of water for drinking and agri-
culture in rural areas. Due to rapid increase in population, urbanization and indus-
trialization, the consumption of ground water has been increased which leads to the
over exploitation of available groundwater sources. The present study focuses on
simulating the discharge groundwater pattern for Poondi micro-watershed, Tamil
Nadu, India using Visual MODFLOW. United States Geological survey developed
a finite difference discharge model named Visual MODFLOW. The ground water
flow equations are represented in terms of computer codes. The steady and transit
state conditions were calibrated using the Visual Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-
Difference Groundwater Flow Model (Visual MODFLOW). The calibration and vali-
dation was done for the period 2012–2018. The optimization of the model for spatial
distribution of hydraulic conductivity and storage properties was done using trial
and error technique. The model output show that ground water level mainly depends
on precipitation and recharge rate. Due to the presence of river and the water level
contours, prediction using the model showed high ground water level in Poondi.

Keywords Visual MODFLOW · Ground water level · Calibration · Prediction

1 Introduction

Water is an important source in the development of any activity in the world. The
water is used in developing domestic water supply for communities, for irrigation and
agriculture, for industrial and many other activities. The sustainable use of ground-
water resource is possible only after the complete analysis of quantity and quality of
ground water. The postulated equation was used for unconfined flow to a well [1].
Visual MODFLOW software in groundwater modelling has been universally
accepted and well documented in research journals [2, 3]. The hydrological and
geological parameters which are involved in the groundwater flow can be calculated

P. Eshanthini (B) · S. Nandhakumar · R. Bandari

Department of Civil Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamilnadu 600 119, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 233
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_21
234 P. Eshanthini et al.

approximately with the help of ground water models. The ground water models are
considered as the important asset for policy makers for allocation of water among
different users as well as sustainable utilization of this valuable resource [4]. There
are many numerical models available in ground water research totally based on
extraordinary strategies [5, 6]. Incorporation of Soil Water Assessment Tool SWAT
and MODFLOW, Conceptualization, characterization and numerical modelling have
been done using ARC/INFO, MODFLOW and MODPATH for hydrodynamic simu-
lation Processing [7, 8]. MODFLOW is one of the most extensively used software
in the field of ground water engineering studied due to its easy strategies and giving
solutions for special hydro-geologic problems using its modular programme structure
[9]. GMS, Visual MODFLOW and PMWIN are some of the ground water modelling
software that evolved from MODFLOW. The integration of MODFLOW with GIS
provided an efficient tool for visualizing the ground water flow [10]. Nowadays,
the quantity and quality analysis of ground water was carried out by 2-D and 3-D
groundwater modelling packages which will give a solution for groundwater flow
problems [11, 12].
The area selected for the study is Poondi Micro watershed in Tiruvallur district
and the watershed number is 4C2C4b1. The study area lies between longitude 79˚42’
and 79˚54 36 and latitude 13˚1 40.8 and 13˚12 50.4 . Poondi is the major source
of drinking water supply to the Chennai city and covers an area of 528.93 Sq.km.
Average rainfall in the study area is 604 mm. The depth of rock strata is 45 m below
ground level. The water level in the study area ranges from 7 to 11 m. The study
area is composed of sedimentary rock. The major lithology in the study area is sand,
silt, silty sand, sandstone, laterite and conglomerates. The depth of rock is 11 to
45 m below ground level. In sedimentary formation, the occurrence and movement
of ground water is based on coarse gravelly sand and connected media. Alternate
layers of clay and silty sand occurred in the study area.
Groundwater flow is a complex, three-dimensional heterogeneous unit. The
description of such a complex system can be done only through hydrological practice
on various factors influencing ground water flow. Principle of conservation of mass
of fluid will be the governing equation of mathematical model. A universal equation
for conservation of mass of volume can be expressed as.
Rate of inflow –Rate of Outflow = change in storage.
Ground water flow equation in Cartesian form is as follows:
     
∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
Kx + Ky + Kz ±Q=C (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

where,
h = piezometric head, m(L).
Kx , Ky , Kz = x, y and z axis hydraulic conductivity.
C = storage constant.
Q = Uniform discharge representing source of flow.
t = Duration in secs.
Ground Water Modelling of Poondi Micro-Watershed … 235

2 Materials and Methods

Ground water models describe complex ground water flow in simple mathematical
equations. In this study, the groundwater flow has been done for Poondi micro-
watershed using visual Modflow. In this boundary map, slope, rainfall, recharge,
hydraulic properties like specific storage, specific yield and effective porosity were
used to construct the model. The major aquifer characteristics like soil type, bore-
hole details of wells, Hydraulic conductivity and porosity are collected from central
ground water board (CGWB). Lithology of bore wells and water level data of well
for different years are collected from Institute of water studies (IWS), Taramani,
Chennai, and PWD, Thiruvallur. Table 1 shows the aquifer properties of the study
area. In this study, seven wells are considered for finding out flow direction. The
base map of the study area was prepared using ArcGIS 10.3. The shape file from the
ArcGIS environment is directly imported into MODFLOW. Based on the geology
and lithology of the study area, the model was conceptualized as single layer and the
elevation is imported through grid menu in the model screen.
The total study area was split up into 40 columns and 40 rows. Figure 1 shows
gridded base map of study area. Based on water level data collected from district
profile report of groundwater division, PWD, the well locations and water level
of observation wells are imported into the model. The water level in the seven
observation wells are used to find the hydraulic head.
General head, recharge, constant head, river and no flux were considered to
be visual MODFLOW boundary conditions. The boundary of the Poondi micro-
watershed is no flow boundary was selected for north because of less impact of water
table.

Table 1 Aquifer properties

Model properties Hydraulic conductivity Model properties Hydraulic conductivity
(Kx in m/day) (Kx in m/day)
Longitudinal direction 0.00015 Specific yield 0.20
Hydraulic conductivity (Sy)(l/S)
(Kx m/s)
Lateral direction 0.00014 Effective 0.15
Hydraulic conductivity porosity
(Ky m/s)
Vertical direction 0.00012 Total porosity 0.30
Hydraulic conductivity
(Kz m/s)
Specific storage 1e-4
(l/S)
236 P. Eshanthini et al.

Fig. 1 Grid map of study area

3 Results and Discussion

After ensuring the incorporation input datum, the model was run through by selecting
run in the main menu in the dialogue box. During the period between 2012 and
2018, the current visual flow model was validated and calibrated. The model was
calibrated by changing the model input parameters like hydraulic conductivity and
recharge values using trial and error method. The model was validated with observed
and estimated water level in all seven inspection wells. The following Fig. 2 shows
observed and predicted water head in the well from the year 2012 to 2018 (2544
days).

4 Model Prediction

The model prediction was done for the year 2025. Figure 3 shows the contour of head
difference, Velocity of flow and drawdown. The velocity of flow is higher towards
river flow direction.
Ground Water Modelling of Poondi Micro-Watershed … 237

Fig. 2 Observed head values and calculated model values for 2544 Days

5 Conclusion

Visual MODFLOW is the important ground water modelling software used in various
works like modelling ground water flow, velocity of flow and solute transport. The
input datum for the model used in the current study was water level data and the
aquifer characteristics. The version used in the study was visual MODFLOW version
2.8 to analyse the directions of ground water flow. Calibrated model was validated
and values were observed from the period between 2012 and 2018. The future ground
water level contour in the year 2025 was predicted using the validated model. Since
the predicted water measurement correlates with the water level change in the field,
the recharge in the Poondi micro-watershed is found to be sufficient.
238 P. Eshanthini et al.

Fig.3 Predicted water level contour (2025)

References

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(520), 168–179.
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced
Stabilization (EIS) in Improving
the Strength Characteristics of Weak
Soils
Nehaun, K. Prasanna, Nihit Omprakash Prajapathi, Maaz Rafi Ashraf,
and V. M. V. Sai Krishna

Abstract In later days, Civil Engineers frequently confront issues for devel-
oping structures on or with soils, which own inadequate strength to sustain the
loads thrusted on them amid development or the benefit life of the structure. Soil
engineers have been forced to develop cost-effective and environmentally sustain-
able methods for soil stabilization due to the poor engineering performance of
the soil. Bio-enzyme is a, non harmful, non combustible, non-corrosive liquid
enzyme composition fermented from vegetable extracts that enhances soil qual-
ities, is eco friendly, and is cost effective. It decreases water assimilation inside
the soil and lowers gaps between the soil particles, allowing for the most extreme
compaction possible. Protein is a natural biodegradable fluid, which does not have
any harmful impact on environment. The bio protein which we utilized is known
as TerraZyme. The Gurti soil sample from Southern Srinagar was treated with
TerraZyme, and the treated soil was cured for 7 days. The effects of different protein
blends (0.05 ml/kg, 0.1 ml/kg, and 0.15 ml/kg) used for soil stabilization on the
geotechnical qualities of soils are investigated. Geotechnical features such as the
California bearing proportion (CBR) and unconfined compression quality (UCS) are
taken into account and discussed. These studies were carried out to determine the
appropriate TerraZyme extent at various curing times.

Keywords TerraZyme · Stabilization · CBR · Unconfined compression

Nehaun (B) · K. Prasanna · N. O. Prajapathi · M. R. Ashraf · V. M. V. S. Krishna

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Prasanna
e-mail: [email protected]
N. O. Prajapathi
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 241
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_22
242 Nehaun et al.

1 Introduction

Ground stabilization is a process of increasing soil strength and endurance. The main
goal of stabilization is to reduce the cost and make better use of locally available
materials. Soil stabilization is mostly used in the construction of roads and airport
runways.
There are numerous methods for soil stabilization, such as soil grouting (more
suitable for increasing foundation-bearing capacity), using cement, fly ash and lime;
electrical stabilization; and chemical soil stabilization. It should be replaced with
high-quality soil etc. The selection of a specific technique is primarily determined
by the type of soil to be progressed and its characteristics. It moreover depends on
the sort and degree of enhancement craved in a specific application. Lime is also
used to stabilize the soil. An ideal soil stabilizer should be easily available. It should
also be economical and eco-friendly.
TerraZyme is a good alternative to all the traditional soil stabilizers like lime, fly
ash, cement etc. TerraZyme is a bio-catalyst used as a soil stabilizer. It improves
the soil properties. It is non-toxic and natural substance. It is prepared from plants,
veggies and fruit extract. Therefore, it is also eco-friendly. TerraZyme advances the
engineering features of soil and strength of soil. CBR value and UCS are increased.
TerraZyme strengthens the chemical bonds between soil particles, resulting in a
long-lasting structure that is resistant to damage, weathering, and infiltration. It also
eliminates the need for granular and sub-base.

2 Summary of Literature Review

Soil stabilization is an advanced technique, which has showed excellent perfor-

mance for the construction of roadways and geotechnical applications. The enzyme
(TerraZyme) being a non-poisonous, non-corrosive, and non-inflammable natural
material alters the characteristics of the virgin soil which enhances the strength and
durability of the soil sample. Various tests like CBR, UCS, and Compaction were
performed for different dosages given for the period of 0, 7, 14, 28 days and the
values are noted. Soil stabilization is an eco-friendly, cost-effective, easy handling,
and low maintenance cost technique.
The study aims to find out the outcome of varying doses of TerraZyme on
strength and other features of known soil. In addition to that, to identify the optimum
TerraZyme required for selected soils for comparison of the results obtained from
soil before and after adding TerraZyme.
Rintu Renjith et al. (2017) surveyed the problems in Australia’s road network and
concluded that chemical stabilization is an effective solution to these problems. CBR
tests were performed on samples from the road before and after stabilization, which
revealed an increase in the strength of the road from before to after stabilization,
and inspection on the model revealed that the stabilized road exceeded the minimum
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced Stabilization (EIS) … 243

description required. Their work will help the industry of construction to execute the
road infrastructure with a less and effective budget [1].
Ali Akbar Firoozi et al. (2017) studied that in order to increase soil strength,
durability stiffness, and reduction in soil plasticity, soil stabilization is very beneficial.
The strengthened soil can be used for road surface and geotechnical uses. We can
strengthen the native soils by stabilizing it with cement which will lessen the volume
changes in the native soil, by stabilizing it with lime which will increase the volume of
soil, by stabilizing it with fly ash which will increase the content of the native soil and
is considered to be the best method because strength of the soil is also increased, and
by stabilizing it with fibres. TerraZyme stabilization not only increases the strength
of the soil but also improves the quality of the native soil which is very beneficial in
the future [2].
Athira et al. (2017) analysed the requirement of new eco friendly methods which
will help the development of roads, geotechnical applications and for the construction
projects from the old conventional methods. Soil stabilization is one such method for
the future use. On the native sample, initial tests were conducted to determine dry
density, particle size, liquid limit. Unconfined test was initiated for different dosages
for the duration of 0, 7, 14, 28 days. A standard proctor test for light compaction was
performed with a 2.6 kg rammer and a 310 mm free fall over a period of 0, 7, 14, and
28 days. The mechanical strength of the base course and sub grade was determined
using the California bearing ratio for curing times of 0, 7, 14, and 28 days. The value
in the UCC was increased to 281.5% in 28 days, according to the data. CBR value
increased by approximately 139.32%. Soil stabilization will stabilize the native soil
at a low cost [3].
Anjali Gupta et al. (2017) Soil stabilization is a method of increasing the strength
and durability of soil by modifying some changes in the soil. Unconfined Compres-
sive Strength, California Bearing Ratio, and Shear Strength in-situ soil tests were
carried out on the native sample. The sample is surrounded by a negatively layered
environment and combined with positive charge to neutralize. TerraZyme reduces
the charge, and particles come closer to attain greater compaction, and the strength
of the soil also increases. TerraZyme also decreases the voids present in sample.
Nowadays, TerraZyme is widely used because of its cost-effective and eco-friendly
behaviour [4].
Pradeep Singh Sodhi et al. (2018) studied about the process of soil stabilization
which will help to improve the construction of road. The sample was collected from a
site and tests like Atterberg’s limit, California bearing ratio, Unconfined Compressive
Strength were conducted on the native soil. The results obtained showed an increase
in dosage of TerraZyme, decreased liquid limit and plastic index from 0.06 ml/kg.
There was also an increase in Unconfined Compressive Strength value by 375% and
also in the California Bearing Ratio by 185.32% when mixing it with TerraZyme of
0.2 ml/kg. TerraZyme, a non-toxic, biodegradable liquid, improves the soil’s strength
and durability [5].
Priyanka Shaka et al. (2016) describe the study that was carried out to check
the improvements in the properties of black cotton soils and red soil treated with
TerraZyme stabilizer and concluded that the best results were observed with the
244 Nehaun et al.

application of TerraZyme at a curing period of 21 days. Unconfined compressive

strength (UCS) test was carried out on four different soil samples and observations
were noted after 7, 14, 21 days, respectively, for each soil sample. Significant amount
of increase in UCS and decrease in liquid limit were observed after 21 days. This
study examines the changes in physical and strength properties caused by TerraZyme
stabilization, as well as the effect of various parameters such as curing period on
stabilized soil [6].
Joydeep Sen et al. (2015) In order to use this technology for low volume roads,
researchers studied the properties of soil modified with a bio-enzyme and concluded
that the amount of clay content plays a significant role in the variation of consistency
limits. Black cotton soil with varying index properties was tested for stabilization in
this study, and the strength of the stabilized soil was evaluated after curing periods
of 0 days, 14 days, 21 days, and 28 days for various enzyme dosages 200 ml/3m3 ,
200 ml/2.5m3 , 200 ml/2m3 , and 200 ml/1.5m3 . The soil specimen was subjected to the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests.
The results of the tests show that bio-enzyme stabilization improves the strength of
Black Cotton soil, indicating that the bearing capacity and resistance to deformation
increase in stabilized soil [7].
Puneet Agarwal et al. (2014) The importance of bio-enzymes in improving the
soil quality of black cotton soil in India was investigated, and it was concluded that
the duration of soil treatment with TerraZyme played a critical role in improving
strength. The Unconfined Compressive Strength was measured after 1 and 7 days of
curing with different enzyme dosages (0.0, 0.25 ml, 0.5 ml, 0.75 ml, 1.0 ml, 2.0 ml,
3.0 ml, and 4.0 ml/per 5 kg of soil). The use of TerraZyme to strengthen the soil
resulted in an increase of up to 200% in the Unconfined Compressive Strength of the
Black Cotton Soil [8].
Venika Saini et al. (2015) studied the significance of new methods such as bio-
enzyme and how beneficial it can be for soil geotechnical properties when compared
to traditional methods. Bio-enzymes are cost-effective, and it changes the properties
of soil drastically, and the changes are permanent. Tests like specific gravity test,
standard proctor test, consistency limit test, and California bearing ratio were carried
and results were compared. Local soil (from Ballupur Road) and TerraZyme were
used in the experiment (bio-enzyme). After a two-week curing period, the third
enzyme dosage is the best because the consistency limits are reduced and the soaked
CBR is increased [9].
Sandeep Panchal et al. (2017) TerraZyme, a bio-enzyme, was studied for
improving the California bearing ratio (CBR) value in road construction. They
concluded that TerraZyme can be a useful approach for ground improvement and
soil stabilization in construction of roads. California bearing ratio, Atterberg’s limit
test, and standard proctor test were carried out and results were analysed on the
basis of dosages and different curing periods. Local soil samples were tested with
and without enzyme. The best CBR value was obtained with the third dosage after a
two-week curing period, with a percentage increase of 131.49% when compared to
a local soil sample without TerraZyme [10].
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced Stabilization (EIS) … 245

Elsa Jacob Joseph et al. (2017) studied the importance of improving the poor
conditions of subgrade soil prior to construction work of roads. Tests were performed
on Kaolinitic clay taken from Thonnakkal region, Thiruvananthapuram district,
Kerala, and the results were taken after different curing periods. The Dynamic Cone
Penetration Tests were done and the Dynamic Cone Penetration Index was found to
decrease with the use of TerraZyme. TerraZyme dosage of 0.1 ml/kg dry samples
were found to be ideal. The CBR value increased by 25-fold and UCS increased by
3-fold for the sample stabilized with 0.1 ml/kg of TerraZyme after 28 days curing.
The DPI value decreased by 59% for the soil stabilized with 0.1 ml/kg dosage of
TerraZyme after 28 days curing [11].
Sanjeet Saho et al. (2018) studied the importance of soil stabilization for
construction and analysed the sample of TerraZyme stabilizer with the other sample
and concluded that TerraZyme stabilizer can effectively be used to stabilize the soil.
The increase in the unconfined compressive strength from 120 KN/m2 to
122.5KN/m2 was found for the indigenous soil. The CBR values for unsoaked sample
with indigenous soil was about 3.79% at 2.5 mm, when it is soaked for the period
of 4 days the values are 2.286% at 2.5 mm. TerraZyme execution is a substitute for
lowering roadwork expenses [12].

3 Materials and Methodology

3.1 Materials

TerraZyme could be a great elective to all the customary soil stabilizers like fly fiery
remains, cement, etc. TerraZyme may be a bio-enzyme utilized as a soil stabilizer.
It moves forward the soil properties. It is a non-harmful and natural substance. It is
defined as the extraction of plants, vegetables, and natural products. Subsequently,
it is additionally eco-friendly.
It is necessary to dilute it before using it. When it’s mixed with soil and added
to water, it changes the properties of soil depending on the type of soil and the
amount of TerraZyme used. It may be a fluid added substance, which dimin-
ishes voids and minimizes water retention for most extreme compaction of soil.
It responds with sticky matter in soil and shapes cementitious fabric, which dimin-
ishes swelling capacity of soil and diminishes penetrability.
It increases soil load-bearing capacity and improves climate resistance.
TerraZyme’s reaction with soil is permanent, and the substance is biodegradable.
Properties of TerraZyme are listed in Table 1 (Fig. 1).
246 Nehaun et al.

Table 1 Properties of
Identity (as it appears on the Enzyme
TerraZyme. Source https://
label)
www.irjet.net/archives/V6/i3/
IRJET-V6I3156.pdf Hazardous component None
Boiling point 100 °C / 212° F
Specific gravity 1.05
Melting point Liquid
Evaporating rate Same as water
Solubility in water Same as water
Vapour density 1
pH value 3.50
Appearance/odour Brown liquid/non-obnoxious

Fig. 1 TerraZyme. Source

https://www.l-q-internati
onal.com/store/p2/TerraZ
yme.html
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced Stabilization (EIS) … 247

Fig. 2 Methodology

3.2 Methodology

The Gurti soil sample was collected from Southern Srinagar, treated with TerraZyme,
and cured for 7 days. The effect of the dosage (0.05 ml/kg, 0.1 ml/kg, and 0.15 ml/kg)
used for soil stabilization on the geotechnical properties of soils is investigated.
Geotechnical properties such as the California bearing proportion (CBR) and uncon-
fined compression quality (UCS) are investigated. Soil CBR and UCS were found
to be 4.68% and 196.33kN/m2 , respectively [13–20]. The methodology adopted for
the soil stabilization is shown in the Fig. 2.

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Results

Experimental results obtained on effect of varying dosages of TerraZyme on CBR

and UCS are listed in the following Tables 2 and 3.
248 Nehaun et al.

Table 2 Experimental results

Dosage (ml/kg) CBR (%)
obtained on effect of varying
dosages of TerraZyme on Period of curing (0 Period of curing (7
CBR days) days)
0.05 4.68 12.16
0.1 9.79 30.17
0.15 4.53 14.9

Table 3 Experimental results

Dosage (ml/kg) UCS (kN/m2 )
obtained on effect of varying
dosages of TerraZyme on Period of curing (0 Period of curing (7
UCS days) days)
0.05 196.33 234.65
0.1 217.26 273.72
0.15 204.68 249.71

4.2 Discussion

4.2.1 CBR TEST

The CBR value for the respective soil samples is determined by CBR test.
Three different mix proportions of TerraZyme (0.05 ml/kg, 0.1 ml/kg, and
0.15 ml/kg) were added, and CBR test was done after 0 and 7 days of curing. The
CBR esteem for test stabilized with 0.05 ml/kg TerraZyme 4.68%, for test stabilized
with 0.1 ml/kg TerraZyme is 9.79%, and for test stabilized with 0.15 ml/kg TerraZyme
is 4.53% after curing time. After 7 days curing period, the CBR esteem for test stabi-
lized with 0.05 ml/kg TerraZyme is 12.16%, for test stabilized with 0.1 ml/kg
TerraZyme is 30.17%, and for test stabilized with 0.15 ml/kg TerraZyme is 14.9%.
From the outcomes, CBR esteem for test stabilized with 0.1 ml/kg TerraZyme after
7 days of curing is the ideal dose of TerraZyme. The graphical representation of CBR
is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Graphical CBR

representation of CBR
results
CBR (%)

Curing Period (days)

0.05 ml/kg 0.1 ml/kg 0.15 ml/kg
Analysing the Effect of Enzyme-Induced Stabilization (EIS) … 249

Fig. 4 Graphical UCS

representation of UCS results

UCS (KN/m2)
Curing Period (days)

0.05 ml/kg 0.1 ml/kg 0.15 ml/kg

4.2.2 UCS TEST

The shear strength parameters were determined by unconfined compressive test using
disturbed soil sample. Three different mix proportions of TerraZyme (0.05 ml/kg,
0.1 ml/kg, and 0.15 ml/kg) were added and UCC strength was found after 0 and
7 days of curing period. The value of ucc strength for soil sample stabilization
with 0.05 ml/kg TerraZyme is 196.33 KN/m2 , for sample which is stabilized with
0.1 ml/kg TerraZyme is 217.26 KN/m2 , and for sample which is stabilized with
0.15 ml/kg TerraZyme is 204.68 KN/m2 after 0 days of curing. After a 7-day curing
period, the ucc strength for sample which is stabilized with 0.05 ml/kg TerraZyme
is 234.65 KN/m2 , for sample which is stabilized with 0.1 ml/kg TerraZyme is
273.72 KN/m2 , and for sample which is stabilized with 0.15 ml/kg TerraZyme is
249.71 KN/m2 . From the results, the UCC strength for sample which is stabilized
with 0.1 ml/kg TerraZyme after 7 days of curing is the best TerraZyme dosage. The
graphical representation of UCC is shown in Fig. 4.

5 Conclusions

TerraZyme is a good alternative to all the traditional soil stabilizers like fly ash,
cement, lime, etc. TerraZyme is a bio-catalyst used as a soil stabilizer. It improves
the soil properties. It is a non-toxic and natural substance. It is prepared from plants,
veggies, and fruit extract. Therefore, it is also eco-friendly. TerraZyme enhances the
engineering features of soil and strength of soil. CBR value and UCS gets increased.
TerraZyme strengthens the chemical bonds between soil particles, resulting in a
long-lasting structure that is resistant to damage, weathering, and infiltration. It also
eliminates the need for granular and sub-base.
The addition of TerraZyme improved the engineering properties of the soil sample.
Various tests were performed before and after mixing TerraZyme with sample. After
combining different TerraZyme dosages with different curing periods, the UCS and
250 Nehaun et al.

CBR values increased. The maximum amount of TerraZyme used to improve the
UCS and CBR value of Gurti soil was discovered to be 0.1 ml/kg.
The duration of TerraZyme treatment of soil plays an important role in increasing
the strength of treated soil (7 days gives highest strength). TerraZyme, an environ-
mentally friendly enzyme, can be effectively used to increase the UCS and CBR
value of Gurti soil. Other TerraZyme dosages were also tested. Even though it was
not the optimum dosage, TerraZyme dosages of 0.05 ml/kg and 0.15 ml/kg signifi-
cantly improved the engineering properties of an untreated soil sample. As a result, it
can also be used in the field, taking into account the balance between the performance
of stabilized soil and the total cost involved.
Future Scope in India: TerraZyme has a tremendous opportunity in India due to its
profitable results. It is a progressive method that can be effectively chosen as a top
strategy for soil stabilization. Because of its adequacy and higher quality, particularly
in the case of interstates, it is now used in India in Maharashtra, Kerala, and Karnataka.
However, because different types of soil necessitate different measurements, there is
a need for research to be conducted in this field.

References

1. Renjith, R., Robert, D., & Fuller, A. (2017). Enzyme based soil stabilization for unpaved road
construction. In: MATEC Web of Conferences 138.
2. Firoozi, A. A. (2017). Fundamentals of soil stabilization. International Journal of Geo-
Engineering, 08(26), 1–16.
3. Athira, S. (2017). Soil stabilization using TerraZyme for road construction. International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 06(03), 547–549.
4. Gupta, A., Saxena, V., & Saxena, A. (2017). Stabilization of Soil using TerraZyme.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Application, 07(04), 54–57.
5. Sodhi, P. S., Ocean, & Kumar, Y. (2018). Stabilization of soil using acidic bio-enzyme
(TerraZyme). International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology, 07(08), 9172–9177.
6. Shaka, P., & Rakaraddi, P. G. (2016). Experimental study on the effect of bio-enzyme stabiliza-
tion on black cotton soils and red soil. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology, 05,(08), 15378–15386.
7. Sen, J., & Prasad Singh, J. (2015). Stabilization of black cotton soil using bio-enzyme for a
highway material. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology, 04(05), 12453–12459.
8. Agarwal, P., & Kaur, S. (2017). Effect of bio-enzyme stabilization on the unconfined compres-
sive strength of expansive soil. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Technology,
03(05), 9172–9177.
9. Saini, V., & Vaishnava, P. (2015). Soil stabilization by using TerraZyme. International Journal
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Indian Geotechnical Conference.
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Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118(24), 1–10.
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13. IS 2720-Part 5. (1985). Determination of liquid limit and plastic limit of soils. New Delhi:
Bureau of Indian Standards.
14. IS 2720-Part 13. (1986). Methods of direct shear test for soils. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian
Standards.
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Standards.
16. IS 2720-Part 7. (1980). Determination of water content dry density relation using light
compaction. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.
17. IS 2720-Part 10. (1991). Determination of unconfined compressive strength of soils. New Delhi:
Bureau of Indian Standards.
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Standards.
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20. IS 1498. (1970). Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes.
New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.
Building Automation
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique
as an Effective Sustainable Treatment
for Wastewater: A Review

J. S. Sudarsan, Radhika Kumkumwar, Shraddha Kademwar, Nowel Bose,

Akash Chobe, and Rishikesh Salunke

Abstract Wetland’s concept are becoming a popular alternative to traditional tech-

nologies for processing wastewater from domestic as well as industrial, especially
for tertiary treatment of wastewater. Constructed Wetland (CW) is the assemblage
which performs the treatment of wastewater by the process of unit operation tech-
niques using natural process. It helps in achieving effective treatment efficiency in a
sustainable manner. Due to an increase in wastewater loading, insufficient arrange-
ment of sterilization and sewage treatment prompts in ecological impact and contami-
nation of water bodies. It leads to water stress and depletion of good quality of ground
water. Therefore, wastewater and reusing techniques will be essential in the coming
days to overcome the crisis. CW is an effective alternative to overcome this situa-
tion. CW systems seem to be viable alternative in treating predominantly domestic
wastewater and some type of industrial wastewater. In this method, the readied wet
soil is successful for eliminating natural and suspended solids, while the evacuation
of nitrogen is moderately low, however, can be improved by utilizing a combination
of various sorts of wet soil arranged to satisfy water system reusing guidelines. In this
research study, feasibility analysis has been carried out with domestic wastewater and
industrial wastewater to ascertain the efficiency of CW in treating the wastewater and
also the problems and limitations in handling the same was also assessed. General
instruction regarding CW operation built for the treatment of specific wastewater
types also ascertained in this research study. The important points that should always
include suggestions about the pre-treatment stage, plants, and permeable media and
built wetland operation strategies, etc., are discussed in this research paper. CW with
integrated/hybrid model by linking both horizontal and vertical flow units was fabri-
cated in a lab-scale hybrid wetland unit for treating the wastewater. Based on several
trail study, it was observed that CW are very effective in treating organic wastewater.
The treatment efficiency of some of the common parameter like Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was around 70–80%. Several
researchers have also proved that this one of the viable alternative technique for urban
environment and semi-urban environment were availability of space for developing
the CW unit is not a problem. It was evident from the study that CW is effective

J. S. Sudarsan · R. Kumkumwar (B) · S. Kademwar · N. Bose · A. Chobe · R. Salunke

National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 255
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_23
256 J. S. Sudarsan et al.

sustainable technology for the near future to solve the water crisis and to implement
3R concept in wastewater treatment.

Keywords Wetlands · Constructed wetlands · Wastewater · Hybrid wetland ·

Organic wastewater

1 Introduction

Construct Wetlands (CW) can also be called as artificial wetland It can be used
as portion of a decentralized waste water treatment system and is a strong and
“low tech” technology by low operating requirements, whereas artificial wetland
is type of wetland which is mimic of natural wetland which is created artificially.
But constructed wetland are artificial type which are created according to the require-
ments and based on design criteria of quantity and quality of wastewater. CW can
be used to treat a wide variety of waste water and plays a vital role in many environ-
mental hygiene concepts. CWs are designed to remove water pollutants using natural
extraction systems provided by plant, soil, and related microbial populations. The
treatment of CWs based on many biological and physical method such as absorption,
precipitation, filtration or methods, nitration, decomposition, etc. The most signif-
icant method is the process of biological filtration by a biofilm made by aerobic
and fascistic bacteria. CWs has traditionally been used to treat municipal waste,
but over the last two decades, the use of this technology to treat various industrial
effluents has increased significantly [6]. The CW is of many types like submerged
flow and subsurface flow types in which horizontal and vertical flow pattern was
followed to achieve the objective. In this research study, a setup has been fabricated
by considering subsurface flow pattern integrating both horizontal and vertical flow
types by providing intermediate baffle with impregnated holes in it as represented in
the following Fig. 1.
The functional process of the hybrid CW was depicted in Figs. 1 and 2 it is clear
that CW consist of three units, namely inlet zone, wetland zone or treatment zone,
and outlet zone. The inlet zone is the main unit where the entire functioning of the
treatment happening. It is influenced by several factors like vegetation, filter media,
and other external environmental and climatic factors. It is a natural process; the
efficiency of the treatment and functioning unit depends on the quantity and quantity
of wastewater, and also the size and type of vegetation selected for treatment. Wetland
plants are used to treat sewage as a result of cold, chemical, and biological processes in
soils and aquatic environments (macrophytes). In this process, unlike conventional
biological reactors, it does not produce huge amount secondary sludge and also
CW system is resistance to uneven and variable flow of sewage. The efficiency of
the CW unit can be improved by proper design, well-maintained hydraulic loading
rate (HLR), and hydraulic retention time (HRT). The functioning process, working,
benefits, and limitations are discussed in this following chapters.
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique … 257

HYBRID FLOW

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of Integrated/Hybrid Wetland Unit

Fig. 2 Typical inputs for CWs

Several waste water domestic and industrial wastewaters are found to be appro-
priate for the treatment in CW. In this research, several study on domestic and indus-
trial wastewater such as dairy, pulp and paper, tannery, and petrochemical has been
considered for trail study and the processing for wastewater generation in following.

1.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment

Domestic sources are the main source of wastewater in treatment plants. It contains
about 0.1% solids, which include food particles, oil, feces, soap, sand and grit, toilet
paper, and detergents. Most of the domestic water in urban areas is discharge into
drains and taken to wastewater treatment plants, while in some areas, it is discharged
directly into water bodies, which is usually considered in rural areas where there is no
258 J. S. Sudarsan et al.

treatment facility available. Disposal of this water in the aquifer causes disturbance
in the water and affects the aquatic life. In addition to the traditional method of
water treatment, artificial wetlands can also be extremely economical and efficient for
wastewater treatment. Experiments have shown that in some cases wetland efficiency
can be around 78%–91% as shown in Fig 3 [2]. It taken that the treatment process
was easier and resulted in less economy. It is taken to be effective in removing BOD
from significant amounts of water.
This is a simple method of water reduction and can be used efficiently in rural
areas where domestic sewage is not high. As this is an easy process, it is not difficult
to run in rural areas where more funds are not available. Various aspects of domestic
wastewater can be treated in artificial humid areas such as BOD, COD, pH, water
turbidity, and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). However, this method cannot be used
where the discharge of muddy water is high because it is submerged in domestic
water [19].

1.2 Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Initially, CW is used to treat domestic sewage. However, both surface and sub-surface
hybrid CW are used to treat industrial wastewater for past two decades. Industrial
effects such as diary, petrochemical, waste from pulp and paper factories, abattoir
and meat processing were first to be handled by CW [13]. Wastewater system from
tanneries, olive mills, and brewery have recently been applied to CW applications
[11]. As a result, a variety of industrial wastewater, including mine wastewater, which
has landfill leachate and low organic matter, are treated using CW as represented in
Fig 4 [20]. However, there are no rules for choosing the most suitable type of CW
for a particular industrial wastewater or even urban wastewater. Each case should
be studied, especially because of the number of conditions: sewage type, soil avail-
ability, contaminant load and flow rate, outlet discharge limit, etc. [9]. Depending
on operating conditions, system design features, and sewage characteristics, perfor-
mance can vary greatly. In this research study, an initiative was carried out to treat
the dairy, pulp and paper, tannery and petrochemical wastewaters was taken for trail
study.

1.2.1 CW for Dairy Wastewater

The usage of acid and alkaline kernel cleaner and disinfectant in a dairy industry
produces strong waste characterized by a wide range of high organic matter (BOD,
COD) and pH values between 3.5 and 11.0 [14]. The production of wastewater varies
as stated by the types of invention, and expertise used, as the dairy industry produce
a variety of products such as yogurt, milk, ice cream, and cheese. In the most recent
trial of CW treatment of milk wastewater, the pre-treatment stage was primarily
used to extract suspended solid that were required before the creamy wastewater
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique … 259

reached the CW bed to prevent porous media reduction and reduce the organic load.
Simple setting basins are popular pre-treatment processes [10–12]. Since hybrid-
constructed wetland system also has HSSF beds, these wetland beds are only needed
to treat the dairy wastewater [16]. Integrated building wetlands systems were found to
achieve high-amount removal bulk of organic matter from the VSSF system, despite
contaminant superficial loads typically greater than those applied to the CW scheme
[3]. The HSSF system appears to be more efficient in the treatment of milk wastewater
[22]. In this trail study, wastewater from dairy processing unit near Chennai was used
for trail in CW and output efficiency was recorded for different trails.

1.2.2 CWs for Pulp and Paper Wastewater

The pulp and paper industry generates significant volume of wastewater. Waste water
treatment in the pulp and paper industry depends on the type of processing, wood
material type, method of controlling, processing technology, internal recycling of the
wastewater for recovery, and the specific quantity of water [1]. Extremely volatile
organic compounds, fatty acids, AOX, lignin and its derivatives, and resins usually
contain high amount of organics (BOD and COD) and suspended solids. Some of
these contaminants are present naturally in wood extracts, while others are xenobiotic
compounds produced in processes of pulping and paper making (Chlorinated lignin,
resins, seeds, and phenols, dioxane). The result of the 1-month operation showed
that the extraction efficiency for the phenols changed but reached an average of 77%
on day hydraulic retention time (HTR). Prolonged retention can lead to a lack of
oxygen and nutrients, which can lead to reduced drainage efficiency [15]. In this trail
study wastewater from pulp and paper industry from Tamil nadu was collected and
processed in for trail in CW and output efficiency was recorded for different trails.

1.2.3 CWs for Tannery Wastewater

CWs are used for secondary or tertiary treatment as environmentally friendly and
cost-effective technology, on tannery Wastewater. When using CW as part of a treat-
ment system, it is important to have strong pre-treatment, primary treatment, and
precious treatment in place before sending wastewater to the CW [4]. The treatments
of tannery wastewater CW that have been documented are active sludge as a primary
and secondary treatment. The BOD/COD level of water effluent differ depending
on the form of treatment used, varying from 0.23 to 0.66 for primary treatment
and 0.0 to 0.55 for secondary treatment [16]. CWs accounts for up to 10% of tradi-
tional secondary biological treatment costs and current costs are approximately 10%,
although they can differ based on venue, and the method is to be implemented with
pre-treatment involving, are equal to a conventional treatment; however, the instal-
lation and maintenance costs are equivalent to a conventional treatment. In this trail
study wastewater from Chrome tannery from Chennai was collected and processed
in for trail in CW and output efficiency was recorded for different trails.
260 J. S. Sudarsan et al.

1.2.4 Petrochemical Industry

Petrochemical industries transform fresh oil and additional hydro-carbon bearing

sources like natural gas and oil sands into a range of final product of intermediary
materials. And generating waste water from cracking, lube oil, topping, cooling
tower blow down, water and sludge drainage from tanks and strom water drainage
and runoff. Efficiency of treatment process within one year was better for compost
wetlana as comparison with gravel wetland. Whereas the removal efficiencies are
51% and 49% for chemical oxygen demand, 55% and 47% for biological oxygen
demand5 as well as 51% and 42% for total suspended solids. The gravel-based
wetland is less efficient as compared to compost-based wetlands for removing heavy
metals from wastewater [21]. In this trail study wastewater from petrochemical
processing industry from the outskirt of Chennai was collected and processed in
for trail in CW and output efficiency was recorded for different trails.

2 Methodologies

Increase in population results in more water demand. Nowadays huge quantity of

wastewater discharge into the water bodies and drainage without proper treatment
and it leads to several impact on environment and also it affects the ecology. Acknowl-
edging several researches outcome, it is necessary to adopt the methodologies for
executing proto type research trails. A lab scale proto type unit as represented in
Fig. 1 and 2 was fabricated as per design criteria in vogue. The proto type wetland
unit fabricated and planted with wetland plants and it was seasoned with normal
water so that plant attained the growth. Once plant attained the growth the trail was
started initially with domestic waste water continue with industrial waste water. Each
waste water trail was carried for one month it continued till three consecutive trails
got over and this process is continued for around one year. During each trail treated
sample was collected for every 24 h. In each trail and the samples were analyzed in
laboratory as per APHA guide lines for basic common parameter like BOD, COD,
TSS /TDS and TN/TP and the output of different trails are interpreted and average
results are documented and discussed in result and discussion.

3 Result and Discussion

CW can remove the organic compounds and nutrients from wastewater, where as they
expeditiously eliminate biodegradable organic waste, pathogenic microorganisms
and total solids. Separate of nitrogen depends on the design of system, process
configuration and loading rate. From above study, it is observed that wetland is
efficient for domestic waste water treatment (70%) compare to industry wastewater,
especially organic wastewater, pH, temperature, feeding mode, hydraulic retention
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique … 261

Fig. 3 Raw influent and treated effluent at HRT of domestic water (mg/l)

Treatment efficiency of CWS

100

80
Percentage

60

40

20

0
TDS COD BOD TN TP
Efficiency (%) d

Dairy Pulp Tannery Petrochemical

Fig. 4 Treatment Efficiency of CWs with different industries (mg/l)

time (HRT), hydraulic loading (HL), dissolve oxygen, bed depth, harvesting and
species of plant all effect the removal of organic compounds. Some of them form a
bond with one another. Various types of flow (horizontal or vertical flow, sporadic,
HRT, HL and wastewater loading pollutant) and dissolved oxygen and convey to
CW are depending on the plant species, various types of flow. HRT simulates the
time needed for wastewater to pass through wetland system; a longer HRT in a built
wetland increases pollutant removal because of the longer contact time between
microorganism and contaminants. Physical relative than biological method can be
credited to the removal of substances which is sediment and filtrated [19].
In terms of conditions of environment, CW has ability to work in wide range
of temperature, from the coldest to the hottest. Natural processes, such as CW,
tend to be capable of treating industrial wastewater; for example, wastewater from
262 J. S. Sudarsan et al.

Table 1 Main Characteristics of various industrial effluent

Wastewater Main Characteristics
Dairy wastewater Wide range of high organic matter (BOD, COD) and pH values between
3.5 and 11.0
Pulp and paper mill Highly intense color, chlorophenoilc compounds
Tannery High organic loadings, high salt content (up to 80 g. dm-3NaCl)
Petrochemical Low biodegradability, including salt, oil, phenolics, metals, and various
hydrocarbons

Table 2 Comparison of treatment efficiency of CWS with industrial wastewater

Types of wastewater Types of CW HLR Efficiency (%) d
(n) c (d) TDS COD BOD TN TP
Dairy Hybrid 0.8- 9.8 39–91 71–95 56–91 41–91 31–87
Pulp HSSF 2.0- 15 56–67 60–70 28–91 28–60 15–30
Tannery Hybrid 3–10 56–72 70–98 80–90 50–80 82–96
Petrochemical Hybrid 2–13 44–95 30–50 50–98 48–80 50–60

refineries, pulp and paper mills, tanneries and textile mills contains few biodegrad-
able compounds. CW can perform secondary or tertiary treatment as well as excellent
efficiency in wastewater with high BOD/COD ratio, with strong pre-treatment that
can minimize organic loads [7]. The amount of wastewater from different indus-
tries handled by CW is high and this is more likely in the latest research in the
field. Following table 1 shows main characteristics of different industrial waste
water and table 2 shows treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands [6].
From the above results as represented in Figs 3 and 4 it is clear that all parameters
are reduced by a considerable percentage after treatment in the wetland unit. The
BOD is still not within discharge limits but an increase in the hydraulic retention
time (HRT) will help in achieving the BOD reduction.
Constructed wetlands have been used extensively to treat several types of wastew-
ater and runoff. The dairy wastewater tested in this study, contained high levels of
BOD, COD, total solids, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, nitrogen and
phosphorus. The result indicates that the treatment efficiency significantly improved
within 3 days of HRT for organic wastewater. The results also suggest that wetland
plant species and soil play a significant role in the treatment of wastewater. HRT
should be given special attention in the design of future full scale facilities. From the
highlighted study, we can summaries that the technique is efficient for small scale
group treatment of community domestic wastewater, as the installation, operation
and maintenance cost is very low. In case of industrial effluents, there are serious
treatment limitations in the industrial effluents due to their specific characteristics
but more efficient for organic wastewater. Based on the analysis, it was observed that
wetland showed greater efficiency in removal of parameters such as COD, BOD,
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique … 263

and Phenolic compound. Change in the design criteria is very important for treat-
ment of different kind of industrial effluent and its filter media has a major role in
the removal of pollutants Constructed Wetland should be taken into account in the
treatment of industrial effluent as Constructed Wetlands are used from past time to
remove the organic pollutant, but the selective wetland species would made it very
useful in removal of inorganic pollutant too. The following initiatives as discussed
in following paragraph will help in improving the efficiency of CW units.

3.1 Improve Water Quality in CWs

Several factors like Water, strata, plants (vascular and algae), waste (mostly fallen
plant material), and invertebrates make up wetlands (mainly insect larvae and worms).
Furthermore, a number of microorganisms (most importantly bacteria) helps in
improvising the water quality in the wetland unit5. Water quality improvement can
be further achieved by adopting these [8]. Mechanisms it comprised of:
• Disposal of suspended particulate material
• Filtration or chemical precipitation from contact with substrate and waste-
containing water
• Chemical change
• On the surface of plants, layers, silt, and debris, absorption and ion exchange
occur
• Pollutant decomposition and transformation by microorganisms and plants
• Nutrient enhancement and transformation by microorganisms and plants.

3.2 Systems Lifetime

CWs were used for wastewater treatment with a fixed lifespan, which will be calcu-
lated based on the amount of wastewater, the capability of the wetland to remove and
maintain pollutants and the amount of waste generated. If the effect is slight, several
systems have been in use for more than 20 years [17]. Long-term data on the perfor-
mance of constructed wetlands being procure, as more systems are being monitor
over a longer period. Data from some of the manufactured wetland systems that have
provided long-term data show that loading is reasonable for organic pollutants, such
as BOD, dissolved suspended solids and nitrogen unless the treatment efficiency is
reduced. Moreover, the wetland system design plays an important role and deciding
factor and it must be carefully Prepared and maintained. The ability of moisture to
remove and store pollutants that persist in humid environments, such as phosphorus
and metal, can decrease over time. To improvise the life time and efficiency of CW
unit, the composition of these substances must be tracked on a regular basis. Wetland
sludge, debris can be removed when needed, and the wetland can be recreated with
new substrate if required [20].
264 J. S. Sudarsan et al.

3.3 Limitations of CWs

There are some limitations regarding the usage of built-up wetlands: They usually
need a larger area than traditional waste water treatment system. Wetland treatment
can be economical compared to other option if solitary the land is not available and
reasonable. Performance may be less reliable than traditional treatments. In the face
of changing climatic conditions, such as rainfall and drought, the efficacy of wetland
treatment can vary ‘seasonally.‘ Where the year’s average output is reasonable, but
wetland treatment is not based on required quality or strict discharge limits. Biolog-
ical elements are toxic chemicals, like ammonia and pesticides. If the flushing of
contaminants or increased water flow can temporarily reduce the efficiency of treat-
ment, they require less water if they survive [5]. Although the humidity tolerates a
temporary drop, they cannot tolerate a complete drought. In addition, the use of wet
land built for sewage treatment and storm water control is a very recent development.
The optimal design of wetland systems is not yet agree upon is known about their
long-term performance [18] (Tables 1 and 2).

4 Conclusion

The review study highlighted the provocation of global water shortage, which shows
that by 2020; nearly half of the global population to experience water scarcity and
global need of water is to improve 55% by 2050. This is the result of population
growth, industrial growth and agricultural jobs, global warming, and weather change,
which has making water scarcity globally. As a result, this study explores uncon-
ventional water supplies in order to detect the increasing demand for freshwater.
Recycling wastewater is a systematic option for tackling global water scarcity. Inad-
equate sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities are creating a concern for the
environment and public health. As a result, in order to provide enough fresh water
in the future, wastewater treatment and recycling would be taken seriously. While
more than 70% of the world’s water is used for irrigation, the potential to use wastew-
ater for agricultural irrigation is greater, particularly when nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorous are necessary for plant development. Among the newer technologies for
reprocessing urban wastewater for irrigation, CW has a high potential for eliminating
pollutants, as well as low maintenance costs and energy requirements. Water level,
macrophyte, and water movement management were used to identify the generated
cross-spaces. Sewage makes an odd appearance on the purification wetland pattern.
In terms of wastewater treatment, macrophytes, substrate, hydrology, surface loading
rate, efficient intake process, microbial optimality, and environment conditions play
a role.
Constructed Wetland (CW) Technique … 265

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Comparative Statistical Analysis
to Determine the Impact of COVID-19
Lockdown on PM2.5 Concentration
in Chennai City, India

Sandhya Giri and Sija Arun

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has jolted India as it has with the world, and the
death toll has crossed the 1.5 lakh mark as of February 2021. To curb this wildfire like
the spread of the virus, the Government of India has imposed a nationwide phased
lockdown from 25 March 2020 to 31 May 2020. Studies have shown that more than
22 cities in India recorded a drastic decrease in PM2.5 during this lockdown period.
This research aims to study the impact of this phased lockdown on Particulate Matter
(PM2.5 ) by means of statistical analyses. The PM2.5 concentration for Pre-COVID
years up to the end of Phase-IV of the lockdown is acquired via the continuous air
quality monitoring stations of the Central Pollution Control Board in three locations;
namely, Velachery, Alandur and Manali. Graphical analysis provides insight into
the efficiency of lockdown showing April 2020 achieved the highest reduction in
PM2.5 concentration in all three locations. Manali being an industrial area notices a
significant increase as evidenced by the one-way ANVOA in May 2020 when the
Government sanctioned relaxations on the logistical and industrial front. Analysis of
Summer 2020 PM2.5 levels with previous years shows an overall decrease through
the years and a significant decrease specifically in 2020. Comparison of air quality
during the lockdown period with the previous years provides a distinctive perspective
to understand the extent of anthropogenic influence on the air quality of Chennai,
which can in turn act as a tool to identify suitable mitigation measures to vastly
improve quality of life.

Keywords COVID-19 · Lockdown · Pollution · PM2.5 · ANOVA

1 Introduction

Air pollution is always an issue of pressing concern in developing countries like

India especially considering its large population. In the urban areas and metropolitan
cities, due to good economic development and growth of industries, there has been

S. Giri · S. Arun (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science & Technology,
Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 267
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_24
268 S. Giri and S. Arun

a decrease in air quality [1]. Particularly, it has been noticed that particulate matter
is at the forefront of major pollutants in major parts of India and has been shown
to be originating from industrial, vehicular and dust emissions [2, 3]. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in its annual report has reported that in the study
of the ambient air quality for cities with a population over a million, with respect
to PM10 , 98% of the cities studied did not comply with the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) and with respect to PM2.5 ; 95% of the cities under
study exceeded the NAAQ limits [4]. Chennai city, in particular, is vital to focus
upon, as it has undergone rapid demographic growth over the last four decades, and
this resulted in industrialization-driven urbanization [5]. The Tamil Nadu Pollution
Control Board (TNPCB) in its annual report for the year 2018–2019 has reported
that respirable suspended particulate matter levels exceeded the standard in Chennai
in certain monitoring locations. The reason for exceedance has been stated to be due
to the metro rail works, telephone/electric cable laying, resuspension of traffic dust,
etc. The Care Air Center established in Chennai is a real-time emission-monitoring
system, which pertains to highly polluting industries, incinerators, etc. During the
exceedance of emission levels from the norms, the inbuilt system alerts the concerned
industry and the District Environmental Engineer to take immediate action. This is
indicative of the TNPCB’s objective to sustain the ambient air quality especially in
Chennai [6].
The COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease-2019) pandemic is caused due to severe
acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 or SARS-CoV-2 that was originally iden-
tified in Wuhan, China in December 2019 [7]. In India, the first COVID-19-positive
case was reported on 30 January 2020 in Kerala [8]. As per the WHO Coronavirus
Disease Dashboard, on 11 November 2020, there are over 50.8 Million cases world-
wide with over 1.2 million deaths. The USA has the most number of cases (9.8
Million), India currently has the second largest number of cases (8.6 Million) and its
transmission is classified as a cluster of cases. In India, the death toll has currently
reached 1.27 Lakh people. In order to combat the spread of this pandemic, the Indian
Government implemented a stringent nationwide lockdown from 25 March to 14
April (Phase-I), which was later further extended from 15 April to 3 May (Phase-
II), 4 May to 17 May (Phase-III) and finally up to 31 May 2020 (Phase-IV) This
lockdown curbed the logistical movement and industrial activities. As a result, there
was definitive progress in the air quality, particularly during the various lockdown
phases [9, 10]. It was noticed that in 22 cities in India, the PM10 , PM2.5 , CO and NO2
levels drastically reduced by 43, 31, 10 and 18%, respectively, during the lockdown
period compared with the previous years [11]. Chennai seems to show a positive
trend in reduction during the lockdown period in comparison to 2019 [12]. Among
the various pollutants studied, it was noticed that Particulate Matter (PM2.5 ) observed
a greater reduction in various regions [11]. This could be attributed to the Nitrogen
Oxide (NOx ) levels that are particularly important for secondary particulate matter
formation [13]. Hence, this study delves further into the statistical analysis of the
variation of PM2.5 concentration during the lockdown phases in Chennai city and its
comparison to the pre-lockdown period.
Comparative Statistical Analysis … 269

Table 1 Details of CPCB CAAQM stations

Station name Address Coordinates (Decimal degrees)
Velachery Sardar Patel Road, Opposite of Latitude: 13.0052189 N
C.L.R.I, Near Adyar Cancer Institute, Longitude: 80.2398125 E
Chennai-600036
Alandur bus depot MKN Rd, St. Thomas Mount, Latitude: 12.9099161 N
Chennai-600016 Longitude: 80.1076538 E
Manali Government School, Periya Thoppu Latitude: 13.164544 N
Manali Longitude: 80.26285 E

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area

Chennai city is one of the major metropolitan cities in India and is the capital of
Tamilnadu, India. It is stated to be the fourth largest city in the country. The entire
district is classified as urban. The district extends an area of 174 sq. km and has a
coastal line of 22 km. Its coastline stretches vastly along the Bay of Bengal, and
for that reason, most of the localities in Chennai are at sea level. The coordinates
of Chennai are 12° 59’ and 13° 9’of the northern latitude and between 80° 12’
and 80° 19’of the eastern longitude. The Bay of Bengal is on the western side of
Chennai, while Kancheepuram and Thiruvallur districts are located on the western
and northwestern side, respectively.
Under the guidance of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), there are
about 200 continuous air quality monitoring stations across 20 states and 116 districts.
Out of this, in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, three locations, namely, Velachery, Manali and
Alandur are considered (Table 1). All three locations are contrastingly different
in the sense that they are different categories. The area selected in Velechary is a
prominent residential area. Alandur bus depot can be considered as a commercial
(traffic intersection) area and Manali is an industrial area.

2.2 Timeframe

To understand the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on PM2.5 concentrations in

the above-mentioned locations, data analysis is carried out for the concentrations of
Particulate Matter PM2.5 , for the following time periods as provided in Table 2:
270 S. Giri and S. Arun

Table 2 Details of time

Details Type of data Period of data
period of data analysis
collected
considered
COVID-19 Monthly average January–May 2020
lockdown period Weekly average March Week-1 to
May Week-4
Past 5-year period Yearly average 2016–2019
Summer season March–May
average 2016–2020

2.3 Methodology

The PM2.5 concentration for the study locations mentioned in Table 1 and the
time frame mentioned in Table 2 are obtained from the ‘Central Control Room
for Air Quality Management—All India’, a website managed by the Central Pollu-
tion Control Board. Preliminary graphical analysis is carried out for the COVID-19
lockdown period and the 5-year period. Subsequently, one-way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) coupled with Tukey’s post hoc test and independent samples T-Test is used
to determine the significant changes in air quality based on these statistical tools.

3 Results and Discussions

3.1 Determining the Status of PM2.5 Concentration

in Velachery, Alandur and Manali During the COVID-19
Lockdown Period

3.1.1 Monthly Average

The monthly average of PM2.5 concentration is plotted on a graph against the months
of January–May 2020 and is depicted in Fig. 1. It is observed that April 2020 achieves

Fig. 1 Monthly Average of PM2.5 Concentration in 2020

Comparative Statistical Analysis … 271

Table 3 One-Way ANOVA coupled with Tukey HSD post hoc test for monthly average PM2.5
concentration in 2020—Velachery
Dependent variable: PM2.5 concentration
(I) Month (J) Month Mean Standard Sig 95% Confidence
difference error interval
(I-J) Lower Upper
bound bound
Tukey March April 16.71224a 2.00551 0.000 11.9320 21.4925
HSD May 14.57387a 1.98900 0.000 9.8330 19.3148
April March –16.71224a 2.00551 0.000 –21.4925 –11.9320
May –2.13837 2.00551 0.537 –6.9186 2.6419
May March –14.57387a 1.98900 0.000 –19.3148 –9.8330
April 2.13837 2.00551 0.537 –2.6419 6.9186
a The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level

the best reduction in concentration by 65.2% in Velachery, 65.06% in Alandur and

64.7% in Manali. Contrastingly, there is an increase in the PM2.5 concentration in
May month in comparison to April, which may be attributed to the relaxations sanc-
tioned by the government on logistical and industrial aspects. The highest increase
is observed in Manali with about 41.37% and the least is noticed in Alandur with
14.87%. In Velachery, there was a 20.68% increase in PM2.5 concentration in May
2020.
A significant difference between the concentrations in the 3 months is observed
as determined by one-way ANOVA (Velachery: F(2,89) = 41.489, Alandur: F(2,89)
= 16.598 and Manali: F(2,89) = 15.717 where p = 0.000 for all 3 locations). Tukey
HSD post hoc test reveals that there is no statistically significant difference between
April and May for 2 locations with p = 0.537, p = 0.718 for Velachery, Alandur.
However, in the instance of Manali, p = 0.032, indicating a significant increase in
PM2.5 levels in the month of May compared with April. This is in line with the earlier
finding regarding concentration rise due to government relaxations. Considering that
based on graphical analysis, Velachery observed the best reduction, it is seen that in
that particular case as shown in Table 3, the mean PM2.5 concentration of April (10.3
± 8.2 µg/m3 , p = 0.00) is significantly lower than May (12.48 ± 5.82 µg/m3 , p =
0.000) in comparison with March (27.05 ± 9.10 µg/m3 ).

3.1.2 Weekly Average

The weekly average PM2.5 concentration from the first week of March to the last
week of April is plotted in Fig. 2 to understand the variations over the four phases
of the lockdown. It was noticed that all three locations observe a decrease in the
Phase-I of the lockdown. Phase-II and Phase-III of the lockdown are quite stable and
of a lower range of values, wherein the average PM2.5 concentrations were ranging
272 S. Giri and S. Arun

Fig. 2 Weekly average of PM2.5 concentration—March to May 2020

between 7.74 and 7.92 µg/m3 in Velachery and 16.7 and 19.3 µg/m3 in Manali.
From the second week of May, all three locations observe a rise in concentration.
Manali observes the most significant rise in the month of May owing to restarting of
industries, in comparison with the other two locations.
One-way ANOVA is carried out for the four phases of lockdown in Manali as
shown in Table 4 and a significant difference is observed (F(3,65) = 30.974, p =
0.000). To understand the implications of the individual phases, Tukey HSD post hoc
test is performed, wherein it is clear that Phase IV of the lockdown was significantly

Table 4 One-way ANOVA coupled with Tukey HSD post hoc test for weekly average PM2.5
concentration in 2020—Manali
Dependent variable: PM2.5 concentration
(I) (J) Mean Standard Sig 95% Confidence
Lockdown Lockdown difference error interval
phase phase (I-J) Lower Upper
bound bound
Tukey Phase I Phase II 17.65000a 3.34805 0.000 8.8220 26.4780
HSD Phase III 15.10857a 3.69730 0.001 5.3597 24.8575
Phase IV –14.84929a 3.69730 0.001 –24.5982 –5.1004
Phase II Phase I –17.65000a 3.34805 0.000 –26.4780 –8.8220
Phase III –2.54143 3.73409 0.904 –12.3873 7.3045
Phase IV –32.49929a 3.73409 0.000 –42.3452 –22.6534
Phase III Phase I –15.10857a 3.69730 0.001 –24.8575 –5.3597
Phase II 2.54143 3.73409 0.904 –7.3045 12.3873
Phase IV –29.95786a 4.05019 0.000 –40.6372 –19.2785
Phase IV Phase I 14.84929a 3.69730 0.001 5.1004 24.5982
Phase II 32.49929a 3.73409 0.000 22.6534 42.3452
Phase III 29.95786a 4.05019 0.000 19.2785 40.6372
a The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level
Comparative Statistical Analysis … 273

higher (49.26 ± 9.58 µg/m3 , p = 0.00) in comparison to all other phases, which is
in line with the observations of the graphical study.

3.2 Comparison of PM2.5 Concentration from 2016 to 2020

to Understand the Effect of COVID-19 Lockdown

The annual PM2.5 concentration obtained from the Central Control Room for Air
Quality Management—All India for the three locations from 2016 to 2020 was
studied to observe the variations and trends in PM2.5 levels over the years and also
with special emphasis on seasonal trends.

3.2.1 Annual Average

Based on the data of yearly averages provided in Table 5, it is seen that Manali
follows a steady decline in PM2.5 concentration over the years from 2016 to 2019,
whereas Velachery and Alandur do not. The yearly average PM2.5 concentration for
all the 3 locations has been listed below.
To delve further into the findings that Velachery and Alandur not following a
steady decline through the years, exceedance factor (EF) method provided by CPCB
was carried out. It is the ratio of the yearly average concentration of the pollutant to
the yearly standard of that particular pollutant. Based on this above-stated equation,
air pollution is classified into four distinct criteria as shown in Table 6. Location-wise
and year-wise EF analysis is provided in Tables 7, 8 and 9 and the same is plotted in
Fig. 3.

Table 5 Yearly average

Year Annual average PM2.5 concentration (µg/m3 )
PM2.5 concentration from
2016 to 2019 Velachery Alandur Manali
2016 40.49 70.82 72.92
2017 32.30 54.52 63.87
2018 39.95 59.32 62.36
2019 35.50 43.23 60.03

Table 6 Exceedance factor

E.F Criteria
criteria
Above 1.5 Critical pollution (C)
Between 1.0 and 1.5 High pollution (H)
Between 0.5 and 1.0 Moderate pollution (M)
Below 0.5 Low Pollution L
274 S. Giri and S. Arun

Table 7 Exceedance factor

Year E.F Criteria of classification
analysis—Velachery
2016 0.99 Moderate pollution (M)
2017 0.77 Moderate pollution (M)
2018 1.00 High pollution (H)
2019 0.89 Moderate pollution (M)

Table 8 Exceedance factor

Year E.F Criteria of classification
analysis—Alandur
2016 1.76 Critical pollution (C)
2017 1.36 High pollution (H)
2018 1.44 High pollution (H)
2019 1.07 High pollution (H)

Table 9 Exceedance factor

Year E.F Criteria of classification
analysis—Manali
2016 1.86 Critical pollution (C)
2017 1.6 Critical pollution (C)
2018 1.56 High pollution (H)
2019 1.51 High pollution (H)

Fig. 3 Comparison of exceedance factors for the three locations from 2016 to 2020

From the exceedance factor analysis, it is deduced that the EF of Velachery in

2018 had risen to 1.00 (High Pollution) compared with the previous year, where it
was 0.77 (Moderate Pollution) and the EF of Alandur had risen to 1.44 in 2018 from
1.36 in 2017. This increase is in line with the findings provided in Table 5.

3.2.2 Seasonal Average

In addition to the Annual Average PM2.5 concentrations in the three locations from
2016 to 2019, the seasonal average concentration was also studied to understand the
Comparative Statistical Analysis … 275

Table 10 Seasonal variations in PM2.5 concentrations (values in µg/m3 )

Year Winter Summer Monsoon Post monsoon
Velachery
2016 58.39 41.47 25.49 44.76
2017 38.36 34.37 24.10 30.57
2018 45.86 36.64 39.31 40.14
2019 32.70 37.68 34.80 36.50
Alandur
2016 100.02 79.52 52.45 65.36
2017 65.65 57.69 44.79 56.37
2018 63.84 34.38 67.06 63.85
2019 77.50 31.59 28.96 48.98
Manali
2016 53.09 94.53 43.29 110.07
2017 74.57 79.13 58.26 49.10
2018 90.07 48.89 54.61 67.65
2019 71.05 56.65 50.76 69.53

variations in levels across different seasons and is provided below in Table 10. It is
seen that in all three locations, the winter season has the highest concentration of
PM2.5 in comparison to the other seasons. This finding of the winter season having a
higher concentration of pollutants has also been reported for other parameters such
as SO2, NOx and SPM earlier in a study [14]. The seasonal concentrations observed
for the three locations are provided in the tables.
Considering that the COVID-19 lockdown period in 2020 falls in the summer
months of 2020, the average PM2.5 concentration during the summer season during
the previous years was considered for the comparative study. It is evident to consider
that earlier studies have reported that pollutant concentrations tend to decrease during
the progression into summer owing to greater surface heating caused by the increased
PBLH height [15].
The average PM2.5 concentration observed in all the three locations during the
summer season of 2016–2020 is provided in Table 11. From the table, it is observed
that in all three locations, there is a reduction in average PM2.5 concentration in the
year 2020 in comparison with the other years. The average PM2.5 concentration in
the summer season from the year 2016 to 2020 is provided in Fig. 4.
A significant difference is observed between the average PM2.5 concentration in
summer in the years 2016 to 2020 as seen using the one-way ANOVA(Velachery:
F(4,455) = 6.295, Alandur: F(4,407) = 9.866 and Manali: F(4,447) = 61.832 where
p = 0.000 for all the three locations.) Tukey HSD Post Hoc Test shows that there
is a statistically significant difference in the summer of 2020 when compared with
all other years, wherein p < 0.05 in Velachery and Manali. However, in Alandur,
it is deduced that there the difference is not significant when compared with 2018
276 S. Giri and S. Arun

Table 11 Average PM2.5

Year Summer season average PM2.5 concentration
concentration during summer
(µg/m3 )
season
Velachery Alandur Manali
2016 41.37 78.74 94.51
2017 34.25 57.95 79.09
2018 36.75 40.21 49.45
2019 37.66 38.32 55.76
2020 16.69 20.89 33.16

Fig. 4 Average PM2.5 concentration in summer season (2016–20)

and 2019, wherein p = 0.453 and = 0.398, respectively. Manali witnesses the best
reduction in average PM2.5 concentration in the summer of 2020 when compared
with the other locations as evidenced in Table 12.

4 Conclusions

The study of ambient air quality in a bustling urban setting such as Chennai city
during the COVID-19 pandemic nationwide lockdown considering the complete
cessation of anthropogenic activities is an ideal avenue to understand the impact and
implications of human interference in the environment. From the study of PM2.5
concentration during the COVID-19 lockdown period, it is seen that April 2020
achieved the best reduction overall in all three locations with the highest achieved in
Velachery (65.2%), Manali being an industrial area, due to relaxations sanctioned by
the government on logistical and industrial front during the Phase-IV of the lockdown,
sees a significant increase in May 2020 compared with the previous month, which
is corroborated by the one-way ANOVA coupled with Tukey HSD post hoc test.
Besides, when comparing the PM2.5 levels of 2020 with the previous years, it is seen
that Manali follows a steady decline over the years up to 2019, whereas Velachery
and Alandur show an increase in the year 2018. Exceedance Factor analysis study
further validates this finding by providing the result that the EF of Velachery had risen
Comparative Statistical Analysis … 277

Table 12 One-way ANOVA coupled with Tukey HSD post hoc test for average PM2.5 concentration
in summer season—Manali
Dependent variable:PM2.5 concentration
(I) Year (J) Year Mean Standard Sig 95% Confidence
difference error interval
(I-J) Lower Upper
bound bound
Tukey HSD 2016 2017 15.41741a 4.39956 0.005 3.3672 27.4676
2018 45.06109a 4.37532 0.000 33.0773 57.0449
2019 38.75060a 4.45098 0.000 26.5596 50.9416
2020 61.34630a 4.37532 0.000 49.3625 73.3301
2017 2016 –15.41741a 4.39956 0.005 –27.4676 –3.3672
2018 29.64367a 4.39956 0.000 17.5935 41.6938
2019 23.33319a 4.47481 0.000 11.0769 35.5895
2020 45.92889a 4.39956 0.000 33.8787 57.9791
2018 2016 –45.06109a 4.37532 0.000 –57.0449 –33.0773
2017 –29.64367a 4.39956 0.000 –41.6938 –17.5935
2019 –6.31049 4.45098 0.617 –18.5015 5.8805
2020 16.28522a 4.37532 0.002 4.3014 28.2690
2019 2016 –38.75060a 4.45098 0.000 –50.9416 –26.5596
2017 –23.33319a 4.47481 0.000 –35.5895 –11.0769
2018 6.31049 4.45098 0.617 –5.8805 18.5015
2020 22.59571a 4.45098 0.000 10.4047 34.7867
2020 2016 –61.34630a 4.37532 0.000 –73.3301 –49.3625
2017 –45.92889a 4.39956 0.000 –57.9791 –33.8787
2018 –16.28522a 4.37532 0.002 –28.2690 –4.3014
2019 –22.59571a 4.45098 0.000 –34.7867 –10.4047
a The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level

from 0.77 to 1.00 in 2018 and Alandur from 1.36 to 1.44. Besides, as the COVID-
19 lockdown period falls in the summer season, a comparison between the average
PM2.5 concentrations during the summer season of other years was considered. It
was seen that there is a visible reduction in 2020 compared with other years in all
three locations, and the most significant decrease is witnessed in Manali, wherein
p = 0.000 when 2020 was compared with all other years in one-way ANOVA with
Tukey HSD post hoc test. These results authenticate the claims of the COVID-19
pandemic lockdown in 2020 particularly in Chennai being a boon with regards to
reduction in particulate matter concentrations, especially PM2.5 as seen from this
study due to a decrease in anthropogenic influences.
278 S. Giri and S. Arun

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Central Pollution Control Board for facilitating
the provision of PM2.5 concentrations for Velachery, Alandur and Manali for various time periods
in this study through the ‘Central Control Room for Air Quality Management—All India’ website.

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Comparison of Nutrient Removal
Efficiency, Growth Characteristic
and Biomass Cultivation of Two
Microalgal Strains Provided
with Optimal Conditions in Agricultural
Wastewater

R. V. Anusha Gowri, S. Dhanasekar, and R. Sathyanathan

Abstract Agricultural wastewaters can contain a lot of pollutants, so they can’t

be disposed of properly unless they’re treated. Agricultural wastewaters, if improp-
erly disposed of, can cause eutrophication of surface and ground waters, as well
as impose substantial trade waste charges. Water scarcity in agricultural sector can
be reduced by proper ground water recharge with treated agricultural wastewater.
An ideal, economic and passive technology biological treatment facility is effective
to replace chemical and physical treatment methods which would result in ground
water contamination and are expensive. Microalgae are photosynthetic microorgan-
isms that thrive in wastewater because of their rapid growth and adaptability [22]. Use
of microalgae to remove nitrogen has many advantages. First, nitrogen is digested by
microalgal cells which is used for biomass production as an essential nutrient factor.
Biofuel production from microalgae could be more effective, with a smaller envi-
ronmental footprint and no competition for arable land or biodiverse ecosystems.
Present algae cultivation systems and lipid induction methods, on the other hand,
need to be greatly enhanced. Optimal conditions to enhance the biomass production
can be achieved with the help of photobioreactors in which the temperature, aera-
tion, agitation and light intensities can be controlled. Thus, cultivation of Chlorella
vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus in agricultural wastewater will serve as an inte-
grated wastewater treatment option since it serves as an effective media for algal
biomass production as well as the pollutants such as ammonia and phosphate can
be effectively removed by selected microalgal strains. Wastewater as an alterna-
tive media has a number of advantages, including wastewater cleaning, recycling,
lowering emissions levels, and providing economic growth media [23]. To realize

R. V. Anusha Gowri · S. Dhanasekar (B) · R. Sathyanathan

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu
District, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. V. Anusha Gowri
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Sathyanathan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 279
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_25
280 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

the full potential of Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus, comprehensive

studies of using wastewater as an economic growth medium.

Keywords Microalgae · Photo bioreactor · Wastewater treatment · Nutrients ·

Biological treatment

1 Introduction

1.1 Background

At the moment, all modern energy storage strategies must be developed with the
global effect and economy in mind. Due to the application of fertilizers and pesti-
cides, a broad range of chemicals, especially nitrates and phosphates compounds, as
well as some heavy metals, are present in agricultural wastewater, posing a major
environmental pollution concern [1]. Heavy metals in wastewater are typically non-
biodegradable compounds that accumulate within living organisms, resulting in
bioaccumulation and a variety of environmental effects. Owing to higher energy
use, the use of chemical additives, and contaminated air, the water and wastewater
treatment plant (WWIP), which is marketed as an effective treatment facility, raises
environmental issues.

1.2 Specification

The specifications are the integrated water treatment and comparative study of
nutrient removal efficiencies with two microalgal species in a photo bioreactor.

1.3 Agricultural Wastewater

Water is essential for food production, and climate change puts this most valuable
resource in jeopardy. Agriculture currently accounts for 70% of global freshwater
withdrawals and more than 90% of its consumptive consumption [2, 3]. Freshwater
supplies are under tremendous strain as a result of population and economic growth.
Because, of the advantages that can be gained from the reuse of wastewater as well as
the valuable by-products such as biogas, biofertilizers, biomass, and others, the effec-
tiveness of Integrated Systems for agricultural wastewater treatment has been found
to be suitable for developing countries [4, 16]. Microalgae cultivation using wastew-
ater achieves the highest biomass efficiency among all terrestrial bio-remediators for
contaminant pollutant removal by 80–90% (40–50% higher than terrestrial crops)
[5]. An important quantity of pollutants can be removed by integrated systems. The
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 281

construction and set-up of such systems prove the importance of treating agricultural
wastewater to obtain by-products and avoid environmental pollution.

1.4 Algal Biomass

The microalgae culture may use the biogas provided during the biological treatment
as a source of CO2 . Micro algae generally are thought to contain up to 70%, 60% and
65% of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins and essential amino acids respectively.[6]
When compared to traditional crops, microalgae cultivation for biomass production
has a higher environmental impact such as energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and
water use. Only by using wastewater and flue gas as a nutrient and carbon source can
the environmental impact be minimized [7, 18]. Microalgal biomass is an alternative
to traditional feedstocks because it has a shorter growth period than terrestrial plants
or energy crops, higher biomass productivity, and a higher harvesting index. Because
of its protein content, algal biomass can be used as a proteinic animal supplement
(40–70%). It should be noted that algal biomass can be fed to all of the animals that
provide waste to the plant, substituting for a portion of the protein they need (10%).
Second, under aerobic conditions, microalgae can extract both ammonium and nitrate
in a single reactor [8]. The use of microalgae to remove pollutants has many advan-
tages. Algae has the ability to grow under harsh environmental stress conditions such
as higher nitrogen and phosphate concentrations. Additionally they reduce eutroph-
ication and remove harmful pollutants with increase in biomass concentrations [9].
First, nitrogen is assimilated by microalgal cells for biomass production as an essen-
tial nutrient factor [10]. Second, phosphorous removal from the wastewater results
in phosphate starvation stress which may accumulate higher concentrations of lipids
with reduction in chlorophyll a,b and nucleic acids.

1.4.1 Microalgal Strains Selection

The aims of this study are to investigate the growth characteristics of two widely
used green algal species, Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus, as well as
nitrogen and phosphate removal from agricultural wastewater with high ammonium
and phosphate as nutrient sources [11]. Scenedesmus sp. demonstrated higher util-
isation efficiency of textile desizing wastewater when cultivated [12, 19]. Butyrate,
propionate, and acetate yields were 98.2%, 97.1%, and 95.2%, respectively, with a
growth rate of 0.53 gd−1 , biomass productivity of 74 gm−2 d−1 , and lipid yield of
20%.
282 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

1.5 Photo Bioreactor

Closed structures, also known as photobioreactors (PBR), are more complex and
expensive when compared to open raceway ponds. Each design has its own advan-
tages and disadvantages [13, 20]. The culture is agitated in PBRs, which are typically
made of glass or plastic. Chlorella, Spirulina, Scenedesmus, and other algae have been
grown in these photobioreactors. Another concept designed in Chile up to a scale of
110 m2 of solar irradiation area is a pond made of cement lined with epoxy resin and
covered with a polyethylene dome [14]. Algae are often grown in processes similar
to traditional agriculture due to their reliance on large areas and sunlight radiation;
on the other hand, modern processing techniques include growth within PBR [15].
Since closed systems are less prone to contamination, they may be able to support the
development of biomass. They also have a high surface-to-volume ratio and much
higher biomass concentrations (2–5 g/L) than open ponds, which makes harvesting
and dewatering much easier.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Strain Selection

Scenedesmus obliquus (FACHB-417) and Chlorella vulgaris (FACHB-1227) were

obtained from the Algae Phycospectrum Environmental Research Centre (PERC)
culture set. Before the experiment, the algae were pre-cultivated in flasks using BG-
11 medium [21] and white, red, and blue LEDs operating at a light intensity of
115 mol/s/m2 under a 16 h:8 h light/dark period. The optimum room temperature
was set at 22 °C (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).

Fig. 1 Light Microscope image of a Scenedesmus obliquus

Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 283

Fig. 2 Light Microscope

image of b) Chlorella
vulgaris

Fig. 3 Culture of Chlorella

vulgaris cultivated in plate
streaking

2.1.1 Synthetic Wastewater Preparation

The synthetic wastewater were prepared with slight modifications in the (NH4 )H2 PO4
and P2 O5 compositions. Higher concentrations of ammonia and phosphate was
considered during the preparation since the agricultural wastewater will serve as
a stress condition for maximum lipid accumulation the microalgal cells. The carbon
source was provided by glucose and for macro and micronutrients the following
chemicals such as NH4 Cl, NaNO3 , NaCl, CuSO4 .5H2 O and Co (NO3 )2 .6H2 O were
added in following compositions with pH maintained at 7 as mentioned in Table 1.
284 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

Table 1 Composition of
Composition mg/L
Synthetic agricultural
wastewater Glucose 5600
NH4 Cl 300
NaNO3 500
KH2 PO4 45
NaCl 64
CuSO4 .5H2 O 1
Co(NO3 )2 .6H2 O 0.05
(NH4 )H2 PO4 10
P2 O5 5

2.1.2 Initial Characteristic Study of Prepared Wastewater

The initial characteristic studies such as COD, ammonium and phosphate were
performed and found to be 6500 mg/L, 82 mg/L and 22 mg/L by Open reflux method
and UV spectroscopy methods respectively.(1)

2.2 Cultivation of Micro Algae

Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus were cultivated in traditional BG-11

media and was centrifuged at 1,957 × g for 5 min and the pellets were washed in
deionized water which was again centrifuged at 1,957 × g for 5 min. Collected pellets
were suspended in agricultural wastewater samples. The cultures were grown under
optimal conditions at 16 h L:8 h D cycle of photoperiod while placed in shakers with
160 rpm speed.

2.3 Estimation of Biomass Concentration

The microalgal biomass grown in agricultural wastewater was filtered through

0.45 µm cellulose acetate filter membrane. Dry weight of the blank filter and the dry
weight of filter with algal biomass after drying at 105 °C for 24 h were measured.
The microalgal concentration mg/L were calculated using the formula:

Dry weight of filter with algae (mg) − Dry weight of blank

Biomass concentration mg/L =
Volume of micro algae
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 285

2.4 Analysis of Nutrient Removal

The nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate removal efficiencies of two microalgal
stains such as the Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus were monitored
and studied. The samples were withdrawn from the reactor at daily basis and were
centrifuged at 1975 × g to separate the algal biomass. NH4 –N and PO4 –P estimation
were carried out in the harvested clear supernatant by Nesslerization method and
Stannous chloride method in Vis UV-spectrophotometer.(2)

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Biomass Characteristic Study of Chlorella Vulgaris

and Scenedesmus Obliquus in Agricultural Wastewater
Samples Compared to BG-11 Media

The growth media was the prepared wastewater samples and the estimation of
biomass along with comparative study on Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus
obliquus were performed. Figure 5 Depicts the growth curve of Chlorella vulgaris
with different concentrations of NH4 and PO4 as mentioned in Table 2. It was
observed that the microalgal biomass concentration was higher on 4th and 5th
days when compared to traditional BG-11 media(1) . There was nearly an increase
of 2000 mg/L of biomass concentration at 5th day when compared to that of the
growth phase of Chlorella vulgaris when cultivated in BG-11 media. It was grown in
photoperiod of 16 h L: 8 h D cycle, with 115 µmol/s/m2 of light intensity. The final
average biomass yield when grown in wastewater samples s1, s2 and s3 were 1.9 g,
2.1 g and 2.8 g respectively at day five. And it was much higher when compared to
the final biomass of algae grown in BG-11 media which was 0.9 g/L.
Figure 5, Depicts the growth curve of Scenedesmus obliquus grown in synthetic
wastewater in varying concentrations of NH4 and PO4 as mentioned in Table 2(1) .
When compared to microalgae grown in BG-11 media, during 5th day the biomass
concentrations were much lower than the cultures grown in wastewater media. There
was nearly an increase of 2500 mg/L of biomass concentration at 5th day when
compared to that of the growth phase of Scenedesmus obliquus when cultivated in
BG-11 media. It was grown in photoperiod of 16 h L: 8 h D cycle, with 115 µmol/s/m2
of light intensity. When compared to Chlorella vulgaris strain, Scenedesmus obliquus
showed much higher biomass concentrations, when it was cultivated in wastewater.

Table 2 Different initial

Samples NH4 -N (mg/L) PO4 -P (mg/L) pH
concentrations of NH4 -N
(mg/L) and PO4 -P (mg/L) in S1 82 mg/L 22 mg/L 7
S1, S2 and S3 S2 76 mg/L 120 mg/L 7
S3 108 mg/L 26 mg/L 7
286 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

Fig. 4 Prepared synthetic wastewater sample

3500
Growth curve studies
Biomass concentration mg/L

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cultivation Time (Days)
BG-11 WW1 WW2 WW3

Fig. 5 The growth curve studies and biomass concentration analysis of Chlorella vulgaris cultivated
in BG-11, WW1, WW2. (BG-11- Blue green medium, WW1- Waste water sample 1, WW2-Waste
water sample 2, WW3- Waste water sample 3) and WW3 medias, (WW1- Waste water sample 1,
WW2-Waste water sample 2, WW3- Waste water sample 3)
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 287

Growth curve
3500
Biomass concentration mg/L

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cultivation time (days)
BG-11 WW1 WW2 WW3

Fig. 6 The growth curve studies and biomass concentration analysis of Scenedesmus obliquus
cultivated in BG-11, WW1, WW2 and WW3 medias. (BG-11- Blue green medium, WW1- Waste
water sample 1, WW2-Waste water sample 2, WW3- Waste water sample 3)

The final average biomass yield when grown in wastewater samples s1, s2 and s3
were 2 g, 2.3 g, 3 g respectively at day 4. And it was much higher when compared to
the final biomass of Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus grown in BG-11
media which was 0.82 g/L (Fig. 6).

3.2 Optimal Conditions for Algal Growth

See Fig. 7.

3.3 Nutrient Removal

3.3.1 NH4- N Removal Efficiency of Chlorella Vulgaris and Scenedesmus

Obliquus in S1, S2 and S3

The efficiency in NH4 -N removal with different initial concentrations as mentioned

in the Table 2, from the wastewater samples by Chlorella vulgaris is highly effective
and obtained maximum removal. After 3 days there was drastic improvement in
the reduction of NH4 -N and the pattern was very steep(1) . During the log phase the
reduction was much higher, which shows that the removal efficiency increases with
the increase in biomass concentration. There was 95–97% removal efficiency in case
of Chlorella vulgaris with respect to wastewater treatment.
The algal culture was extraordinarily efficient enough to remove and consume
almost 96% of the initial ammonia concentration (Figs. 8 and 9).
288 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

Fig. 7 Shows the experimental setup of microalgal growth in photo bioreactors and the comparison
between Day1 of inoculation in WW1, WW2 and WW3 with Day 3. Day3 shows much greener
and dense Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus cultures when physical appearances were
compared to day 1 (WW1- Waste water sample 1, WW2-Waste water sample 2, WW3- Waste water
sample 3).(1)

120
Removal of NH4-N (mg/L)- Chlorella vulgaris
100

80
NH4-N (mg/L)

60
R² = 0.9773

40
R² = 0.967 R² = 0.9929

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-20 Cultivation Time(days)

S1 (82 mg/L) S2 (76 mg/L) S3 (108 mg/L)

Fig. 8 The comparative study of the NH4 -N removal efficiency of Chlorella vulgaris in S1, S2
and S3 with different initial concentrations of NH4 -N as mentioned in Table 2. (S1- Waste water
sample 1, S2- Waste water sample 2, S3- Waste water sample 3)
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 289

120 Removal of NH4-N (mg/L)

100

80
NH4-N (mg/L)

60 R² = 0.9228

40 R² = 0.9005

20 R² = 0.9004

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-20 Cultivation time (days)

S1 S2 S3

Fig. 9 The comparative study of the NH4 -N removal efficiency of Scenedesmus obliquus in S1,
S2 and S3 with different initial concentrations of NH4 -N as mentioned in Table 2. (S1- Waste water
sample 1, S2- Waste water sample 2, S3- Waste water sample 3)

In case of Scenedesmus sp. the NH4 -N was much more effective since from day
1 there was a steep reduction of ammonia when compared to initial concentrations.
NH4 -N uptake was nearly 98% and almost complete reduction rate was achieved.
Thus, the performance of Scenedesmus obliquus was spiffing when compared to
Chlorella vulgaris in case of NH4 -N removal.
The influence of photoperiod with higher light intensity of 115 µmol/s/m2 , temper-
ature and aeration provided in the photo bioreactor has enhanced the removal rates
when compared to conical flask cultivation of algal without optimal conditions and
monitoring.

3.3.2 PO4 -P Removal Efficiency of Chlorella Vulgaris and Scenedesmus

Obliquus in S1, S2 and S3

The efficiency in PO4 -P removal with different initial concentrations as mentioned

in the Table 2, from the wastewater samples by Chlorella vulgaris is highly effective
and obtained maximum removal. Before being added to the wastewater, our cultures
were not starving(1) . As a result, it’s likely that starved cultures would accumulate
more phosphate than seen in this analysis. Higher PO4 –P removal was amplified
after 3 days, and it was found that there was 99–100% removal efficiency when
compared to the initial concentration. With the higher light period provided we have
achieved the best removal rates in case of PO4 -P when compared to NH4 –N. In case
of Scenedesmus obliquus species the removal efficiencies were better than Chlorella
vulgaris and there was much significant removal after day 2. When comparing the
initial and final nutrient concentrations that were present in the wastewater samples,
the trend of removal of nutrients were similar by both the species. Differences in the
290 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

NH4 –N and PO4 –P depletion rates that were observed was not much higher when
Scenedesmus obliquus was compared to Chlorella vulgaris, yet the performance
of the Scenedesmus obliquus was better. For both the nutrient removal studies in
Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus the magnitude has been enhanced
with higher light period and light intensity.(3) There was also a getter correlation of
growth curve and nutrient removal efficiencies, and it was observed that the NH4 -N
and PO4 -P depletion increases with increase in the algal biomass. The peak removal
of the nutrient was between day 2 and day 4 when the biomass concentration was
much higher (Figs. 10 and 11).
In this work, it can be concluded that than Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus
obliquus strain of microalgae has better ammonia and phosphate removal efficiencies

140 Removal of PO4 -P (mg/L)

120
100
PO4 - P (mg/L)

80
60
40
R² = 0.9485
20
R² = 0.9362
0
-20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
R² = 0.954
7 8

-40 Cultivation time (days)

s1 s2 s3

Fig. 10 The comparative study of the PO4 -P removal efficiency of Chlorella vulgaris in S1, S2
and S3 with different initial concentrations of PO4 -P as mentioned in Table 2. (S1- Waste water
sample 1, S2- Waste water sample 2, S3- Waste water sample 3)

Removal of PO4 -P (mg/L)

140
120
100
PO4 - P (mg/L)

80
60
40
R² = 0.9355
20
R² = 0.9238
0
-20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
R² = 0.9164
-40 Cultivation time (days)
s1 s2 s3

Fig. 11 The comparative study of the PO4 -P removal efficiency of Scenedesmus obliquus in S1,
S2 and S3 with different initial concentrations of PO4 -P as mentioned in Table 2. (S1- Waste water
sample 1, S2- Waste water sample 2, S3- Waste water sample 3)
Comparison of Nutrient Removal Efficiency … 291

Table 3 Reported ammonia and phosphate removal efficiencies by Chlorella vulgaris and
Scenedesmus obliquus with a comparison to present study. (3)
S. NO Species Medium Removal Phosphate Reference
efficiency of removal(%)
NH4 -N (%)
1 Chlorella Synthetic wastewater 85 94% Junping Lv
vulgaris enriched with et al. 2018
Ammonium-Nitrogen
2 Scenedesmus Synthetic wastewater 92 96% Junping Lv
obliquus enriched with et al. 2018
Ammonium-Nitrogen
3 Chlorella Modified Bristol 53.12 – Tam and
vulgaris medium Wong 1998
4 Scenedesmus Domestic wastewater 95.03 – Nayak et al.
obliquus [17]
5 Chlorella Mixed wastewater of 50.60 – Wang et al.
vulgaris primary effluent and 2014
anaerobic digestion
6 Chlorella Concentrated 100 90% Xiaochen Ma
vulgaris municipal wastewater et al.2016
with waste glycerol
7 Chlorella Synthetic wastewater 92 99% Present study
vulgaris
8 Scenedesmus Synthetic wastewater 98 100% Present study
obliquus

when they are cultivated in agricultural wastewater which is rich in ammonia and
phosphate. Similarly, total biomass concentration was higher in Chlorella vulgaris
and Scenedesmus obliquus when they were cultivated in wastewater than in traditional
BG-11 media. Scenedesmus obliquus has higher potential than Chlorella vulgaris in
treating agricultural wastewater along with higher biomass production. Thus, when
suitable microalgal strain is selected for wastewater treatment higher potential can
be achieved in both nutrient removal as well as biomass production. High quality
byproducts such as biodiesel, bioethanol and bio-fertilizers can be harvested from
the produced biomass after wastewater treatment (Table 3).

4 Conclusion

In this work, the NH4 –N and PO4 –P removal efficiencies with different initial
concentrations in S1, S2 and S3, by two micro algal species Chlorella vulgaris
and Scenedesmus obliquus were studied. The optimal conditions such as tempera-
ture, light intensities and the photo period of 16L:8D were adopted to enhance the
292 R. V. Anusha Gowri et al.

improvement biomass concentration during the algal cultivation in prepared wastew-

ater media. High NH4 –N removal efficiency was observed in both Chlorella vulgaris
and Scenedesmus obliquus and much higher PO4 –P removal efficiency was also
observed. Day 2–Day 5 is chosen to be the ideal period for the peak nutrient removal
efficiency when the biomass concentration was at its peak. Though there were only
a little significant difference in the nutrient removal efficiency when both the algal
strains were compared yet Scenedesmus obliquus showed better performance. PO4 –
P was almost completely removed by both the microalgal species with different
initial PO4 –P concentrations and there was 96% removal of NH4 –N. Higher the
biomass productivity higher was the nutrient removal rate. For both NH4 –N and
PO4 –P removal only moderate aeration was required which was provided by motor
pump.
When compared to other physical and chemical treatment solutions, biological
degradation of microalgal wastewater may be a more efficient and cost-effective
solution. Advantage of using micro algae is the introduction of biomass production
along with improved nutrient removal rates thus it serves as an integrated treatment
option. There is also a possibility of preventing the ground water contamination
in case of ammonia and phosphate rich agricultural wastewater and possible recy-
cling of assimilated NH4 –N and PO4 –P as a fertilizer. The microalgal biomass will
contain higher colossal lipid accumulation with phosphate reduction stress and can
be harvested after the wastewater treatment for production of various bioproducts
such as bioethanol and biodiesel.
Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus have the ability to treat agricultural
wastewater containing major pollutants such as ammonium and phosphorus and can
also be used as a mixed microalgal culture.

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Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient
Techniques to Enhance the Building
Performance

Prerna Sharma, V. R. Prasath Kumar, and L. Krishnaraj

Abstract Building temperature conditioning requires a considerable amount of

energy in extreme climatic conditions. There are many ways to reduce the climate
control load, the most notable of which is proper design and selection of the building
envelope and its components. There is an increasing need to forecast energy consump-
tion and consider alternative energy management measures (ECM) and design
requirements for more energy-efficient construction during the design phase. The
various parameters and alternatives are taken for the study. The results were gath-
ered after the alternative scenarios were analyzed. Each case study compares annual
energy consumption and costs. Both traditional and automated methods were used in
the analysis, and validation work was performed. The findings show that integrating
Autodesk Revit and the Green Building Studio, as well as integrated energy analysis
and design choices, results in more energy-efficient buildings.

Keywords Energy · Sustainable · Annual cost · Green building studio ·

Orientation

1 Introduction

Development is the largest global electricity producer. Energy-efficient building

architecture is expected to reduce CO2 emissions. The location of the frame is one
of the most significant elements of energy-efficient building architecture [1]. Signif-
icant reduction is a low-cost method of improving occupant satisfaction and cooling
and heating system performance. A good building orientation allows the ideal winter

P. Sharma · V. R. Prasath Kumar (B) · L. Krishnaraj

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Sharma
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Krishnaraj
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 295
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_26
296 P. Sharma et al.

sun to shine indoors while still allowing ventilation in the summer by facing the
summer wind stream [2, 3]. The most important architecture parameters influencing
indoor thermal comfort and energy efficiency at a building scale are the optical and
thermos physical properties of the building envelope [4]. From the start of the design
process, design engineers will think about the energy efficiency of their envelope
models [5, 6]. For government agencies, architects, and engineers, reducing energy
use, especially in office buildings, is a difficult task. To minimize the energy fee, it is
essential to understand the architectural design features of existing high-rise office
buildings in the hot tropics. Occupants are believed to have a significant impact on
building efficiency [7–9]. The selection for the particular case of efficient modeling
complexity is a critical problem when it comes to the implementation of people
behavior models in building energy simulation (BES). A significant portion of the
electricity produced by a building is usually attributed to its occupants [10]. Long-
term use of building simulation is unavoidable as building design becomes more
sophisticated and performance criteria become more stringent [11–13]. Orientation
is also required to provide thermal comfort to occupants. It is important to consider
climatic variables such as solar radiation and wind when evaluating the building’s
orientation [14]. Human–building interactions in office buildings are either designed
or restricted, and occupancy data is easier to obtain than in residential buildings. As a
consequence, occupancy data can be used in large building controls, especially when
occupancy sensors are connected to the building management system [15, 16]. The
direction of a system determines the amount of sunlight that reaches it. For greater
energy quality, houses in the Northern Hemisphere should have southern exposure
screens. When a passive solar system is faced south, the heat load is considerably
decreased [17]. Owing to a lack of electricity availability and inadequate access to
energy security, most tropical countries’ energy demand is badly impacted. About the
fact that energy depletion makes it difficult to use energy-intensive equipment such
as air conditioners, successful structural architecture is the best way to achieve the
desired thermal comfort [18–20]. New building framework designs, ironically, are
being designed to meet the needs of consumers without regard for the environment
or energy efficiency [21]. BIM implementation allows for better cooperation. This
research paper used existing literature to explain the expectations and risks of BIM
adoption, and then suggested risk-response strategies for implementing BIM, using
a case study of a dynamic multipurpose building project facility [22]. A complex set
of factors affect the thermal state of a building and, as a result, the amount of energy
needed for mechanical indoor temperature control. Factors such as latitude, position,
inclination, and building structure affect the amount of heat produced by solar energy
[23–25]. Laptop computers, for example, are often wired to them. Portable machines
used by the occupants move from room to room, absorbing energy or making heat
gains. The bulk of tenant interaction patterns are affected by occupancy [26]. Building
electricity usage accounts for much more than 70% of the total of all the other elec-
tricity used in urban areas, having a major impact on the functioning of the electric
grid. The California smart house is an example of a building control system that is
automated [27]. Low-energy building construction necessitates the use of advanced
modeling techniques to measure heating and cooling loads. Such designs will provide
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance … 297

residents with thermal comfort while still reducing energy usage over the building’s
lifespan. The key to planning for long-term sustainability is to have parameters that
take into account thermal properties [28–30]. Since significant quantities of solar
gain occur from exterior windows in tropical climates due to high solar radiation and
average yearly temperature, the window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of a building is useful
in predicting energy consumption [31]. Thermal comfort is needed in all types of
lodging, including schools. A compatible indoor climate configuration is a change to
the building’s outdoor environment structure that is meant to supply warmth to the
occupants. Many people agree that heat relief is an important factor to recognize in
college design because it affects students’ efficiency [32]. A huge amount of energy
can be saved by the technology used. One of the most important green building goals
is to reduce electricity use and greenhouse gas emissions. There is a lack of published
literature on the project conducted on the orientation and lighting regulation of the
area where the study was conducted with different choices, despite the emergence
of multiple experimental and numerical science studies.

2 Model Development

Green Building Studio assists in the construction of high-performance buildings in a

fraction of the time and expense required by traditional methods. The project’s data
is correctly obtained, as the quality of the analysis would have a direct effect on the
final results. The aim is to construct a comprehensive model of a house, complete
with atmosphere and materials. The school building chosen is located near Chennai,
and the relevant information of the building is shown in Table 1, the data collected
using the GBS software.
A 3D model of a school in Guduvencherry, Chennai, is shown in this image
(Fig. 1). It was built in Revit Architecture and then exported to Green Building
Studio for research, the gold standard in BIM energy analysis software.

Table 1 Basic information of

Building type Commercial building
building
Building SRM school
Floors G+3
Situated Guduvencherry
Area 2586.53 sqm
Dry bulb 99°F
Wet bulb 84°F
298 P. Sharma et al.

Fig. 1 3D model of a school building

3 Method

The energy used can be assessed using both conceptual and detailed knowledge-
building models. Three simulation workflows of an Autodesk tool’s main are building
materials, conceptual mass, and gbXML exports. The data is then imported from
Revit as a gbXML file and then sent to the Green Building Studio, where it
would be further evaluated and design options for an energy-efficient structure are
implemented.
For various orientations and lighting power, the investigation was carried out
in both directions. The choices are made in the same way as they were in the
Green Building Studio’s energy simulation. Figure 2 depicts the process of creating
alternatives.
Orientation and Lighting Control
The construction model is rotated in different ways to get the best effects. The
direction of various places varies. Lighting management would help us save money
on electricity because the construction of the building and the living occupants have
a big impact on energy usage. Table 2 depicts a different simulation depending on
the illumination and orientation.
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance … 299

Fig. 2 Creating design alternatives

300 P. Sharma et al.

Table 2 Simulation alternatives for orientation and lighting control

S. no. Orientation alternatives Lighting control alternatives
1 +45° Occupancy sensors
2 +90° Daylighting sensors and controls
3 +135° Occupancy/daylighting sensors and controls
4 +180°
5 −135°
6 −90°
7 −45°

4 Manual Method

For the city of Chennai, the energy cost per kWh and the fuel cost per MJ are 0.08
and 0.007, respectively. The following is a calculation for a 45° rotation using the
conventional form. Table 3 lists 1–7 options for orientation and 8–10 options for
lighting power.

Annual cost Lifecycle cost

Electricity use = 667,172 kWh Electricity use = 20,015,148 kWh
Cost = electricity use * actual cost Cost = electricity use * actual cost
= 667,172kWh * 0.08/kWh = 20,015,148kWh * 0.08/kWh
= 53,373.76 = 1,601,211.84
Fuel use = 314,269 Fuel use = 9,428,061
Cost = fuel use * actual cost Cost = Fuel use * Actual cost
= 314,269 * 0.007/ MJ = 9,428,061* 0.007/MJ
= 2199.883 = 65,996.427
Annual energy cost = 53,373.76 + 2199.883 Total lifecycle cost = 1,601,211.84 + 65,996.427
= 55,573.643 = 1,667,208.267

5 Results and Discussion

This chapter discusses the impact of modeling and data obtained from alternatives
using a Green Building Studio.
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance … 301

Table 3 Annual energy cost and lifecycle cost using the traditional method
Alternatives Annual energy use Lifecycle use Annual Lifecycle
Electricity Fuel use Electricity Fuel use energy cost cost (Rs)
use (kWh) (MJ) use (kWh) (MJ) (Rs)

1 667,173 314,271 20,015,149 9,428,062 55,574 1,667,209

2 664,741 313,604 19,942,204 9,408,061 55,375 1,661,233
3 665,973 297,487 19,979,164 8,924,536 55,361 1,660,805
4 666,444 311,502 19,993,291 9,345,001 55,496 1,664,879
5 666,434 307,746 19,992,999 9,232,306 55,469 1,664,067
6 664,915 314,396 19,947,424 9,431,827 55,394 1,661,817
7 667,448 291,635 20,023,420 8,748,985 55,438 1,663,117
8 667,025 305,053 20,010,721 9,151,516 55,498 1,664,919
9 638,989 306,729 19,169,608 9,201,841 53,267 1,597,982
10 636,801 306,613 19,103,989 9,198,358 53,091 1,592,708

5.1 Orientation

This segment evaluates the effect of the building’s orientation. Figures 3 and 4 show
total annual energy costs and lifecycle costs for different orientation options (+45°, +
90°, +135°, +180°, −45°, −90°, −135). The 90° rotation configuration, according
to the observations, lowers annual costs and total energy usage.
Figures 3 and 4 show the main differences between the orientation options. It
is reasonable to believe that orienting a building at 135° will significantly decrease
annual and lifecycle costs.

Annual energy cost (Rs) life cycle cost (Rs)

-45º, 45º, -45º, 45º,

90º, -90º, 756,761 90º,
-90º, 55,562 55,709 758,751
55,509 756,304 756,034
55,529

-135º, 180º,
135º, -135º, 135º,
55,601 55,488 757,286 180º,
55,630 755,745
757,677

Fig. 3 Cost of different orientation alternatives

302 P. Sharma et al.

Annual energy cost Life cycle cost

occupanc occupanc occupanc

y/ occupanc y/ y sensor,
day light day light
daylight y sensor, daylight Rs727278
sensor sensor
sensor Rs53,398 sensor
and and
and and control,
control,
conntrol, conntrol, Rs757657
Rs
Rs53,222 Rs724883
55,628

Fig. 4 Cost of different lighting control alternatives

5.2 Lighting Control

The findings of a comparison of different alternatives based on total annual energy

expense and lifecycle cost are seen in Fig. 4. The building’s cost can be decreased
by using the lighting control as an occupancy/daylight sensor and control, making it
more cost-efficient.

6 Comparison Using Software and Traditional Method

The research findings must be double-checked to back up the conclusions obtained

using software and conventional approaches. The annual cost differential between
conventional and software methods is minimal, but the lifecycle cost difference is
larger, as seen in Table 4.

7 Summary of Recommendation

The proposed suggestion from the simulation results is summarized in Table 5.

Following the completion of the simulation, the best option for each parameter
is selected, and the final simulation is run to demonstrate the differences between
conventional and energy-efficient school buildings. The variations in results between
the base run and the alternatives are shown in Fig. 5.
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance … 303

Table 4 Result using software and manual method

Alternatives Manual method Software method
Annual energy Lifecycle cost Annual energy Lifecycle cost
cost (Rs) (Rs) cost (Rs) (Rs)
45° 55,574 1,667,209 55,709 758,751
90° 55,375 1,661,233 55,509 756,034
135° 55,361 1,660,805 55,488 755,745
180° 55,496 1,664,879 55,630 757,677
(−135°) 55,469 1,664,067 55,601 757,286
(−90°) 55,394 1,661,817 55,529 756,304
(−45°) 55,438 1,663,117 55,562 756,761
Daylight sensor 55,498 1,664,919 55,628 757,657
Occupancy sensor 53,267 1,597,982 53,398 727,278
Occupancy/daylight 53,091 1,592,708 53,222 724,883
sensor and control

Table 5 Simulation
Variables Recommended alternative
recommendation
Orientation 135°
Lighting control Occupancy/daylight sensor and control

8 Conclusion

It can be inferred based on the study that

• Eventually, the project’s various standards mean that modern buildings’ thermal
quality has increased, making the project more environmentally friendly.
• The thesis goal of performing simulation on energy conservation using Revit
and Green Building Studio has been achieved with success. This can serve as a
roadmap for aspiring designers to use BIM in their journey toward energy analysis.
• The difference in forecasting annual costs between the traditional method and
the automatic method was less than 1%, but the difference in measuring lifecycle
costs was more than 20%.
• The study’s goal of conducting energy-saving simulations using Revit and Green
Building Studio was accomplished.
 304

Fig. 5 Energy cost and lifecycle cost for base run and alternatives
P. Sharma et al.
Revealing the Design of Energy-Efficient Techniques to Enhance … 305

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Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected
to Lateral Load

Anmol Basnett, S. Sathvik, Prerna Sharma, V. R. Prasath Kumar,

and L. Krishnaraj

Abstract The present investigation has been carried out to study the behaviour of
battered piles and to evaluate the variation of stresses around these piles due to lateral
loads and moment using subgrade reaction approach and finite difference method. In
reality, uniform soil deposits are not found in nature and the piles are embedded in
layered soils. The research was performed with the free headed pile in mind with its
tip embedded in hard rock strata at the bottom. The effect of soil type, pile diameter,
and pile length on pile response was examined, and the findings were presented. The
formulation was programmed in MATLAB 2016a for the analysis. The validity of
the presented solution was confirmed through available solutions in the literature. It
has been discovered that soil layering has a significant effect on pile response and
must be taken into account for proper study and design. When a pile is exposed to
lateral loads, the deflection of the pile decreases as the thickness of the top stiff layer
increases. However, it has negligible impact on the maximum moment.

Keywords Laterally loaded pile · Layered soil · Subgrade reaction approach

1 Introduction

In the design of a building, the structure will be analysed in two different parts as the
substructure and a superstructure. Superstructure refers to the parts of a building that
are above ground level, and substructure refers to the parts that are below ground

A. Basnett · S. Sathvik · P. Sharma · V. R. Prasath Kumar · L. Krishnaraj (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Sathvik
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Sharma
e-mail: [email protected]
V. R. Prasath Kumar
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 307
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_27
308 A. Basnett et al.

level. The transfer of the load from the superstructure to the soil has more relevance
in the design; hence, the design of the substructure is always critical [1, 2]. The piles
are used to convey the lateral and vertical loads acting on the surrounding soil when
a soft or loose soil extends to a significant depth.
In the past years, several analytical methods including the subgrade method, p–
y curves method, and FEM method have been created to investigate pile response
influenced by lateral loads. Most of these methods do not account for layered soil
system. In reality, uniform soil deposits are not found in nature and piles are embedded
in layered soils. Several authors have analysed battered piles subjected to lateral
loads, considering various parameters to evaluate the behavioural characteristics of
Battered pile and they have been briefly explained below.
For the study of the response of the batter pile subjected to pullout and lateral
loads using three-dimensional finite analysis, the analysis was based on the Mohr–
Coulomb criterion. From their studies they, have reported that the pullout capacity
of a battered pile decreases up to 50% when the pile is inclined up to 10° [3]. The
author have also reported that the inclination reduces both the lateral pile stiffness
and pullout capacity. It was concluded that the reduction in pile stiffness due to the
sliding of the soil-pile interface analysed the effect of lateral load on a single pile
based on the Winkler’s spring model, and the numerical solutions were obtained
using MATLAB [4, 5]. It was concluded that the pile design wage was governed by
serviceability aspects and ground improvement techniques. The soil stiffness had a
big impact on pile deflections. It was reported that the bending moment decreases
linearly (from 200 kNm to 110 kNm) as the subgrade modulus (constant throughout
the pile length) varied from 2 kN/m3 to 20 kN/m3 , and it was concluded that the
results obtained from Indian code (IS 2911–2002) and the pile response that were
modelled by the MATLAB software were in good agreement carried out studies on
the using the Winkler elastic model, piles are subjected to lateral soil movement
surrounded by the elastoplastic constitutive soil model considering the continuity
and boundary condition [6].
The calculation procedures were coded into the MATLAB program and their
accuracy reported was in good agreement with the equations suggested by Poulos
(1980), and the pile deflections were 9.65 mm (proposed approach) and 12.57 mm
(theoretical approach) for a pile with Poisson ratio of 0.35 and bending stiffness
EI = 1.7 kNm2 [7, 8]. They studied the relationship of pile-soil-pile interaction in
uniform soil for piles with different batter angles of 10º, 15º, and 25º and concluded
that the analytical approach considering soil non-linearity and plastic yielding is
capable of reflecting the actual output of the pile [9]. They solved the relationship
between battered pile groups using analytical and numerical methods; they studied
the relation of pile-soil-pile interaction in uniform soil for piles with different batter
angles of 10º, 15º, and 25º.
The author has discovered that as the batter angle with respect to the vertical
increases, the interaction between the pile and the soil pile decreases, and as the
departure angle with the horizontal increases, the interaction between the pile and
the soil pile decreases. It was found that vertical piles have more pullout capacity
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 309

than 15o battered piles at all load inclinations, and 30º negative battered piles have
more pullout capacity than vertical piles above 5º of load inclinations.
For the study of the behaviour of piles by carrying out Finite Element System
seismic analysis of a laterally loaded pile under the impact of vertical loading, the
analytical approach (finite element method) was used and MATLAB for the compu-
tation; it was found that for the l/d ratio of 40. As the lateral load coefficient is
increased from 0.1 to 0.3, the normalized moment and displacement increase from
0.033 m to 0.042 m and 0.009 m to 0.035 m, respectively [10]. It is found that the
magnitude of lateral load acting at the top of the pile increases as the lateral load
coefficient increases, resulting in higher magnitudes of pile head displacement, and
pile bending moment carried out a series of simulated analysis on the 3D battered
piles that have been exposed to lateral loads in the sandy soils using the FlAC3D
software [11, 12]. In this finite difference modelling of the battered pile, the lateral
capability of piles was discovered to be battered forward which is not much affected
compared to the vertical pile.
It was reported that the value of the ultimate load capacity of the piles obtained
from the FE analysis was the same with the static load tests but the displacement
was found to be slightly lower, approximately 8% with the experimental values. And
they concluded that the bearing capacity of piles decreases with increasing negative
battered angles, and the horizontal pile displacement was found to be more in the
positive battered than that of the vertical or negative battered pile [13]. In this study
the lateral load-carrying behaviour of inclined single and group micro piles of length
310 mm, Single (SMP) and community (GMP) micro piles were subjected to a series
of model load tests with varying inclination angles, load directions, and micro pile
spacing. This was due to the skin friction mobilized along micro pile surfaces which
become larger with longer mobilized length for δ = 0°, whereas upward skin friction
was observed for δ = 180° [14, 15]. The Behaviour of Cyclic Laterally Loaded Pile
Group in Soft Clay experiment showed that increasing the L/D ratio from 12 to 24
increased the ultimate lateral load capacity of the pile by 72.6% linearly.

2 Methodology

To explain the load-carrying mechanism of inclined micro piles, a finite element (FE)
analysis was performed. They found that for = 0°, the inclined SMP’s load-carrying
capacity was greater than that of the vertical SMP and it increased with increasing
values from 0° to 30°, while for 180°, in contrast, increasing values of angles 90°
and 180° resulted in lower lateral load-carrying capability.
310 A. Basnett et al.

2.1 Finite Difference Method

To solve the differential equations, there are several methods. Whenever exact
methods are not possible to use, numerical techniques are commonly used. Among
this, FDM is a a commonly used methodology for the variation of soil properties. In
this approach, all the derivatives were replaced with a differential operator.

2.2 Subgrade Reaction Approach

Subgrade reaction approach is also termed as beam-on-elastic-foundation strategy. In

this approach, the beam was represented as foundation and the foundation was repre-
sented as soil mass. Commonly, the Winkler spring model is used for the research.
The soil is represented by elastic springs in series such that the compression of the
springs is directly proportional to the applied load. The spring constant reflects the
stiffness of the ground against applied loads. Matlock and Reese analysed the piles
subjected to horizontal loads and reported them in non-dimensional form, where they
have assumed that the shear or Young’s modulus increased with depth for which equa-
tions are provided for determining deflection, moment, shear, and slope along the
pile.
The relative stiffness factor is calculated from Eq. 1.
For long piles, L > 5 T

EI
T=
5
(1)
Kh

The modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction Kh is given by Eq. 2:

p
Kh = (2)
y

where p = soil reaction per unit length of pile in N/mm2 ,

y = pile deflection in mm,
E = Young’s modulus of pile material,
I = moment of inertia of pile material,
T = relative stiffness factor.
The governing differential equations (Eq. 3) for the analytical solutions are used
for different types of loads, position of loads, and load distribution to determine
deformation, SF, and BM throughout the length. This approach is applicable only
for long piles, as the pile length increasing the deflection of depth may be zero or
negligible:
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 311

d4 y
EI +p=0 (3)
dx4
In the subgrade reaction method, the pile is considered as a thin strip whose
behaviour is governed by Eq. 4:

d4 y
EI + kh y = 0 (4)
dx4
The solution for the above equations is obtained numerically as

d4 y
EI = − pd (5)
dx4
The pile of length L is divided into n equal parts each of length δ. The above-
mentioned basic differential equation is written in finite difference form for a typical
point i from Fig. 1:

Fig. 1 Pile discretization

312 A. Basnett et al.

yi−2 − 4yi−1 + 6yi − 4yi+1 + yi+2 pi d

= (6)
δ 4 EI

where
p = pressure,
y = deflection,
kh = modulus of subgrade reaction,
D = diameter or width of pile,
E = modulus of elasticity of pile,
I = MOI of pile.
WKT δ = Ln
Rearranging the above equation:

pi d L 4
yi−2 − 4yi−1 + 6yi − 4yi+1 + yi+2 = − (7)
n4 E I
Boundary condition.
1. Free head pile

d3 y
ShearEI =H
dx3

d2 y
Moment EI =M
dx2
yi y − 2yi + yi +1
EI =M
y2
M L2
yi−1 − 2yi + yi +1 =
n2 E I
At pile top, i = 1

M L2
y0 = 2y1 − y2 + (8)
n2 E I
At i = 2, Eq. (1)

p2 d L 4
y0 − 4y1 + 6y2 − 4y3 + y4 = −
n4 E I
Substitute (2) in above equation

M L2 p2 d L 4
−2y1 + 5y2 − 4y3 + y4 + = − (9)
n2 E I n4 E I
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 313

Solving above equations, we get

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ M L2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
−2 5 −4 1 0 0 −− 0 0 y1 n 2 El
p1
⎜ 1 −4 −4 −− ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 6 1 0 0 0 ⎟⎜ y2 ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ p2 ⎟
⎜ 0 −4 −4 −− ⎟⎜
0 0 ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 6 1 ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ − − − − − − −− ⎟⎜
− − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E ln4 ⎜ EI ⎜
− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ − − − − − − −− − − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ = −⎜ − ⎟
d L4 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ d L 4 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ − − − − − − −− − − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ − − − − − − −− ⎟⎜
− − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 0 0 0 0 0 −− 1 −4 ⎠⎝ − ⎠ ⎝ − ⎠ ⎝− ⎠
0 0 0 0 0 0 −− 0 1 − − −

E I n4 EI
−{p} = 4
[D]{pρ} + {A} (10)
dL d L4
d
{sρ} = [Is]{p} (11)
Es
Substitute (11) in (10), i.e., {S ρ} = {p ρ}

E I n4 d EI
−{p} = [D] [Is]{p} + {A}
d L4 Es d L4

{ p} 1 + K R n 4 [D][I s] = {B} (12)

where KR = EsE LI 4 = pile flexibility factor .

[Is] = (n + 1) × (n + 1), matrix of soil displacement influence factors;

{sρ} = horizontal soil displacement

{p} = horizontal loading between pile and soil

Elements of Iij of [Is] are evaluated from Mindlin’s equation.

Soil displacement

d
{sρ} = [Is]{p} (13)
Es
The lateral and shear stresses are calculated by integrating Mindlin’s equation with
respect to c. MATLAB is used to construct a computer programme that computes
the pile answer for different L/D ratios using the above set of equations.
314 A. Basnett et al.

3 Results and Discussion

In determining the behaviour of the battered pile subjected to lateral loading, the
equations as stated in the methodology (3.2.3) are used in order to compute the
various parameters such as deflection, bending moment, normal, and shear stresses.
The property of the soil is varied in a uniform layer of varying elastic modulus (Es),
and the pile is battered at a positive inclined angle ϕ as 10, 15, and 20 and negative
inclined angles of −10, −15, and −20 for the deflection-bending behaviour, and
Poisson’s ratio (v) is varied as 0.1, 0.25, and 0.4 in determining the normal and shear
stresses for the same battered angles above.

3.1 Variation in the Battered Pile

To understand the behaviour of the battered piles subjected to a lateral load, the
deflection and bending moment are evaluated for the following cases:
• Case 1: Length of the pile = 20 m, d1 = L/3(loose sand), d2 = L/3(soft clay), d3
= L/3(hard clay), and embedded layer of rock 0.5 m.
• Case 2: Length of the pile = 20 m, d1 = L/4(loose sand), d2 = L/2(soft clay), d3
= L/4(hard clay), and embedded layer of rock 0.5 m.
• Case 3: Length of the pile = 20 m, d1 = L/4(loose sand), d2 = L/4(soft clay), d3
= L/2(hard clay), and embedded layer of rock 0.5 m.
The variations of deflection and BM for the above cases are presented as follows:
Case 1: For the soil layers of L/3, L/3, L/3.

Fig. 2 Variation of ρ/d along z/L

Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 315

Fig. 3 Variation of M/H*L along z/L

From the above (Figs. 2 and 3), for the positive battering angles, when the incli-
nation was increased from 10° to 15°, the percentage increase in the deflection and
moment was found to be 62.26% but when there is an increase of angle from 15°
to 20°, the values of deflection and moment was found to decrease to 97.09%. In
the case of negative battering angle of −10° to −15°, it was observed that there is a
percentage decrease in the deflection and moment to 76.38% and from 15° to 20° it
was found to increase to 57.79%.
Case 2: For the soil layers of L/4, L/2, L/4.
From the above (Figs. 4. and 5), for the positive inclinations of angles, 10° to 15o ,
the percentage increase in the deflection and moment was found to be 60.96%, and
again it was found to decrease rapidly to 94.61% when the angle is increased from
15° to 20°. In the negative battering angles, it is found that there is a decrease of
values to 74.91% for −10° to −15° but from −15° to −20° it is found that there is
an increase of 55.82%.

Fig. 4 Variation of ρ/d along z/L

316 A. Basnett et al.

Fig. 5 Variation of M/H*L along z/L

Fig. 6 Variation of ρ/d along z/L

Case 3: For the soil layers of L/4, L/4, L/2.

From the above (Figs. 6 and 7), the positive battering angle of 20 is lower by 94%
compared to that of the highest value observed at the negative battering angle of 10
degrees.

3.2 Variation of Stresses

The lateral stresses, σx , and shear stresses, τxz , were calculated by integrating
Mindlin’s solution with respect to c for different pile lengths L = 10 m, 20 m,
and 25 m by varying x/L values (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3) for Poisson’s ratio ϑ = 0.25 and
ϑ = 0.5, respectively. From the graphs, it is observed that when x/L raises from
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 317

Fig. 7 Variation of M/H*L along z/L

Table 1 Lateral and shear

x/L 0.1 0.2 0.3
stresses
Lateral stress 51.36 55.9 65.7
Shear stress 186.7 164.1 147.45

0.1 to 0.3, lateral stresses increase from 51.36 to 65.7% and shear stresses decrease
from 186.7 to 147.45%. Shear stresses and lateral stresses increase with increase in
length of pile from L = 10 m to 25 m. Lateral stresses increase by 0.19% and shear
stresses increase by 148.9%.Table 1 shows the percentage variation of lateral stress
and shear stress for x/L = 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 for pile length L = 10 m, 20 m, and 25 m
for Poisson’s ratio 0.25 and 0.5 (Figs. 8 and Fig. 9).

Fig. 8 Variation of σx L2 /H with z/L for pile length L = 10 m and Poisson’s ratio a ϑ = 0.25 and
b ϑ = 0.5
318 A. Basnett et al.

Fig. 9 Variation of σx L3 /M with z/L for pile length L = 10 m and Poisson’s ratio a ϑ = 0.25 and
b ϑ = 0.5

4 Conclusion

• When a pile is exposed to horizontal load, the deflection of the pile decreases with
rise in the depth of the top layer. An increase of 113.01% was observed in the
deflection of pile tops. The soil layer thickness has negligible effect on bending
moment.
• As Poisson’s ratio rises from 0.25 to 0.5, the deformation and moment also raise.
– For L = 10 m, the maximum deflection increases by 22.5% and maximum
moment increases by 25.6%.
– For L = 25 m, the maximum deflection increases by 17.9% and maximum
moment increases by 44.09%.
• Large variations in stresses are induced in consolidated clay when Poisson’s ratio
is 0.5 as consolidated clay starts acting as a rock. Hence, deflection and moments
increase.
• The normal stress σx is found to increase by 17.01% with increase in Poisson’s
ratio of 0.1–0.25 and 20.41% with increase in Poisson’s ratio of 0.25–0.4. The
shear stress is found to increase by 62.24% with the increase in Poisson’s ratio of
0.1–0.25 and 48.28% with increase in Poisson’s ratio of 0.25–0.4.
• The effect of battering angle on the normal and shear stresses is found to be
decreasing to 14.71% with an increase in battering angle of 10°–15° and 18.31%
for an increase in battering angle of 15°–20°. In case of negative battering angle,
it was found that for the increase of batter angle from −10° to −15°, the normal
and shear stresses were increased to 5.41% and 4.44% for increase in battering
angles of −15° to −20°.
Behaviour of Battered Pile Subjected to Lateral Load 319

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Modelling Residential House Pricing
Using Regression Analysis

M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Abstract The paramount ingredient for the socio-economic development of any

country is the land and buildings. An accurate appraisal of these land and buildings’
value has a colossal effect on the state’s economy. Still, the value of these buildings
has been outrageous with realtors’ emergence. Various computational techniques
have been employed to resolve the issue of the appraisal of the value. The factor
analysis, correlation analysis and linear regression analysis are employed in this
paper in order to model the residential house prices. This study is to be carried out
in the Chengalpattu neighbourhood, where the modelling of the residential house
prices is considered. All the factors which account for house price were determined.
The modelling is performed by taking the market prices and the various factors that
account for the valuation using various software.

Keywords House pricing · Regression · Urban density

1 Introduction

Real estate is a class of real property that includes land and anything attached to
it, whether human-made or natural. It was found that more than half the total value
of the world’s wealth is from the real estate industry [1]. This property’s valuation
is usually vital for the pledge, auction, acquisition, and levying taxes [2]. On such
occasion, the terminal aim of the valuation communique final user is to consider
the utmost definite property value, ultimately making the investment decisions [3,

M. B. Sridhar (B) · R. Sathyanathan

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Sathyanathan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 321
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_28
322 M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

4]. Taffese identified that fiscal and prudent decisions are based on the observed
appraisal of the property values.
Hedonic price model (HPM) is a prevailing and assertive method used for antic-
ipating house price movements [5]. The neural network model has been used for
prophecy, outline recognition, cataloguing, progression control, nonlinear plotting,
and statistics scrutiny [6], making it apt for assets assessment. Sir Francis Galton first
recommended the idea of linear regression in 1894. Linear regression is an objective
test applied to an information collection to illustrate and portion the fixture flanked
by the factors [7]. Regression, in general, is a statistical technique used to find the
dependency of an independent and dependent variable. In comparison, correlation is
a proportion of a monotonic association between two factors. A monotonic connec-
tion between two aspects is a one wherein either as the estimation of a variable
increment, so does the supplementary variable’s assessment; or as the analysis of
a variable expands, the additional variable worth diminishes [8]. While correlation
gives a quantitative way of estimating the degree or strength of a connection between
two factors, regression analysis numerically depicts this relationship [9]. Pursued the
inception of the neural networks acknowledging that neural networks can formulate
logical arithmetic functions, the way the web works is based on neuronal information.
It has been implied as a resolution to hail the criticisms such as linear relationship
and dearth of accurateness [10, 11]. Dowell accounted for the spatial development of
Chennai through land use, land value data [12]. Sampath Kumar and Shanthi exam-
ined the trend in land prices in Sowcarpet, Chennai. An article in The Hindu stated
that Chennai registered a 6% increase in residential sales in the first six months
of 2019 as per the Knight Frank India. In the second half of 2019, housing sales
surged by 8%, with south Chennai bagging the most significant new launches. As
per a report for July–September 2020, an average of 38% of the residential inventory
and 66% of the buyer demand have the budget category under 40 lakhs, and it also
stated that despite the discrepancy between the supply and demand, the northern and
southwestern suburbs such as Guduvancheri, Avadi, and Urapakkam have a larger
inventory in the affordable class with a price range of 3500–4500 per sq. ft.
The valuation can be performed by the approaches such as rent capitalization
method or income capitalization method, profit method, depreciation method, devel-
opment method, direct comparison or sales comparison, and land and building
method. The valuation is done by performing the regression analysis, contemplating
the various factors that account for the residential houses’ monetary worth. The
number of factors generally influence the prices of houses [13]. Rahadi categorized
components into trio chief clusters such as physical condition, notion, and position
[14]. Kauko enumerated a customary of facets that have been generally used in land
assessment scrutiny, including convenience factors, neighbourhood-level aspects,
precise undesirable externalities, community factors and compactness factors [15].
Tse and Love classified grades of facets, namely structural, corporal and conserva-
tional. The factors considered were the numeral of bedchambers [16, 17], the numeral
of lavatories [18, 19], the possessions site [16, 20], the accessibility of civic passage
[21, 22], the assets magnitude [21, 23] and the availability of security fence [22],
which among other attributes have a sizable bearing on property values. Another
Modelling Residential House Pricing Using Regression Analysis 323

facet that influences a house price or land is the urban density, which generally
describes how a city’s population or development is concentrated or compact [24].
Babawale said the number of bedrooms, numeral of bedchambers, the size of the
bedchamber and the security fence suggestively impact the properties’ value [25].
Ajide and Kareem endowed that the numeral of bedchambers and lavatories is the
substantial property value determinant [26]. Bello determined that the assets oldness
and the property’s location make a significant contribution to property desirability
[25]. Kareem found the accessibility of civic passage facilities to be an essential
property value determining factor.

2 Study Area

The Chengalpattu district forms part of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu, India. The
Chengalpattu district came into being on November 29, 2019, when it was carved
out of the Kanchipuram district after the district bifurcation was announced on July
18, 2019. This district’s total area accounts for 2,945 km2 with a population of about
2,556,423 with a density of 870 per km2 . This district has three revenue divisions: the
Tambaram division, Chengalpattu division and Madurantakkam division. Chengal-
pattu district has 16 district panchayat wards, 8 Municipalities, 1 cantonment zone,
8 panchayat unions, 12 town panchayats, 359 rural panchayats and 6 state assembly
constituencies. The shapefile of the Chengalpattu district created by ArcMap is shown
in Fig. 1.

3 Methodology

3.1 Selection of Factors

A quantizable number of factors were found from the relevant papers [27–30], which
in general would affect the price or value of a land or building. Then the factor anal-
ysis was performed using the SPSS software, and the normalization was done. The
factors which were considered were distance to hospital, distance to Central Busi-
ness District, distance to the MRTS, distance to the Chennai International Airport,
distance to the nearest bus stop, distance to the Secondary City Centre, distance
to National Highway, ratings to a building based on the amenities such as power
backup, reserved parking, gated community, visitors parking, swimming pool, park,
security, maintenance staff, gym, lift, intercom, furnished status and water treatment
on a scale of 0–1, ratings based on the road nearby such as National Highway, State
Highway, 100 ft road, 60 ft road, 20 ft road on a scale of 1–5 and urban density.
324 M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Fig. 1 Shape file of Chengalpattu

3.2 Urban Density

The Landsat 8 Satellite image of March 31, 2019 covering the study region was
downloaded from the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The satellite image
is clipped with the shapefile for further classification. A combined classification
technique which is a combination of supervised and unsupervised classification is
Modelling Residential House Pricing Using Regression Analysis 325

utilized to classify the landcovers. The study region is classified into five landcover
classes such as waterbody, urban, vegetation, agriculture and barren land. The urban
area present within 1 km radius is considered as the urban density. To determine the
urban density a point shapefile within 1 km buffer radius is created for every location,
where the residential price is considered. The urban area encompassed within the
1 km buffer of each point is determined.

3.3 Data Collection and Normalization

This study concerns the data gathered from the real estate internet, an electronic
version of the real estate industry. The concept of this internet property is to publish
housing domains for sale or lease and for the end-user who has been on the lookout to
either buy or lease a property. Initially, around 600 data were collected from various
domains, considering the factors mentioned earlier that these buildings would have
in general. The data was compiled from multiple places in the Chengalpattu district.
The total collected data had undergone the process of data cleaning, and data of about
200 were considered.

3.4 Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is a simple procedure for perceiving which essential components are
assessed by the (much greater) number of factors. Factor examination is essential
for the general straight model (GLM). Likewise, the technique accepts cons such as
there is a direct relationship and there is no multicollinearity; it integrates noteworthy
factors into the investigation, and there is an honest construction amongst factors. The
default setting is for SPSS to utilize the Kaiser halting measure. You can set a more
reasonable halting standard by requiring each factor to have a higher eigenvalue. Or
then again, if you know precisely the number of components you think there will
be, you can set the extraction strategy to a particular “Number of variables” and
afterwards put the number into this crate.

3.5 Correlation

The Pearson association is else called the “product-moment correlation coeffi-

cient” or basically “correlations”. Pearson correlations are fair apposite or quan-
titative features (counting amphibious elements). For idempotent factors, employ
the Spearman connection or Kendall’s tau. For apparent factors, use Cramer’s V. A
326 M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

connection factor displays the mark to which specks in a scatterplot be on a straight

line. This proposes that we can generally assess connections pretty precisely from
just scatterplots. Correlations are not ever lesser than 1. A correlation of 1 proves
that the statistics focuses on a disintegrate plot that lies exactly on a straight sliding
line; the two factors are impeccably defiantly directly connected. A correlation of 0
suggests that dual elements do not have slightly direct linking at all. Nonetheless,
some non-straight links might happen between the dual factors; relationship constants
are seldom higher than 1. A correlation constant of 1 recommends that dual essen-
tials are consummately decidedly directly associated; the spots in a disperse plot
lie precisely on a straight ascending line. When deciphering correlations, we should
refer to two central matters, and correlations could conceivably show contributing
relationships. Contrarily, causal relationships from one factor to another variable
could bring about correlations between the two factors. Relationships are gentle to
omissions; an unsociable surprising insight might enormously affect a correlation.
A fast assessment of a scatterplot effectively recognizes such exceptions.

3.6 Regression Analysis

Linear regression is the accompanying stage up after association. It is used when we

need to expect the assessment of a variable subject to evaluate another variable. We
need to expect the variable as the reliant variable (or, every so often, the outcome
variable). The variable we are using to predict the other variable’s worth is the free
factor (or now and again, the marker variable). While dissecting the information
in SPSS, the presumptions, for example, the two factors, ought to be estimated at
the ceaseless level. There ought to be a direct connection between the factors; there
ought to be no significant outliers which overall is a noticed information point that
has a reliant variable worth which is different to esteem anticipated by the relapse
condition. There ought to be freedom of perceptions, and info requests to show
homoscedasticity, which is the room somewhere the variations along the line of
unsurpassed fit. Lastly, we need to check the lingering blunder of the regression line.

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Urban Density

The obtained urban density values from ArcMap were determined after creating a
buffer zone of about 1 km, and the below sample values such as 0.8982, 0.3942, etc.
were obtained. The above results show that the urban density is obtained from the
LULC 2019, and then the data normalization was performed.
Modelling Residential House Pricing Using Regression Analysis 327

Fig. 2 LULC showing the land use

The model developed in this research will undergo factor analysis for all the
12 considered factors followed by correlation in order to determine the interdepen-
dency between dependent and independent variables and then the mean absolute
percentage error (MAPE) would be determined by performing regression analysis
in SPSS software (Fig. 2).

4.2 Factor Analysis

The factor analysis was performed using SPSS software, and the obtained results
using the principal component analysis are shown in Table 1.
Component 1 indicates the distance to the central business district (CBD), compo-
nent 2 indicates the distance to the hospital, component 3 indicates the distance to
328 M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

Table 1 Factor analysis using SPSS

Overall variance
Component Preliminary eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings
Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 2.709 27.086 27.086 2.709 27.086 27.086
2 1.782 17.818 44.904 1.782 17.818 44.904
3 1.090 10.904 55.808 1.090 10.904 55.808
4 1.045 10.451 66.259 1.045 10.451 66.259
5 0.920 9.205 75.463 0.920 9.205 75.463
6 0.756 7.560 83.023 0.756 7.560 83.023
7 0.101 1.010 84.033 0.101 1.010 84.033
8 0.543 5.434 89.467 0.543 5.434 89.467
9 0.125 1.251 90.718 0.125 1.251 90.718
10 0.494 4.943 95.661 0.494 4.943 95.661
11 0.344 3.443 99.104
12 0.090 0.896 100.000
Extraction method: Principal component analysis

MRTS, component 4 indicates the distance to the airport, component 5 indicates the
distance to bus stop, component 6 indicates the distance to the secondary city centre
(SCC), component 7 indicates the distance to NH, component 8 indicates amenities
rating, component 9 indicates road rating, component 10 indicates urban density,
component 11 indicates lake view, component 12 indicates the distance to school.
From the factor analysis, it is evident that the extracted 10 factors from the principal
component analysis are accurate enough to undergo further correlation analysis. The
above results show that the urban density is obtained from the LULC 2019, and then
the data normalization was performed. After performing the data normalization, the
factor analysis was performed, and it was found that the factors such as lakeview and
school were not opted for among the 12 elements.

4.3 Correlation Analysis

The correlation analysis was performed in SPSS and the obtained results are shown
in Table 2.
Positive correlation states that if there is a rise in one value the other dependent
variable also increases, whereas negative correlation states that if there is a rise in one
variable there would be a decrease in another dependent variable. From the obtained
correlation analysis from the SPSS software, it is evident that the components 1–10
are significant at 0.05 significance level and the components 11 and 12 are non-
significant at 0.05 significance level. The significance level is a percentage of the
Modelling Residential House Pricing Using Regression Analysis 329

Table 2 Correlation analysis using SPSS

S.no Particulars Correlations Significance
1 CBD −0.462 Significant
2 Hospital −0.342 Significant
3 MRTS −0.086 Significant
4 Airport −0.277 Significant
5 Bus Stop 0.117 Significant
6 SCC −0.045 Significant
7 NH 0.304 Significant
8 Rating 0.127 Significant
9 Road-rating −0.083 Significant
10 UD 0.314 Significant
11 Lakeview −0.074 Non-significant
12 School −0.062 Non-significant
**Significant at 0.05 confidence level

forte of the proof that should be available in your example before you will terminate
the unenforceable theory and deduce that the impact is unaffectedly huge. Then the
correlation analysis was performed determining the significance of the factors and it
is evident that these two factors were not significant at a confidence level of 0.05.

4.4 Regression Analysis

The regression analysis was performed with the normalized data in SPSS, and the
results are obtained as in Table 3.
The obtained R-value was 0.547 and the R-square value is 0.299 and the standard
error estimate which in general states that it is the absolute measure of the typical
distance that the data points fall from the regression line is 0.859282119.

Table 3 Regression analysis using SPSS

Model summary
Model R R square Adjusted R square Std. error of the estimate
1 0.547a 0.299 0.262 0.859282119
a Predictors: (constant), UD, Bus stop, NH, Road Ratings, SCC, Hospital, Ratings, MRTS, Airport,

CBD
330 M. B. Sridhar and R. Sathyanathan

5 Conclusion

In this paper, several tests such as factor analysis, correlation analysis, and regression
analysis were performed using several factors that affect the residential house prices.
A component of urban density was derived by ArcMap software. From the factor
analysis, it is evident that 10 factors accounted to influence the price among the
12 factors. From the correlation analysis, it was observed that the lakeview and
school components were not significant at 95% confidence level. From the regression
analysis, the observed R2 value was 0.299 and the value of R was 0.547. The value of
R square is observed to be low in regression analysis or inaccuracy due to problems
with heteroskedasticity and multicollinearity among the variables in the model [31].

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An Ant Colony-Based Optimization
Model for Resource-Leveling Problem

Asha Duraiswamy and Gopinath Selvam

Abstract Resource leveling, a resource management technique, plays an important

role in developing a realistic schedule, aims to maintain a uniform resource profile,
and avoids construction delays. Many researchers in the past have tried solving
resource-leveling problems (RLPs) using various numerical, heuristic, metaheuristic
approaches. RLP is a classic example of a combinatorial problem. It can be solved
using a metaheuristic approach to obtain the optimal or near-global optimal solution.
This study aims to solve RLP using ant colony optimization (ACO), a metaheuristic
approach. MATLAB 2019 is used to implement the ACO model. A real-time project is
used in this study to verify the efficiency of the proposed model. The results obtained
from the ACO model are near-global optimum solutions that eliminate premature
convergence.

Keywords Resource leveling · Ant colony optimization · Construction

management · Optimal solution

1 Introduction

Project management plays a vital role in completing the project in the stipulated time,
cost, and quality [1]. Resource management is a project management technique that
ensures the planning and scheduling of resources. It helps to complete the project
on time without causing any delay [2]. Resource leveling is one of the resource
management techniques; it is performed to reduce peak fluctuations in the resource
demand profile [3]. It is employed to reduce frequent hiring and firing of laborers
and creates an efficient resource allocation schedule [4]. It significantly minimizes

A. Duraiswamy (B) · G. Selvam

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Chengalpattu District, Kattankuluthur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Selvam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 333
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_29
334 A. Duraiswamy and G. Selvam

construction delays [5]. In resource leveling, shifting of the early start of the non-
critical activities using the float days creates a realistic project schedule and better
decision-making in the resource allocation process.
Researchers have used mathematical, heuristic, and metaheuristic approaches
to solve resource-leveling problems (RLP). Mathematical techniques give a good
quality solution, but it is only suitable for small projects [6]. Heuristic approaches
can handle large project data, but it gives good or near-optimal solutions [7]. Meta-
heuristic approaches guarantee an optimal or global optimal solution and are suitable
for large-sized projects [8]. Genetic algorithm, neural network, simulated annealing,
Tabu search, and ant colony optimization are the frequently used metaheuristic
approaches used by researchers to solve RLP.
In this study, the ant colony optimization (ACO) model is proposed to solve the
resource-leveling problem (RLP). The proposed ACO model is simple, attempts to
reduce the moment deviation, fluctuations in resource requirements, and eliminates
the premature convergence that makes the proposed ACO model better than the other
metaheuristic approaches.

2 Literature Review

A genetic algorithm-based resource-leveling approach was proposed to optimize

multiple resource utilization with the decision support system architecture [9]. This
method minimizes construction pollution by resource leveling using the genetic
algorithm by considering construction pollution index and hazard magnitude [4].
A multi-objective technique using the genetic algorithm was developed to solve
multi-resource-leveling problems [10]. Two innovative resource-leveling metrics to
measure and minimize the negative impact of resource fluctuations on construction
productivity and cost were developed and studied [11]. A genetic algorithm model
considering the activity splitting was proposed with a novel local search heuristic
and a repair mechanism. A path-relinking metaheuristic algorithm, which includes
relinking method, repairing method, and improvement method, was developed to
solve RLP [12]. A model to solve resource-leveling problems using the genetic
algorithm was proposed that considered the precedence relationship between the
activities [13]. Improved and adaptive harmony search was developed for the RLP
with multiple resources considering the minimal time lag [8]. A modified scheduling
method was proposed, which considered the start-to-start precedence relationship to
solve RLP using the genetic algorithm [14]. An integrated approach by combining
a serial schedule generation scheme with ant colony optimization was developed to
solve RLP [6]. An activity-on-node-based directional ant colony optimization tech-
nique was developed to solve RLP [15]. A simple resource-leveling approach with
multi-mode execution activities was considered to solve RLP [16]. In this study, the
ACO model is proposed to reduce the moment deviation and the fluctuations in the
resource profile.
An Ant Colony-Based Optimization Model for Resource-Leveling Problem 335

3 Methodology

Ant colony optimization (ACO) is a swarm-intelligence-based metaheuristic

approach to solve combinatorial problems. The ACO algorithm is developed based on
the behavior of real ants. Real ants try to find out the shortest possible route between
their nest and the food source. Initially, the ants from the nest travel randomly to
reach the food source. On their way to the back to the nest from the food source,
ants deposit pheromone, a chemical substance. The blind ants communicate with
other ants with the help of pheromone. The following ant from the nest chooses the
path with high pheromone concentration. As the time increases, pheromone tends to
evaporate. It indicates that the higher the pheromone concentration, the shorter the
route.
The proposed ACO model attempts to find the optimal shift of the non-critical
activities to reduce the moment deviation and the maximum daily resource require-
ment. A real-time project data with 53 activities in G+1 residential villa located in
Bangalore is used to validate the proposed model (Table 1). MS-Project 2016 appli-
cation is used to schedule the activities and identify the non-critical activities and
their float days.
The developed ant colony optimization (ACO) model is implemented in MATLAB
2019. The procedure to implement the model is as follows:
Step 1: ACO graph is created with the given input X, Y coordinates and the distance
between the edges.
Step 2: ACO graph provides a path for ants to travel from the first node to the last
node.
Step 3: The ACO parameters such as pheromone exponential parameter (α), desir-
ability exponential parameter (β), evaporation rate (ƥ ), number of iterations, and
number of ants are initialized.
Step 4: The parameters are initialized in the ant colony.
Step 5: Using the fitness function best tour graph is created.
Step 6: The best tour fitness function is updated for the next iteration, and the process
continues till the specified number of iterations.
Step 7: The optimal shift of float days of each non-critical activity is identified from
the best tour graph.

4 Results

The main objective of this study is to reduce the moment deviation and the maximum
daily resource demand without extending the project duration. Using the ACO model,
moment deviation was reduced by 9.8%. The other resource-leveling metrics, such
as resource-leveling index, standard deviation, and square deviation was reduced by
9%, 14.6%, and 14.6%, respectively (Table 2).
336 A. Duraiswamy and G. Selvam

Table 1 Activity details

S. no. Task name Duration Precedence Free slack Total slack Resource
1 Excavation 8 0 days 0 days M72, H60
2 Footing 5 1 0 days 0 days H88, C44
shuttering
3 Footing 6 2 0 days 0 days H68, C68
reinforcement
4 Footing 13 3 0 days 0 days M11, H94, B56
concrete
5 Column above 1 4 0 days 0 days H61, C31
footing to GL
shuttering
6 Column above 1 5 0 days 0 days H15, F18
footing to GL
reinforcement
7 Column above 1 6 0 days 0 days M6, H47, B28
footing to GL
concrete
8 Grade beam 5 7 0 days 0 days H79, C39
shuttering
9 Grade beam 2 8 0 days 0 days H72, C72
reinforcement
10 Grade beam 6 9 0 days 0 days M8, H73, B43
concrete
11 GF column 6 10 0 days 0 days H92, C46
shuttering
12 GF column 3 11 0 days 0 days H87, C87
reinforcement
13 GF column 5 12 0 days 0 days M10, H82, B48
concrete
14 GF beam 6 13 0 days 0 days H82, C41
shuttering
15 GF beam 3 14 0 days 0 days H82, C82
reinforcement
16 GF beam 1 15 0 days 0 days M10, H87, B51
concrete
17 GF slab 2 16 0 days 0 days H82, C41
shuttering
18 GF slab 2 17 0 days 0 days H87, F87
reinforcement
19 GF slab 10 18 0 days 0 days M9, H80, B47
concrete
20 GF 2 19 0 days 0 days H82, C41
de-shuttering
(continued)
An Ant Colony-Based Optimization Model for Resource-Leveling Problem 337

Table 1 (continued)
S. no. Task name Duration Precedence Free slack Total slack Resource
21 FF column 6 20 0 days 0 days H83, C41
shuttering
22 FF column 3 21 3 days 3 days H59, F59
reinforcement
23 FF column 5 22 0 days 0 days M9, H75, B44
concrete
24 FF beam 6 23 0 days 0 days H82, C41
shuttering
25 FF beam 4 24 0 days 0 days H84, F84
reinforcement
26 FF beam 5 25 0 days 0 days M10, H88, B52
concrete
27 FF slab 6 26 0 days 0 days H65, C33
shuttering
28 FF slab 4 27 0 days 0 days H70, F70
reinforcement
29 FF slab 1 28 0 days 0 days M9, H81, B48
concrete
30 GF block work 7 29,20FS + 12 days 12 days M56, H4
7 days
31 FF 6 29 0 days 0 days H65, C33
de-shuttering
32 Headroom 4 31 0 days 0 days H51, C26
column
shuttering
33 Headroom 4 32SS + 2 days 0 days 0 days H24, F24
column
reinforcement
34 Headroom 1 33 0 days 0 days M6, H49, B29
column
concrete
35 Headroom 4 34 0 days 16 days H51, C26
beam
shuttering
36 Headroom 4 35 0 days 16 days H38, F38
beam
reinforcement
37 Headroom 3 36 0 days 16 days M8, H67, B39
beam concrete
38 Headroom 4 37 0 days 16 days H33, C17
slab shuttering
(continued)
338 A. Duraiswamy and G. Selvam

Table 1 (continued)
S. no. Task name Duration Precedence Free slack Total slack Resource
39 Headroom 2 38 16 days 16 days H47, F47
slab
reinforcement
40 Headroom 3 39 2 days 2 days M9, H73, B43
slab concrete
41 FF block work 1 31FS + 7 days 6 days 6 days M56, H4
42 GF button 15 30FS + 0 days 0 days M84, H92
work and 10 days,34SS +
plastering 3 days
43 FF button 15 41,42SS + 0 days 0 days M79, H86
work and 5 days
plastering
44 Headroom 10 43SS + 4 days, 0 days 0 days M70, H77
button work 40
and plastering
45 Outer 16 44SS + 4 days 0 days 0 days H99, B99
plastering
46 Water proofing 1 44SS + 0 days 0 days M50, H56
GF 2 days,45
47 Water proofing 1 44SS + 0 days 0 days M50, H56
FF 2 days,45
48 Water proofing 5 47SS 0 days 0 days M63, H69
Headroom
49 Door frame 3 45SS 0 days 1 day H45, C23
50 Granite work 16 49 2 days 2 days
51 Windows 5 45SS + 5 days 11 days 11 days H28, C14
52 Grill 6 46SS + 3 days 8 days 8 days H40, F40
53 Outer painting 18 49SS + 2 days 1 day 1 day H89, P89
M- Mason, H-Helper, C-Carpenter, F-Fitter, B-Bhisthi, P-Painter

Table 2 Resource-leveling metrics

S. no. Metrics Before leveling After leveling
1 Moment of histogram 14,980.4 13,359.5
2 Maximum resource demand 63 58
3 Minimum resource demand 0 1
4 Resource-leveling index 2940 2673
5 Standard deviation 225.4 192.8
6 Square deviation 50,805.16 37,171.84
An Ant Colony-Based Optimization Model for Resource-Leveling Problem 339

Fig. 1 Best tour graph

Ant colony optimization (ACO) inputs X, Y coordinates are determined from

possible shifts of non-critical activities and their corresponding moment deviation
value. The possible shifts of non-critical activities can be denoted as 1, 2, and 3 in
X coordinates for simplicity and can be decoded to identify the optimal shift of the
non-critical activities. More number of non-critical activities increases the search
space (possible solutions) of the ACO algorithm that improves the optimal solution
quality. Figure 1 presents the possible solution and the best tour graph. The optimal
solution is obtained from the best tour graph. The negative slope from the graph
(Fig. 1) with consecutive x-axis values is chosen to perform the shifting process in
the non-critical activities. The decoded results are presented in Table 2. Figure 4
presents the convergence of the optimal solution obtained from the fitness value of
each iteration (Figs. 2 and 3).

5 Discussion

Ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm developed in this study attempts to reduce
the moment deviation. Compared with other approaches, the proposed ACO model
takes additional few seconds of computational time to obtain the result. The compu-
tational time taken by the ACO algorithm depends on the number of nodes and the
specified number of iterations.
The optimal solution obtained from the best tour graph for the considered activity
details can reduce the moment deviation. Figures 2 and 3 present the before leveling
and after leveling resource requirements, respectively. Compared with Figs. 2 and 3
shows the reduction in the resource fluctuations. The other resource-leveling metrics
such as resource-leveling index, standard deviation, and squared deviation show
340 A. Duraiswamy and G. Selvam

70

60

Resource requireement 50

40

30

20

10

0
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
Duration

Fig. 2 Before leveling resource requirement

60

50
Resource requirement

40

30

20

10

0
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
1
6

Duraon

Fig. 3 After leveling resource requirement

3500

3000

2500
Fitness function

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96

No of iterations

Fig. 4 Convergence curve

An Ant Colony-Based Optimization Model for Resource-Leveling Problem 341

Table 3 Decoded ACO

S. no. Activity Float Optimal shift
results
1 FF column reinforcement—E 3 3
2 GF block work—I 12 12
3 Headroom slab concrete—J 2 2
4 Grill work—R 8 7

significant improvement after leveling (Table 2). The proposed model eliminates
premature convergence as the fitness function increases with the number of iterations
(Table 3).

6 Conclusion

The optimal shift of the early start of the non-critical activities to reduce the resource
requirement is derived from the proposed ACO model. The moment deviation,
maximum and minimum resource requirement, resource-leveling index, standard
and square deviations were decreased by shifting the non-critical activities based on
the float days obtained from the ACO best tour graph. Logical changes or combina-
tions of precedence relationships can reduce the difference between the maximum
and minimum resource demand. The proposed ACO model eliminates premature
convergence.

7 Future Scope

The ACO model can be used to solve other combinatorial problems like resource-
constrained project scheduling, traveling salesman problems, vehicle routing prob-
lems, and disaster relief operations. The impact of the visibility factor and statistical
function in the proposed model can be the potential scope of future research.

References

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pollution control based on resource levelling. Construction Innovation, 2(2), 71–81. https://
doi.org/10.1191/1471417502ci029oa.
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712X-8-7.
Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators
in Solving Resource-Leveling Problem

R. S. Gokula Krishnan and Gopinath Selvam

Abstract Resource leveling reduces the peak fluctuations in the resource require-
ment. Fluctuation in the resource requirement leads to construction delays, frequent
hiring and firing of labors which affects labor productivity during the execution of
the project. Resource-leveling problem (RLP) is a type of combinatorial problem that
requires advanced problem-solving approaches to solve. Genetic algorithm (GA) is
one of the well-adopted meta-heuristic approaches to solve combinatorial problems
like RLP. The objective of this study is to determine the impact of different values
of genetic algorithm operators from previous literature works to obtain the optimal
values to perform genetic algorithm operations. A real-time construction project data
is considered to study the relationship of genetic algorithm operators which leads to
determining the optimal values.

Keywords Resource leveling · Genetic algorithm · Labor productivity · GA

operators

1 Introduction

In the construction industry, project management plays a crucial role in handing over
the project on time and this depends on handling the various resources efficiently [1].
Resource-leveling problem (RLP) is considered the most critical phase in managing
the project [2]. Resource leveling focuses on utilizing the resources efficiently where
the duration is a constraint, and it minimizes deviation in daily resource require-
ment to the possible extent [3]. When the variation in resource requirement reduces,
automatically the resource demand and the cost of the project decreases [1].

R. S. G. Krishnan (B) · G. Selvam

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu
district, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Selvam
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 343
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_30
344 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

Resource leveling takes place after scheduling the project in which the objective
is to minimize the fluctuation of the resource. The resource-leveling solution can
be found by shifting the non-critical activity. The critical path method (CPM) is the
technique that is generally used to schedule the project activities by considering the
precedence relationship [4]. Traditional approaches give solutions when the number
of activities is less; similarly, heuristic approaches give solutions for larger projects
but the problem is that these approaches will not provide an optimal solution or
near-optimal solution and when the number of activities increased these approaches
take a long time to resolve [10].
Resource leveling is considered the most important factor in project management
in which it defines the profit and success of the project [5]. Resource leveling was
done in various approaches to minimize the project’s peak resource requirement.
These approaches gave a better solution, but a complex project to deal with it took a
long time. In resource-leveling problem, duration is the constraint where the project
duration is not extended at any cause. Resource leveling is done to reduce the variation
in the resource requirement throughout the project duration. The process of resource
leveling is done by shifting the early start of the non-critical activities [6].

2 Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithm was invented by John Henry Holland in the 1970s. It is purely
based on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. It consists of six phases.
They are initial population where it refers to the set of possible solutions, and the
second phase is the fitness function where each possible solution has a fitness score.
The third phase is the selection process. This process is done by Roulette wheel,
based on the fitness score it moves to the recombination process. The fourth phase
is recombination. During the process of recombination, chromosomes might face
random changes in the gene. Genes are joined into a string to form a chromosome.
Good characteristics of the population get transferred to the next generation [7]. The
fifth phase is the mutation where at a random point changes take place in the gene.
In this phase, the changes that take place in a positive manner move to the next
generation; otherwise, the gene will not transfer to the next generation. Good genes
and good features will be transferred from one generation to the next generation.
The final process is elitism where the fittest individual guaranteed will not undergo
mutation. These processes are repetitively done over the generation until we get the
optimal solution.

3 Research Gap

Genetic algorithm optimization was the most preferred method to solve the resource-
leveling problem (RLP) [8] since the nature of RLP and genetic algorithm (GA) is
similar. GA is a meta-heuristic approach in which it consists of six stages, including
Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving Resource … 345

four operators—initial population, selection, fitness function, recombination, muta-

tion and elitism. Previously the authors who solved the RLP using GA had come
across these operators. In the proposed study, the selection process is done by the
Roulette wheel method and then the different values were assigned to the operators to
obtain the optimal solution. This paper presents the variant values for each operator
to know how the different values of each operator influence the determination of
optimal solution.

4 Literature Review

An idea is proposed to use genetic algorithm in solving the resource-leveling problem

in order to overcome the difficulties faced in traditional and heuristic approach, which
were complex to solve larger data and it had a limitation on computation time [1].
Genetic-algorithm-based resource-leveling scheduling system is used to illustrate
the approached problem [1]. An idea is stated to control the pollution caused due to
the execution of construction by resource leveling [9]. Here, the author introduces
new parameters such as construction pollution index (CPI) and hazard magnitude
(hi ). These were considered pseudo-resource [9]. If the level of pollution increases
the limit assigned by the government, then it is founded by the regulatory body;
hence, resource leveling is done to distribute the pollution evenly [9]. Reference [10]
A model was adopted to use a hybrid GA for scheduling the resources in construc-
tion projects in which it considers all precedence relationships; the presented algo-
rithm showed good performance over the traditional critical path method (CPM) by
reducing the cost, minimizing the project schedule.
This paper affirmed a new GA that enables the multi-objective technique to level
multi-resource. In this GA model, each resource usage is founded by adaptive weights
where it is generated from the previous generation [11]. In this process, the GA model
and the method of moving asymptotes (MMA) approach were compared where GA
showed better solutions as it can be used to optimize larger projects [11]. A new
approach is proposed using GA and Monte Carlo simulation to level the resource by
developing a model under uncertainty. The project networks were modeled by Monte
Carlo simulation and the GA is used to level the multi-resource to get maximum usage
of resource under minimum duration [12]. This paper proposed a new concept of
RLP with relationship options and it provides an alternative relationship that offers
more float time and allows new possibilities to arrange in an efficient pattern and
minimizes the project resource demand. This model can be used directly to level
multiple resources [4]. The model is verified with two project instances. From both
instances, it was concluded that the RLP model with options gave better results than
the model without relationship options [4]. The presentation of this paper involves
an algorithm based on hyper-heuristic which is a tabu-based search for problems
in resource leveling under the circumstances of resource constraints. By using the
concept of “replace” and “swap” in the priorities of work, “hard core” has not been
changed in the hyper-heuristic algorithm [13]. Therefore, the result proves that this
346 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

algorithm will improve resource handling under resource constraints [13]. This paper
deals with resource-leveling optimization problem met in modern project manage-
ment and it is comparatively analyzed with three different intelligent meta-heuristics
by hybrid nature-inspired intelligent approach, and a combination of ant colony opti-
mization (ACO) and genetic algorithm here proves to be a more effective approach in
making a special decision [14]. This paper proposed the development of two resource-
leveling metrics to assess and mitigate the negative effects of resource volatility on
construction efficiency and cost. This shows that the developed metrics are capable
of reducing unfavorable resource fluctuation and resource idle time [15]. In previous
research, authors have used different values for each operator and concluded the
optimal solution for their approached problem. In this study, the different values of
each operator are assigned and their results are compared and from that the optimal
solution is obtained.

5 Methodology

Figure 1 shows the procedure for carrying out the proposed idea. The real-time
construction project data was considered to solve the proposed idea. Then the activ-
ities were determined from which the resources were allocated to each activity and
the resource profile was prepared. From the given activities, the non-critical activities
were determined. The GA model is created in the MATLAB 2016a. The input data
got from the resource profile is implemented in the GA model. The parameters are
defined until an optimal solution is obtained. A real-time construction project data
of G + 1 residential building located in Chennai, which consists of 18 activities is
used to study the effectiveness of the optimal values. The resources were allocated
according to the quantity of work to be done. The data was then implemented in
the Microsoft project management (MSP) through which the critical, non-critical
activity and total float days were calculated.
Once the data is collected, the quantity of the amount of work to be done should
be calculated. The duration for each work was allocated according to the amount of
work to be done and it depends on the amount of resource availability. The resources
were allocated to each activity, and the activity predecessors are also mentioned. The
critical, non-critical activity and float days were calculated by implementing the data
in MSP. The daily resource requirement was then calculated by acquiring the data
from the MSP and implementing it to MS-Excel. The acquired data is implemented
into the MATLAB 2016a, and then using genetic algorithm optimization, resource
leveling is done. Finally, the daily resource requirement after leveling is acquired
(Table 1).
Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving Resource … 347

Collection of data from the real-time construction project

Determining the activities

Allocation of resources and preparing resource profile.

Determination of non- critical activity and creating GA model

Implementing the data in MATLAB2016a

Defining the parameters

Selection, Crossover, Mutation, Elitism

No Optimal Solution

Yes

Results

Fig. 1 Methodology

6 Results and Discussion

The parameters considered to obtain the solutions are the probability of crossover
(Pcr ), probability of mutation (Pm ), and probability of elitism (Per ). The convergence
curve shows the attainment of the optimal solution where the x-axis denotes the
348 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

Table 1 Activity details

S. Task name Precedence Duration Mason Helper Carpenter Fitter Bhisti
no.
1 Column casting
2 Reinforcement 14 – 15 – 10 –
3 Shuttering 2SS+1 days 8 – 8 15 – –
4 Concreting 2,3 4 10 15 – – 20
5 De-shuttering 4FS+1 days 2 – 15 17 – –
6 Beam casting
7 Reinforcement 5FS 13 – 8 – 4 –
8 Shuttering 7SS+2 days 6 – 10 13 – –
9 Concreting 7,8 4 10 15 – – 20
10 De-shuttering 9FS+1 days 1 – 10 13 – –
11 Floor slab
12 Shuttering 10FS 10 – 5 2 – –
13 Reinforcement 12SS+2 days 14 – 6 – 10 –
14 Strand laying 13SS+1 days 4 – 10 – 13 –
15 Reinforcement 13SS 10 – 5 – 6 –
16 Concreting 13,14,15 4 15 90 – – 55
17 Stressing of 16FS+18 days 4 – 30 – 30 –
strands
18 De-shuttering 16FS+14 days 2 – 26 15 – –

number of generations and the y-axis denotes the optimal solution The graph shows
the number of iteration done for each trial and it shows the significant changes
in obtaining the optimal solution (Z). Five trials were done to attain the optimal
solution from the input data we got from the real-time construction project data.
The objective is to keep the duration as the constraints we need to level the resource
without affecting the project’s even flow.
Table 2 shows the variant values of each operator and their optimal solution.
Figure 3 shows their respective operator input values and their optimal solution.
In Fig. 2, the optimal solution is attained at the ninth generation and in Fig. 3 the

Table 2 Different operator’s values and its respective optimal solution

Trial no. Pcr Pm Pel Z
1 0.85 0.03 0.01 −351188
2 0.90 0.01 0.2 −352100
3 0.95 0.01 0.2 −351204
4 0.85 0.02 0.02 −351188
5 0.85 0.02 0.01 −351284
Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving Resource … 349

Fig. 2 Trial 1—Pcr = 0.85, Pm = 0.03, Per = 0.01, z = −351,188

optimal solution is attained at the fifth generation. In Fig. 4, the optimal solution is
attained at the seventh generation. In Fig. 5, the optimal solution is attained at the
12th generation. In Fig. 6, the optimal solution is attained at the 14th generation.
The maximum iteration considered was 15 where we found the optimal solution by
varying the values of the different operators. The bar chart shows the daily resource
requirement of the schedule throughout the project.
The bar chart (Fig. 7) shows the resource histogram before leveling. Figs. 8, 9
and 10 show the after leveling profile of their respective trials and its significant
changes occur in the resource requirements for each trial. The objective is to keep
the duration as the constraints and we need to level the resource without affecting
the project’s even flow.

7 Conclusion

This study is done to determine the impact of different values of genetic algorithm
operators to obtain the optimal solution. From the conducted trials, the optimal
solution is z = −352,100 for which the value of the defined parameters is Pcr =
0.90, Pm = 0.01, Pel = 0.2. The optimal solution is obtained from the fifth iteration.
The optimal solution is obtained in lesser iteration. It shows the relationship between
the different GA operators from the conducted trials by their respective optimal
solutions.
350 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

Fig. 3 Trial 2—Pcr = 0.90, Pm = 0.01, Per = 0.2, z = −352,100

Fig. 4 Trial 3—Pcr = 0.95, Pm = 0.01, Per = 0.2, z = −351,204

Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving Resource … 351

Fig. 5 Trial 4—Pcr = 0.85, Pm = 0.02, Per = 0.01, z = −351,188

Fig. 6 Trial 5—Pcr = 0.85, Pm = 0.02, Per = 0.01, z = −351,284

352 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

Fig. 7 Before leveling

Fig. 8 Trial 1—After leveling

Impact of Genetic Algorithm Operators in Solving Resource … 353

Fig. 9 Trial 2—After leveling

Fig. 10 Trial 3—After leveling

354 R. S. G. Krishnan and G. Selvam

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A Quantitative Study on Construction
Job Safety Analysis and Occupational
Safety and Health Management

M. G. Soundarya Priya, K. S. Anandh, and K. Prasanna

Abstract This paper aims to generate an extensive database to consolidate all the
possible loss-of-control situations in construction sites using the job safety anal-
ysis (JSA) method, examine hazards, give remedial measures, and create a health
and safety plan. The safety techniques of various organizations are studied from
data collection questionnaire surveys conducted at 30 different construction sites in
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The questionnaire consists of 83 questions of dichotomous
questions. Quantitative analysis is done using the Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS) software. Findings say that both the regions have their advantage and
disadvantage. Both sites follow regulations and provide proper training to workers,
but at the same time in opposite, both sites give improper provisions of facilities.
Some sites do not maintain the record and most workers on site are not aware of
the principles. Results show that the selected construction project struggles in safety
and health management. The resulting findings may help the project managers in
their future works in safety provisions at the construction site. Recommendations for
construction safety are provided.

Keywords Construction safety · Job safety analysis · Construction accidents ·

Safe workplace · Occupational risk

1 Introduction: The Construction Industry

After agriculture, the construction industry is India’s second-largest employer,

trailing only road accidents. The construction industry in India has an annual turnover
of about 4000 billion rupees. The amount of deaths in the construction sector is

M. G. S. Priya · K. S. Anandh (B) · K. Prasanna

College of Engineering and Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
K. Prasanna
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 355
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_31
356 M. G. S. Priya et al.

alarming, and falls from great heights and through openings are two of the most
common causes of serious accidents.
Construction safety is still a top concern in almost every country because the
construction industry is the leading cause of severe and fatal accidents among all other
sectors. Whether calculated in absolute terms or in comparison to other industries,
the construction industry has a disconcertingly low safety record. Variations in labor
forces, changing economics, insurance rates, legal implications, and technological
advancement all impact the level of construction safety in a region. The issue is global,
and several approaches can be used in different countries to address it. Designing,
preplanning, preparation, management engagement, and establishing a safety culture
are all effective tools [1].
The current study assesses businesses based on building health and safety (H&S)
practices, which are the foundation of H&S, workplace H&S facilities, transportation
safety, electrical safety, fire resistance, manual handling and repetitive tasks safety,
dangerous substances, and workplace H&S [2, 3].

1.1 Construction Job Safety Analysis

The process of identifying and evaluating hazards and threats is an essential part of
safety management. A realistic approach for detecting, analyzing, and monitoring
industrial procedure hazards is job safety analysis (JSA), also known as job hazard
analysis (JHA).
The disparities among construction locations and industrial facilities, on the other
hand, necessitate a unique construction process. Supervisors may use the findings of
a job hazard analysis to identify and mitigate hazards in their workplaces. This would
likely result in fewer occupational injuries and illnesses and safer, more efficient work
procedures, lower workers’ compensation rates, and increased staff productivity.
The findings may also be used to teach new employees how to execute their jobs
safely. A work hazard analysis must demonstrate the organization’s dedication to
H&S and follow-up on any unrestrained hazards found to be successful. Otherwise,
management will mislay trust, and workers will not approach authority when they
are at risk [4].

1.2 Major Causes of Accidents on a Construction Site

On a construction site, there are several causes of injuries. Many result from human
error, such as dangerous working conditions, improper tool and equipment use, and
let-down to use personal protective equipment (PPE). Following are eight of the
most popular construction site mishaps: Unsafe working conditions, fall hazards,
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 357

improper use of step ladders, roof construction falls, distorted excavation walls and
ditches, electrical tool accidents, lifting/body straining, and truck accidents are all
common causes of injury [5].

2 Literature Review

The following section deals with the summaries of the literature reviewed. Essential
topics for this study are described below with the help of relevant literature.

2.1 Owner’s Part in Safety

The research on the owner’s role in construction safety was proposed [6]. Data was
gathered through interviews conducted on significant construction projects. Project
characteristics, safe contractor selection, contractual safety criteria, and the owner’s
position in project safety management during the execution were examined to deter-
mine the relationship between project safety performance and the owner’s control.
Direction on how owners directly disturb safety efficiency is offered by recognizing
owners associated with successful project safety performances. Despite significant
changes in recent years, the building industry remains to have one of the worst safety
records in any industry. Owners, vendors, subcontractors, and designers have all
worked together to make recent progress. While previous safety studies have looked
into the roles of contractors, subcontractors, and builders, no study has ever looked
into the impact of the owner on construction safety.

2.2 Safety in Construction

A survey of professional construction staff and first-line supervisors comprehensively

detailing the preconditions and elements of high safety standards in the construc-
tion industry was published [7]. The findings provide a detailed description of the
construction of high safety standards, including organizational, community, person,
and technical aspects. High-quality interaction between different organizational posi-
tions and hierarchical levels stood out as essential aspects of security. The study aimed
to collect data from experienced construction workers and first-line managers to
define the preconditions and components of high safety standards in the construction
industry.
Human factors are neglected in many construction sites that lead to vulnerable
risk in construction safety [8, 9].
358 M. G. S. Priya et al.

2.3 Job Load and Hazard Analysis

In this report, a simple, systematic workplace investigative approach for occupa-

tional health care was developed [10]. The stress–strain model, the hazard–danger
model, and risk behavior theory are all part of the method’s theoretical structure. Job
load and hazard analysis are a modern approach with four stages: hazard detection,
assessment, findings and proposals, and follow-up. Danger detection can be done in
various ways. The process begins with a rough assessment of five factors: chemical
hazards, physical hazards, physical load, mental stress, and the risk of an accident.
An ordinal scale is used to rate hazards and stressors. If the analytical approach
includes (1) detecting hazards at work by observations and interviews, as well as a
questionnaire; (2) assessing findings as a team; and (3) evaluating the outcomes of
these evaluations to produce conclusions and proposals by occupational health care
workers, specialized approaches are used. For the storage and future use of data, a
data processing system was built. In practice, the approach has improved the contents
of occupational health care programs and created preventative measures. The method
opens up a slew of new possibilities for reducing workplace hazards and researching
the connection between working conditions and worker health.

2.4 Improve Performance in Modular Homebuilding

Low productivity and high accident rates in the construction industry [11] can be
tackled simultaneously by incorporating lean manufacturing methods and conven-
tional safety-analysis tools. In this case study, a modular housing manufacturing
facility used Safety and Lean Integrated Kaizen (SLIK) by combining one lean devel-
opment tool, Kaizen, a safety analysis tool, and work safety analysis (JSA). Lean
manufacturing is a method of increasing manufacturing productivity and product
quality. Five basic concepts underpin lean production: (1) Determine the customer’s
priorities; (2) define the value stream and question any moves that are wasting time;
(3) deliver the product when the consumer requests it and keep it moving across
the supply chain; (4) when continuous flow is complex, implement pull between all
steps; and (5) manage toward perfection. In practice, Kaizen, an intense and oriented
approach to process improvement, is used to put these ideas into practice. As a result,
lean provides a comprehensive solution to transforming a homebuilder’s community
into constructive and efficient.

2.5 Characteristic Study of Workplace Accidents

Using descriptive statistics, correlation coefficient analysis, and ANOVA method-

ologies, the characteristics factors responsible for occupational accident occurrence
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 359

in small construction enterprises in Taiwan were investigated [12]. According to the

findings of this report, H&S management skills were among the factors affecting
workplace accidents in small construction firms. Occupational accidents are more
likely to occur on a worker’s first day of work, the construction project has poor H&S
management, and the employer does not provide PPE to the worker, according to the
findings.

2.6 Creating Safer Workplaces

The safety climate was investigated [13]; from that we can say negligible atten-
tion has been paid to the factors that affect the safety system and the hypothesized
mediating effect of safety climate in safety-related outcomes. A total of 2208 workers
completed the survey from a large national retail chain in 21 different locations. After
controlling for demographic factors, three factors accounted for 55% of the differ-
ence in perceived safety climate: environmental conditions, safety-related policies
and programs, and general organizational climate. The organizational environment
had a significant effect on the safety climate after improving the other more safety-
relevant factors. According to partial correlations, security guidelines and services
had the most critical observed link with safety environment, trailed by two dimen-
sions of organizational climate. The main effects of numerous job situation influences
on perceived workplace safety were direct, rather than being mediated by the safety
environment. The perception of workplace safety was affected by the safety envi-
ronment, but its position as a moderator was minimal. These outcomes are conferred
in light of other latest findings on the workplace safety climate and the growing
attention in administration and organizational factors in workplace safety.

2.7 Causative Reasons for Construction Catastrophes

Causative reasons for construction catastrophes were presented [14]. The accident
investigations gathered qualitative data on the circumstances of each incident and
the factors that contributed to it. Interviews with accident-involved staff and their
supervisors or managers, a site assessment, and a review of relevant documents
were part of the site-based data collection process. Off-site stakeholders, such as
designers, vendors, and suppliers, were then contacted about concerns raised during
the site investigation. Employee or work-team issues (70% injuries), workstation
concerns (49%), equipment deficiencies (including PPE) (56%), glitches with fitness
and state of materials (27%), and hazard controlling failures were the most common
causes of incidents (84%). A model is proposed using an ergonomics systems
approach, showing how initiating decision-making, design, and cultural influences
360 M. G. S. Priya et al.

affect workplace environments, resulting in actions and situations that, consecu-

tively, cause injuries. For long-term progress in construction safety, it is contended
that concentration on the initiating forces is needed.

2.8 Mitigating Construction Safety Risks

In this study, decisions taken before starting work on a construction site that can affect
workman safety were demonstrated [15]. Most architects and structural engineers,
on the other hand, are said to lack the necessary knowledge of construction safety and
construction processes to conduct construction hazards prevention by design (CHPD)
effectively. The quantitative technique aids designers by using a risk analysis-based
approach to assess the safety-related performance of residential construction designs.
The methodology compares the overall safety risk level of different construction
designs and rates the importance of the various safety risks associated with each of
these designs. Also, the approach compares the absolute value of specific safety risks
across different building designs and significant risks are identified in advance. As
a result, during on-site construction, various strategies for reducing safety risks may
be introduced. Construction companies can enhance their on-site safety efficiency
by using this approach.
The Just in Time concept can be adopted in construction to prevent the various
categories of risks [16, 17]. Professionals working in construction sites can incor-
porate lean ideas, entailing assigning probabilities and outcomes to individual risks
and determining risk exposure.

2.9 Work-Related Hazard of Construction

The quantification of workplace risk in a building construction project was discussed

[18]. The occupational risk model (ORCA), developed in the Netherlands as part of
the Workgroup Occupational Risk Model project (WORM), is used to assess risk.
This model considers a worker’s different duties, behaviors, and hazards when deter-
mining occupational danger. Three types of outcomes are considered when evalu-
ating risk: curable wound, permanent wound, and casualty. The ORCA comprises
63 bowties that assess the risk of falling from ladders, scaffolds, or roofs, dropping
objects, being struck by a moving vehicle, coming into contact with moving pieces,
and so on. ORCA measures the risk profile of a building construction site, which
consists of 38 employees in various employment positions, such as excavator opera-
tives, loaders, compaction machine operators, workers in the excavation and framing
processes, etc. All employee risk reports have been quantified, and jobs are ranked
according to the level of risk they pose. Labors fitting timber formworks face the
most significant risk of fatality, followed by laborers fixing reinforcement.
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 361

Fig. 1 Flowchart of the

methodology Literature Collection

Company Identification

Questionnaire Survey

Construction Job Safety Analysis

Remedial Measures

2.9.1 Scope of the Project

• To reduce accident rates replaced by toss-of-control events

• Good practices for all workplaces
• Awareness of safety in workplaces
• To make it clear, safety management in the construction industry

2.9.2 Objectives of the Project

• The Construction Job Safety Analysis (CJSA) approach creates a broad

knowledge-based database that describes all potential construction loss-of-control
incidents
• Analysis of hazards in construction industries
• Suggestions for remedial measures
• Create a health and safety plan.

2.9.3 Methodology

The following flowchart indicates the methodology adopted for the project (Fig. 1).

3 Work Process

Questionnaires are used as one tool for collecting data for quantitative analysis.
The collected data from 30 construction sites (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) are analyzed
with the help of SPSS software. The final questionnaire consists of 83 questions of
dichotomous questions.
362 M. G. S. Priya et al.

Fig. 2 Construction job

safety factors
Access on
site
General
Welfare
factors

Constructrion
Training Job Safety
Equipment

Personal
protective Excavation
equipment

3.1 Parameters for Questionnaires

The factors identified are given in Fig. 2.

4 Results and Discussion

In the following section, the inferences gained by analyzing the data collected from
various construction sites are discussed below with graphical representations and
tabulations.

4.1 Data Analysis and Implication

SPSS version 17 was used to research this study. SPSS offers tools for analyzing and
visualizing data using several methods.

4.2 SPSS Analysis Results

The various factors affecting site maintenance in Kerala and Tamil Nadu region sites
are summarized in Table 1. Safety of workplace shows a mean value of 8.6 and 9.6
for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively. Hence it can be inferred that Tamil Nadu
construction sites are more secure when compared to Kerala. The mean value of
6.3 and 5.6 is for the free from obstruction parameter for Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 363

Table 1 Mean value table of factors affecting sites

Regions Safety Free from Temporary Site tidy Adequate
workplace obstruction structure lighting
stable
Kerala Mean 8.6667 6.3333 9.3333 10.000 6.6667
N 15 15 15 15 15
Std. 2.28867 2.28867 1.75933 0.000 2.43975
deviation
Tamil Nadu Mean 9.6667 5.6667 9.3333 10.000 6.0000
N 15 15 15 15 15
Std. 1.29099 1.75933 1.75933 0.000 2.07020
deviation
Total Mean 9.1667 6.0000 9.3333 10.000 6.3333
N 30 30 30 30 30
Std. 1.89525 2.03419 1.72873 0.000 2.24888
deviation

respectively. It shows that Kerala sites are more obstruction-free than Tamil Nadu.
Temporary structures stability and site tidiness parameters have a mean value of 9.3
and 10 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively. Thus it can be concluded that tempo-
rary structures are stable and that sites are maintained tidy. Adequate lighting facilities
reports mean values of 6.6 and 6 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu regions, respectively.
Hence Kerala site provides better lighting facilities.
The welfare of workers in both regions is shown in Fig. 3. Ease of welfare facility
availability performance gives a mean value of 7.6 and 9.3, respectively, for Kerala

Fig. 3 Factors for worker welfare

364 M. G. S. Priya et al.

and Tamil Nadu. Hence, Tamil Nadu workers get more welfare facilities like insur-
ance claims, etc., when compared to those in Kerala. Most sites do not provide proper
toilets and resting places for workers, as can be inferred from the mean value of 9,
8.3 and 5.3, 6, respectively, for Kerala and Tamil Nadu sites.
The various factors affecting the equipment are shown in Fig. 4. The operator
training and competence give a mean value of 9 and 9.3 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
It shows that in both regions equipment operators are well qualified. The mean value
of warning notice performance and proper load marking comparison for Kerala and
Tamil Nadu gives a value of 8.6, 9.3 and 9.6, 9, respectively. Hence it can be inferred
that reasonable warning notice and load markings are issued on both sites. Inspection
record maintenance in Tamil Nadu shows better performance over Kerala, as inferred
from the mean value of 6.3 and 7.6 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively.
The excavation factor provision in construction sites of the regions is shown in
Fig. 5. The mean value of the barrier to stop people parameters is 6.3 and 6.6 in

Fig. 4 Factors affecting the equipment

Fig. 5 Excavation factors

A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 365

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The inspection parameter gives a mean value of 6.3 and 7.6
for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively. Hence it can be deduced that Tamil Nadu
exhibits better inspection over Kerala. The neighboring structure stability reports
a mean value of 6 for sites in both regions. However, the strength of neighboring
structures for both parties cannot be ensured satisfactorily.
The result for PPE provisions in a site is given in Fig. 6. Motivation programs for
laborers in Kerala report a mean value of 10, while only 9 for Tamil Nadu. The first
aid provision parameter shows 9.3 and 9 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively.
Fire extinguisher provision and proper storage of flammable materials parameters
report an excellent mean value of 10 and 9 for both regions. The illumination and
protection against noise parameter results show that most sites do not provide proper
provisions for workers at a stretch. But according to the site requirements, these
provisions are met.
The provision for workers’ training is shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that the
training program and meetings held on-site for laborers of Kerala and Tamil Nadu

Fig. 6 Personal protective

equipment factors

Fig. 7 Training factors

366 M. G. S. Priya et al.

Fig. 8 General factors

are above 8.5. Thus, it can be inferred that most sites provide proper training and
meeting for laborers. Further, exams are not conducted satisfactorily for both sites
as only a total average mean value of 5.3 is reported for these regions.
The general factors affecting the sites are shown in Fig. 8. Emergency services
report an average mean value of 6.6 and 7.6 for Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively.
Good escape routes for these regions give a mean value of 6.3 and 7, respectively.
Knowledge about the procedure by workers in Kerala and Tamil Nadu regions is 5.3
and 6, respectively. Thus it can be inferred that most of the people on site do not
know what the procedures are going on there. The total average mean value of 8.2
for the fencing off from public parameter for both regions implies that these sites are
fenced from the public.

4.3 Discussions

Discussions based on analysis of questionnaire survey done using SPSS 17 software

are given below:
i. The mean value table of site access (Table 1) shows the various factors affecting
Kerala and Tamil Nadu region sites. The average mean value of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu sites are 8.16 and 8.1, respectively. Thus it can be ensured that in
both the sites, the regulations have been followed.
ii. The graphical representation of site welfare (Fig. 3) shows that the average
mean values in Kerala and Tamil Nadu are 7.6 and 7.5, respectively. This
means that welfare facilities have not been given properly in both regions.
iii. Equipment (Fig. 4) analysis reports a total average mean value of 9 for both
regions. So the equipment provided at these sites is satisfactory. But some sites
do not maintain these records properly.
iv. The excavation graph (Fig. 5) results give a total average mean value of 6.5
for sites of both regions. Thus most of these sites do not provide a proper
arrangement for excavation.
A Quantitative Study on Construction Job Safety Analysis … 367

v. The graphical representation of PPE (Fig. 6) results reports an average mean

value of 7.7. Hence it can be concluded that most of the sites do not provide
proper PPE provisions for workers at a stretch. But according to the site
requirements, the necessary conditions are met.
vi. The mean value analysis of the training program (Fig. 7) factors for Kerala
and Tamil Nadu are 8.1 and 8.2, respectively. This means that the sites of both
regions provide proper training for laborers.
vii. The general factors graph (Fig. 8) result reports an average mean value of
6.9. This means that general provisions are not provided correctly. Most of
the workers on site are not aware of the underlying principle behind each
construction work.

5 Conclusions

While achieving the work objectives, the education and training toward safety
management in the construction site was provoked. The study explored seven facets
of safety management: training, PPE program, machine safety, H&S advice tools
and machinery, welfare, and environmental measures. From the work findings, it
was observed that the sites in both the regions (Kerala and Tamil Nadu) have their
own merits and demerits. It can be concluded that the construction sites of both the
regions implement safety measures of about the same level. Survey results reveal that
the selected construction projects are facing severe problems in H&S management.
Many construction companies could benefit from the information obtained from this
study, especially those in developing countries where construction safety awareness
is low. Project managers and safety practitioners may find the findings helpful in
making their workplaces safer.

5.1 Recommendations

1. Companies should ensure proper PPE provisions and safety training for all the
workers. It should explain to the workers the hazardous nature of the work
environment and how the safety equipment will protect them.
2. Work must be appropriately planned and then carried out to prevent accidents.
Companies should treat their employees as though they were members of their
families at home. It should ensure that each employee is aware of and respects
his or her safety responsibilities.
3. The company should foresee the threats that can occur due to improvements
in equipment or procedures and seek professional safety advice to help protect
against any new dangers.
368 M. G. S. Priya et al.

4. They should ultimately collaborate with organizations that are worried about
workplace protection. Their true goal should be to keep staff completely capable
and on the job and reduce the high personal cost of injuries.

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Investigating the Ways to Optimize
the Production of Ready Mix Concrete
Plants

S. Senthamizh Sankar, K. S. Anandh, S. Raja Pandian, and K. S. Aravinth

Abstract This paper investigates the internal and external factors affecting RMC
plants and optimizes the production by suggesting risk control measures, which
increase the company’s profit. The proposed approach for this research includes
three stages of risk: identification, categorization, classification, prioritization, and
quantification. Two tools are used for risk prioritization: the QRA sheet (Qualita-
tive Risk Analysis sheet) and P–C Matrix (Probability–Consequences Matrix). A
questionnaire containing 120 risks to determine the high consequence risks and high
probability risks was distributed to the team members, consisting of plant managers
and key personnel. SPSS software is used for data analysis. Out of 120 identified
risks, 12 risks are prioritized as having a high probability of occurring, which have
high consequences. The ranking of risks is done based on the mean value. Possible
measures are suggested for each risk. This paper offers some steps to improve the
quality of the concrete and its materials; Proper maintenance and inspection with
proper time intervals will reduce the breakdown and downtime of machines. The
risks analyzed here can be interpreted in terms of costs by earnest monetary value to
find the risk’s total cost. Research can also be done on human factors, leading to a
broader view of the risk impact on humans working in the RMC plant.

Keywords Ready mix concrete · Risk management · Operational risks ·

Productivity

S. Senthamizh Sankar · K. S. Anandh (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu
603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Senthamizh Sankar
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Raja Pandian
Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sairam Engineering College, Sai Leo Nagar, West
Tambaram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600044, India
K. S. Aravinth
Land Transport Authority (LTA), Singapore, Singapore

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 369
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_32
370 S. Senthamizh Sankar et al.

1 Introduction

Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is defined as “Concrete delivered at the site or into
purchaser’s vehicle in the plastic condition and requiring no further treatment before
being placed in a position in which it is to be set and hardened.” RMC is considered
for its eco-friendly characteristics. It is an excellent solution for conventional method
of concrete [1].
It provides customized solutions to customers’ issues, as well as ensuring customer
loyalty and consistent quality. It also removes the need to store concrete-making
materials on project sites. RMC is now a mature industry in both Europe and the
United States. The RMC route accounts for approximately 75% of cement consump-
tion in these countries (National Ready Mix Concrete Association). The use of ready
mix concrete is becoming common in India, thereby creating higher housing and
infrastructure projects. The RMC industry in India has taken a significant turn as
a result. Many organized and unorganized players are foraying into RMC in India,
anticipating colossal potential. The RMC industry, like other industries, is vulnerable
to a variety of threats. There is growing knowledge and understanding of the value
of risk management in European countries [2–4].
RMC’s operations managers Plants in European countries are required to focus
on risk control at their manufacturing and distribution facilities. Risk management
at RMC plants in India is not given the attention it deserves. According to data
collected from RMC plants in India, the Indian RMC industry does not use a formal
risk management strategy [5].

2 Literature Review

The word “risk” has been used in several different ways in the literature with many
other terms such as danger or uncertainty. Risk is defined as “The probability of loss,
damage, drawbacks, or destruction,” according to Webster’s dictionary [4].
According to Jamal et al. [6], inferred the risk could be made as (Eq. 1) [6],

Risk = f(Uncertainty of event, Potential L/G in from event) (1)

where, L = Loss, G = Gain.

2.1 Summary of Literature Review

In the following section, the reviewed works of literature are summarized.

Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix … 371

2.1.1 Modeling Global Risk Factors Affecting Construction

Performance Cost

Risk has differed from individuals, depending on their perceptions and experiences
of their nature of work. The professionals working in the construction industry gazing
at risk from a technical standpoint; lenders and developers, on the other hand, look
at risk from an economic and financial perspective; and health practitioners, envi-
ronmentalists, and chemical engineers look at risk from a safety and environmental
standpoint. As a result, the risk is regarded as problematic term to quantify [7].

2.1.2 An Exploratory Study: Perception of Human Risk Factors

in Construction Projects

Various authors and scholars have suggested a variety of different risk assess-
ment approaches. Identification, analysis and assessment, response management,
and system administration are the four risk management processes. Risk recogni-
tion, risk analysis, risk response preparation, and risk monitoring and control are the
four steps in the risk management process [8].

2.1.3 The Impact of Corporate Safety Culture on Construction Safety

Performance: A Framework

Risk avoidance, transfer, reduction, and acceptance are the four response strategies
listed in the PMBOK [5]. Appropriate response strategies for the identified poten-
tial risks should be chosen and enforced, and they should be constantly monitored.
Excellent risk strategies will simultaneously reduce the likelihood and effect of risk
event triggers [9].

2.1.4 A Review at Risk Management Techniques in Projects

One of the most crucial steps in risk management is identifying risk. At this point,
all possible risks that may impact the Project’s goals are established. It is the
process of analyzing a situation to determine what could go wrong at any point
during the Project. Checklist, Brainstorming, Tree Diagram, Cause-Effect Diagram,
Failure mode, and effect analysis, Hazard and operability research are some of the
approaches used for risk identification. Interviews, Delphi Technique, and Fault Tree,
and Decision Tree Risk assessment can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative risk
assessment is fast and low-cost [10].
Just in Time concept can be adopted in construction to prevent the various cate-
gories of risks. Professionals working in RMC plants can incorporate lean concepts,
along with this will entails assigning probabilities and outcomes to individual risks
372 S. Senthamizh Sankar et al.

and determining risk exposure. Risk exposure provides an idea for prioritizing risks
to have a significant impact on business goals for quantification and quantitative
evaluation [11, 12].

2.1.5 Project Risk Management Practices

The word “risk management” has a variety of connotations. Many people confuse
this word with risk assessment. Many people associate it with risk analysis, risk
monitoring, and risk regulation. In reality, these are all phases of risk management;
risk management is a “process for identifying and assessing risks so that they can be
clearly identified and efficiently managed to prevent accidents.” Risk management
tends to be a significant aspect of project management for significant building, engi-
neering, and technical projects to minimize risks and achieve project performance
[13].
Human factors are neglected in many automated plants that lead to vulnerable
risk in construction [14, 15].

2.1.6 Systematic Risk Management Approach for Construction

Projects

Various authors and scholars have suggested different risk assessment approaches.
Risk recognition, risk analysis and evaluation, response management, and system
administration are the four risk management processes suggested [6].

3 Objectives

• To identify the risks involved both inside and outside of RMC plants.
• To suggest the control measures for the risks involved.
• To optimize the production through the introduction of improved safety measures.

4 Methodology

Risk is described in this Project as a potential occurrence that harms production and
supply costs for a company operating an RMC plant and whose possible outcomes
can be predicted using probability. The proposed method is divided into three phases
of risk are as follows:
• Identification and classification
• Prioritization
• Quantification
The flowchart is given in Fig. 1 portrays the research methodology.
Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix … 373

Fig. 1 Methodology
Literature collection

Risk identification and

classification

RMC plants
identification

Collecting details from

RMC plants

Risk analysis

Risk monitoring &

control measures

4.1 Risk Identification and Classification

Since there is no earlier evidence of the various types of risks in RMC plants in India,
a group of plant administrators and critical staff employed at particular RMC plants
must be interviewed. Before interviewing this group of plant managers and key staff,
the idea of risk management was explained to them. These interviews resulted in
a list of 120 risks divided into various categories. This provided a foundation for
risk quantification. A list of known threats, along with their classes and varieties are
shown in Fig. 2.

4.2 Risk Prioritization

Risk prioritization is carried out to screen risks and pick those that significantly impact
RMC’s business goals for quantification. Individual threats are allocated probabilities
and effects on a subjective basis using the methods below.
• QRA sheet (Qualitative Risk Analysis sheet)
• P–C Matrix (Probability–Consequences Matrix).
374 S. Senthamizh Sankar et al.

Fig. 2 Risk categories

4.2.1 QRA Sheet

The QRA Sheet is specifically designed to evaluate individual risk subjectively. On

the left-hand side column of the sheet, there is a list of known and classified threats.
It will ask for the subjective likelihood and consequence of each risk. A probability
scale must be used when assigning probabilities. The possibility will be allocated
using this scale, which ranges from unusual, unlikely, probable, and likely to almost
sure. The same scale would be used in the form of risk outcomes. This scale will
be used to subjectively assign effects ranging from insignificant, minor, moderate,
major, and catastrophic. Project managers and key staff from each RMC plant will
meet as a group to determine the likelihood and implications of individual risks.
After finding a consensus, a QRA sheet will be filled out, with only tick marks going
into the relevant boxes in the QRA sheet for assigning probabilities and implications
to the individual risks.

4.2.2 Probability–Consequence Matrix

Using the P–C Matrix, the responses in the QRA sheet will be used to investigate
risk exposure (Probability–Consequence Matrix). It should have a vertical column
Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix … 375

for likelihood and a horizontal column for consequences, all of which should use the
same scale as the QRA sheet. This Matrix will be used to express the cumulative effect
of each risk’s likelihood and consequences. The scale used in this Matrix ranges from
nil, rare, unlikely, possible, likely, almost inevitable, insignificant, minor, moderate,
major to catastrophic.
Risks in the shallow and low zones of the P–C Matrix will be excluded from
quantification since they will have a marginal impact on RMC’s cost objectives.
Risks that fall into the “Significant” and “High” zones of the P–C Matrix can have
cost implications for RMC’s business goals and should be quantified. These risks
must be considered for risk quantification because they have a significant impact on
a company’s goal while operating an RMC facility.

5 Data Collection

The instrument used for the study is the Questionnaire survey (QS) method. Struc-
tured QS is used by directly submitted to the various personnel in RMC plants. QS
is comprised of closed-end questions. Based on the factors identified concerning the
study’s objective, the questionnaire consists of a 5 point likert scale to indicate the
likelihood of these risks as high, high, usual, low, and very low.
A questionnaire survey is performed to select experienced staff who play a role in
risk management in RMC plants. Respondents are contacted for a direct interview to
assess the current state of risk in RMC plants. Personal contacts and web pages are
used to create contact points. Once appropriate contacts were identified, the direct
interview is scheduled across 20 sites in Tamilnadu.

6 Results and Discussions

The following section deals with the result and discussion of the analysis made from
the data collected among various RMC plants.

6.1 SPSS Analysis Results

A survey has been conducted from different ready mix concrete plants. The collected
results were analyzed using the software SPSS.
This bar chart shows the risks, which are having a high consequence of risks
(Fig. 3) and a high probability of risks (Fig. 4). The risks of having their mean
value more than 9 are considered the high consequence risks and high probability of
occurring risks. The risks, which are having a high probability of occurring and high
consequences, are considered significant risks.
376 S. Senthamizh Sankar et al.

Fig. 3 High consequence risks

Fig. 4 High probability risks

6.2 Major Risks

The significant risks identified from this study are as follows:

• Traffic delay
• Recurrent failure of M/Cs. Plant
• Faulty layout design
• Poor workmanship
• Blockage of pipes during discharge of concrete at site
• Inappropriate mix design
Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix … 377

• Unsuitable specification of RMC

• Inappropriate admixtures usage
• Non-availability of spare parts
• Overexertion
• Accidents at the plant site
• Not doing primary services with experts.

6.2.1 Means of Significant Risks

Factors considered critical for ranking are:

• The high mean of risk
• The high standard deviation of risk
• The graphs showing how the means of individual risks are found using SPSS are
shown below, while the curve shows the mean value of the risks, and frequency
is represented in the y-axis and mean in the x-axis.

6.3 Ranking of Risks and Possible Preventive Measures

Based on the mean value of the risks, the risks are arranged in ranking order. The
mean values for the risks are generated by using SPSS. The ranking order of risks is
discussed in Table 1.

7 Conclusion

There are many risks involved during the operation of RMC plants. By works of
literature, the significant risks that affect the Productivity and RMC are identified.
By using quantitative analysis, some suggestions regarding problems and the primary
source of the risks are identified. A detailed analysis report has been derived using
the SPSS application, which shows the probability of significant risks. To avoid these
risks, some suggestions had made by referring to standard codes and safety measures.
In this Project, there are some suggestions made to avoid the risks involved. The
new techniques like patented grinding technology will help in the control of incorrect
mix design. To improve the quality of the concrete, the materials should go under
proper tests. Proper maintenance and inspection with appropriate time intervals will
also help to reduce the breakdown and downtime of machines.
378 S. Senthamizh Sankar et al.

Table 1 Ranking order of risks

Rank Name of risks Mean Possible measures
1 Non-availability 9.80 • Do proper maintenance and periodic inspections to avoid
of spare parts replacement
• Procure spare parts and always store them at the site
• Purchase machinery from companies whose spare parts are
locally available
• Obtain spare parts locally if possible to avoid import tax
• In case of spare parts needed, order them much before
2 Unskilled 9.50 • Give proper job descriptions to the employees
personnel to • Describe the quality-related issues of your company
work on various • Begin from the interview process and continuing throughout
operations their career with your organization
• Get them membership in industry technical committees
3 Incorrect use of 9.40 • Give training on IS for admixtures
admixtures • Always keep a supervisor for checking admixture proportion
at batching plant
• Use a high-range water reducer (HRWR) or super-plasticizer
based on site conditions
• In case of known errors in aggregate proportions, adjust
admixtures proportionately
4 Delay due to 9.40 • Trucks may not stop for food or breaks on the way
traffic during • The speed control device must be fixed on the RMC truck
transporting • Any concrete spillage is reported immediately to the site
• Address several safety issues to the driver
• Use GPS in RMC trucks for monitoring them
• Use a high-range water reducer (HRWR) or super-plasticizer
5 Accidents at the 9.30 • Promote more use of machinery
plant site • Try to give alternative works for the employees
• Promote automation and robotics in construction
6 No flow through 9.30 • Do proper maintenance of M/c and periodic inspections
pipes during • Periodically check the leaking and faulty hose
discharge • Use proper HRWR or super-plasticizer for concrete to pump
• Always keep a technician for the repair of the concrete pump
• Give breaks from continuous operations
7 Frequent 9.20 • Do proper maintenance of M/c
breakdown of • Do periodic inspections
machines • Periodically check leaking and faulty connection
8 Not during 9.10 • Give maintenance training for the workers
primary • Insist the importance of maintenance and give rigorous
overhauling training
services • Do regular maintenance to avoid repair maintenance which
costs more
• Call for expert maintenance services by outsourcing if it is
not locally available in the company
• Purchase machinery from companies that provide
maintenance services at cheaper rates for their machines
(continued)
Investigating the Ways to Optimize the Production of Ready Mix … 379

Table 1 (continued)
Rank Name of risks Mean Possible measures
9 Overexertion 9.10 • Promote more use of machinery
• Try to give alternative works for the employees
• Promote automation and robotics in construction
10 Improper 9.10 • Minimum of one test per week for each product purchased
specification of • Specific gravity, absorption, and petrographic analysis test
RMC results every three years
• Do gradation and fineness modulus representing a minimum
of one sieve analysis for every 200 tons
11 Wrongly 9.10 • Collect the full details of the site layout
designed layout • Designed a layout, which takes minimum usage of covering
the area
• Correctly designed the layout
12 Incorrect mix 8.90 • Use a computerized batch mixing system
design • Always keep a supervisor for checking specifications at
batching plant
• Get proper specifications from the customer

7.1 Recommendation to RMC Plants

• All the safety measures should be maintained strictly to avoid accidents at sites.
• Introducing new techniques in the mixing of the materials will control the incorrect
mix design.
• Materials receiving for the mixing of concrete should be accepted after checking
its specification.
• Works should be allocated to each person based on their working skill.
• Machinery should be maintained regularly based on the usage.
• Materials and concrete flowing pipes must be adequately washed after use.
• Avoid giving more workload to the laborers and make them feel pressured.
• Alternative methods or spare parts to be maintained correctly to avoid delay of
the work.
• Admixtures are needed to be used based on the setting time and the traveling time
of the vehicle.
• The most critical risk factor is a delay due to wrong decisions on layout, so it
should be avoided.

References

1. National Ready Mix Concrete Association. https://www.nrmca.org/.

2. Handbook of OSHA construction safety and health.
3. Indian Standard 4926-2003, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
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4. Lifson, M. W., & Shaifer, E. F., Jr. (1982). Decision and risk analysis for construction
management. Wiley Inc.
5. PMBOK. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge, Project Management
Institute.
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construction project. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 116(3), 123–128.
7. Baloi, D., & Andrew, D. F. (2003). Modeling global risk factors affecting construction cost
performance. International Journal of Project Management, 21, 261–269.
8. Vicknayson, T, & Mawdesley, M. J. (2004). Perception of human risk factors in construction
projects. An exploratory study. International Journal of Project Management, 22, 131–137.
9. Molenaar, K. R. (2009). Framework for measuring corporate safety culture and its impact
on construction safety performance. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
488–496.
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in projects. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 14(1), 22–36.
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trial study of just in time (JIT) management in precast construction projects. AIP Conference
Proceedings, 2277, 240011.
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Conference Proceedings, 2277, 240012.
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling
Technique for Construction Projects
Using GERT

K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan

Abstract An extensive application of project network analysis in construction

project management has been observed in the last few decades. The scheduling
of construction projects is generally carried out using the conventional project
scheduling methodologies such as Critical Path Method (CPM), Precedence
Diagramming Method (PDM), Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT), and so on. However, construction processes are highly repetitive in
functionality. This characteristic makes construction projects more robust and
stochastic, and thus requires a neoteric scheduling method rather than the conven-
tional project scheduling techniques thereof. Consequently, an intriguing stochastic
project network technique known as Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
(GERT), which is generally used in the industrial scheduling, is proposed to over-
come the shortcomings of conventional construction scheduling. The nature of
GERT includes probabilistic branching, feedback looping, multiple sink nodes, and
multiple node realizations which cannot be achieved in the conventional construc-
tion scheduling methodologies. These remarkable features permit the construction
personnel to model and analyse projects and systems of a very repetitive nature and
high complexities. GERT is the solution with paragon to many real-life projects that
face problems like probabilistic occurrences of events, false-starts, activity repetition
and multiple outcomes. This research tries to provide a comprehensive implication
of GERT for a real-time construction project.

Keywords Stochastic project network · CPM · PERT · Construction scheduling ·

GERT

K. Pregina · M. Ramesh Kannan (B)

Division of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Pregina
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 381
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_33
382 K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of this research

1 Introduction

The drastic improvements in the construction industry have created a rise in demand
for more complex projects to be delivered at a velociously high speed cost-effectively.
This may be achieved by effective planning, scheduling, and control of construction
projects which results in a cutback of construction time, cost overrun, and disputes.
The execution of construction projects often involves a complex environment that is
highly uncertain. Adequate time management is one of the predominant and crucial
factors to bring the consummation of construction projects. The scheduling of the
majority of construction projects is carried out using conventional project scheduling
methodologies such as Critical Path Method (CPM), Precedence Diagramming
Method (PDM), Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), and so on.
Several activities in construction projects are repetitive and the conventional tech-
niques do not consider repetitiveness or looping characteristics. Hence there arises
a need for a scheduling method that is suitable for producing robust and stochastic
work schedules. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of this research work.

2 Project Network Methodologies for Construction

The conventional project network methodologies adopted for construction projects

are elucidated as follows:
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique … 383

2.1 CPM and PERT

CPM is a scheduling technique where the sequence of activities in a project is depicted

using a network diagram. After defining the path, the critical path is identified from
the longest path of the calculated duration of each path, which determines the total
duration of the project. PERT is a project network analysis technique that is used to
focus on the time and the cost each activity takes. Time taken to complete the activity
is assumed as a variable representing the application of resources concerning perfor-
mance (i.e.) Optimistic Time, Most-likely Time, Pessimistic Time. The sequence of
activities is ascertained and a network is constructed. The probabilistic time duration
is calculated and the longest path with no buffer or slack time calculated connecting
the events is the critical path.

2.2 Industry Scheduling

A detailed description of an innovative industrial scheduling methodology is

discussed in the following section.

2.2.1 Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT)

GERT is a stochastic network analysis technique that analyses the logic of a proba-
bilistic network and estimates the activity duration of a project developed by A. A.
B. Pritsker and W. W. Happ in 1966 [1]. This approach overcomes most of the limi-
tations of the other conventional scheduling techniques, namely PERT, and CPM.
The looping between the tasks is permitted in GERT. The method considers different
attributes of activities to provide a satisfactory schedule and can be used as a powerful
tool to evaluate complex networks. The main components of a GERT network consist
of directed branches which include arcs, edges, transmittances, and logical nodes or
vertices. The two parameters associated with the branch are, the probability ‘p’ that
a branch is taken, given that the node from which it emanated is realized at a required
time ‘t’, to accomplish the activity. The time ‘t’ may be a random variable. The time
for the activity represented by the branch is zero, if the branch of the network is not
realized. The steps involved in applying GERT [1] are as follows:
1. The qualitative description of the system is converted into a model in network
form.
2. The necessary data required for branches of the networks are collected.
3. An equivalent one branch function between nodes is obtained.
4. The equivalent function is converted into performance measures of the network.
1. The probability ‘p’ that a specific node is realized.
2. The moment generating function of the time ‘t’ associated with an
equivalent network.
384 K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan

From the above information, interpretations are made regarding the network under
study.

3 Analysis and Comparison of CPM, PERT and GERT

for a Real-Time Project

This research aims to assimilate the GERT technique to alleviate the schedule of a
real-time residential project. Figure 2 shows the plan of the residential building and
Table 1 gives the schedule of activities.
The sequence of activities is illustrated through a network diagram. Figure 3
shows the scheduling of activities using the Critical Path Method. The duration in
CPM Network is deterministic and the total estimated time for the considered project
is 155 days.
In PERT, time duration is incorporated as probabilistic values i.e., three-times
estimate. The sequence of activities is illustrated through a network diagram. Figure 4
shows the scheduling of activities using the PERT method, the estimated time for
completion of the project is 160 days.
The CPM and PERT network demand that all preceding activities can be
completed before a node is realized. In situations where the realization of a node
depends on the completion of not all but one or more incoming activities, GERT

Fig. 2 Floor plan of a real-time residential building [2]

Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique … 385

Table.1 Schedule of activities

Activity Code Duration (days)
Preparatory works A1 4
Excavation by mechanical means & PCC A2 4
Foundation A3 9
Superstructure–columns A4 12
Underground structures A5 9
Plinth beam construction A6 9
Basement work & brickwork below plinth level A7 14
Lintel beam construction A8 10
Brick work A9 19
Roof slab construction A10 28
Fabrication of doors, windows and ventilator frames A11 11
Internal plastering works A12 10
Grade slab construction A13 12
Flooring A14 8
Sanitary and electrical fittings installation A15 8
Head room construction A16 9
Parapet wall construction A17 3
Roof screed, waterproofing and tiling works A18 10
External plastering works A19 11
Fixing of door/window/ventilators A20 5
Carpet and porch area tile/skirting laying works A21 11
Interior painting and architectural work A22 9
Exterior painting and architectural work A23 10
Furnishing and fencing A24 7
Miscellaneous works A25 3

Fig. 3 Project network diagram (schedule) for CPM

386 K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan

Fig. 4 Project network diagram (schedule) for PERT

is implemented [3–14]. GERT allows loops that may start from any node and be
incident to any previous node [15]. Despite many advantages in the incorporation
of GERT for construction scheduling [9], it has not gained much popularity in the
construction industry over academic research [16]. To reinforce the importance of
GERT in practical point of view, it is incorporated to the construction scheduling of a
real-time construction project. The distribution of duration of different activities, as
assessed by Project In-charge is in Table 2. The scheduling of the activities in the
real-time construction project using GERT is illustrated in Fig. 5. The estimated time
for completion of the project using GERT is 176 days.
The construction duration obtained from the real–time site data is 180 days. It
is observed that the total estimated time calculated using GERT is more proximate
to the real–time data when compared to the total duration obtained using CPM and
PERT.

4 Conclusion

This research provides a comprehensive overview of the application of GERT for

construction projects. Initially, a detailed floor plan for a real–time construction
project is taken to elucidate the implications of convention project management
methodologies such as CPM, and PERT. Later, the information of the same project
is considered for developing the GERT network diagram. From the comparison of
these three project management methodologies, it is inferred that the solution derived
out of the GERT network resembles closer to the actual site data. This intriguing
concept can be further extended to multifarious construction projects with varying
complexities.
Table.2 Distribution of durations (in days)
Activity Type of distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10
Preparatory works Normal A1 2 4 6 – – – – – – – – – – –
Excavation by mechanical means & PCC Discrete A2 2 4 7 – 0 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0 0
Foundation Normal A3 7 9 14 – – – – – – – – – – –
Superstructure - columns Normal A4 8 12 15 – – – – – – – – – – –
Underground structures Discrete A5 7 9 11 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0.07 0.2 0.3
Plinth beam construction Discrete A6 7 9 12 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.2
Basement work & brickwork below plinth level Discrete A7 12 14 19 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lintel beam construction Constant A8 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
Brick work Discrete A9 16 19 25 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Roof slab construction Normal A10 24 28 38 – – – – – – – – – – –
Fabrication of Doors, Windows and ventilator Constant A11 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
frames
Internal Plastering works Constant A12 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique …

Grade slab construction Normal A13 8 12 15 – – – – – – – – – – –

Flooring Normal A14 5 8 12 – – – – – – – – – – –
Sanitary and electrical fittings installation Constant A15 – – – 8 – – – – – – – – – –
Head room construction Discrete A16 5 9 14 – 0 0 0 0 0.002 0.008 0.01 0.06 0.09 0.13
Parapet wall construction Normal A17 1 3 5 – – – – – – – – – – –
Roof screed, waterproofing and tiling works Constant A18 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
External plastering works Constant A19 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
Fixing of door/window/ventilators Discrete A20 3 5 7 – 0 0 0.03 0.07 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0 0
Carpet and porch area tile/skirting laying works Constant A21 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
Interior Painting and architectural work Constant A22 – – – 9 – – – – – – – – – –
Exterior Painting and architectural work Constant A23 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
(continued)
387
Table.2 (continued)
388

Activity Type of distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10

Furnishing and Fencing Constant A24 – – – 7 – – – – – – – – – –
Miscellaneous works Constant A25 – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – –
Activity Type of Distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t11 t12 t13 t14 t15 t16 t17 t18 t19 t20
Preparatory works Normal A1 2 4 6 – – – – – – – – – – –
Excavation by mechanical means & Discrete A2 2 4 7 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PCC
Foundation Normal A3 7 9 14 – – – – – – – – – – –
Superstructure - columns Normal A4 8 12 15 – – – – – – – – – – –
Underground structures Discrete A5 7 9 11 – 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Plinth beam construction Discrete A6 7 9 12 – 0.3 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basement work & brickwork below Discrete A7 12 14 19 – 0 0.004 0.006 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.2 0.3 0.4 0
plinth level
Lintel beam construction Constant A8 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
Brick work Discrete A9 16 19 25 – 0 0 0 0 0 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.014 0.017
Roof slab construction Normal A10 24 28 38 – – – – – – – – – – –
Fabrication of Doors, Windows and Constant A11 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
ventilator frames
Internal Plastering works Constant A12 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
Grade slab construction Normal A13 8 12 15 – – – – – – – – – – –
Flooring Normal A14 5 8 12 – – – – – – – – – – –
Sanitary and electrical fittings Constant A15 – – – 8 – – – – – – – – – –
installation
Head room construction Discrete A16 5 9 14 – 0.19 0.01 0.2 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parapet wall construction Normal A17 1 3 5 – – – – – – – – – – –
(continued)
K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan
Table.2 (continued)
Activity Type of Distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t11 t12 t13 t14 t15 t16 t17 t18 t19 t20
Roof screed, waterproofing and tiling Constant A18 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
works
External plastering works Constant A19 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
Fixing of door/window/ventilators Discrete A20 3 5 7 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carpet and porch area tile/skirting Constant A21 – – – 11 – – – – – – – – – –
laying works
Interior Painting and architectural Constant A22 – – – 9 – – – – – – – – – –
work
Exterior Painting and architectural Constant A23 – – – 10 – – – – – – – – – –
work
Furnishing and Fencing Constant A24 – – – 7 – – – – – – – – – –
Miscellaneous works Constant A25 – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – –
Activity Type of Distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t21 t22 t23 t24 t25 Te
Preparatory works Normal 2 4 6 – – – – – – 4
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique …

A1
Excavation by mechanical means & PCC Discrete A2 2 4 7 – 0 0 0 0 0 6
Foundation Normal A3 7 9 14 – – – – – – 11
Superstructure - columns Normal A4 8 12 15 – – – – – – 12
Underground structures Discrete A5 7 9 11 – 0 0 0 0 0 10
Plinth beam construction Discrete A6 7 9 12 – 0 0 0 0 0 11
Basement work & brickwork below plinth level Discrete A7 12 14 19 – 0 0 0 0 0 18
Lintel beam construction Constant A8 – – – 10 – – – – – 10
Brick work Discrete A9 16 19 25 – 0.02 0.03 0.2 0.3 0.4 24
Roof slab construction Normal A10 24 28 38 – – – – – – 31
Fabrication of Doors, Windows and ventilator frames Constant A11 – – – 11 – – – – – 11
Internal Plastering works Constant A12 – – – 10 – – – – – 10
(continued)
389
Table.2 (continued)
390

Activity Type of Distribution Code to tm tp Dur. t21 t22 t23 t24 t25 Te
Grade slab construction Normal A13 8 12 15 – – – – – – 12
Flooring Normal A14 5 8 12 – – – – – – 9
Sanitary and electrical fittings installation Constant A15 – – – 8 – – – – – 8
Head room construction Discrete A16 5 9 14 – 0 0 0 0 0 12
Parapet wall construction Normal A17 1 3 5 – – – – – – 3
Roof screed, waterproofing and tiling works Constant A18 – – – 10 – – – – – 10
External plastering works Constant A19 – – – 11 – – – – – 11
Fixing of door/window/ventilators Discrete A20 3 5 7 – 0 0 0 0 0 6
Carpet and porch area tile/skirting laying works Constant A21 – – – 11 – – – – – 11
Interior Painting and architectural work Constant A22 – – – 9 – – – – – 9
Exterior Painting and architectural work Constant A23 – – – 10 – – – – – 10
Furnishing and Fencing Constant A24 – – – 7 – – – – – 7
Miscellaneous works Constant A25 – – – 3 – – – – – 3
K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan
 4 4 9 12 9 14 10 19 28 10 9 3
9
11 12 8 8 10 5 11 9
Stochastic Project Network Scheduling Technique …

Fig. 5 Project network diagram (schedule) for GERT

391
392 K. Pregina and M. Ramesh Kannan

References

1. Pritsker, A. A. B., & Happ, W. W. (1966). GERT: graphical evaluation and review technique:
Part I, fundamentals. Journal of Industrial Engineering, 17(6), 267–274.
2. Philip, A. M., & Ramesh Kannan, M. (2021). Constructability assessment of cast in–situ, precast
and modular reinforced concrete structures. Materials Today: Proceedings, 45(7), 6011–6015.
3. Bonham, T. W., Clayton, E. R., & Moore, L. J. (1975). A GERT model to meet future
organizational manpower need. Personnel Journal, 54(7), 402–406.
4. Anderson, P. F., & Taylor III, B. W. (1977). Marketing/quality control interface: The GERT
approach. Industrial Marketing Management, 6(6), 420–428.
5. Moore, L. J., & Taylor III, B. W. (1977). Multiteam, multiproject research and development
Planning with GERT. Management Science, 24(4), 401–410.
6. Taylor, B. W. (1978). Project management using GERT analysis. Project Management
Quarterly, 9(3), 15–20.
7. Yu, L., & Zuo, M. (2008). An estimating method for IT project expected duration oriented
to GERT. In L. D. Xu, A. M. Tjoa, & S. S. Chaudhry (Eds.), Research and practical issues
of enterprise information systems II. IFIP International Federation for Information Processing
(Vol. 255). Boston: Springer.
8. Wyroz˛ebski, P., & Wyroz˛ebska, A. (2013). Challenges of project planning in the probabilistic
approach using PERT, GERT and Monte Carlo. Journal of Management and Marketing, 1(1),
1–8.
9. Ramani, T., & Kannan, R. (2014). Scheduling of industrialized construction project using graph-
ical evaluation and review technique (GERT). In Proceedings of Second International Confer-
ence on Advances in Industrial Engineering Applications (ICAIEA 2014), Anna University,
India.
10. Kannan, R. (2014). Graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT): The panorama in the
computation and visualization of network–based project management. In Advances in secure
computing, Internet Services, and Applications (pp. 165–179). IGI Global Publisher.
11. Ghaeli, M., & Sadi-Nezhad, S. (2017). Recent advances on graphical evaluation and review
techniques. Journal of Project Management, 2(3), 107–112.
12. Todorova, M. (2019). GERT model of a technical station for determining the passenger trainset
delay. Transport Problems, 14(1), 81–93.
13. Globa S. B., Maslovsky, V. P., Butakova, N. M., Berezovaya, V. V. (2020). Application of the
GERT method to visualize the process of managing receivables and payables of an enterprise.
In: R. Silhavy, P. Silhavy, & Z. Prokopova (Eds.), Software engineering perspectives in intel-
ligent systems. CoMeSySo 2020. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing (Vol. 1294).
Springer.
14. Dorrer, M., Dorrer, A., & Zyryanov, A. (2021). Numerical modeling of business processes
using the apparatus of GERT networks. In: A. G. Kravets, A. A. Bolshakov, & M. Shcherbakov
(Eds.), Society 5.0: cyberspace for advanced human-centered society. Studies in Systems,
Decision and Control (Vol. 333). Springer.
15. Pant, J. C. (2001). Project management CPM, PERT, GERT and linear programming (4th ed.).
New Delhi: Jain Brothers.
16. Mubarak, S. A. (2019). Construction project scheduling and control (4th ed., pp. 369). New
York: Wiley.
Integrating Lean and Sustainability
Approach for Construction Firms

S. Anandh, S. Sindhu Nachiar, Preethiba Mariappan, and C. S. Sai Abeshek

Abstract Lean construction is the mode of production which is designed to mini-

mize the cost, materials and time. Virtually the lean technique is to reduce the
poor quality and maximize the favourable outcomes in the construction industry.
This study provides basic understanding of lean in construction, obstacles of lean
in construction, factors for lean construction, lean techniques and benefits of lean
construction. The objective of the research is to identify the link between lean and
sustainability, barriers of lean and sustainability, success key factors of lean and
sustainability, benefits of linking lean and sustainability, area of link between the
lean and sustainability.

Keywords Lean construction · Barriers · Factors of lean · Lean techniques ·

Sustainability

1 Introduction

The construction industry have been earmarked with very low matriculate of novelty
when distinguished with manufacturing industry. Innovation in the construction
industry is the exploit of acquainting and utilizing fresh ideas, processes proposed for
dealing with problems, perceiving things in various view, enhancing the efficiency,
increasing the standards of living. Construction faces the demands of reducing the
demands of reducing the environmental collision of its own devouring of energy
and materials [1]. Construction firms preoccupy natural resources to a confounded
immune. When it comes to waste, the construction industries generate high amount
of waste which bangs the environment. To avoid the impact of waste construction
industries concentrate more in reuse and recycling of waste. The predominant origin
of waste production are:
• Unprivileged material care
• Less in rank quality of materials

S. Anandh (B) · S. Sindhu Nachiar (B) · P. Mariappan · C. S. Sai Abeshek

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Kanchipuram District, Tamilnadu 603203, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 393
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_34
394 S. Anandh et al.

• Material storage controversies

• Order taking complexity
• Corrigendum in quantity surveys
• Lack of supervision
• Improper waste management
The benefit of utilizing recycled waste materials safeguard the natural resources and
environment. And it aims for the reduction in cost and minimizes the space required
for landfill purposes [2]. A classic Architecture Engineering Construction (AEC)
firm frequently works in a largely ambitious environment and consequently there
is a constant activity in the industry to enhance new concepts to develop organiza-
tional effectiveness. AEC research workers have investigated on the successful key
factors enhanced within the manufacturing zone and the greatest means of arriving is
choosing lean concepts in construction [3]. Construction industries notably in India
is covering double problems. The fundamental problem is adverse on people, society
and environment. And the next problem is decreased commercial appeal of the busi-
ness. The most common opinion of many researchers are to approach sustainable
construction and lean construction [4].

1.1 Lean

The lean theory was first introduced in automobile firms of Toyota was the origin of
lean in manufacturing which was advanced to minimize and eliminate the wastes. The
word “LEAN” was derived as latest production theory popularized in Toyota after
World War II. Later lean arrived as the main technique for enhancing productivity
and efficiency in many industries. Lean concepts targets on bottom-up, worker-led
enhancement and in places where lean is applied successfully will minimize the coat
and enhances the quality [5]. The extremely valuable incentive of construction is
alleged to be reliable workflow and labour flow but lean in construction has replaced
the traditional prospect of the project as revolution and accept the theory of flow.

1.2 Lean Construction Techniques

There are many techniques which have been considered and embraced in the
construction field. The followings are few techniques:
1. 5S Techniques
2. Last Planner System
3. Increased Visualization Technique
4. Daily Huddle Meeting.
Integrating Lean and Sustainability Approach … 395

1.2.1 5S Techniques

It is a standardized technique utilized by the management comes in five Japanese

terms:
1. Seiri (Sort)
2. Seiton (Set in order)
3. Seiso (Shine)
4. Seiketsu (Standardize)
5. Shitsuke (Sustain)
The 5S techniques assist to systematize the workplace for ability and reduce the
waste and advances the quality and productivity by the means of supervising the
management environment. This 5S technique targets in normalizing the works done
in the construction site and it also minimizes the waste that occurs by rework and
consumption of time.

1.2.2 Last Planner System

Last planner system is authorized professional the one who has direct connect with the
work to schedule the tasks. The conventional work planning organizes time frame
but does not been adequately build the task which is required for the completion
of the project. This system is oriented on minimum of three stages of scheduling
and master pull schedule which recognize the main project stage and the look-head
schedule which utilizes the elements pulled from the master schedule and was utilized
to control the workflow and the weekly work plan contributes to the brief work plan.

1.2.3 Increased Visualization Technique

Developed visualization is a method which is embraced to incorporate last planner

system (LPS) and 5S techniques in sync. Developed visualization is essentially
carried to change of possession ofthe information visually more productively than
any other source of communication.
Methods of communicating visually are:
• Charts
• Boards
• Kanban Cards
• 4D, 5D software (Large scale companies)
which helps in minimizing the rework and all other issues in the workplace by
combining everything at the office level.
396 S. Anandh et al.

1.2.4 Daily Huddle Meeting

It demands on another revolution in the culture, a culture in which a project manager

who has a authority to arrange and carry out the plan versus the common culture
for the issue to happen and then handle the issue. Daily huddle meeting is produced
in the project execution stage to equalize the work activities. This technique is a
huge tool of communication used to identify the problem in a project like weather,
environment, security and quality and gives the format of communication [6].

1.3 Sustainability

The common theory of sustainable advancement emerge in United Nations confer-

ences at the time of 1980 and 1990. The main accomplishment of the conference
is the acceptance of Agenda 21 which tells the basic principles of sustainability
and enhances the indicators of sustainable enhancement. In 1992 United Nation
was dependent on the voluntary national testing and group consultations. The main
set of indicators were coordinated into four pillars, fifteen themes, thirty-eight sub-
themes and fifty-eight indicators in 2001. There are number of sustainability princi-
ples advanced in many organizations and nations in that United Nations were selected
as template for enhancing this course based on few reasons. The reasons are listed
below:
• Are hugely recognized and referenced.
• More number of regional indicators are built based on them.
• Are arranged in a hierarchy form which helps in selecting the desired stage of
detail [7].

1.4 Sustainable Construction

Sustainability in construction is the appeal of sustainable enhancement in construc-

tion firms. A clear explanation of sustainability in construction was given by Rayns-
ford, “The set of processes by which a profitable and competitive industry delivers
built assets” such as:
• Improve quality of life and offers the satisfaction of the customers.
• Flexibility offer and prospective to cater for end user differs in future.
• Support and gives desirable natural environment.
• Use of resources in high range.
The explanation given by Raynford sets priority on the product and the process which
brings the view of economic, social and environmental sustainability. A much clear
explanation was given by Construction excellence which brings the sustainability
in construction is the trump card of sustainable enhancement in the construction
Integrating Lean and Sustainability Approach … 397

industry. And it desires the sustainable enhancement which promises for a good
quality of life for all and future generation by:
• Social advancement which identifies the needs of all.
• Managing the high phases of employment and financial growth.
• Improving the environment.
• Utilizing the natural resources.
Sustainable enhancement clutch the three subject matters of economic, social
and environmental accountability which is called as triple bottom line. Sutain-
able construction generally incorporates various perspectives which involve social,
economic and environment. The incorporation and the importance of sustainable
construction will be hugely based on the needs and conditions of the growing coun-
tries are different from the growing world. The knowledge of sustainable construc-
tion is much lower. Landman from US tells that training and education in sustainable
construction is inadequate [8].

2 Methodology

The below given Fig. 1 is the representation of scheme of work followed for this
project of interest. Certain set of journals were studied and facts were being consid-
ered for the part of research. From these journals, certain data were understood and
taken to contemplate with the need of this research. Conclusion of the factors which
mainly tend to affect the root the study is classified from the data collected from the
journals. Questions were prepared from the available sources of information for this

Fig. 1 Scheme of work

LITERATURE REVIEW

TO UNDERSTAND CONCEPTS OF LEAN &

SUSTAINABILITY CONSTRUCTION

DESIGNING OF QUESTIONNAIRE

DATA COLLECTION

ANALYSIS OF DATA USING MATHEMATICAL

TECHNIQUES

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

398 S. Anandh et al.

study of research. By studying the provenance of the research, type of the mathemat-
ical analysis can be withdrawn and put into course of action. Results can be concluded
and discussed. A sample of conceptual model can be developed and made easier for
the understanding. And the study can be concluded for the final dissertation.

2.1 Design of Questionnaire

Questionnaire was classified into 5 parts.

Under each part 6–9 questions were framed and totally the questionnaire was
containing 40 nos. of questions. This questionnaire was framed based on Benefits
of lean construction and sustainable construction, obstacles of lean construction
and sustainable construction, Success factors of lean construction and sustainable
construction, intersection of lean and sustainability and the questionnaire’s last part
was about the area of link between lean and sustainability.

2.2 Data Collection and Analysis

Initially from the separated factors collected from the literature, a set of few questions
were framed, 8–10 under each factor. Since the study is generalized and pilot study of
these questions was done. From the pilot study, questionnaire was developed with 8–
10 questions under each factor with 5-point Likert Scale varying from Strongly Agree,
Agree, Neutral, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. To check whether the prepared
questionnaire is apt for the project studies certain tests like Cronbach’s Alpha Test
were done.

2.3 Preliminary Study

This pilot study is a preparatory study is done to find out the feasibility of the
questionnaire prepared for this project. It helps in detail the prior plan of the project
and the extension of profitable positivity of this study from the history and personal
interviews done. All the data were put together 20 samples were collected. A set of
20 questions were framed and provided to the employers of different companies.

2.4 Cronbach’s Alpha

Cronbach was utilized for checking the internal consistency of a data and its reliability
of one factor with the rest of it. The hypothetical value ranges from 0 to 1. The
Integrating Lean and Sustainability Approach … 399

Table 1 Cronbach’s Alpha

Cronbach’s Alpha Internal consistency
value and its standard range
of values <0.5 Not acceptable
0.5–0.6 Poor
0.6–0.7 Low/questionable
0.7–0.80 Average
0.8–0.9 Good
0.9–1 Excellent

Table 2 Cronbach’s Alpha

Reliability statistics
for the pilot study
Cronbach’s Alpha No. of questions
0.8914 40

cronbach’s alpha has a rule which tells that the reliable 0.7 or <0.6 is known as the
low acceptable origin. The Table 1 equivalence among the responses of 21 certify the
measure of flexibility caused internally, it can be done again with different samples
until the required is reached.
Formula

Cronbach s alpha = (K/K − 1)) ∗ (1 − (Si2/Sy2)) (1)

Where,
K is the no. of questions
Sy2 is the variance of total column
Si2 is the sum of variance
From our collected samples, Cronbach’s Alpha Test was carried out in Table 2.

3 Results and Discussion

Non-parametric tests were carried out; like, Chi-Squared Test and One-Sample T-
Test. The Chi-Squared Test explains about extension of the possible outcome the
responses could have got from the samples. How much it can to adjusted or to what
extend received values are not up to the grade of expectation. These tests can be
used when all of the data from a study have been measured on nominal case—that
is, the data are in the form of frequency of different categories. With the assumption
of Null Hypothesis. A Chi-Squared statistic follows an approximate well-known
Chi-Square Distribution. One-Sample Test is a statistical procedure used to identify
whether in case a sample of observations could have been produced by a process
400 S. Anandh et al.

with a determined mean. There are usually two types of hypotheses in this test.
The alternate hypothesis differentiates between true mean (µ) and comparison value
(m0), but the ultimatum lies where there is no null hypothesis difference to exists.
The purpose is to reject the null hypothesis of the sample given.

References

1. Ogunbiyi, O., Oladapo, Akanbi, A., & Goulding, J. S. (2011). Construction innovation: The
implementation of lean construction towards sustainable innovation. In IBEA Conference,
Innovation and the Built Environment Academy, 7–9th October 2011, South Bank University,
London.
2. Prakash Arul Jose, J., Rajesh Prasanna, P, & Prakash, F. (2018). Lean design strategy of
waste minimization in construction industries. International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research,13(6), 4593–4598. ISSN 0973-4562.
3. Harsha, N., Suresh, A. V., & Nagaraj, N. (2013, May). Implementation of lean concepts in the
construction engineering project. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
(IJERT), 2(5). ISSN: 2278-0181.
4. Jagannathan, M., Kamma, R. C., Renganaidu, V., & Ramalingam, S. Enablers for sustainable
lean construction in India. In V. A. González (ed.), 26th Annual Conference of the International.
Group for Lean Construction (IGLC), Chennai, India, pp. 910–922.
5. Kundu, G. K. (2015, February). Lean wastes: classifications from different industry perspectives.
ICTACT Journal on Management Studies, 1(1).
6. Vimal Kumar, U., & Ramasamy, G. (2016) A critical study of various lean techniques in practice
and developing a framework for different construction building projects. International Journal
Chemical Science, 14(SI).
7. Wang, Y. (2009). Sustainability in construction education. Journal of Professional Issues In
Engineering Education and Practice, 13(1), 21–30.
8. Sourani, A., & Sohail, M. (2011). Barriers to addressing sustainable construction in public
procurementstrategies.In Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Engineering
Sustainability (Vol. 164, No. 4, pp. 229–237).
Analytical Case Study
Identification of the Mitigation Methods
to Be Adopted that Prevents Time
Overrun in Construction Projects

G. Siva Subramani, S. Manikanda Prabhu , R. Gowtham, and Sumpa Dey

Abstract The time overrun in construction projects causes cost escalation that leads
to stoppage for a long time period or closing of the project. The various reasons for
time overrun in construction projects from the scheduled time of project have been
identified through various studies and research. This project work was carried out
to examine those factors causing time overrun in construction projects and then find
the mitigation methods that can be adopted to reduce or prevent time overrun. The
study was done based upon the construction field workers opinion and developers
in residential, commercial projects. This was carried out by a number of expert
interview response by personal conversational interviewing and journal study was
done to identify the various methods, techniques, process that can be implemented
or followed to avoid time overrun and these were used to prepare the questionnaire.
Based on the responses, the important methods, techniques that can be very influential
in the omission of time overrun factors and probably reduce the construction time
were identified by ranking the various methods, techniques. This study considered
the sample frame and target population within India. For a developer, the main benefit
of reduced or on-time completion of the project is an opportunity to make customer’s
feel satisfied and be their potential partner in future projects as well.

Keywords Conversational interviewing · Sample frame · Target population ·

Mitigation methods

1 Introduction

The construction is a complex process. It involves many different participants doing

activities from initial planning till final execution [1]. Building a major construction
project is now experiencing schedule delays and cost overruns and often become the

G. Siva Subramani · S. Manikanda Prabhu (B) · R. Gowtham · S. Dey

Department of Civil Engineering, CEM, SRM University, Kattnakulathur Campus,
Chengalpattu 603203, India
R. Gowtham
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 403
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_35
404 G. S. Subramani et al.

exception. There are many factors that contributes to poor results, which have been
identified through various studies and research [2, 3]. Many studies reveal that due to
delay in work progress, there will be cost escalation, and the budget of the construc-
tion project would not meet the demand at that point in time which in turn leads to
a reduction in the quality of the construction project. The management of the time
factor can be expensive, deal with pressure, and is usually a subject of uncertainty.
Thus, finding out a solution for preventing the time delaying factors from occurring
in construction projects have become a necessity and need of the hour. There are
few methods and technology being adopted to reduce the time of construction, but
while executing practically the various other factors like low labour productivity,
management inefficiency and owner’s slow decision making, disputes and litigation
causing time delay can’t be avoided [4, 5]. In order to find the possible mitigation
methods and techniques, this study will help to identify them by doing journal study,
personal interviews with experts in the construction field and a questionnaire that
could find the best possible solutions. The most influential persons for identifying
the time extension factor at its root and implement the mitigation methods would be
the developer, owner, engineers, project managers, architects, contractors and sub-
contractors [8]. Therefore identifying the root cause of the time overrun in construc-
tion project and implementing the mitigation methods is very important as rectifying
it and providing a proper solution to it will help to enhance the effective management
and the administration of the contract time, which prevents time delay [7].
Delay in the construction project is an act or event which extends the actual
time required to perform or complete the work of contract manifests and take some
additional days of work for its completion. This delay can be cut down at its very
root by identifying them at the beginning and providing the best optimal solution
to prevent time delay or perhaps even reduce the time for completion of the work.
There are numerous research efforts done to study the schedule overrun factors
in construction project across various regions in different countries of the world,
and also a varied solution based upon the condition of each country and its type
of work front has been provided by researchers. For example, graphical modelling
classification for construction project scheduling can be adapted to communicate
the scheduled time frame of work in an easy and understandable manner [4],
All members of the construction team must be trained and educated on schedule
overruns and how to take up quick decision in order to minimize time delays [6],
adopting performance information procurement system (PIPS) to improve project
performance and minimize delays [1], The labour productivity improvisation by
proper monitoring and inspection will lead to efficiency improvement in construction
and on schedule completion [9].
All these factors causing time delay in construction project were considered for
this research and also the recommendation provided by existing research’s were taken
into account, and then personal interviews were conducted, a questionnaire survey
was done. Based on the response, the relative importance index was found for the
mitigation methods that could be adopted and were also analysed by SPSS for its
Identification of the Mitigation Methods to Be Adopted that Prevents … 405

reliability. This gave the most suitable solutions that can be adopted in construction
projects to reduce time delays and also, it mitigates the factors causing schedule
overrun in construction projects.

1.1 Objectives

• To find mitigation methods that could be possible solutions that can be adopted
for avoiding time overrun in the construction project.
• The solutions according to their relative importance will be ranked.
• The data obtained will be statistically analysed to check its reliability.

1.2 Need and Scope of Present Work

The need and scope of this work were to identify the mitigation methods and solutions
to the time delaying factors within India in order to avoid schedule overrun and cost
escalation in construction projects. This will help by implementing these solutions
in construction projects and do a case study to see if there is a significant difference
in the completion of the construction project on time by doing future research work
and ensure on-time completion of the project.

1.2.1 Need for Present Work

This study will provide various possible solutions that can be adopted based upon
the nature of the time delay factor occurring in the construction project and also to
improve the performance and prevent time delay.

1.2.2 Scope of Present Work

• The data collection was done by sending the questionnaire to 180 construction
project workers, out of which 133 respondents were observed, and the category of
people approached was Owner, Project Manager, Contractor, Planning Engineer,
Site Supervisor.
• The identification of mitigation methods to avoid schedule overrun and finding
the best possible solutions for the time delaying factors is confined to construc-
tion projects undertaken by India based construction companies (residential &
commercial).
406 G. S. Subramani et al.

2 Data Collection

The data collection for the research was done by sending the questionnaire to
the various designated people in the construction industry. The questionnaire was
prepared based on the personal interview with the experts in the construction field
and literature study. This questionnaire was sent to a number of construction compa-
nies for the response, and the category of people approached were owners, project
managers, contractors, planning engineers, site supervisors having a good experience.

2.1 Participants

The quantitative study approach is adopted in this research project. The questionnaire
was sent to owners, project managers, contractors, site supervisors and planning
engineers of residential and commercial projects.

2.2 Questionnaire Preparation

The questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section 1 consisted of respon-
dent’s demographic information. In Sect. 1, questions consist of respondents name,
firm/company, designation, experience, age. Section 2 is composing of 25 ques-
tions that could be possible mitigation methods most likely to improve performance
and prevent schedule overrun. These possible solutions were taken into considera-
tion based on two perspectives that are of the direct personal interview and literature
study. The different possible solutions to enhance performance and reduce time delay
in construction project were scored on a five (5) point Likert scale with 1 denoting
Very Low and 5 denoting Very High. The Likert scale is used because it is relatively
easy to construct and makes data collection and analysis easy. The respondents were
requested to indicate their score for the various solutions in this range.

2.3 Questionnaire Administration

After the questionnaire was prepared, it was distributed to 180 questionnaires to be

identified sample of owners, project managers, contractors, planning engineers, site
supervisors of commercial and residential projects. A letter was attached to the ques-
tionnaire that states the study purpose. In this, the right of anonymity, confidentiality,
privacy, informed consent was followed. The questionnaire was sent to the email ids
of the individuals and also in person. The filled questionnaires were received back
Identification of the Mitigation Methods to Be Adopted that Prevents … 407

Table 1 Demographic information of respondents

Designation Total no. of No. of response for this designation % of response
response returned returned for
designation
Owner 133 20 15.04
Planning engineer 133 21 15.79
Site supervisor 133 31 23.31
Contractor 133 34 25.56
Project manager 133 27 20.30

through emails. Among 180 questionnaires that were initially distributed to respon-
dents, 133 were returned from the respondent. The respondents were from the leading
construction firm with experience in site operations.
The questionnaire used for the survey has 25 mitigation methods that can be
possibly adopted to increase performance and reduce or prevent time delays in
construction projects. The questionnaire with the possible mitigation methods was
asked to be rated on a scale of 1–5.

2.4 Demographic Information

The demographic profile of the respondent is illustrated in Table 1.

A total 133 response were received, representing a 73.89% response rate.
According to Table 1 demographic characteristics of respondents reveal that 15.04%
(n = 20) of respondents were owners, 15.79% (n = 21) were planning engineers,
23.31% (n = 31) were site supervisors, 25.56% (n = 34) were contractors and 20.30%
(n = 27) were planning engineers.

3 Data Analysis and Discussion

3.1 Reliability Test

The internal consistency method was adopted to estimate the reliability of the miti-
gation methods that serve as possible solutions to prevent schedule overrun. Internal
consistency of the scale was measured using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The most
common measure of internal consistency (“reliability”) is done by the Cronbach
alpha coefficient method. It is most commonly used when there are multiple Likert
questions in a survey/questionnaire that form a scale and to determine if the scale
is reliable. From Table 2, we can say that the questionnaire done for this project is
reliable.
408 G. S. Subramani et al.

Table 2 Cronbach alpha value

Mitigation methods Cronbach Alpha value
Overall (25 methods) 0.887

3.2 Relative Importance Index (RII)

RII method was adopted in this research for finding out for which attribute the
response was given more frequently at the project formation (Table 3). RII calculated
for the various variable as per the below equation.

Table 3 RII and rank of various mitigation methods

S. no. Mitigation methods RII Rank
1 Providing incentives and appraisal 0.525 R25
2 Choosing an accountable contractor 0.629 R19
3 Have a skilled labour workforce 0.580 R22
4 Procurement of resources on time 0.708 R11
5 Practising inventory management for large scale project 0.690 R14
6 Proper monitoring of the labour workforce 0.798 R4
7 Follow the rules and regulations throughout the project 0.639 R18
8 Proper and detailed planning 0.735 R7
9 Practising 6 Sigma lean construction method 0.701 R13
10 Selection of suitable resource for the project 0.684 R15
11 Bill payments to be made on time 0.771 R5
12 Ensuring proper maintenance throughout the project 0.626 R20
13 Effective decisions to be made by the management 0.802 R3
14 Simplified and understandable design 0.761 R6
15 Providing training to improve skill level 0.705 R12
16 Maintaining detailed record for the entire project 0.836 R2
17 Completion of internal works during extreme weather conditions 0.528 R24
18 Adopting BIM technology to reduce complexity 0.671 R16
19 Consistent fund flow through-out the project 0.884 R1
20 Effective communication 0.711 R9
21 Providing safety measures at the site 0.720 R8
22 Making use of modern construction materials 0.535 R23
23 Frequent inspection at project site 0.710 R10
24 Increasing work time under unavoidable circumstances 0.589 R21
25 Motivating the labourers for effective working 0.654 R17
Identification of the Mitigation Methods to Be Adopted that Prevents … 409

W
RII = (1)
(A × N)

where RII = Relative importance index


W = Weighting given to each factor by the respondent (1–5 here)
A = Highest weight (5 in this case)
N = Total no. of respondent.
The RII value had a range of 0–1. The higher the RII value, means the high
frequency of response recorded for it. According to RII, we will find out which factors
are the most influencing solutions that can prevent time overrun in construction
projects. The most influencing solution or mitigation method to prevent time delay in
construction projects, as observed from Table 4 to be consistent fund flow throughout
the project (rank1). Out of the 25 factors, consistency of the fund flow was ranked
1 in the RII value, which seems to be highly influential in the construction industry.
Funds are the factors involved throughout the life cycle of the project. Followed by
funding the maintaining the records during the project has the major response. Thus,
it shows the importance of the documents and their necessity while the time and in the
future. Effective decision making also one of the leading factors which are given by
most of the respondents. At the time of necessity, effective decision making helps the
project to have a smoother run without any delays. Proper monitoring of the labours
can help in avoiding unnecessary wasting the time and causing delays in the work.
Bill payments on time for the materials can reduce the causes of the delay due to the
procurement of the materials (Fig. 1). Making the design and detailing be understood
by all category of the people, planning the work in the proper way, providing all
the required safety measures to avoid uncertain situations, proper communication
between the labours and the management, inspecting the site often are the factors
that highly influence the time overrun of the project.

Table 4 Top 10 rank of mitigation methods

S. no. Mitigation methods RII Rank
1 Consistent fund flow throughout the project 0.884 R1
2 Maintaining detailed record for the entire project 0.836 R2
3 Effective decisions to be made by the management 0.802 R3
4 Proper monitoring of the labour workforce 0.798 R4
5 Bill payments to be made on time 0.771 R5
6 Simplified and understandable design 0.761 R6
7 Proper and detailed planning 0.735 R7
8 Providing safety measures at the site 0.720 R8
9 Effective communication 0.711 R9
10 Frequent inspection at project site 0.710 R10
410 G. S. Subramani et al.

Bar Chart for Top Ten Mitigation Methods

RII
Frequent inspection at project site 0.71
Effective communication 0.711
Providing safety measures at site 0.72
Proper and detailed planning 0.735
Simplified and understandable design 0.761
Bill payments to be made on time 0.771 RII

Proper monitoring of the labour work force 0.798

Effective decisions to be made by the management 0.802
Maintaining detailed record for the entire project 0.836
Consistent fund flow through out the project 0.884

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Fig. 1 Bar chart with RII of top ten mitigation methods

4 Conclusion

The questionnaire survey done to the experts has been used to find out the most
influencing solution that could mitigate time overrun factors and prevent schedule
overrun in construction projects by using the relative important index based on the
frequency of the responses by the respondents. The most influencing solution that,
when adopted, can mitigate time delay in construction project was observed to be
consistent fund flow throughout the project. These results will help in improving the
time management and the area of concentration to mitigate time delay in construction
projects by enhancing the performance.
Based on the responses and also from the input suggestions given by the experts in
the construction field, the paper recommends that the Consistent fund flow can help
in the continuous work progress without any delays and changes in the scheduled
progress.
The record maintenance helps in avoiding unnecessary time delays by readily
having all the data required during the progress of work. This also helps in tracking
the project with the mitigations and its impacts on the progress in future.
Effective decisions making by the management, Proper monitoring, Bill payments
made on time, Simplified and understandable design, Proper and detailed planning,
Providing safety measures at the site, Effective communication and Frequent inspec-
tion at the project site are the other considerable factors to be done in order to enhance
the performance and mitigate schedule overruns in construction projects.
Further studies can be carried out by adopting these mitigation methods in future
construction projects, and a case study can be done to find out if these solutions can
possibly enhance the performance and prevent schedule overruns and also whether
the new techniques can be implemented for all projects with understanding about
it with fullest knowledge about it which will ensure completion of work on time
according to schedule.
Identification of the Mitigation Methods to Be Adopted that Prevents … 411

References

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2. Aziz, R. F., & Abdel-Hakam, A. A. (2016). Exploring delay causes of road construction projects
in Egypt. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 55(2), 1515–1539.
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projects. Journal of Advanced Research, 5(1), 49–55.
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overruns: A case of the Gauteng Province, South Africa. Procedia Manufacturing, 3(Ahfe),
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overrun in construction projects in Chennai and suggesting for possible solutions. International
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Engineering and Technology (IJCIET ), 8(1), 2017, pp. 123–131.
Introducing Safety on Construction
Industry Along with Lean Construction
Hypothesis

S. Anandh, S. Sindhu Nachiar, C. S. Sai Abeshek, and Preethiba Mariappan

Abstract The construction industry being a very competitive sector throughout

the world, the companies mainly aim in giving an outstanding outcome without
any obstacles. From the journals studied, it was analyzed that the main obstacles
faced by the industries are due to unexpected accidents which eventually affect the
work operation and which can be controlled by introducing safety abstraction along
with lean construction ideology. The paper mainly aims in the development of a
methodology that can be practiced which helps in the enhancement of safety in the
construction industry when lean concepts are implemented, which eventually reduces
the accidents in the construction. It is found that by implementing lean construction
concepts, the safety in the construction industry has been increased thus reducing the
accidents on the construction site which enhances the productivity of the company
providing the required outcome.

Keywords Safety · Construction · Accidents

1 Introduction

Workers in the construction industry are prone for accidents, unsafe work environ-
ment, mishappenings and injuries. In the Indian construction industry, about 80% of
the companies lag in safety aspects. Every year 11,000 workers die in the construction
industry due to unsafe working environments (2017 ILO) [1]. Safety can be explained
as safeguarding oneself from danger, risk or injuries. Safety is considered as an impor-
tant factor in the construction sector because by improving safety, the occurrence of
accidents reduces. By reducing the disaster rate, the progress of the work can be
increased. To improve the safety in construction industry, some safety management
concepts are applied in the industry. In spite of introducing safety management tech-
niques, the Indian construction industry still undergo accidents and unsafe working
condition. To subdue this complication, lean construction techniques were integrated

S. Anandh (B) · S. Sindhu Nachiar (B) · C. S. Sai Abeshek · P. Mariappan

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu 603203, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 413
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_36
414 S. Anandh et al.

along with safety management concepts in the construction. Even after introducing a
safety management system, no big difference was found by the construction industry.
The lean construction concept concentrates on shrinking the time, effort and waste
of resources. The lean concept was firstly initiated in 1990 but was not adopted into
practice back then because of lack of expertise in the concept. Lean construction
not only concentrates on one element of the process but also amplifies the entire
process of construction [2]. Safety is introduced with the lean concept because as
mentioned earlier, lean concepts mainly focuses on reduction of resource, with fewer
resources, the chances of accident occurrence can be lowered. The finest technique
of the lean concept can be attained by enacting this concept with all the employees
of the organization irrespective of their hierarchy. When this is done efficiently, it
helps the construction industries in reduction of unexpected accidents at the work-
sites and also increases the production rate. When safety along with lean concepts is
effectively done, it helps the industry in the production of outstanding projects.

1.1 Lean

Lean is the theory that makes a change in the management and is known as constant
system management. The main aim of lean is to minimize all the forms of waste in
production to make the workflow easy. Lean management studies the customer value
and concentrates on it. The lean concept is to mainly focus on the needs of customers.
It also targets to deliver the correct product in the perfect time and quantity needed
to the customer and not more or less [3]. The benefit of integrating the lean concept
in construction can minimize the cost of construction and the waste produced in
construction. The construction duration can be reduced by a proper executing of
lean planning. Lean techniques in construction enhance the productivity, profit and
customer satisfaction [4]. Lean is a form of traditional construction. The concept of
lean can be divided into six components, namely.
1. Minimization of waste.
2. Planning of production.
3. Focus on the end customer.
4. Continuous improvement.
5. Cooperative relationships.
6. Perspective of the system [5].

1.2 Lean Principles

• Value Specification—Exactly identifies what creates the value from the point of
view of the customers. It comes under the customer satisfaction during hand over
of the product.
Introducing Safety on Construction Industry Along with Lean … 415

• Value stream identification—Perfectly finds all the stages which give exactly
the needs of customer values and eliminate the unwanted which does not add any
value to the customer. It also enhances the performance of the construction work.
• Flow—It ensures the continuity of the workflow in the value stream. And it is a
basic unit that is used for analysis in lean construction.
• Pull—It produces the needs of customers on time without any delay.
• Perfection—Focus on what the customer wants along the minimization of waste.
It also works with the challenges in construction. It undergoes the stages of
understanding the waste, lean techniques, lean thinking and lean implementation.

1.3 Lean Benefits

• Perfectly identify the value of the correct needs of customers.

• Exactly finds the process which gives the needs of the customer.
• Delivers the project in the correct without delaying the work and removing all
non-valve stages in the workflow.
• Makes the workflow smooth and easy.
• Eliminates all forms of wastes.
• Increases the value of the project [3].

1.4 Safety Management Principles

• Management leadership—At the commencement of the project, the top manage-

ment should give commitments regarding the elimination of hazards and assur-
ance to improve workplace safety and health. Managers from all levels should
consider safety as the main objective and set goals accordingly [6, 7]. A written
policy should be given by the top management regarding safety and health and
the employees should be educated about that at the appropriate time.
• Worker participation—Employees from all levels of the management should
be active members of the program which includes identifying and reporting the
accidents, investigating incidents and tracking the progress of the accidents [8, 9].
Communication barriers for employees should be addressed and rectified so there
is no lack of information because of the communication gap. Employees should
not be urged to complete the work by giving them the required time and resources.
• Hazard identification and risk assessment—Incidents, illness and injuries
should be investigated then and there to find the underlying hazards, and priority
for rectification of hazards is based on the degree of risk [10, 11]. High-risk
hazards should be rectified immediately because it causes adverse effects at the
same time low-risk hazards should also be rectified but with a given time gap.
Hazards can be found in various places:
416 S. Anandh et al.

– Electrical hazard.
– Slip, trip and fall hazard.
– Biological hazard.
– Ergonomic problem.
– Fire hazard.
– Chemical hazard.
• Hazard prevention and control measures—Employees having high knowledge
to analyse the conditions that cause hazards must be hired. Day-to-day investi-
gation of the control measures taken should be monitored. The help of certified
safety and health experts can be attained [12, 13]. Serious hazards that cause
injuries or death should be eliminated immediately. The measures or prevention
taken should be improved periodically. Personal protective gears should be used
by the employees to avoid injuries.
• Education and training—All the workers should be educated and trained
about the measures taken and how to work in these conditions [14, 15]. Top-
level management should be educated and trained about the safety concepts for
protecting workers’ right and acknowledging the workers’ reports and concerns.
• Worksite communication and coordination—The employers and employees
should have good communication and coordination which gives both the employer
and employee awareness about the hazards in the worksite, type of hazard and the
reason for the hazard, and also ensures how the work is carried as per the safety
guidelines [16, 17].

1.5 Risks Involved in the Construction Industry

Reduction of hazards and accidents in the construction industry is the major idea
for introducing safety in the construction industry. Accidents are one of the major
causes for productivity loss in the construction industry as it disturbs the workflow
nature. The cause of accidents can be avoided by magnifying the concept of safety
in the industry. The major accidents caused in the industry are as follows:
• Trips and falls—this is the most common type of accident that occurred in the
industry which can be due to even because of the negligible reason. Trips and falls
might lead to the absence of a day or two and can also cause severe injuries such
as fractures and cracks [18].
• Work at height—this type of injury is generally fatal which may also lead to loss
of life in some situations. Generally, this type of fall is classified into two types (i)
fall of workers, (ii) fall of an object on workers in the site. The fall can generally
be from ladders, staircase and temporary platforms set up for scaffoldings [19].
• Risks related to frailty—the risk of injury is caused by fall of objects from height
in the worksite, earthquakes and collision of structures and equipment; frailty can
affect the nearby structures which are already constructed or even new structures
which are under construction; the cause of frailty can be due to failure of design,
improper monitoring [20].
Introducing Safety on Construction Industry Along with Lean … 417

• Electricity risks—these injuries involve electric shocks and burns which are
due to direct contact with live electric lines; these injuries can be very serious
and sometimes causing fatal injuries and the degree of injury depends upon the
voltage capacity they work. These injuries are caused due to improper wiring
in the construction site, using low-quality wire and unintentional contact with
underground cables [21].
• Risks related to gases—these injuries generally lead to loss of life and these are
caused due to inhalation of poisonous gases. During the deep excavation process,
activities such as tunneling are done; during this operation, the employees might
get in contact with these gases which leads to fatal injuries [22].

2 Methodology

Required data for the project can be derived from the questionnaire developed which
were categorized under four different factors as analyzed from the journals studied.

2.1 Scheme of the Work

The representation of the scheme of work followed for this project of interest is given
below. Certain sets of journals were studied and facts were being considered for the
part of the research. From these journals, certain data were understood and taken
to contemplate with the need of this research [23, 24]. Based on the conclusion of
the factors which mainly tend to affect the root, the study is classified from the data
collected from the journals. Questions were prepared from the available sources of
information for this study of research. By studying the provenance of the research,
the type of the mathematical analysis can be withdrawn and put into a course of
action (Fig. 1). Results can be concluded and discussed. A sample of conceptual
model can be developed and made easier for the understanding. And the study can
be concluded for the final dissertation.

2.2 Design of Questionnaire

The questionnaire was classified into six parts.

1. Financial Barriers.
2. Management Barriers.
3. Educational Barriers.
4. Government Barriers.
5. Technical Barriers.
6. Human Attitudinal Barriers.
418 S. Anandh et al.

INDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

LITERATURE REVIEW

IDENTIFYING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING

LEAN CONSTRUCTION AND SAFETY

DESIGNING OF QUESTIONNAIRE

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS USING

MATHEMATICAL TECHNIQUES

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 1 Scheme of work

2.3 Data Analysis and Collection

Initially from the separated factors collected from the literature, a set of 38 questions
were framed, 6 under each factor [25]. Since the study is generalized and Pilot Study
was done. From the pilot study, questionnaire was developed using the Likert Scale
varying from Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree to Strongly Disagree. To
check whether the prepared questionnaire is apt for the project studies, certain tests
like Cronbach’s Alpha Test and the Likert Scale Analysis were done.

2.4 Pilot Study

A pilot study is a preliminary study carried out to check for the feasibility of the
project. It helps in detail prior plan of the project and the extension of profitable
positivity of this study from the history and personal interviews done.
Introducing Safety on Construction Industry Along with Lean … 419

Table 1 The Standard Cronbach alpha table

Cronbach’s alpha Internal consistency
α ≥ 0.9 Excellent
0.9 > α ≥ 0.8 Good
0.8 > α ≥ 0.7 Acceptable
0.7 > α ≥ 0.6 Questionable
0.6 > α ≥ 0.5 Poor
0.5 > α Unacceptable

Table 2 The Cronbach Alpha value

Cronbach’s Alpha, α No. of questions
0.8747 38

2.5 Cronbach’s Alpha Test

Cronbach was utilized for checking the internal consistency of a data and its reliability
of one factor with the rest of it. It is a form of psychiatric test. The theoretical value
ranges from 0 to 1. It has a rule of thumb followed as reliable 0.70 or higher with
0.6 as the slowest as the acceptable threshold. The correlation between the responses
few validating the measure of consistency caused internally, it can be repeated with
various samples till the desired is reached (Table 1).

α = (K /(K − 1)) ∗ (1 − (Si2 /S y2 )) − 1

Where
K is the no. of questions.
S y2 is the variance of the total column.
S i2 is the sum of variance.

From our collected samples, in random 15 samples were selected and Cronbach’s
Alpha Test was carried out. Samples’ value are given below in (Tables 2 and 3).

3 Results and Discussion

The collected primary data was analyzed using the SPSS 16.0. We performed
Descriptive Statistics for the data based on the domains. And One-Way ANOVA test
was performed to find the significant difference between the various domains which
420 S. Anandh et al.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics
Domain Mean Std. deviation
1 39.2 2.38
2 19.7 1.396
3 23.19 1.647
4 15.68 1.207
5 22.96 1.658
6 28.36 2.332

explains about the various barriers of lean construction concept. The below table
gives the Mean and Standard Deviation values of various domains which explains
the barriers of the lean construction concept.
And we performed One-way ANOVA to find out that any significant differences
were found between all barriers of the lean construction concept.
Null Hypothesis: There is so statistically significant difference between the barriers
of the lean construction concept.
Alternative Hypothesis: There is a statistically significant difference among the
barriers of the lean construction concept.
The below table explains about the ANOVA table and gives the p-value as (0.000).
Hence, the p-value is less than 0.05, i.e., (p (0.000) < 0.05). So, we reject the null
hypothesis and concluded this study as there is a statistically significant difference
among the barriers of the lean construction concept (Table 4).
Then we also performed multiple comparison tests for the same dataset, to find
out that there is any difference among the within models (Table 5). The Table 5
shows the multiple comparison test which also suggested that there is a statistically
significant difference among the barriers of lean construction concept, because the
significant value in all these within models is less than the p-value expect Technical
Barriers with Educational Barriers (Fig. 2).
Means Plots

Table 4 ANOVA table

ANOVA
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig
Between groups 23,137.3 5 4627.459 1390.164 0.000
Within groups 1358.116 408 3.329
Total 24,495.41 413
Introducing Safety on Construction Industry Along with Lean … 421

Table 5 Multiple
Multiple comparisons
comparisons table
(I) Scores Sig
Educational barriers 0.000
Government barriers 0.000
Technical barriers 0.000
Human attitudinal barriers 0.000
Financial barriers Management barriers 0.000
Educational barriers 0.000
Government barriers 0.000
Technical barriers 0.000
Human attitudinal barriers 0.000
Educational barriers Management barriers 0.000
Financial barriers 0.000
Government barriers 0.000
Technical barriers 0.976
Human attitudinal barriers 0.000
Government barriers Management barriers 0.000
Financial barriers 0.000
Educational barriers 0.000
Technical barriers 0.000
Human attitudinal barriers 0.000
Technical barriers Management barriers 0.000
Financial barriers 0.000
Educational barriers 0.976
Government barriers 0.000
Human attitudinal barriers 0.000
Human attitudinal barriers Management barriers 0.000
Financial barriers 0.000
Educational barriers 0.000
Government barriers 0.000
Technical barriers 0.000
a The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
422 S. Anandh et al.

Fig. 2 Mean value of various domains

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Implementation of Lean Techniques
in Construction Projects

J. Rajprasad, Pagadala Saimohanreddy, N. Pannirselvam , and S. Manivel

Abstract The Indian construction industry is characterized by major challenges

such as low productivity and time and cost overruns. Poor work structuring is one
of the major causes that leads to low productivity and time and cost overruns. Work
Structuring is defined as a process that tries to align engineering design, supply
chain, resource allocation and execution. The main objective of work structuring is
to make the processes faster and more reliable while delivering the product to the
client. This project mainly focuses on the construction supply chain-related issues
to improve the construction process workflow. There are a lot of non-value-adding
activities or wastes in construction practices and many among those were left unno-
ticed. Earlier studies have shown that there were significant amounts of values loss
due to construction process flow wastes and tremendous productivity improvements
can be achieved by simply targeting at reducing those waste and improve the process
flow. Case studies have been carried out of different construction sites to find out the
various wastes involved in the construction process. This project was conducted on
the basis to study the waste concepts and the level of “leanness” in local construction
practices based on philosophies and principles are drawn by Lean Construction.

Keywords Lean · Productivity · Supply chain · Work flow

J. Rajprasad · P. Saimohanreddy · N. Pannirselvam (B) · S. Manivel

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Tamilnadu,
Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Rajprasad
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Saimohanreddy
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Manivel
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 425
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_37
426 J. Rajprasad et al.

1 Introduction

Construction system is a pivotal area of the nationwide marketplace toward nations

all throughout the globe, while historically it drove up a huge share from the nation’s
entire trade and its notable enrichment to a nation’s wealth as a lump [1]. However,
till now, construction planning activities are yet challenging sundry contingent diffi-
culties that remained confined to be fixed in the earlier era. The chronic problems
of construction development system are entirely identified so as low productivity,
poor safety, inferior working conditions and insufficient quality [2–4]. The aspect
of reduced representation furthermore situations in planning ought to extend held
testified and documented via academics including practitioners everywhere this envi-
ronment although in evolved nations. Now, expanding international race, the inad-
equacy of skillful employees, including some necessary to enhance construction
system attribute hold essential challenges encountered by the production manage-
ment. Reacting to these objections requires an essential requirement to boost potency,
essence plus to consolidate distinct technologies [5–8] inside the manufacturing
industry. A lack of responsiveness can hold back growth, and development of the
needed infrastructure for the construction industries and other key activities in the
country [9, 10]. Regarding the hurdles encountered by the construction develop-
ment industry, copious investigations and investigations ought endured displayed
out for the more prime decades to recognize the reasons of the construction system
predicaments including extraordinary of them ought progressed on to recommend
and justify explications to revise those recognized obstacles. [11, 12] The initial
stage of those researches principally concentrated on the “terminal” surface of the
construction system method amidst the installation of modern technologies and facil-
ities to expedite up the development method and grow overall fertility. According to
the learners and researchers in Lean Construction, the unique construction generation
conception is deposited on the theories of transformation and current method [13,
14]. Consequently, production enhancement possibilities in development package
suddenly be pleaded by assuming decay classification/ mitigation policies in the
discharge methods in similarity with value-adding maneuverings with the installation
of unique supervision accessories and with peculiar practice and training schedules
[15–17].

2 Literature Background

According to the construction industry development bureau, there was 26% customer
dissatisfaction, 33 quality problems that were not acceptable, 25% defects that were
not acceptable and safety remains a concern with the construction industry.
Implementation of Lean Techniques in Construction Projects 427

2.1 Lean Construction

Lauri Koskela (1996) [18] proposed the idea of lean in the construction industry. This
method of lean construction understands that three schools of thought have developed
in production management and that those ideas are vertically interconnected: one
chooses the transformed view “T”, the other the flow view “F” and the third flow
view “V”.

2.2 Lean Project Delivery

Lean construction adopts an integrated and systematic view of project delivery, under-
standing that the project delivery system may be observed at different levels. Lean
Project Delivery System (LPDS) tools promote effective plan and control, high value
reducing wastes during the construction process [19, 20]. The LPDS design has
eleven modules, designed into five triads or phases expanding from project defini-
tion to lean design to supply, then assembly and use. The LPDS has work structuring
and production control modules (Fig. 1).
According to Ballard [6], the Lean Project delivery has the following four phases
• Project definition
• Lean design
• Lean supply
• Lean assembly

Fig. 1 Lean project delivery system

428 J. Rajprasad et al.

2.3 Lean Supply System

Arbulu and Ballard [4] this journal recommends a procedure to develop the control
of supply methods in construction utilizing lean principles and techniques. The aim
is to assure on-time transfer of data and elements to the project place at a minimum
value and highest profit for the final client, the principal median for fulfilling this
goal is to perform supply management purposes with the shortest waste: e.g. low
supply and market safety, huge records not required to understand the variability and
solid waste. The article investigates supply complexity in construction to properly
explain where several varieties of waste are introduced. The plan offers the use of a
web-based tool based on the latest executive method to enhance designing safety to
direct variability remains decreased, the use of local logistics hubs toward delivery
of components to places, the use of kanban techniques to draw elected elements
on a just in time base, and a link connecting production management and supply
management process at a site.

3 Methodology

A review of literature on lean construction, lean project delivery system, supply chain
management, etc., were carried out in order to fulfill the following purposes:
• To understand the concept of lean techniques
• Need for lean construction management in construction industry
• To suggest suitable measures to optimize the construction supply chains
Work sampling was carried out, to calculate the amount of time, the laborers remain
idle as a consequence of the non-arrival of material in the site to emphasize the loss
caused in labor productivity as a result of poor management of the supply chain.
However, in work sampling, the main concern is with the measurement of labor
productivity. Although it does not provide a direct measurement of labor productivity
yet work sampling can be used as an indicator of labor productivity. As the objective of
the work sampling is to calculate the idle time of time of laborers due to material delay
the modified work sampling was conducted at selected workplaces where laborers
were employed as planned but work was not in progress as there were delays in
bringing the materials to the workplace. This delay may be either due to the failure
of the supplier in supplying the materials or due to the transportation in shifting the
materials from the storage yard. The laborers were observed approximately for twenty
seconds and were then classified as either, productive, idle or in travel. Similarly, ten
to twelve cycles of observation were made and then average number of workers in
each category was calculated. Similar kind of work sampling was carried in all the
sites for formwork, reinforcements and concreting activities to enable to correlate
the idleness of the laborers to the supply chain.
Implementation of Lean Techniques in Construction Projects 429

4 Data Collection

The sample taken for the study is a residential complex project consisting of twenty-
four blocks each of which is a G + 4 storey building. The project is located in Nellore.
The project duration is two years.

4.1 Issue Recognition

The site does not have a proper material storage yard and hence it was difficult to
track the number of materials available on the site. Hence random materials orders
were placed to the regional office. A considerable amount of time is required to
pass the indents to the regional office to get the materials delivered to the site. As a
consequence of this, the project encountered a material delay.
Poor housekeeping added to the problem of placing unnecessary material orders
which resulted in improper stacking of materials since there was a space constraint.
When steel was unloaded 8mm and l0mm were placed one on top of the other.
Practically it is difficult to differentiate between 8 and 10 mm bars.
The buildings were built of concrete blocks. So initially they faced problems in
finding suppliers who can provide the right quantity of concrete blocks at the right
time. But the suppliers couldn’t send full truck loads as concrete blocks were very
heavy. So, the company had to go for multiple suppliers which in later stages proved
to be non-manageable. Hence, they planned to have their casting yard to meet their
demands.
A large amount of idle time was observed among the laborers who were employed
on the third floor of block B-2 where work was not in progress as a result of the
material delay. As 8 mm bars were not available on the site to meet the project
deadline 10 mm bars were laid to complete the activity. Figure 2 shows the supply
chain for formwork, reinforcement, and concrete activities. The supply chain looks
manageable with very few suppliers. Yet they faced problems on the site regarding
the material delay.

5 Data Analysis

An attempt has been made to bring out the various problems that arise due to the
poor management of the construction supply chains and specific issues regarding the
material delay in each site is discussed in detail in the following chapter. From the
data analysis made, few problems existed as common problems in all the sites. As
there was a scope to perform logistics management in Project, logistics management
was carried out to optimize its supply chain and to manage its supply chain in a better
way.
430 J. Rajprasad et al.

Fig. 2 Supply chain for the residential project

A modified work sampling technique is adopted in the projects to calculate the

idle time of laborers due to the non-arrival of material in the site and due to the delay
in shifting the materials from the storage yard to the workplace. However, in Project,
there were no such delays and the problem of non-arrival of material on the site. The
idleness that prevails among the laborers is attributed to various other reasons which
are beyond the scope of this project. As the objective of the work sampling is to
calculate the idle time of laborers due to material delay the modified work sampling
was conducted at selected workplaces where laborers were employed as planned
but work was not in progress as there were delays in bringing the materials to the
workplace. This delay may be either due to the failure of the supplier in supplying
the materials or due to the transportation in shifting the materials from the storage
yard. The laborers were observed approximately for twenty seconds and were then
classified as either, productive, idle, or in travel. Similarly, ten to twelve cycles of
observation were made, and then an average number of workers in each category was
calculated. Similar kinds of work sampling were carried in all the sites for formwork,
reinforcements, and concreting activities to enable to correlate the idleness of the
laborers to the supply chain. The tabulated work sampling data was collected from
the sites.
Implementation of Lean Techniques in Construction Projects 431

Table 1 Aspects analyzed from this project

S. no. Aspects Discussion
1 Nature of existing supply chain Simple and less number of suppliers
2 Site layout and material handling Material storage yards do not have
adequate capacity and poor material
handling
3 Supply management Centralized process
4 Delays encountered due to non-arrival Delays were encountered
of materials
5 Effect on labor productivity due to Labor productivity was severely affected
non-arrival of materials
6 Inventory tracking system Not practiced

5.1 Aspects Analyzed from this Project

A complete supply analysis has been done in this project for that I have analyzed
some of the aspects regarding this project (Table 1).

5.2 Work Sampling Data for Residential Project

(Reinforcement)

A large amount of idle time was observed among the laborers who were employed on
the third floor of block B-2 where work was not in progress as a result of the material
delay. As 8 mm bars were not available on the site to meet the project deadline 10
mm bars were laid to complete the activity. The work sampling result carried out for
reinforcement activity in this site is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Work sampling for

reinforcement activity in
project
432 J. Rajprasad et al.

Table 2 Work sampling data

Time Productive Idle Travel
for residential project
11:05–11:17 AM 15 17 3
11:20–11:34 23 14 4
I 1:40–11:54 19 16 0
12:00–12:15 PM 20 15 1
12:20–12:24 21 16 0
12:25–12:37 20 14 2
12:40–12:53 15 15 6
Average 19 15 2
Percentage 53 42 5

Lean Construction is a sequence of the initiation of the latest model of production

management that presents a structured format in which method can be redesigned.
As a result of reduction of labor hours which is ease for construction (Table 2).

5.3 Proposed Lean Steps to Optimize the Supply Chain

Following are the steps that should be followed to control the non-value-added
activities
• Get the monthly schedule from the planning department
• Study of the site layout to allocate storage yards and batching plants
• Storage yard capacity would be decided based on the monthly
• Quantities of materials required.
• Planning of proper access routes for mixers and trucks
• Plan for buffer storages.
• Proper record of inventories on site.
• Material tracking is very useful to control the high inventories.
• Material logistics in the site can be optimized with least cost.

6 Conclusion

This report has recognized and explained the various lean practices performed in the
construction industry and their advantages in sustainability. Based on the decisions,
the subsequent conclusions are made
The following are the conclusions drawn from the analyzed case studies:
• Lean construction is a result of starting new form of production management.
• Lean thinking provides a structured arrangement in which the method can be
redesigned.
Implementation of Lean Techniques in Construction Projects 433

• Redesigned process is a result of modification of labor hours which is efficient

for construction.
• The proposed strategy targets the reduction of demand variability by stabilizing
workflow on site.
• Material tracking is very useful to control the inventories.

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Consequence of Communication Problem
for Higher Authority of Construction
Industry in India

J. Rajprasad, Manish Prasad, and N. Pannirselvam

Abstract The construction industry has a challenging working environment, in

which communication is a key factor among the individuals involved in management
(technical team). In the construction industry, people who are in different positions in
the company may have ego/status problems among themself. Higher authority may
or may not support the junior level employees to come forward and may not share
project-specific information. So, lack of communication results in a poor working
environment and mutual understanding between employees. In this study, exami-
nation of communication problems and their impacts are observed. This study is
based on the parameters like cultural differences, gender differences, language, and
physical barriers. The questionnaire approach is used to perform this study. The data
obtained through the questionnaire is analyzed using the software. The main aim
of the study is to establish a better framework for effective communication in the
construction industry.

Keywords Attitude · Cultural differences · Labor productivity · Lack of

motivation · Working environment

1 Introduction

The process of giving, receiving, and sharing information is known as communi-

cation; in other words, communicating, writing, and listening or reading is the act
of communication [1]. Effective communicators pay attention to what people say,
speak, or write simply and respect differing views. This research assesses the impact

J. Rajprasad · M. Prasad · N. Pannirselvam (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Rajprasad
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Prasad
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 435
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_38
436 J. Rajprasad et al.

of effective communication problems for the higher authority of construction in

India. Communication is one aspect of management that affects and influences all
the other attributes in an organization [2]. Construction has a project-based nature
as a decentralized and competitive market. Very commonly, difficulties with the
design are known as problems of communication. The building field forms a dynamic
collaboration landscape due to its particular characteristics [3]. A reality of conflicts
and a loss of mutual love and trust are posed by society [4]. This research aims
to enhance coordination in a comprehensive literature review on communication in
construction that was undertaken to describe the issue in more depth. To achieve the
study objective, and in India, interviews with experts in the field of construction were
performed. This research has been done on various civil projects with a perspective of
findings, results, and conclusions. In the successful execution of these projects, labor
productivity, cultural differences, attitude, and lack of motivation, making a good
working environment is a key determinant. Communication between the construc-
tion manager and the design team was identified as crucial to ensuring that the goals
of the project were met [5]. Communication means have been categorized as formed
written technological material and informal verbal communication [6–8]. Construc-
tion managers in Israel also use casual contacts in 50% of their encounters with
their colleagues in the project. This research offers a feasible assessment instru-
ment to analyze several theorized contact patterns within the IPD team [9–13]. As
noted above, these behaviors include tracking sensitive details considered pertinent
to the IPD initiative, cultivating an environment that encourages the challenge of the
status quo, negotiating workable resolutions when possible, and maintaining team
boundaries with the use of a specific project coordinator [14–18]. Multiculturalism
is becoming more prevalent in the building industry [19]. The managerial task of
managing a diverse workforce is immense, not least in terms of maintaining efficient
coordination among the different cultural classes [19]. This paper looks at the chal-
lenges of leading workers who aren’t fluent in the native tongue of their workplace.
It concentrates on the issues that have been encountered in two English-speaking
countries (Australia and Singapore) and upon interactions between English-speaking
managers and non-English-speaking operatives.

2 Literature Background

Communication issues are at the core of the building management selection process.
The ever-hanging sophistication of the schemes, the increasing need for fast-track
construction and the overlap between the specific phases of the cooperation of the
parties involved one of the favored sourcing approaches for fast-track construction.
Consequence of Communication Problem for Higher Authority … 437

2.1 Causes of Conflicts in the Construction Industry:

A Communicational Approach

The author examines the roots of construction industry disputes between clients and
contractors. The majority of contemporary scholars point to publicly evident indica-
tors of conflict as the causes of conflict, according to an overview of publications on
the topic. According to the writers, the primary source of controversy in the building
industry is a breakdown of coordination between the customer and the contractor [20].

2.2 Communication Problems with Ethnic Minorities

in the Construction Industry

Multiculturalism is becoming more prevalent in the building industry. The managerial

task of managing a diverse workforce is immense, not least in terms of maintaining
efficient coordination among the different cultural classes. It is concluded that
English is often the minority language on-site and is restricted to the administrative
stage, although there are few attempts to address the connectivity issues that may
emerge [21–23].

3 Methodology

Several journals have been gone through to gather many information and parameter
for research work. In my research, eight parameters (cultural differences, gender
differences, language barriers, physical barriers, listening problems, lack of motiva-
tion, emotional, and verbal communication) play a vital role in research. This paper
briefly covers how this research was carried out, the types of data collected, the data
storage, and the data analysis processes used. It also discusses how information is
presented, provides a background against which the findings are treated, and contains
the research design and data sources. The other step is expert consulting in which
to approach a well-known person who is a management expert. In this research, 30
questions related to research work have been formed which help to gather survey.
The question is formed according to the parameter of communication problems.
The question is distributed to various construction company employees. They have
taken their time to understand the questions and give the responses according to their
conditions. 53 responses were sent on excel for analysis work and 25 have responded.
438 J. Rajprasad et al.

3.1 Data Collection

The data collection has been done in construction companies in India. The company
handles all types of civil works. They have a large number of employees in the
company in the form of higher authority and labor but here the research focus is
on the higher authority. The questionnaire was used to gather data from an Indian
construction company. The research is being performed by various construction
companies. The questionnaires were circulated by Google Forms to the company’s
higher management. The respondents used Google Forms to answer the questions
and quickly returned the questionnaires to the coordinators. The questionnaire took
10–20 min to complete. They were interested to be a part of this survey. They were
allowed to answer the questions individually and were expected to fill out the ques-
tionnaire according to their perception. Once the study was done at a place, the
researchers retrieved all of the questionnaires.

3.2 Data Analysis Methodology

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used for the study to assess the variables and
select the main variables for convergent validity and reliability. The confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was subsequently used to confirm the factor structure derived
from the EFA. This methodology will deal with not only linear combinations that
are similar to multiple regressions, but also the model fit of a variety of endogenous
variables, exogenous variables, and latent structures in the test model at the same
time.

4 Results and Discussion

These results demonstrate that, because of their high position and realistic familiarity
with higher Authority in the construction industry, these respondents are suitable for
this review. The below graph (Fig. 1) describes the whole research questions that
were asked at the time of the survey which are shown in the form of responses. Each
question contains separate bars which are indicated by different types of legend which
contain different colors. The legend contains numbers of responses got through the
survey according to questions scores. The responses indicate which questions have
more or fewer impacts on the research and graphs show which factors played more
role in research.
The above respondent’s responses are reduced to eight factors. There are eight
questions from several domains that fall under the first category and another eight
questions from several domains that fall under the second category. Table 1 gives the
factor score for all the questions taken for study. The domains which are considered in
Consequence of Communication Problem for Higher Authority … 439

QUESTIONS RESPONSES
25
NO. OF RESPONSES

20
15
10
5
0
Do local…
Does your…

On your…
Does your…
Does your…

Does your…
Does your…
Does your…
Does your…

Does your…

Does your…

Does your…

Does your…

Does your…
Does your…
Does your…
Does your…
Do your…

Are you…

Are you…

Are you…
Have you…

Do you…

Have you…
Do you…

Do you…
Due to…

Due to…
Due to…

When…
Strongly Disagree Disagree Somewhat Disagree
Neither Agree (nor) Disagree Somewhat Agree Agree
Strong Agree

Fig. 1 Graphical representation of questions responses

Table 1 Total variance explained

Total variance
Component Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of
squared loadings
Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 4.898 16.327 16.327 4.898 16.327 16.327
2 4.392 14.639 30.966 4.392 14.639 30.966
3 2.926 9.752 40.718 2.926 9.752 40.718
4 2.136 7.121 47.839 2.136 7.121 47.839
5 1.947 6.491 54.331 1.947 6.491 54.331
6 1.550 5.165 59.496 1.550 5.165 59.496
7 1.475 4.918 64.414 1.475 4.918 64.414
8 1.433 4.778 69.192 1.433 4.778 69.192
9 1.083 3.609 72.800 1.083 3.609 72.800

the study are cultural difference, gender difference, language barrier, physical barrier,
listening barrier, and lack of motivation. To study the effects of communication
problem for the higher authority of construction, the following domains play a major
role in our study. Almost 40% of the study can be easily predicted through the first
three factors. The total variance is given in above (Table 1).
The data collected is analyzed by the factor analyze method with 30 components
and eight parameters. The values obtained from data analysis are shown in the form
of Table 1. The table contains 30 components and its eight parameters which are
used in the survey. The parameters show the largest component score of the indi-
vidual question shown in the graph. All 30 components are divided equally into eight
parameters by score obtained in the survey. According to that, total variance table
and scree plot graph are formed which are shown in above figure. In the total variance
440 J. Rajprasad et al.

table, the component column is the combination of all 30 questions in the form of
eight parameters. Eight questions fall under the first parameter which has a 4.898
total value and 16.327% cumulative percentage. In the same way, it goes up to eight
parameters which have a 1.433 total value and 69.192% cumulative percentage. The
other one is nine parameters and it doesn’t contain a high value and it’s also reflected
on the graph which shows less importance in the study. The scree plot is a graph that
shows the eigenvalues concerning all of the variables. The graph can be implemented
to determine how many variables can be used according to their values. Where the
curve begins to flatten is the point of concern. The component number on the x-axis
shows the 30 questions and the eigenvalue on the y-axis shows the value of total
variance from 0 to 5. In graph, component one having a 4.898 value has 16.327%.
Component 2 having a 4.392 total value has 30.966% cumulative. The graph goes in
this sequence up to eight parameters which contain 69% of total information from
1 to 8 parameters and the remaining from 9 to 30 components contain 31% of the
information because from 9 to 30 questions graph goes in the same line which shows
the less impact on research (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Scree plot graph from Q1 to Q30

Consequence of Communication Problem for Higher Authority … 441

5 Conclusion

This study investigated the communication problem for higher authority in the
construction industry. It is focused on the problem in the project delivered by
the higher authority of construction companies. So that totally eight parameters
and 30 different questions have been surveyed in existing companies to find out
the problem of communication. After detailed analysis, the factors considered are
analyzed through the factor analysis method. In this method, it is revealed that
informal communications continue to be highly important in ensuring the efficiency
of the construction manager. The 69% of cumulative represented in eight parameters
consist of important questions that played a vital role in research and 31% containing
remaining questions which have fewer impact on research work. There is almost 40%
of the study which can be easily predicted through the first three factors with the vari-
ance of 16.327, 14.639, and 9.752% and the remaining five factors containing the
variance of 7.121, 6.491, 5.165, 4.918, 4.778, and 3.609%. The cultural differences,
gender differences, and language barriers followed by physical barriers, listening
problems, lack of motivation, emotional and verbal communication play major roles
in survey companies. So, it should be focused on these parameters for effective
communication.

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Influence of Intellectual Behaviour
of Labour in Construction Industry

J. Rajprasad, Ummadisettisaisravan, N. Pannirselvam , and S. Manivel

Abstract The construction industry and its business have a significant part in the
country’s economy and development. It is considered as the most testing, serious,
open, and risky workspace. As this study relies upon the intellectual behaviour
of labour in the construction industry, the recognised and focused parameters are
personal stress, occupational stress, personal temperament, emotional disturbances,
habits, working environment, and climatic conditions. This assessment revolves
around the intellectual behaviour of labour when they are influenced by stress and
pressure. The survey technique embraced in this investigation depending upon the
referenced parameters and information got through the poll and is examined by SPSS
software. This assessment makes recommendations to restrict the stress of labour and
the pressure of works and along this fabricates the construction work profitability
(construction productivity). The results reveal that routine issues, stress, helpless
correspondence, between private issues within the company, fixed time spans, wage
issues, absence of occupation information, work movements, work burdens, and
absence of inspiration and motivation are the dominant factors, which causes stress
in labour. The stress and pressure also vary according to age. The necessary recom-
mendations are plotted in order to limit the stress in labour according to the factors
considered through which fruitful health of labour can be maintained and, thus, helps
in construction work profitability.

Keywords Construction work profitability · Intellectual behaviour · Inter-personal

conflicts · Stress and pressure

J. Rajprasad · Ummadisettisaisravan · N. Pannirselvam (B) · S. Manivel

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Rajprasad
e-mail: [email protected]
Ummadisettisaisravan
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Manivel
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 443
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_39
444 J. Rajprasad et al.

1 Introduction

The construction industry is the second biggest industry in India after agriculture. It
represents about 11% of India’s GDP. It makes a critical commitment to the public
economy and improvement and gives work to an enormous number of individuals.
The construction process requires a lot of physical activities that cause a lot of stress
to the labour. Managing stress plays a vital role in the construction industry in order to
increase job satisfaction and performance [1]. If the employee has carried away with
stress, it can result to aggressiveness, delay in project completion, failure in safety,
low job satisfaction and many more [2–4]. The stress may be physical, emotional
(or) any other type with respect to the person.
Occupation stress alludes to an augmentation of general pressure: the idea of
occupation stress is unique about general pressure, in that, work pressure is explic-
itly a consequence of work settings [5–7]. In work settings, different components
can cause pressure, for example, the work task, the work environment, the work
qualities, job strife, or specialist abilities [8]. Occupation stress undermines the well-
being of the specialists and harms their work execution. Nonetheless, through poll
studies, labourers can recognise their work pressure partly by abstractly depicting
and rating the pressing factor. Studies have shown that delayed, significant level occu-
pation stress can cause mental pressure, bringing about abnormal working stances
and, therefore, hazardous conduct. The work pressure of bleeding-edge development
labourers is remarkably high because of the great intricacy of their undertakings, a
considerable lot of which are led in a brutal and dynamic climate [3]. However,
this exploration is to build up a more extensive and more profound viewpoint of
the elements affecting the profitability and give direction to projects and develop-
ment managers for proficient use of the labour, hence, helping with accomplishing
a healthy degree of efficiency and seriousness [9, 10].

2 Literature Background

In this part, the literature study is done to investigate the factors influencing the work
pressure of construction labour and their intellectual behaviour when influenced by
stress and to empower the improvement of a suitable occupation stress estimation
survey. The related works in the application of occupational stress, scholarly work
behaviour, and the examination of the relationship between work pressure and work
profitability. The point of this examination is to recognise factors influencing work
efficiency and to rank the factors as indicated by their overall significance and analyse
them using SPSS software.
Influence of Intellectual Behaviour of Labour … 445

2.1 Personal and Habitual

The personal life of the construction labour has a significant impact on his work
productivity. Labour with family problems, lack of personal peace and no job support
or no moral support from his family members cannot concentrate while at work,
which has a negative impact on productivity. As well as the day-to-day habitual
nature of the labour also has the same impact on work productivity.

2.2 Workload

The workload is the measure of work an individual needs to do. There is a qualification
between the real measure of work and the person’s perception of the workload.
For instance, an individual may feel under tension if the requests of their work
(like hours or responsibilities) are more prominent than they can easily oversee.
Different wellsprings of business-related pressure incorporate clash with colleagues
or managers, consistent change, and dangers to employer stability, like expected
repetition.

2.3 Low Wages

The wage criteria and its payments influence the labour towards their work. If they
are paid low wages, it does not influence them more towards work and if they are
paid with different wage criteria among themselves, then there arrive the conflicts
and decrease in productivity and mental stress in the labour.

2.4 Lack of Motivation

It plays a major role in encouraging the labour towards the work and its productivity.
Motivation by the organisation can be in any way either in the form of encouraging
speeches or increase in wages or by providing any special allowances.

2.5 Lack of Training and Experience

Lack of training can lead to more frustration, wasted time, and unhappy employees
and having employees who feel as though they are not developing and are becoming
frustrated with their work. Inadequately trained employees are likely to experience
poor job performance and increased levels of work-related stress [11, 12].
446 J. Rajprasad et al.

2.6 Poor Communication

Labour faces many problems in communicating with the workers, with the site engi-
neers and managers and also with the higher authorities of the organisation, because
of the fear of communication and lack of job knowledge and other various reasons.
So, these all factors also a major role in increasing the stress levels in labour, resulting
in a decrease in productivity.

2.7 Relation Between Stress and Labour Productivity

An increase in stress levels leads to reduced productivity and increased satisfaction

leads to increased productivity. While the labour is performing work in the field,
they begin their mind to overlap with the personal life, which gives a negative impact
and affects the construction productivity. Quality work is based on conscientious-
ness and enthusiasm of labour in the workplace. Many of the labour cannot control
their stress and anxiety and causes biggest threats to construction productivity and
which affects the company in the end. The labour cannot maintain their presence
of mind and body mentally if they are subjected to stress. Nevertheless, physically
they may be present at the workplace but mentally they cannot follow or listen to the
instructions and orders given to them. So, this not only causes effect on construction
productivity but also conflicts among the labour and the administration also and,
thus, creates an unsafe and conflicts influenced environment. Workload, work shifts,
poor communication, wage differences, lack of training and motivation are termed as
major parameters of stress, which also increases the aggressive nature of labour and,
hence, the above-stated situations may occur causing the decrease in productivity
and delay of projects and conflicts, etc.

3 Methodology

Through the literature review, the study on stress and its major parameters influencing
the stress of construction labour is done and the parameters considered are workload,
work shifts, poor communication, wage differences, lack of training and motivation
[13, 14]. The design of the personal and job stress questions is plotted [15]. Further,
the survey on the labour is done to verify the questionnaire prepared with consid-
ered parameters. The information on the pressure of the construction labourers was
acquired through the questionnaire survey [16]. Finally, the obtained questionnaire
data are analysed in SPSS software. The results and discussions are plotted and the
methodology followed is presented in Fig. 1.
Influence of Intellectual Behaviour of Labour … 447

Fig. 1 Methodology

4 Data Collection

The collection of questionnaire data is done in Vijayawada city located in Andhra

Pradesh, India. The data are obtained from the companies performing all types
of construction and infrastructure works in Vijayawada and its premises. As this
study is mainly focused on the labour and their intellectual behaviour when influ-
enced by stress, so the questionnaire survey on labour is done with a total of 100
responses, which were designed according to the parameters influencing the intel-
lectual behaviour of labour. The questions made were closed-end questions, so the
labours have to answer it surely. There was a division of seven options for each
question and labours were made to answer by choosing those options. Each option
is ranked accordingly and used for further analysis.

4.1 Data Analysis

The obtained data through a questionnaire survey is interpreted in the excel sheet as an
individual response and also in summary form. The questionnaire data are analysed
using excel and recorded responses are represented with the help of pie bar charts.
After that, the factor analysis is done in SPSS software. Exploratory factor analysis
was performed to evaluate the variables and to pick the main variables for convergent
validity and reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis was subsequently used to
confirm the factor structure derived from the exploratory factor analysis.
448 J. Rajprasad et al.

5 Results and Discussion

The questionnaire survey results are projected in the form of graphical representation
by analysing them in the excel software according to responses given by the labour.
The graphical representation of each parameter considered is plotted accordingly.
The bar chart method is used to plot the results with its legend declaration with its
individual colour accordingly (Fig. 2). The responses comply with the major factors
causing the stress in labour and the results plotted graphically show which parameters
have a huge and tiny impact on labour stress and their intellectual behaviour (Fig. 3).
The domains we considered in our study are personal and habitual, workload,
wages, lack of job knowledge, communication and lack of motivation. To study
the intellectual behaviour of labour when influenced by stress, the above-mentioned
domains play a major role in our study. Almost 50% of the study can be easily
predicted through the first three factors. The total variance is given in Table 1.
In this study, the parameter-wise stress questionnaire of the construction labour
was developed, and the responses recorded were analysed accordingly and plotted
the graph for the six factors, i.e., personal and habitual, workload, wage differences,
communication and language barriers and motivation as shown in Fig. 1. Through the
factor analysis, personal and habitual, workload and working hours, wage differences
have a major impact on labour stress levels and their intellectual behaviour. The
reason behind this may be that the construction workers keep all their effort to finish
the jobs when the projects have tight schedules, high intensity, and heavy tasks [7,
17, 18]. The labour who has personal and family-related issues get influenced by
stress when assigned work and cannot focus on the work totally and results in a

Fig. 2 Graphical representation of questionnaire analysis

Influence of Intellectual Behaviour of Labour … 449

Fig. 3 Plot graph for 1–30 questions

Table 1 Total variance explained

Component Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative
%
1 5.523 18.411 18.411 5.523 18.411 18.411
2 2.907 9.691 28.102 2.907 9.691 28.102
3 2.456 8.187 36.289 2.456 8.187 36.289
4 1.898 6.328 42.617 1.898 6.328 42.617
5 1.841 6.136 48.753 1.841 6.136 48.753
6 1.491 4.969 53.722 1.491 4.969 53.722
7 1.333 4.444 58.166 1.333 4.444 58.166
8 1.280 4.267 62.433 1.280 4.267 62.433
9 1.117 3.723 66.157 1.117 3.723 66.157
10 1.066 3.553 69.709 1.066 3.553 69.709
11 1.004 3.347 73.056 1.004 3.347 73.056
450 J. Rajprasad et al.

decrease in productivity. If the labour was assigned with a task, which is more than
his perceptional workload, then labours get influenced by stress, and their behaviour
and dedication towards work vary. For certain labourers, they do not get sufficient
time for rest, simultaneously, they are more averse to give positive efficiency [19].
Lack of job knowledge, communication and language barriers and motivation were
second lowest negatively related to intellectual behaviour of labour and construction
productivity. This indicates that they have the second most significant negative impact
on stress and intellectual behaviour of construction labour.
At long last, the speculation of the current outcomes actually should be mindful,
as the sample is especially from Vijayawada of Andhra Pradesh, India and further
collected from all sorts of construction and infrastructure companies. Hence, its
application varies from the labour of state to state who belong to different construction
companies.

6 Conclusion

(1) Construction workers usually work in a complex physical environment. This

straightforwardly impacts their feelings of anxiety and intellectual behaviour.
This study was conducted to identify the intellectual behaviour of labour when
influenced by stress with the help of a questionnaire method structured on the
identified parameters.
(2) The majority of the labours were suffering due to the workload and immense
pressure from higher authorities and do not even speak up for some work shifts
and work intervals in the fear of losing job and get influenced by stress and,
hence, results in a change in their behaviour.
(3) The labours are working in a helpless workplace without appropriate shelter
and helpless food. Most of the labours are working 10–12 h a day but earn
a low wage. There are some problems noticed among themselves, where the
experienced and some favoured labours are paid higher wages than the others.
This is a major reason for the stress increase in labour and also leads to conflicts
among themselves and with the organisation. So, this region should be perfectly
balanced by the companies.
(4) This examination contributes to the current stress-management research by
creating the design of a poll on labour work pressure, including personal and
constant nature, workloads, family–work strife, wage contrasts, hierarchical
style of inspiration, relational relationship.
(5) The examination shows that the created work pressure can uphold the investi-
gation on the connection between work pressure and construction productivity.
The personal, job-related stress, workload, wage differences contrarily affect
the conduct of development labourers. Hierarchical style of inspiration, rela-
tional relationship, communication and language barriers, and family–work
Influence of Intellectual Behaviour of Labour … 451

strife are second most considered factors, which have a relatively high impact
on labour and get influenced by stress and, thus, the productivity rate decreases
and the organisational goals cannot be achieved in a timely basis and results
in loss of a company.

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Impact of Risk Assessment in Project
Execution and Its Mitigation Strategies
Using Modern Automation

Praddyumna Shrikrishna Shendurkar, Mayur Shirish Jain,

and J. S. Sudarsan

Abstract India’s construction industry grew by 5.6% in 2016–20, compared to 2.9%

in 2011–2015. In the year 2017, of the 762 construction projects in India tracked by
the Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation, Government of India, a total
of 215 projects have been delayed over a period of 1 to 261 months that surge esti-
mated project cost. The various reasons for delay include practicing conventional
planning strategies and execution. Indian construction industries, therefore, need
smart tools to overcome any such challenges in the future. Building Information
Modeling (BIM) is a smart 3D model-based process that provides insight and tools
to architecture, engineering, and construction experts to design and build infras-
tructure more effectively. A case study on BIM vs manual cost estimation showed
that quantities calculated by BIM/Revit Software are more accurate than manual.
The earlier studies estimated that implementation of BIM reduces project costs by
20%. It will help improve the quality of work with proper planning and adhering
to the project cost and duration. The study recommends that construction industry
in India should adopt BIM/Revit tools to minimize delay in the projects to become
cost-efficient in project completion.

Keywords BIM · Project delay · Cost reduction

1 Introduction

Indian Construction Industry contributes to the enormous scope of development

in the country. However, major infrastructure projects get delayed, which not only
leads to the increased cost of the project but the services received are also delayed.
In 2019, as per the record of 552 projects that had been delayed, in the range of

P. S. Shendurkar (B) · M. S. Jain · J. S. Sudarsan

National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune, India
M. S. Jain
e-mail: [email protected]
J. S. Sudarsan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 453
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_40
454 P. S. Shendurkar et al.

1–12 months 187 projects have overall delay, 13–24 months a total 121 projects,
surprisingly in the range of 25–60 months a total of 132 projects reflect the delay
and 112 show delay of 61 months and above [1]. The main factor causing the time
delay in project funding, lack of data collection and pre-design survey, which further
increases to improper calculation of project costs and inadequate project preparation
and implementation [2].
Timely completion of projects is an indicator of an efficient construction practice,
but it is subject to a variety of resources and irrelevant features. These resources
include group activities, availability of equipment, environmental conditions, partic-
ipation of other parties and contractual relations. However, it is not uncommon for
a project to be completed in a specific period of time. For an instance, the case of
Bandra-Worli sea links the state of the project implementation system in the country.
The project, which was to be completed in 2004 at a cost of Rs 300 crore, but actually
the cost escalated to Rs. 1,600 crore and took five years to complete [3]. In fact, very
few projects are completed within time and expense. Many factors can lead to delays
in the project completion, therefore, there is a need of an alternative approach on
how to avoid such situations.
Construction industries are, consisting of project work planning, time planning,
evaluation, project progress, and monitoring of all project activities. Building asso-
ciations such as infrastructure, energy and communications and related construction
activities, water supply and disposal construction work, etc., are some of the construc-
tion activities of the construction industry. From administrative work (planning, oper-
ation, execution, monitoring), planning can be related to project completion time and
related to time delays. If the length of the project (the actual duration of the actual
work) is more than the detailed completion date in the contract document or more
than the date the project owner and contractor agreed on the project transfer, and the
expected duration is considered a delay [4]. This is when a project is out of date, and
it requires additional construction costs and additional work time before a formal
agreement can be reached in the contract document. For contract holders or project
developers, the loss of large sums of money due to time-consuming work, higher
construction costs due to inflation, increased labor costs. Often the delays in the
construction industry are many times related to time management, quality and cost
[5]. The construction project is recognized as successful when completed on time,
within budget, according to the details and satisfaction of the clients. Delays increase
workflow and late project completion leading to customer and client disagreements
[6]. This can lead to disruption of project progress and loss of services, and increase
costs associated with time, and ultimately, can lead to termination of the construction
project and its contract. Hence the study highlights the importance of utilization of
BIM so as to mitigate such risks.
Impact of Risk Assessment in Project Execution … 455

2 Literature Review

Patil et al. [7] studied the possible causes of the delay in the questionnaire because
they believed it was the best way to gather the necessary information. The question-
naire was designed and distributed to government clients who are responsible for
community projects, businesses, entrepreneurs and their supervisors overseeing these
activities. The list of research questions includes: Choice reasons for delays identified
through literary review and consultation with other construction industry partners. It
was clear that the consultant had little role to play in mediating construction delays.
Mali and Warudkar [8] states that construction delays as delivery later than the date
of the contract or after the date when the parties involved agreed on the delivery of
the project. In both cases, delays are often an expensive or time-consuming process.
They did this by searching for literature on the causes of delays and secondly by
marking critical issues among all nine categories by taking discussions of several
sites and identifying the most sensitive items in the “Average Index” basis. The
scope of the study includes large private houses and commercial buildings. Given
this measure, a list of questionnaires was distributed periodically to 30 contractors
representing different information and the performance of contractors working on
a major project. In this way, the questionnaire provided the actual respondent. This
communication method is for returning 23 completed contractor questions. Their
research results showed that most of the delay factors are related to the contractor
and the material. Many of the factors associated with the consultant are due to a
lack of understanding of customer needs, lack of relevant project details, lack of
specific details in the drawing, etc. It is assessed from the survey by the contractor
that significant delays occur due to lack of jobs. Among other things due to the delays
that occur are projected conditions such as site promotion, difficulties at work due
to the weather.
Raut et al. [9] studied the types of contracts in construction projects; In their
study, they did this by collecting reviews, reviewing surveys, finally identifying
component collections and analyzing data obtained from their projects. According to
their research, many factors affect the timing of project completion and its impact can
have a significant impact on projects that affect the structure of projects. These include
contractor delays, communication delays, project management, compensation issues,
structural changes, weather effects, and labor strikes. The consequences of these
delays are lower costs, more time, conflict and negative social consequences. The
results of this article will help participants consider the root causes and reduce project
delays.
Bagrecha and Bais [10] indicated in their study that there are many ways to
complete the project on time at the current site, but they said that delays are inevitable
and will ultimately affect the effectiveness of the project. Much research can be done
to reduce the negative impact of operational delays and project delays. However,
many projects are delayed in planning and a lot of money is lost. This has a significant
impact on cost savings.
456 P. S. Shendurkar et al.

Laskar and Murty [11] stated that as the quality of construction projects increases,
so do the challenges associated with new materials, equipment and technology, so
Indian industry faces different challenges depending on its nature and practice—
be it housing, environment, transportation, electricity or environmental. There are
dangers technocrats associated with the Indian construction industry need to use new
technologies and project management techniques to meet these challenges. It will
perform well under the conditions required in the past and give hope to the Indian
construction industry to achieve full growth in the country’s infrastructure facilities
and infrastructure development. Significant investments in mega projects in response
to the construction industry have gradually resulted in better economy and working
conditions.

2.1 Learnings from the Literature Review

As per the studies carried earlier, it is evident that due to the increased nature and
scale of construction projects in India, the firms still are not advancing its methods for
execution and management; compared to earlier projects. The projects today are on
a much larger scale, but the construction firm lacks properly skilled laborers, though
they are implementing new technologies in their work. The reasons for delay on-site
are due to improper management of the work poor and incompleteness of designs
and change of designs and plans by the client mid-work.
However, this could avoid if we could have a complete simulation of the project
in BIM where now only 3D visualization takes place, but also the firms could deal
with a problem such as clash coordination, rework.

3 Methodology

According to earlier studies in the design phase where design defects occur, due to
the use of standard project design methods, can be solved with BIM use [12]. Most
people are unaware of BIM and just imagine the technology or 3D figure-created
preconstruction. However, BIM is more than just a 3D figure, a model with a digital
definition that speaks to a visual project [13].
The basic idea is that BIM is a process that assists project management and
initiates communication between multiple departments within a single operational
site. Overall, this tool has proven effective in large and small construction projects
and has yielded significant results. By using BIM, both parties have full access to the
main model. They can not only evaluate the model but can also comment and request
improvement from the start. This progresses to the decision-making process, keeps
it organized, simple but timely, and provides the opportunity for positive growth for
the project manager as the project progresses. According to research and the findings
Impact of Risk Assessment in Project Execution … 457

of NITI Aayog which means that BIM has the potential to reduce project costs by
20%, but it will depend entirely on the philanthropic project as the initial cost of
purchasing and training professionals to use BIM tools requires money but in the
long run, the removal of the documentation and the shortcomings of the error reduce
the duration of the project, which reduces the cost of the project to what it would
otherwise call for a standard construction process [14].
BIM presents many opportunities and benefits in the construction industry. Basi-
cally, it combines all the information about a building in one place, enabling anyone
to access that information for any purpose. This makes it easy to integrate the various
design elements effectively.
In this research, study comparison was carried out by taking real case of two-storey
residential building and detailed analysis with respect to quantity estimation and cost
estimation was also carried out and the 3D model output was also interpreted with
respect to conventional and sustainable way (Considering building material with less
carbon emission and also selecting building components and materials precisely and
accurately.

3.1 Latest Tools in BIM

While 3D modeling is part of BIM, and importantly, it is not just a place for previous
types of 3D modeling like AutoCAD. Complete BIM includes maintenance data,
project planning, cost details.
The benefits of BIM can be seen in any size of the project, but it also has a big
impact when you work with large construction projects, where you will be able to
benefit the most from conflict, cost tracking, planning and so on.
BIM itself works with BIM materials—components that can be added to the 3D
models in question, such as plumbing, electrical appliances, doors, windows and
other building materials that can transform the final building effect.
The most notable trend so far in the BIM industry is the effort to integrate and
create goals. To date, there are still many different definitions from various BIM
companies to say that the industry is standardized, but there is still progress that can
be seen every year.

3.2 Major BIM Tools Used in Construction Industry

3.2.1 Revit

Revit is a well-known BIM software that aims to solve various engineering and
design issues. Developed by Autodesk, it is one of the most popular solutions in the
industry. Many different professionals can make good use of the Revit feature list,
458 P. S. Shendurkar et al.

including builders, designers, MEP engineers (mechanical, electrical and plumbing),

contractors, and more. The software itself provides an intelligent approach to the
various stages of the construction process with models [15].

3.2.2 Naviswork

Navisworks is not a 3D modeling system but a program that converts large REVIT
3D files into small 3D models that are highly controlled by most team members. It
provides an effective tool for reviewing and resolving differences between multiple
viewer models. Navisworks is a powerful application that can filter and segment-
specific model details. It will not be a REVIT replacement program but a tool that
works in partnership with REVIT and makes certain processes more efficient [16].

3.2.3 Tekla

Tekla is a BIM software used to build steel and concrete structures. Includes 3D
modeling features for developers. In the construction industry, it is used for metal
fabrication and detailed concrete construction. It directs building engineers from a
visionless use of steel and concrete structures. It automizes the process of creating
store drawings. With the use of Tekla, one can build any structure regardless of
equipment and size (www.tekla.com).
1. Identify conflicts early in the naming process and avoid prematurity.
2. Get accurate drawings and reports from the model.
3. Simplify workflow by authorized standards.

4 Results and Discussion

BIM is a new way to look at the construction industry. The major problem in construc-
tion industry, is improper planning and design involving different levels of partic-
ipation. This can be managed through BIM. Based on the data collected from a
two-storey residential building. Estimation and planning were carried out using the
traditional method and modified method using 3D BIM modeling. Based on the
analyses using the BIM software and traditional method following results are drawn,
the calculation of quantities of materials required for the construction of building
using traditional method is a time-consuming process. Moreover, the cost of the
building using the traditional method of construction is 20–25% higher as per the
calculations. And also, the amount of CO2 emitted from the traditional building is
much higher compared to the sustainable buildings. Also, the dead weight of the
traditional building is more compared to the sustainable building as the size of the
structure components increases due to use of conventional materials. The use of BIM
Impact of Risk Assessment in Project Execution … 459

technique reduced the time consumption during planning process and also to visu-
alize the end product and its output as represented in (Figs. 1 and 2). Based on the
visualization output as represented figures. It can be inferred that by adopting BIM
modeling technique it is possible to save the material quantity, material wastage and
also optimum selection of material for different building components as represented
in (Figs. 1 and 2).
By adopting modern tools like BIM it is possible to achieve sustainability and
also material conservation and effective and precise material selection also possible
and the detailed benefits of the BIM are highlighted in the following paragraph and
represented in (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 3D model BIM output for conventional/traditional model

Fig. 2 3D model BIM output for sustainable model

460 P. S. Shendurkar et al.

4.1 Project Development and Partner Control

BIM improves communications between the manufacturers, customers, contractors

and other relevant parties involved in this project. Because BIM works on a “single
source” system; This means sharing and storing all relevant information in one place,
including models, dimensions and design specifications. Everyone involved in the
project has access to it, so they can offer their own advice.

4.2 Improved Productivity (Less Change, Instability, Change)

The sooner construction is complete, the less money it will cost. Also, complete the
project on time or speed up the return on investment because clients can use the
space much faster. With BIM, building construction is faster, and construction starts
earlier. Improved workflow and other capabilities will speed up the project.

4.3 Excellent Project Quality and Performance

BIM makes statistics and its models detailed and accurate, which results in higher
quality construction. In addition, the BIM process involves several viewing tools,
making the structure more aesthetic.

4.4 Accurate Estimation (Leading to Easy Procurement)

An important advantage of BIM is that it provides a reliable construction cost estimate

long before the construction phase begins. A cost comparison of a building project
is shown in (Fig. 3) below.
The main purpose of the cost estimation is to find the accurate value of the project
before construction. Quantities calculated by BIM/Revit Software are more accurate
than manual, what generally happens in underestimation of quantities is order and
purchase is made accordingly and when during the construction process the material
is, in short, a new purchase has to be made and now at a different cost which is
generally higher when order smaller quantities and transportation cost to be paid
extra in some cases, this also contributes to delays, and increased price.
BIM can be used throughout its entire life cycle, i.e., planning, design phase,
construction phase, and operation phase [18]. During this cycle, BIM can be used in
different areas. This list includes current situation modeling, budgeting, depreciation,
scheduling, and site analysis (Fig. 4).
The BIM implementation process can be divided into two main categories. The
first step is the launching phase. The second phase is the postoperative phase. These
Impact of Risk Assessment in Project Execution … 461

Comparison in Estimation BIM vs Manual

Plaster Work
Floor Work
PCC for flooring
Paint Work
RCC Slab
Brickwork in Super structure

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Quantities Estimated manually Quantities Estimated using BIM Difference in unit Quantity
Brick Work in PCC for Floor Tile
Super RCC Slab Plaster Work Paint Work
Flooring Work
Structure
Quantities Estimated manually 19475 10947 52702 5001.25 20005 52447
Quantities Estimated using BIM 20408 11240 57025 5170 20386 57025
Difference in unit Quantity 933 293 4323 168.75 381 4578

Fig. 3 Cost comparison of a building project [17]

Time Taken in
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Design Construction Checking and
Schematic development documents coordination
CAD 190 436 1,023 175
BIM 90 220 815 16
Total Saving 100 216 208 159

CAD BIM Total

Fig. 4 Comparison of efficiency of BIM and CAD in term of time taken [20]

two categories are connected and overlap. There may be more initial processes after
the launching phase. In addition, the information collected during the previous imple-
mentation and during the subsequent implementation phase may be used as a guide
for another organization or project. In the early stages of the experiment, BIM can
be used to achieve various benefits in the life cycle. These benefits are very difficult
to identify because they are often interrelated. This is usually the lowest cost on the
entire life cycle of the project, the high quality of the construction project, functional
design, construction and phased work. This leads to faster construction phases, better
safety in the life cycle, less waste production, better risk management practices, fewer
errors and higher productivity [19]. BIM platform interconnects data, all information
in one place and crosslinks. There is no linkage between the data created by CAD.
The efficiency of BIM in comparison to CAD is being referred to below [20].
462 P. S. Shendurkar et al.

5 Conclusion

The introduction of emerging technologies like BIMs and the usage of BIM software
such as Revit, Naviswork and Tekla, etc., will enhance the project designs that would
enable the manager on-site to better conduct site work and prevent rework. In India,
large project delays are attributed to lack of proper on-site management and poor
preparation due to traditional use of building practices. For the correct application
of this technology, however, technical training among the employees is needed. The
implementation of BIM will also shorten the time-frame for projects in the Indian
construction industry, thus preventing costs overruns. Based on the analysis carried
out with the help of a residential building it is evident by adopting modern tools will
help to conserve the material 20 to 25% in terms of quantity and also it will help
reducing the cost and time by way of effective planning in project execution. It is
also evident from the study that modern tools are the future and it is mandatory to
adopt and integrating modern tools like BIM for improving the efficiency of project.

References

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An Exploratory Study to Utilize
Construction 4.0 Technologies
in Enhancing Communication to Get
Quality Human Resources

Rabee Abo Fakher and K. S. Anandh

Abstract Construction 4.0 (C4.0) means applies industry 4.0 in the construction
field by tending to digitalization and automation in the industry. The construction
industry in its traditional form suffers from complexity and poor performance due to
its fragmented and craft nature, however besides, with the continuing development
of industry 4.0, it has become necessary for construction companies to adopt modern
technologies and develop new management means to enhance the industry perfor-
mance and meet the requirements of other industries and the increasing demand for
residential and specialized buildings. This study aims to enhance communication
in the construction industry by taking advantage of construction 4.0 to raise the
construction industry’s performance. A statistical survey was conducted to study the
effect of the following factors (C4.0 awareness and acceptance level, C4.0 fragmented
nature, communication, information sharing, C4.0 technologies, and digital training)
on enhancing communication. The survey included construction specialists, ranging
from site engineers to project managers distributed among construction companies
working in different types of projects such as infrastructure projects and residen-
tial buildings, and it included six countries (India, Canada, Australia, Germany,
Sweden, and the UAE) The collected data were analyzed using multiple regression
measures. The study emphasizes the importance of communication and data sharing
as a key element in increasing coordination and creating a collaborative environment
that leads to raising the quality of human resources, thus raising the construction
industry’s performance; also, this study lays out a roadmap and recommendations
for apply some important measures to the parameters mentioned above to enhance
the communication.

Keywords Construction 4.0 · Communication · Information sharing ·

Collaboration and coordination · Quality human resources

R. A. Fakher · K. S. Anandh (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu 603203, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 465
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_41
466 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

1 Introduction

Since 2015, the world has witnessed the start of the fourth industrial revolution. Indus-
tries adopted a fully digital approach to their everyday business; thereby, contributing
to their productivity, accuracy, efficiency, and improved customer satisfaction [1].
This Industrial revolution is called industry 4.0 (I4.0). Its origin was in the German
manufacturing sector [2]. It led to remarkable developments in all industries and the
emergence of very modern technologies. All of this allowed the construction industry
to take advantage of these modern technologies to begin applying the Industry 4.0
concepts in construction [1, 3], so the term construction 4.0 has been introduced,
which means the digitalization and automation of the construction industry [4].
The construction industry went through the same stages of development as other
industries [5, 6], where a transformation and changes took place in processes, prac-
tices, technologies, and capabilities during four stages, Construction 1.0, Construc-
tion 2.0, Construction 3.0, and now there are some leading construction companies
like Bechtel and Skanska trying to move and apply the principles of Construction 4.
0. These stages of development can be defined as follows:
• Construction 1.0: There was not a much-specialized workforce, and the work was
mostly manual based on worker,
• Construction 2.0: It began from the middle of the twentieth century when automa-
tion entered the construction sites through the invention of some equipment, and
specializations such as (civil engineering, architecture, mechanical engineering,
management, etc.) appeared and also some modern methods of management such
as the principles of Lean appeared, but the industry remained characterized by
low productivity and manual character, which mainly depends on the human
workforce,
• Construction 3.0: It began in the late twentieth century, when various designs,
structural analysis programs, and management software (such as CRM and
Primavera) appeared, as well as new technologies such as BIM, the develop-
ment of automation, and the adoption of new management principles such as
Lean. However, the construction industry continued to favor its manual nature,
slow production, and lag behind other industries,
• Construction 4.0: It started in the twenty-first century, especially in the past six
or seven years, where there is a great tendency to rely heavily on automating and
digitizing the construction industry [7–9].
Currently, the construction industry in most countries of the world, such as India,
lags behind other industries despite its importance in providing the infrastructure for
these industries and its economic importance in the country GDP, as it still tends to be
of craft nature and also uses old paper means of communication and coordination [8,
9], these factors in addition to the site-based activities and fragmented nature of the
industry tasks and disciplines, and the fear and reluctance of specialists to change,
hinder the transition to the era of construction 4.0 [10].
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies … 467

From the foregoing, we conclude that the construction industry needs a collabo-
rative environment in which information is handled and transmitted effectively then
leads to a decrease in the cost and time of construction due to avoiding repetition of
some tasks due to lack of coordination and avoiding many errors in the various stages
of the project. Communication is of great importance in achieving a collaborative
environment, and Construction 4.0, through its content of information technology and
other technologies for capturing, transferring, and coordinating information, greatly
enhances communication. This study lays out a roadmap to enhance communications
by relying on the techniques and principles of Construction 4.0.

2 Construction 4.0

2.1 The Main Components for Construction 4.0

Construction 4.0 is based on integrating digital and physical technologies [11],

leading to a change in the methods and concepts used in design and construction.
Consequently, Construction 4.0 relies on two broad components (under which many
classes of technologies are involved) (Fig. 1):
• Cyber-physical systems (CPS)
• Digital Ecosystems
Cyber-physical systems: include technologies that combine the physical and
virtual worlds to form a networked world in which intelligent beings communicate
and interact with each other [12].
Digital Ecosystems: They are digital platforms that bring together institutions
or people by sharing information to achieve a common benefit or interest that is
important to all [12].

Fig. 1 The two broad components of construction 4.0

468 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

3 Communication

3.1 The Current Situation of Communication

in Construction Industry

The construction industry is still characterized by poor performance and a craft

nature. There are many reasons for this, and these are two of the main reasons [13]:
1. The fragmented nature of the construction industry due to [14]:
A. The geographical distribution of the tasks in the construction projects.
B. The multiplicity of stakeholders and shareholders in the construction
projects.
C. Multidisciplinary participation in the construction process.
2. Weak exchange and sharing of information among construction project partic-
ipants [15]. The solution lies in enhancing communication in the construction
industry by developing methods for exchanging and sharing information among
stakeholders, which will lead to [16]:
A. Create a collaborative environment that the construction industry lacks
B. Finding effective coordination between the various parties
C. Saving time by reducing implementation errors
D. Saving cost by reducing waste
E. Raise the quality of work

3.2 Construction 4.0 to Enhance the Communication

Communication in construction projects is strengthened by enhancing information

exchange, and information supply and sharing to achieve a collaborative environment
between the various project participants, including engineers of various specializa-
tions, contractors, and the owner, as well as between the various machines operating
in the site and the sources of materials [17]. The aim of achieving a collaborative
environment and enhancing communication in the construction industry [18]:
A. Various data and information will become clearer and more transparent to
all parties, which enhances coordination and enables smart management of
construction operations,
B. Achieving synergy between the various parties, resources, and technologies,
and thus enhancing productivity.
The information supply and sharing process require [19]:
A. Real-time perception and acquisition of important information covering the
project work’s progress, the supply of materials, and verification of quality and
safety at the site and all construction environment.
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies … 469

B. Integrating this information in a data center to make it available and useable to

all project parties. By leveraging the technology of Construction 4.0, there is
the potential to provide the construction industry with an information support
platform [20].
The aim of the information support platform is to achieve the two previous points,
namely: real-time perception and acquisition of important information covering all
aspects of the construction process, achieving the integration of information to make
it available and usable by various stakeholders.

3.2.1 Information Sport Platform Structure

The platform consists of four layers: the information acquisition layer, the network
layer, the construction services layer, and the data center layer (Fig. 2):
• The information acquisition layer: to obtain a lot of information from the construc-
tion project environment as information on task execution tracking, quality, the

Fig. 2 Information sport platform structure

470 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

supply of building materials, safety, etc. There are many techniques like GIS/GPS,
laser scanners, sensors, and RFID [19].
• The network layer: Its mission is to transfer data between different layers and
between different parties, and between the various machines operating. This is
done through information technologies and many networks such as the Internet,
mobile network, satellite, microwave, optical fiber, and IoT [20].
• The construction services layer: this layer contains many construction activities
and tasks such as execution, supervision, monitoring, tracking of material supplies,
etc. This layer needs a lot of information to achieve coordination and collaboration,
and it also generates a lot of information to be taken [17].
• Data center layer: This layer’s task is to collect information, process it, and add
new dimensions to the three-dimensional data to be studied from different perspec-
tives such as time, cost, quality, etc. And the achievement of integration between
the information coming from the various construction disciplines to make this
information clear, achieving the coordination and to be available and useful to all
stakeholders [16].

4 Methodology

4.1 Research Objectives

The research aims to enhance communications in the construction industry by making

use of construction 4.0. Enhancing communications will enhance coordination and
form a collaborative environment that the construction industry lacks. Thus, all of
this will lead to improving the efficiency of human resources in the construction
industry.

4.2 Problem Statement

• To explore the communication issues for improving the efficiency of human

resource.
• To provide a solution to the increasing unemployment that could occur due to poor
human performance in the construction industry and because of the possibility of
replacing human labor with robots that are developing in the era of construction
4.0.
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies … 471

4.3 Hypotheses of Study

4.4 Research Method

First stage: (Table 1) collect the primary data by gathering information through
research and review in articles and reports available on the Internet and the world of
Google and published by Scopus Indexed magazine, Government of India, Emerald,
and others. The research was conducted in documents and articles published in
the last decade (2010–2020). Initially, searching for construction 4.0 technologies,
in general, was conducted, and found more than 2000 elements talking about this
topic. Then the search was narrowed to include a study of communications with
construction 4.0, and 235 elements were found in this topic. Finally, the search
was narrowed down to detailed things related to communication and construction
4.0 together, such as sharing information and associated technologies, collaborative
work, coordination, and the human factor in the era of construction 4.0, technologies
that enhance communication and information sharing, etc. (Fig. 3). About 30 files
were selected, gave accurate information. In addition to studying a book entitled
(Construction 4.0 An Innovation platform for the built environment), which was
published in 2020.
Second stage:
1. The research hypotheses were developed
2. The study factors were developed, which are six factors
3. A questionnaire was formed and distributed to specialists in construction, who
range from site engineers to project managers. Their experience range from (1–
25) years, and their management levels range between junior, middle, and senior.
The questionnaire included construction companies working in different types
of projects such as infrastructure projects and residential buildings, and these

Table 1 Hypotheses of Study

Main null hypothesis Main alternative hypothesis
1 H0 : Construction 4.0 has no effect on the HA : Construction 4.0 has effect on the
communication to enhance a quality communication to enhance a quality human
human resource at statistical significance resource at statistical significance level of
level of 5% 5%
The sub hypotheses:
2 H0 : Construction 4.0 has no effect on the HA: Construction 4.0 has effect on the
communication between different communication between different
stakeholders at statistical significance stakeholders at statistical significance level
level of 5% of 5%
3 H0 : Construction 4.0 has no effect on the HA: Construction 4.0 has effect on the
fragmentation at statistical significance fragmentation at statistical significance level
level of 5% of 5%
472 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

Fig. 3 Research method

companies distribute between six countries (India, Canada, Australia, Germany,

Sweden, and the UAE).
Third stage: A statistical::analysis was conducted using multiple regression
measures for the data received from the questionnaire, and the results and recom-
mendations obtained (Fig. 3).

5 Data Analysis

Multiple regression is used to test the hypotheses.

1. Test the main hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis (H0 ): Construction 4.0 has no effect on the communication to
enhance a quality human resource at statistical significance level 5% while;
• Alternative Hypothesis (HA ): Construction 4.0 has effect on the communication
to enhance a quality human resource at statistical significance level 5%.
Interpretation:
From the multiple regression results in (Table 2), it can be said that there is a statistical
significance effect for the studied dimensions of construction 4.0 on the communi-
cation to enhance the human resource quality. So, we reject the null hypothesis
which says that there is no effect and accept the alternative hypothesis that said
the construction 4.0 has effect on the communication to enhance a quality human
resource at statistical significance level 5%.
2.- Test the first sub-hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis (H0 ): Construction 4.0 has no effect on the communication
between different stakeholders at statistical significance level 5%, while;
• Alternative Hypothesis (HA ): Construction 4.0 has effect on the communication
between different stakeholders at statistical significance level 5%.
Table 2 Multiple regression test results for main hypothesis
Dependent variable R R2 Adjusted Calculated Sig DF Beta Calculated(T) Sig*
R2 (F)
Communication to 0.743 0.551 0.511 13.524 0.000 Regression 5 Awareness and 0.286 2.395 0.020
enhance a quality human acceptance level
resource Residuals 55 Information sharing and 0.087 0.786 0.435
access level
Total 60 Stakeholder Training 0.104 0.832 0.409
Adopted technologies 0.471 2.577 0.013
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies …
473
474 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

Interpretation:
From the multiple regression results in (Table 3), it can be said that there is a statistical
significance effect for the studied dimensions of construction 4.0 on the communi-
cation between different stakeholders. So, we reject the null hypothesis which says
that there is no effect and accept the alternative hypothesis that said the construc-
tion 4.0 has effect on the communication between different stakeholders at statistical
significance level 5%.
3.- Test the second sub-hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis (H0 ): Construction 4.0 has no effect on the fragmentation at
statistical significance level 5%. While;
• Alternative Hypothesis (HA ): Construction 4.0 has effect on the fragmentation at
statistical significance level 5%.

Interpretation:
From the multiple regression results in (Table 4), it can be said that there is a statistical
significance effect for the studied dimensions of construction 4.0 on the fragmenta-
tion. So, we reject the null hypothesis which says that there is no effect and accept the
alternative hypothesis that said the construction 4.0 has effect on the fragmentation
at statistical significance level 5%.

6 Findings and Suggestions

Results and recommendations Based on the statistical analysis of the collected data:
1. The main result: Moving to Construction 4.0 by digitizing the construction
industry will enhance communications thus, enhance the quality of human
resources and improve performance in the industry,
2. Increasing the awareness of construction 4.0 leads to enhance communications
and reduce the impact of the fragmented nature of the construction industry. To
achieve that, it is recommended:
A. Conducting seminars, workshops, and training courses to increase knowl-
edge of the construction principle 4,
B. Educating the construction industry shareholders about the economic
profits and benefits due to the adoption of construction 4.0, which will
reduce their fear of the value of the initial investment for the applica-
tion of construction techniques 4.0 and reduce their fear and reluctance to
change.
3. Enhance the information sharing and data access level lead to enhance the
communication and reduce the effect of the construction industry fragmented
nature. To achieve that, it is recommended:
Table 3 Multiple regression test results for first sub-hypothesis
Dependent variable R R2 Adjusted Calculated Sig.* DF Beta Calculated Sig.*
R2 (F) (T)
Communication 0.701 0.491 0.444 10.598 0.000 Regression 5 Awareness and 0.415 3.257 0.002
between different acceptance
stakeholders level
Residuals 55 Information 0.035 0.297 0.767
sharing and
access level
Total 60 Stakeholder 0.075 0.569 0.572
Training
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies …

Adopted 0.614 3.154 0.003

technologies
475
 476

Table 4 : Multiple regression test results for second sub-hypothesis

Dependent R R2 Adjusted Calculated Sig.* DF Beta Calculated Sig.*
variable R2 (F) (T)
Fragmentation 0.647 0.419 0.366 7.928 0.000 Regression 5 Awareness and 0.288 2.120 0.039
acceptance
level
Residuals 55 Information 0.149 1.177 0.244
sharing and
access level
Total 60 Stakeholder 0.193 1.366 0.178
Training
Adopted 0.018 0.088 0.930
technologies
R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies … 477

A. Creating a digital platform on which data is uploaded regularly. This

platform can be found using construction 4.0 technologies such as cloud
computing technologies,
B. Defining a specific level of management for the participants who are enti-
tled to upload and access information, for example, the participants who
start from the level of a site engineer up to the level of the project manager
have the right to upload and access information on the digital platform,
C. Upload information regularly and within a certain frequency that may not
be increased or decreased,
D. Establishing certain standards to ensure that the submitted information is
complete and consistent, as the presence of incomplete and inconsistent
information leads to errors in implementation.
4. Training construction stakeholders to use digital technologies and modern
means of communication will enhance communication and reduce the impact of
the construction industry’s fractured nature. To achieve that, it is recommended:
A. Courses should be conducted to increase digital skills which enhance
communication and coordination efficiently.
B. Workshops and seminars should be held to raise awareness of the
importance of communication and coordination in enhancing the human
performance.
5. Utilizing construction 4.0 technologies will enhance communications and
decrease the impact of the construction industry’s fragmented nature. To achieve
that, it is recommended:
A. There is a need in construction sites for smart computing and commu-
nication tools that can withstand site conditions (heat, humidity, dust,
etc.).
B. Work to take advantage of construction 4.0 technologies that enhance
communications in the construction industry (these techniques are
mentioned in paragraph (2.2.2)
C. BIM techniques form the basis for coordination between various disci-
plines in all project phases
D. Using cloud computing technologies is considered the main base for
information organizing and sharing platform in construction 4.0.
6. Additional recommendations to deal with construction industry fragmented
nature:
A. Fragmentation is the primary nature of the construction industry and
should be adopted and deal with,
B. Exist defined protocols for information creating and representing will
decrease the impact of fragmentation and achieve efficient information
exchange and sharing,
478 R. A. Fakher and K. S. Anandh

C. Exist uniform communication means between the various parties reduces

the impact of fragmentation and achieves efficient information exchange
and sharing,
D. Using BIM for multi-trade prefabrication technology is one of the best
techniques which decrease the impact of fragmentation and enhance
information exchange and sharing in the construction industry.

7 Conclusion

In the conclusions, the author would like to emphasize that the digital technolo-
gies listed under Construction 4.0 can enhance communication in the construction
industry which will increase coordination between the various parties involved in
the construction project and creating a collaborative environment in the industry.
Increasing coordination and creating a collaborative environment will lead to an
increase in the efficiency of human resources and thus raise the construction
industry’s performance. Also, the researcher concluded through the research study
that increasing awareness of construction 4.0, enhancing information sharing and
data access, training workers in the construction field to use modern digital means,
and using the technologies provided by construction 4.0 leads to enhance commu-
nications and reduce the impact of the construction industry’s fragmented nature,
thus increasing coordination and collaboration, and raising the quality of the human
factor which will Save time and cost by reducing implementation errors, preventing
the repetition of some tasks, and reducing waste.
Main recommendations: Holding seminars, workshops, and training courses to
increase awareness of Construction 4.0 and its economic benefits, clarify the impor-
tance of communication and coordination, and train workers in the construction
industry to use digital technologies. Creating a digital platform for uploading and
sharing information, determining who is entitled to use that platform, setting controls
for the frequency of uploading information, ensuring that the information uploaded
is complete, and providing construction sites with smart digital tools that resist the
difficult site conditions and use the C 4.0 technologies.
It is also recommended that fragmentation is the nature of the construction
industry, and it must be dealt with by creating defined protocols for forming and repre-
senting information, using unified means of communication, and using some tech-
nologies such as use BIM for multi-trade prefabrication technology. Future directions
include studying different management methods under the umbrella of Construction
4.0 to improve communication, cooperation, and coordination in the construction
industry.
An Exploratory Study to Utilize Construction 4.0 Technologies … 479

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BIM in Construction and Maintenance
of Infrastructure Projects

Albaraa Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

Abstract BIM is the latest technique, tool, methodology, and workflows in construc-
tion projects. Initially, the construction industry was using the BIM technology only
for the construction of buildings, on knowing the advantages of this technology the
Architecture, Engineering, Construction, Operator and Owner (AECOO) industry
around the world has started using it for vertical and horizontal projects. This paper
discusses the adoption of BIM in the vertical building and the horizontal projects in
construction and asset management in the life cycle of the structure. Usage of BIM
helps the stakeholders from the planning stage to completion and during maintenance
of the structure by providing high clarity to everyone involved in the project. The
requirement of time as 4D and money as 5D for each stage of construction can be
incorporated while modeling the structure. The specification of each item of the work
in the structure can be incorporated in the model to refine the same in the future. The
conditions of the structure in later time can be marked in the model to arrive at the
suitable remedial measure and also BIM modeling helps to know the time periodical
maintenance.

Keywords Building information modeling (BIM) · 4D-BIM · BIM in

infrastructure · Bridge information management · Operation and maintenance

1 Introduction

Building information modeling is an intelligent tool that provides the AECOO

industrial professionals to find any infringement in the construction of the struc-
ture as per the drawings generated to execute the project [1, 2]. The efficiency

A. Alasskar
M.Tech Civil Engineering Student, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Jagannathan (B)
Educational Consultant, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, TamilNadu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 481
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_42
482 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

will be in, designing planning, construction, operation, and maintenance and gener-
ating the building and civil projects [3]. The creation of a BIM model includes
managing, storing and generating digital information for all elements and objects of
a building or structure throughout its cycle life of the project [4, 5]. Adoption of BIM
in construction enhances the communication between stakeholders especially the
designer, contractor and owner [6]. Adopting BIM in the infrastructure projects that
focus on the development of the country and offer services, facilities, for people [7].
These infrastructure projects can be funded by private, public sector, or partnership
as a public–private partnership. There are two main types of infrastructure invest-
ments, these include economic infrastructure, which includes sewage, communica-
tion, water, roads, power and airports [8, 9]. Social infrastructure, which includes
affordable housing, education building and health care building. Implementing BIM
technology for the construction of horizontal structures require the interest from the
public and private sector who were executing these type of projects [10]. Improving
the quality of the asset in the life cycle of the infrastructure projects by modeling the
asset in the 3D model that makes clarity for all the parties to understand the project
[11]. Also integrating the time 4D and cost 5D with the model makes the engineer
know the time and money requirements for each stage of construction [12, 13].
The monitoring and controlling the progress and cost of construction by
comparing the model created. The model can be updated based on the present situ-
ation and requirements. The result of applying BIM in project management for a
bridge in terms of developing and monitor the schedule of the work, the cost and
quantity takeoff that smooth the execution of the work. Also, BIM mitigates the
clashes, conflicts and reworks in the project. The recommendation is to develop the
model with artificial neural networks to monitor the condition of the asset and use
the information of the model in the operation phase to recommend the maintenance
that is needed.

2 Literature Review

BIM has become established as an useful process enabler for new architecture, engi-
neering, and construction (AEC) [14]. With BIM technique, virtual models of a
building project are created digitally [15] will be more accurate in all the models and
make high clarity [16]. The BIM supports all the phases of the project from planning
through design, making better analysis, monitor, control in the construction phase
and reuse of the model in the operation of the asset to develop the conditions and
maintenance phase [17]. These BIM models have data and accurate geometry needed
to support the fabrication, procurement and construction activities, through which
the project is realized, operated and maintained [16]. Because of lack of resources
in BIM in infrastructure exactly, the literature review has Publications consisting of
conference papers and journal articles. The Information has collected in the previous
research is related to construction civil projects, BIM in infrastructure, and BIM
in the building. Applying BIM in building projects to civil projects should identify
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 483

the similarities and differences between the horizontal and vertical projects. Reports
were also collected from Autodesk, thesis and standards in the countries that have
experience with BIM. The articles related to Bridge information modeling were
collected which were explaining the construction and modeling of the bridge. BIM
is technique and an information-rich, model-centric process with the power to add
value during the lifecycle of infrastructure project and transform project delivery
[6, 14].
Developing the communication in construction projects to monitoring them
remotely and the need for remote monitoring is an essential in the construction
projects today as the high number of projects has increased significantly and the
expertise available to resolve site-related issues are not easily available [18]. BIM
can represent the project digitally by object-based modeling, there are remarkable
changes in the key delivery processes involved in constructing project and changes
in how a model is built from traditional CAD solutions [10]. With the growing use of
BIM for buildings, the adoption of BIM in infrastructure projects gradually increases
in industry [19]. The companies that construct infrastructure facilities are expecting
the use of BIM since they have noticed high benefits in investment coming from BIM
for building projects [13, 20]. And also BIM has the ability to significantly improve
efficiencies, increase sustainability, reduce waste across infrastructure projects during
their life cycles [21]. 4D mode, virtual construction, computer simulation, and virtual
prototyping are modern topics in the construction industry [22]. the possible use of
BIM in infrastructure structure, specifically in highway construction [23]. The tech-
nology is not created only for the vertical building but also can be adopted in the
horizontal projects such as bridges [24, 25].
Using Bridge Information Modeling (BrIM) framework that uses BMS features
including; inspection module, databases and condition assessment module and use
BrIM in time and cost management of infrastructure bridges that enable Bridge
Management Systems (BMS) play an important role in rehabilitation and mainte-
nance decisions [26–28]. 3D models can provide a perfect numerical expression of
drawings from design results [29]. 3D models for bridge structures can get better
design quality in terms of constructability, accurate drawings, collaboration and
Architecture of the 3D Bridge Information Model [30]. The management func-
tionalities related to bridge have been tried by Bridge life cycle management to
be conducted, in the bridge from the initiating stage to the end of their useful life,
during the design, construction, operation and maintenance stages [1]. Analyzing
the workspace conflict for decrease interferences and clashes caused by equip-
ment or labor work is also a crucial management factor [31]. Building Information
Modeling (BIM) and Augmented Reality (AR) will be the base of the revolution
in the processes of management of infrastructure projects, designing and construc-
tion including bridge structures [32]. Infrastructure projects have adopted BIM can
help reduce the funding gap by increasing potential sources of funding with more
predictable return of investment( ROI) and decrease costs [33].
484 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

3 BIM and Infrastructure

3.1 Implementation of BIM in the Infrastructure Projects

As construction is important in the growing of the economy in the countries, how

engineers, contractors, and owners dealing with their construction projects. Applying
the latest techniques provides the opportunity to smoothen the construction process.
The consequences of applying BIM in the vertical projects have motivated the AEC
industry to conduct the BIM in the horizontal projects [22]. Infrastructure take an
important role in construction projects as it consumes the highest capital cost. Civil
infrastructure is a utility, facility or structure which needed to support and facilitate
activities and human civilization [13]. Transportation infrastructure facilitates the life
of people and gives them free service, so the government pays attention to the plans
for transportation infrastructure projects. The AECOO industry is trying to improve
and develop the implementation of BIM in construction infrastructure projects. 3D
improves the visualization for the project and the clarity to the stakeholders to under-
stand the project, clarity in the scheduling and sequences of the activities are obtained
using 4D [6]. The government and private sectors started implementing BIM in the
horizontal project to increase transparency, enhance the process, collaboration and
coordination between all the parties during all phases of the project, help to avoid
conflicts and clashes [34]. Further, usage of BIM reduced the cost of the project and
saved money for the owners to be cost-effective. And also avoided the clashes in the
first stage of project and reduced the request for information (RFI) and changed order
in the construction and rework decreases the waste in time, money and material [22].
For more advantages, the public sector should apply the BIM technique on infras-
tructure projects, support and encourage the efforts in the adoption of BIM in civil
construction. The following Questions are asked to implement the BIM in the market:
• Which sector does implement the infrastructure projects?
• What are the types of infrastructure project will get benefits from BIM?
• How the adoption of BIM in the infrastructure projects may affect the process of
the project and provide positive results?
• What are the software packages available in the market?
• Who is responsible to implement, develop and care about the BIM software,
techniques, workflow, and process in projects?

3.2 BIM in Infrastructure Projects

Most researchers in both academia and industry area have more researches and
implementations in the vertical projects. Using BIM and its software packages in the
phases of the project, by modeling the project 3D, makes it easy for all the parties to
understand How will it build and give them the reality of the project in the initial time
of the project. Also, the owners knew where they expend their money, what is the
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 485

Fig.1 Appears the quantity takeoff in bridge by using BIM [11]

result of the project? And is it suitable for the environment and market and its needs?
Further study of the financial side of the project depends on quantity takeoff and its
cost estimation accurately [35]. That gives the stakeholders the transparency about
their project to start the execution work and the clarity for engineers, contractors and
owners to understand the construction phases, Fig. 1 appears the quantity takeoff in
bridge by using BIM. Also, understand the sequences of the activities and the accu-
mulative cost for each stage of the project. And identify the budget for each activity
and all the project by simulating all the activities sequences with own cost [36]. All
the benefits in the building projects it is an awake state in the civil infrastructure.
Modeling the infrastructure projects as a bridge by start modeling the substructure
and the superstructure of the bridge [37]. Define the activities in bridge construction,
model the activities with their code, and scheduling the activities that enhance the
process, coordination and collaboration on the construction in bridge projects [22].
The transition from traditional planning and design to BIM helps planners make
their plans for the project in primavera software by identifying the organization
breaks down structure (OBS), work breakdown structure (WBS), the activities, and
the resources to primavera. The output of the plan is clear for the planner but it is
not clear for the other parties that make misunderstanding in the planning and the
scheduling in the project [38]. BIM removes all the barriers with its technique in 4D
the scheduling and sequences with relevant cost 5D for every activity and the whole
of the project [39]. Working BIM in the 4D time it is very important to avoid delay
and clashes [27]. Identify the work breakdown structure for the project, organization
break down structure, resources and get the planning from the traditional technique
in primavera software, in the parallel time make a model of the project and integrate
them. The integration of the model with planning to simulate the activities and make
visualization for the scheduling to be better clear than traditional planning [30].
Visualization and simulation for the scheduling of the project by 4D help all the
parties in the project to notice the progress in their project how is it? And how to
486 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

cost it in this stage. Further, it helps the maintenance department to make a smooth
process for the maintenance without any issues by identifying the problem in any
component and which type is it? [33]. As we knew the most the application in
the building projects, so adopt these techniques, methodology, and workflows in
the infrastructure project till has lack implementation in the industry and academia
domains. Infrastructure projects such as the transportation projects have huge capital
from the balance sheet of the government and reflect the condition of the development
in the state that pushes the public and private sector in the last years to enhance and
develop infrastructure projects by adopting BIM [22]. Also, notice some countries
implement BIM in their infrastructure projects and find BIM improves the younger
staff to understand the progress of the project how will it go.
The 3D model helps the parties to knew what is the project and how will it be, and
establishing consistent and repeatable project delivery and maintaining the business
with a past client, decrease the time need for the documentation in the same time
increase the time in the design [33]. The benefits of applying BIM mitigate the errors,
risk, rework and cost. Also, give a better understanding of the project in all the phases
and improve the schedule and optimize the design (Fig. 1). Further BIM provides
value for people who author the model and for who extract the value from authored
model and makes interdisciplinary project between all the stakeholders and all the
phase of the project [22, 33].

3.2.1 Bridge Information Modeling (BrIM)

Applying BIM to the bridge project needs to model the elements of the bridge
substructure and superstructure. So how the model will be and how can model it,
what are software packages need? Modeling the bridge help stakeholders to under-
stand the bridge from the planning stage, design, construction, operation and main-
tenance. Contractors, engineers and owners get benefits in adopting BIM in their
bridge projects. Extracting the quantities from the model integrates the model with
time 4D, cost 5D, develops the model and collects data about the condition of the
asset to evaluate the state of the bridge [30, 40].
Applying the BIM techniques, methodology and workflows in the bridge projects
enhances the clarity of the bridge for all the parties by display the planning engineers
their plans in the initial phase of the project for the other stakeholders that do not
have a background in engineering [41]. Also understanding the plans and drawings,
submit the plans to the owner with the schedule and cost of each activity and the
whole project in a visual way. that help to avoid the difficulties of traditional planning
in primavera, that need skills to use it and update your schedule and it confuses the
parties to understand the updated state of the project [19].
All of the AEC industry ask what is the process that improves the proficiency and
process of the bridge projects by adopting the 3D model to increase the transparency
of the asset in all the phases of the life cycle, integrate the 3D model with time to
get the fourth dimension 4D [42]. The 4D smooth the process of communication,
coordination, and collaboration by schedule the activities of the project and enhance
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 487

the sequence of tasks needed in the execution to avoid clashes during the execu-
tion of activities. Adopt the time with the model to ease the cost estimation of the
bridge project by adding the fifth dimension 5D, the owners, engineers, and contrac-
tors monitoring and control the bridge construction project with relative cost and
compare the adopted model with actual work [43]. The monitoring and controlling
by comparing the planned model in cost and time with actual for each activity and
whole the project [33].
Improving the model by developing the model to add the 6D in the operation
and maintenance and 7 D energy efficiency and n D in the asset management, Fig. 2
illustrate the component of briges by using Infraworks tools [21]. The planning phase
needs data that go under the planning layer to contain the condition of the design and
requirements needed, alternatives and participants after that start the design phase,
need in this phase the design properties of the material, member force and design
intention. The construction phase begins when the planning and the design phase
finish, in the constriction layer, need the actual properties of the material product
environment and condition that mean in the construction phase need for quality
assurance and quality control to improve the quality of the project QA/QC. After
the AEC industry has observed the return on investment in the vertical building,
that makes the AEC industry increase the effort in adopting the BIM technique in
civil construction projects. Construction projects have a huge amount of information
through the life cycle of the structure [20].
The model has information in 3D and integrates it with time and cost in the plan-
ning, design and construction phase (Fig. 2). Also in the latest technique store, the
information that makes the operators and owners use is to facilitate the process in
operation and maintenance. Using BIM as a tool in the construction of the bridge
for the quality management for the information, integration, coordination, collabora-
tion, sequences, and schedule during the life cycle of the bridge [1, 27]. The quality
management in the bridge projects achieving the property of the materials and check

Fig. 2 Illustrate the component of bridges by using Infraworks tools [11]

488 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

the quality of the transformation of information between the platforms and the inter-
operability, the condition of the asset and the resources. Usage of BIM in bridge
construction achieves the customer satisfaction and quality of construction during
execution and lowers the risk in construction, wastage of time, wastage of materials
and avoids the conflicts and clashes [10, 20].

3.2.2 Modeling the Bridge Structure

Since the use of the first simple bridges made from a single beam that had to bear all
the forces of compression, tension, shear forces and torsion by itself. The entire engi-
neering field was formed, and there are a lot of bridge designs were created utilizing
many parts, components, and brand modern terminology that describe them. All
the basic components and parts are placed inside three main bridge areas—foun-
dation (which holds the deep basement or shallow of the bridge and transfers its
load to the bearing strata, this includes the abutments below starting points of the
bridge), foundations below the main span of the bridge, and Substructure (abutments,
piers, spandrels, bearing, caps and other components that holds the upper construc-
tion) and superstructure (all the parts of the bridge that are mounted on top of the
supporting substructure system, it covers elements such as slab, girders, decking
and everything placed above the main deck such as steel truss system posts, bridge
girder, cable suspended systems, cable-stayed system and more). How to model the
components of the bridge, what are the elements need to model? What are software
packages use?
Many software packages are available in the market, as AEC industry adopts BIM
in how they model 3D visualization. There are Midas civil can model the elements of
the bridge girder, suspension, and cable-stayed bridge, also Bentley Leap Bridge is
used for the design and analyses for the structure of the bridge and the Revit is a soft-
ware used for making drawing and virtual for the bridge and supports the BIM. Revit
and anther applications and platforms make and support the building information
modeling for the project. The modeling enhances the collaboration and coordina-
tion by make simulation and visualization for the project during the lifecycle and
the communication between the owners, designers, architects, engineers, suppliers,
workers and all the participants in the project by integrating all the processes and
transform the information.

3.2.3 Bridge Information Modeling with Operation and Maintenance

BIM for the bridge is a modern technique that gathers the information in the model
from the planning, design, construction to the operation and maintenance [44]. Bridge
management or asset management helps the owners and operators get benefits from
the model. BIM is a tool that facilitates the procedure for contractors, subcontractors,
engineers and owners [45]. In the last few years, the AECO give efforts to research and
work to adopt modern techniques in the construction of the project [46]. Improving
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 489

Bridge Bridge
Inspection information Descision Managemnt
model for Evaluation
physically of model making in BrIM
or lasre the existing
scanning... asset

Fig. 3 Illustrates the process BIM in bridge maintenance

the performance of the collaboration, the design, planning and construction will be
done in high quality and high performance. And the schedule of the construction
activities has improved and avoids the issues in the process, miscommunication,
and conflicts during the phases of the life cycle of the project. In the operation and
maintenance phase of the asset monitor the condition of the asset. As the bridge is
reinforcement concrete (RC) or prestressed concrete (PC), what are the issues that
occur in the components during the operation cycle? That prevents the asset from
uncertainties increases the life of the bridge and enhances the performance of the
asset.
Operation and maintenance what is the link between the model and two phases?
How the owner and operator link the condition of the asset with the model? And how
will they link the inspection to the model? Bridge in RC or PC, there many deficien-
cies such as cracks, spalling, delamination and efflorescence [47–50]. Modeling the
deficiencies in the original model and upgrade the model with new conditions of the
asset [48] Fig. 3 illustrate the process BIM in bridge maintenance. Revit can model
the element with code, the property of material, and cross-section and physical prop-
erties. The families and parameter types are available in Revit, in the design phase
the engineers identify the property of the concrete, steel, and all the material in the
model (Fig. 3). In the operation and maintenance phases, the operators and owner
inspect the asset manual and type the changes in an excel sheet, by laser scanning,
drones, and sensors and link them with the model [1, 18]. Identifying the damage in
the model as cracks what is the length, width and spreading, identify the condition of
deterioration by reducing the cross-section and change the property of the element,
from the editing in the model and link the updated model to structural analysis (finite
elements) to assess the condition of the asset [28].

3.2.4 Bridge Management with Update Model

Using BIM for Infrastructure projects can help the owner close the funding gap by
increasing potential sources of funding with more predictable ROI and reducing
costs. Management specifies to manage the project from the planning to demolition
phase in the decision making, planning, cost estimation and quantity. Using BIM
with operation and maintenance in the management of the project, your function or
task identify the issues, reusing the information model to model the condition of the
element as it, make structural analysis to decide on the maintenance, what are the
490 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

recommendations of maintenance?, what is the type of maintenance?, what is the area

of the damage in the element?, what is the quantity takeoff need in the maintenance,
the cost, and the time?, all the questions have been asked and the disruption in the
operation of an asset helps to manage the site to avoid clashes and conflicts during
the maintenance.
BIM or updated BIM identify the damage in the bridge, area, severity, type and
integrate the changes with the model then ingrate the new model with all the plat-
forms, that enhance the maintenance by using 3D for visualization of the damage
and 4D integrate the process of maintenance with time and cost 5D, (Fig. 4) illustrate
the developing 4D-BIM schedule for bridge. Owners and operators use the benefits
of adopting BIM in design and construction of the bridge in operation and main-
tenance phase, improve the proficiency of work, communication, coordination, and
collaboration and avoid conflicts and clashes and mitigate the risk, cost and rework
in the operation and maintenance phases.

Fig. 4 Illustrate the developing 4D-BIM schedule for bridge

BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 491

3.2.5 Tools and Software Packages in BIM and Infrastructure

According to software tools in the market for Autodesk, Bentley, Tekla, CSI, Vico,
Graph iSOFT, and FORUM8, in Bridge use AutoCAD Civil 3D, Revit, Bentley
Bridge Design Software and Road Design Software, 3ds Max Design, Microstation,
STAAD.Pro, Navisworks are used as tools in BIM and its usages are shown in Table
1 displays tools in BIM and uses. And how the AEC adopts the BIM techniques
by using the software tools. Specifying the tool for each element of the asset by
understanding the model and make interoperability between tools, the transformation
the data between different platforms as Industry Foundation Class IFC for more
efficiency in collaboration.
In the case study in Bridge, project making integrate between the models in Revit
Autodesk in visualization and integrate the model in Revit with Infraworks, and link
the model with time to make planning for the schedule of the project by identify ID
for each element in Revit and also identify the planning in primavera or MS projector
in excel sheet (Table 1). Here in the collaboration between the tools link the model
in Revit to Navisworks to visualize the scheduling and sequences of the activities to
avoid clashes. Also integrate the model with cost in 5D in the way that all the parties
understand the schedule and the cost of the project in every stage in the construction
and compare the plan with the actual schedule and cost, that gives an index to correct
the plan to avoid the delay and increase the cost [22].

4 Result and Discussion

The exploring BIM in infrastructure general and practically in bridge projects for life
cycle of facility from the conceptual; design during construction and end in operation
and maintenance phases. The study goes through the benefits of BIM in building and
expanding this modern technology to infrastructure projects to smooth the work and
enhances the communication among various stakeholders. Depend on the previous
studies the lifecycle operation and maintenance take the biggest proportion of the
cost of the project as illustrated in Fig. 5, which the cost of maintenance and the
cost of suspension of the facility the figure illustrates the life cost of the facility. The
trend of BIM infrastructure projects has started growing increasingly to cope with
the innovation of BIM in building in time and cost management [49].
The paper analyzes the parties that use BIM in their projects and mature function-
alities in the adopted projects, and also relationships between project team interac-
tion, coordination, collaboration, integration software tools and phase of project as
illustrated in Fig. 5. Most of architects, engineers, managers, planners, BIM experts
and civil engineers have used AutoCAD Revit in design, construction, operation
and maintenance as the heist functionality in construction, capability, linking and
integration with other software, the figure illustrates the high adoption Revit among
other software tools.
492 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

Table 1 Tools and uses in BIM

The author The article The software The use of the software
Marzouk and Hisham Bridge information Tekla, 1. 3D bridge model
[26] modeling in Ansys, 2. Structural condition
sustainable bridge MS Excel, assessment
management Naviswork (integrating)
3. BrIM with Ansys
software via C#
programming
4. Inspection sheets
and results Bridge
components
information
Moon et al. [31] Development of P3, p6 primavera, Scheduling, planning,
workspace conflict And using the and using the
visualization system bounding box Bounding Box in
using 4D object of workspace
work schedule visualization
Francesco Abbondatia BIM for existing Infraworks360, Visualizing the design
et al. [51] airport infrastructures Autodesk civil 3D, project, sharing
Tekla structure, cloud-based models
Excel and programs (a) creating the digital
(using C#) elevation model;
(b) creating the
horizontal alignment;
(c) creating the vertical
alignment;
(d) modeling the 3D
corridor using the
edited assembly
template;
(e) importing grip
number (GN) data
measurement in the 3D
model;
(f) creating 3D
real-world context
(g) creating new
attributes for each
element type
utilizing Application
Programming Interface
(API) of Tekla
Structures software by
using C# programming
language
(continued)
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 493

Table 1 (continued)
The author The article The software The use of the software
McGuire [28] Using building Excel, 1. inspection schedule
information modeling Graphisoft, in operation and
to track and assess the ArchiCAD, maintenance
structural condition of Tekla structure, 2. Architecture in
bridges Midas civil, Buildings
Bentley LEAP 3. Architecture,
bridge, Engineering,
Autodesk Structural
Revit, 4. Detailing in
Autodesk BIM360 Buildings and
Field, Infrastructure
Naviswork, 5. Engineering Bridges
Primavera and Infrastructure
6. Engineering Bridges
7. Architecture,
Engineering Buildings
and Infrastructure
8. Fieldwork and
Inspections Buildings
and Infrastructure
9. 4D simulation
10. scheduling

Fig. 5 Display the life cycle costs [50]

In bridge design have used Bentley LEAP Bridge, Autodesk BIM360, Tekla Struc-
tures and Infraworks tools, but the most design have been done by Tekla structure
and in the last five years there is development in adoption BIM in infrastructure
projects, and analysis of using tools in project between phase discover the increasing
use of Infraworks, Navisworks, Primavera and Tekla structure in planning, design,
construction. The latest technology of investigate the damage of facility ad laser
scanning and camera and link them with model has started recently in research and
industry to update the condition of assets (Fig. 5).
The study focuses on the time and cost management in infrastructure projects and
tools (Figs. 6 and 7). The future research recommends to develop software tools to
494 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

Fig. 6 Illustrate the software tools

Fig. 7 Illustrate the phases of project

solve the issues faced in adopting BIM tools in infrastructure instead of building
projects and combine the artificial neural networks with model that helps to predict
the future maintenance.
The study summarizes the factors which influence the use BIM in infrastructure
projects:
BIM in Construction and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects 495

• Improved Interoperability.
• Improving scheduling capabilities with BIM software tools during construction
and maintenance phases.
• Improving budgeting/cost estimation with BIM tools.
• Clash detection capabilities of BIM tools.
• Reduce number or need for information request.
• BIM ability to enhance the communication, coordination and collaboration among
all stakeholders.
• Opportunity to reduce construction and maintenance cost.
• Opportunity to reduce construction and maintenance time.

5 Research Gaps and Recommendations

Implementation of BIM in the market for the infrastructural projects has huge efforts
from the public and private sector after capturing the benefits in its adoption in the
building projects. Applying BIM in the civil infrastructure differs in some consid-
erations in the building projects. The similarities in building and infrastructure in
the design, planning, collaboration and methodology but the main difference is the
benefits or the advantages that return from the adoption of the technique in building
projects to civil projects.
The vertical projects need visualization to be more coordinated and avoid clashes,
but that in the horizontal projects there are no clashes, and the visualization does not
give high value. Need to improve the efficiency in the infrastructure projects in Roads,
Bridge, tunnels and railways and make standees of each one for example standard for
adopting BIM in the Bridge, Highway and so on, and also the process of transition the
information between the layers of the model and what is the standers of the accuracy
of the information.
The government and construction companies encourage to apply the modern tech-
niques in the projects, in this point motivate the researchers. Participate in the young
engineers to learn the technique and make conferences about the BIM in civil infras-
tructure projects, also encourage the collaboration in the work of the projects as one
platform to coordinate and share information between all the parties especially for
government agencies. making practices in position sensors in the asset and drones
and link the investigation with the model to suggest the maintenance in the right time,
also integrate the Google earth, Google positioning system and geographic informa-
tion system with existing project and by generating models integrate the model with
GIS, GPS to update the condition of the asset and help the operator to manage the
asset proficiently as monitor the traffic on the asset for example. And also work to
smooth the use of the software tool in the management by adding new parameters
and new techniques as ANN Artificial Neural Networks and Machine Learning in
the future.
496 A. Alasskar and P. Jagannathan

6 Conclusion

Infrastructure projects are very important in the country. The developed construction
projects reflect the development in the state, also the construction of the civil projects
takes the high capital expenditure of the nation’s economy. Civil projects are divided
into transportation, sewage, power, and so on. The paper has discussed transportation
projects especially bridge projects. The advantages of adopting BIM in the building in
terms of communication and collaboration and mitigate the risk, rework and conflicts
and avoid the clashes detection.
The AEC industry has adopted these latest technique in civil projects and this
article has discussed case study of bridge in the transportation projects, and how
the BIM technique, tools, and process enhance the performance of the construction
of the project in visualization, scheduling, designing, planning, and sequencing the
activities with time 4D with relative cost 5D and also update the model in the operation
and maintenance phases. This article discussed the researches made in the vertical
and horizontal projects and provides information in future research.

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Effective Ways to Handle the Change
Management for Cost in Various Types
of Contracts

S. Sree Nandini, R. Varadharajan, S. Kishore Kumar, and L. Krishnaraj

Abstract The usage of change management in project management field that has
become crucial change within the construction can be consolidated directly or as
project claims. Lots of theories and areas of concerns were spotted and claims
consolidated methods and techniques to hunt best practices to resolve such prob-
lems between all construction project stakeholders. This study collects data from
seven different projects in various locations, and the data sheet was distributed to
Contracts professionals. The research gap is addressed by analyzing and plotting the
factors affecting the contracts and also the effects of cost, change performance. The
validation was carried manually. From the obtained results, there are some factors
which show negative impact for contractors to complete the project without delay.
The cost variations doesn’t show much impact and lump sum contract can be an effec-
tive contract to achieve a project budget and on-time delivery. The achieved results
can apply for upcoming project to reduce the delay and cost variation in project.

Keywords Contracting methods · Business process management · Construction

claims · Change management in contract · Supply management · Cost impact

1 Introduction

Change management is scope that changes from existing contract to revised contract
for the scope of works and majorly impacts for Cost and Time of the projects. All
the stakeholders are also involved in the process of change management [1]. The
major stakeholders are Client, End user, Consultant, Contractor, Project managers,
and Contracts manager. One of the major problems faced by constructions projects
is issues of variation of works which affects delays in the projects, Negative cash
flow, changes in the schedule of projects, etc. [2]. Variations were common in all

S. S. Nandini · R. Varadharajan · S. K. Kumar · L. Krishnaraj (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Chennai 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
R. Varadharajan
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 501
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_43
502 S. S. Nandini et al.

type of the construction projects. Change management is the process of commercial

renegotiating with vendor and amendment to the Existing contract. The variations
mainly affect Time and cost for the projects. The Time and Cost depends on the
scope of the varied works. The Variation instructions would only be valid through
writing and confirmed by the Client. The common tool for project planning is risk
analysis to scale down the destructive consequences [3]. In 2019, Century decided
to invest in coordinating supply management and CFUs, which reflects the need
for supply management involvement in services purchasing in Brazil [4, 5]. There
was a shortage of workers and overburden for contractors [6]. The existing building
are responsible for 40% of the global energy consumption [7, 8]. The variations
mainly affect Time and cost for the projects. Change orders are a very common
way of altering the work defined in the original contract documents [9]. Number
of studies has focused on how change orders affect the projects and results shows
that many construction projects over the world are facing issues related to schedule
delay and cost overrun [10]. Under contract management 80% of the project value
depends on work packages and specialist services [11]. The construction field is one
of the rapidly increasing fields in nowadays. Change management is the process of
commercial renegotiating with vendor and amendment to the existing contract. It is
generally accepted that the cheapest way for an owner to award a contract is by pure
and open competition, generally by closed and sealed bids [12, 13]. The nature of
construction change order makes assistance and addition of costs will make project
complicated during the analysis of project cost. The quality of the building is judged
not only on the basis of final delivery but also on its development of factors. In many
cases, company will have data regarding the consumption of products and services
they sell as well as the social network activity of the clients. Change of the design
in construction project causes cost overrun or schedule growth [14]. Before project
starts one of the strategies that can be considered is to think about the project and
the use of tools.
The impact of events activity schedules of work packages was observed constantly
in order to achieve the target cost and duration. The main objective of this study is
divided into two divisions: (1) Finding the factors which are effecting the contracts.
(2) Investigating the cost impact of change management in contracts. This research
mainly focuses on three contracts such as Re-measurable contract, Lump sum
contract, and Design and Build contract. The data collections are made with major
completed projects in various locations in the India. In the proposed framework, the
template sheet is created and shared to the Contract professionals to fill the required
details. To analyze the information, recording data is essential. This data sheet anal-
yses and validation were carried out manually and the ranking function is used in
identifying the difference between the factors.
Effective Ways to Handle the Change Management … 503

2 Data Collection and Methodology

The researcher mainly focused to collect data from Contracts professionals to under-
stand their perspective towards Change management. The template sheet is created
and shared to the Contracts professionals to filling the details. By tracing the indi-
vidual project details, the researcher was able to analyze the information manually
and comprehensive data that contains package details, change order type, impact
of time, cost impact. The study identified the contracts model, factors driving the
change management, and effective ways to handle the change management in the
three types of contracts. This study understands the Cost impact and impact details for
the different types of projects with three different contracts. The major completed
project details in India is mentioned in (Table 1). The speed of construction was
defined as the gross floor area in square meters, divided by the construction time in
weeks [2].

Table 1 Details of the project

Data Type of Name of project Details
collection contract
Project 1 Design and build contract Phoenix Aquila 12th floor Civil, interior, and services
at Hyderabad works 12th floor—appx
area at 47,000.00 Sf.t
Project 2 Re-measurable Contract Hazel Reality Pvt Ltd for S Mahindra Life Spaces Ltd
+ 13 floor residential for S + 13 floor residential
development at Chennai development at Hyderabad
Project 3 Lump sum contract Base build works single Base build works single
block—appx area block—appx area
1,10,000.00 Sf 2,23,000.00 Sf.t
Project 4 Re-measurable contract M/s. MLDL. Pvt Ltd Base build works single
block—appx area
1,10,000.00 Sf.t
Project 5 Re-measurable contract ICC Mumbai Base build works single
block -S + 12 floors of
commercial development
Project 6 Design and build contract Commercial development Civil, interior, and services
for Ms. Puravankara works at 08th floor—appx
area 35,000.00 Sf.t
Project 7 Lump sum contract Residential development Base build works single
for Ms. Eden parks block—appx area
1,00,000.00 Sf.t
504 S. S. Nandini et al.

2.1 Data Analysis

The analysis was carried by ranking function. A ranking is a relationship between a set
of items such that, for any two items, the first is either “ranked higher than”, “ranked
lower than” or “ranked equal to” the second. In mathematics, this is known as a weak
order or total pre-order of objects. It is not necessarily a total order of objects because
two different objects can have the same ranking. The rankings themselves are totally
ordered. For example, materials are totally pre-ordered by hardness, while degrees
of hardness are totally ordered. If two items are the same in rank it is considered
a tie. The main advantage of the contracting management is combination of design
and construction [11]. Any addition deletions or any revisions of the project during
the construction to change the scope and goal of the project the management of
things are consider to be change management [3]. By reducing detailed measures
to a sequence of ordinal numbers, rankings make it possible to evaluate complex
information according to certain criteria. Thus, for example, an Internet search engine
may rank the pages it finds according to an estimation of their relevance, making it
possible for the user quickly to select the pages they are likely to want to see.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Re-Measurable Contract Analysis on Impact of Cost

Every construction project goes through the changes in cost [13, 15, 16]. The effec-
tiveness in terms of cost and factors that affects the changing order was measured
manually and the results was plotted in Fig. 1 by considering the details in Table
1. Successfully the project completed without much cost variation [17]. The devel-
opment of project Quantity variation is 12 Lakhs. The main factor that is affecting

30
Cost impact in lakhs

25
20
15
10
5
0
Design Site Basic prices Basic prices Termination Additional Extension of
Changes Conditions changes changes of Works Works time (EOT)

change order type

Fig. 1 Impact of cost in various type of Re-measurable contract

Effective Ways to Handle the Change Management … 505

Cost impact in lakhs 30

25
20
15
10
5
0
Additional Design Additional Basic price Non Natural Extension
works charges works charge avalibility climatic of time
of materials condition
Change order type

Fig. 2 The Impact of cost in various type of design and build contract

the development of project is Termination of Works. It shows the cost impact of

25 Lakhs. When the finalization of project, client and Project manager have to do
the Pre-qualification for all the competitive vendors for all capability like Financial,
Technical, Similar completed projects, and similar ongoing projects for avoiding
the Termination of the contractor [17]. The Impact of cost in various factors in
Re-measurable contracts are shown in (Fig. 1).

3.2 Design and Building Contract Analysis on Impact of Cost

Project management team should aware of detrimental changes that are not always
recognized as “detrimental” until problems occurs [13]. If the more change orders
are furnished during the construction phase due to design faults, then the cost and
time of the design and construction phase varies [14]. The effectiveness in terms
of cost and factors affecting the change of order was measured manually and the
results was plotted in Fig. 2. Referring Table1, the main factor that is affecting the
development of project is additional works and cost impact is 25 lakhs. During the
finalization of pre-contract, the client and D&B Contractor must identify and finalize
the entire scope of works for reducing the variations. The Impact of cost in various
factors of Design and Build contracts is shown in (Fig. 2).

3.3 Lump Sum Contract—Impact of Cost

The effectiveness in terms of cost and factors affecting the change of the order was
measured manually and the results was plotted in (Fig. 1). Referring to (Table 1),
the main factor that is effecting the development of project is site condition and cost
impact is 18 lakhs. During the finalization of pre-contract, the client and Project
manager must analyze the Geotechnical report and get proper recommendation from
506 S. S. Nandini et al.

20

Cost impact in lakhs 15

10

0
Site Conditions Site Conditions Additional Works Extension of time
(EOT)
Change in order

Fig. 3 The Impact of cost in various type of Lump sum contract

Table 2 Factors affecting in changing in management

Factors driving change Factors driving change Factors driving change
management in management in design and management in lump sum
Re-measurable contracts build contracts contracts
Quantity variations Additional scope of works Extension of time (EOT)
Basic prices changes Basic prices changes Site conditions
Changes in the design Changes in the design Additional scope of works
Extension of time (EOT) Extension of time (EOT)
Termination of works Natural climatic
conditions
Additional scope of works Due to imported materials
and Site conditions (Forex)

geotechnical consultant for reducing the variations. In lump sum contract there are
only few factors which impact on cost. The Impact of cost in various factors of Lump
sum contracts are shown in (Fig. 3).
The objective of this study has been achieved through Data Collection survey
and with the help of experts in the construction industry. The first objective that has
achieved results is mentioned in (Table 2).

3.4 Factors Driving the Change in Management

A contract is an offer, acceptance intention to create legal relations, consideration,

and legality of both form and content. The factors affecting the three contracts are
listed in (Table 2).
The second objective (effective ways to handle the change management in the
different type contracts) of this study has been achieved through Data Collection
survey and with the help of experts in the construction industry. Based on the data
collection survey, the summary table is given below.
Effective Ways to Handle the Change Management … 507

300

cost impact in lakhs

Original cost of the project
200 Revised cost
Original cost of the project
100

0
Civil & Furniture Electrical FAS & HVAC Plumbing
Interior works works FAPS Works works
works package details

Fig. 4 Cost impact of original contract versus Revised Contract for M/s. Phoenix Aquila and of
M/s. Puruvankara

3.5 Original Cost Versus Revised Cost Analysis

Cost variation is founded between original cost and revised cost. From the Fig. 4,
there is a cost variation for three factors in design and building contract, such as civil
and interior works, furniture works, and electrical works. The cost variation are 28,
14, and 6 lakhs and the remaining 4 factors didn’t show any impact. Cost variation
is founded between original cost and revised cost. From the (Fig. 4), there is a cost
variation for three factors in design and building contract, such as electrical works and
HVAC works. The cost variations are 8 lakhs and 20 lakhs. The remaining 3 factors
didn’t show any impact. The impact of the original project cost versus revised cost
for M/s. Phoenix Aquila and M/s. Puruvankara was shown in Fig. 4.
Cost variation is founded between original cost and revised cost. Figure 5 illus-
trates that there is a cost variation for three factors in Re-Measurable Contract.
They are excavation works, civil and structural works, external development works.
The cost variation is 15, 55, and 38 lakhs and the remaining 2 factors didn’t show

1200
1000 Original cost of the project
cost impact in lakhs

Revised cost
800 Original cost of the project
Revised cost
600
400

200
0
Excavation Civil & External Joinery works Signage
works Structural Development works
works works
package details

Fig. 5 Cost Impact of original contract versus revised contract M/s. Hazel Reality and M/s. MLDL.
Pvt Ltd
508 S. S. Nandini et al.

any impact. Cost variation is founded between original cost and revised cost. From
(Fig. 5), there is a cost variation for three factors in Re-Measurable Contract. This
is affecting only 1 factor that is excavation work. The cost variation is 30 lakhs. The
remaining 2 factors didn’t show any impact. The impact of the original project cost
versus revised cost of M/s. Hazel Reality Pvt Ltd and of M/s. MLDL was shown in
(Fig. 5).
Cost variation is founded between original cost and revised cost. Figure 6 illus-
trates there is a cost variation for three factors in Re-Measurable Contract they are
external development works, civil and structural works, external development works.
The cost variation is 45 lakhs and the remaining 3 factors didn’t show any impact
The Cost Impact of Original contract versus Revised Contract for M/s ICC Mumbai
projects are shown in Fig. 6.
From the results, there is no Cost variation founded between original cost and
revised cost [18] So the lump sum contract can be an effective contract to achieve a
project for budget and on-time delivery. The Cost Impact of Original contract versus
Revised Contract for M/s. Eden parks was shown in (Fig. 7).

800
Original cost of the project
cost impact in lakhs

700
600 Revised cost
500
400
300
200
100
0
Excavation Civil & External Joinery works
works Structural works Development
works
package details

Fig. 6 Cost Impact of original contract versus revised contract of M/s. ICC Mumbai

8,000
Cost impact in lakhs

Original cost of the project

6,000
Revised cost
4,000

2,000

0
Civil & External Façade work Signage work Landscape Interior
Structural Development work works
Package details

Fig. 7 Cost impact of original contract versus revised contract of M/s. Eden parks
Effective Ways to Handle the Change Management … 509

11% 12%
Phoenix
9%
Hazel
27% MLDL
32% ICC
9% Puravankara
Eden Parks

Fig. 8 Net cost impact % for all the projects

4 Overall Impact Details of Project

The major net variation is 27% of the cost. It occurs in the project of M/s. hazel
reality Pvt ltd (Fig. 8). The Net cost impact details are INR 108 lakhs. The original
project duration of the project is 245 days and revised project duration of the project
is 287 days. The net impact details of duration are 25 days.

5 Conclusion

An attempt has been made to make a cases for re-measurable, Design and building,
lump sum contracts. The researcher feels that this approach to construction field may
be of help for further studies. This study identifies the contracts model, factors driving
the change management, and effective ways to handle the change management in
three types of contracts. This study was understanding the Cost impact and impact
details for the different types of projects and different types of contracts.
• The first objective of this study is to identify what are the factors driving change
management in various types of contracts. This has been achieved based on the
data collection and analysis. The objective of this study has been achieved through
Data Collection survey and with the help of experts in the construction industry.
• Quantity Variation, Basic prices changes, Changes in the design, Termination of
works, Non available of materials, Additional scope of works, and Site conditions.
• The second objective of the study is achieved based on the data collection, the
analyzed results for M/s Hazel Reality project. The original cost of the project
value is INR 11.75 crore but after the variations the final cost is INR 12.83 crore.
The net variation is INR 1.08 Crores.
• Re-Measurable contracts were operated in this project. The analyzed results are to
cross verify the quantities with available GFC drawings, to identify and finalize
510 S. S. Nandini et al.

site feasibility report as per the site conditions, to Pre-qualification for all the
competitive vendors for all capability like Financial, Technical, Similar completed
project in such ways to avoid variations and effectively to handle the variations.
• For M/s Phoenix Aquila project the net variation is INR 48 Lakhs. Design and
build contracts were operated in this project.
• The analyzed results are to identify and finalize the entire scope of works for
reducing the additional scope of works, to identify the additional works, Design
changes and Non-availability of materials to avoid the extension of time, in such
ways to avoid variations and effectively to handle the variations.
• For M/s MLDL project the net variation is INR 37 Lakhs. Lump sum contracts
were operated in this project, to analyze the Geotechnical report and get proper
recommendation from geotechnical consultant, to finalize the entire scope of
works for reducing the variations of Additional work, to identify the additional
works in such ways to avoid variations and effectively to handle the variations.
• The minimum variation is 9% and maximum variation is 27% for M/s. Hazel
reality Pvt ltd of this project. The net variation is 108 lakhs. In this study, we
understood effective ways to manage to variations. In this achieved result to apply
for upcoming project will be avoid the variations.

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Investing the Application
of Resource-Constrained Project
Scheduling Problem in a Single-Mode
Construction Project

Priyanka Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian

Abstract Building information modeling (BIM) is used for 3D modelling, but due to
the recent developments, it achieved various advancements. In the past few decades,
the most challenging combinatorial optimization scheduling problem is solved by the
Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) method. The extension
of RCPSP is still in the account. However, an integration of the Building Information
Model (BIM) which supports RCPSP is still deficient. This paper presents the easy
data transfer from the information standard to the RCPSP standard with construction
scheduling objectives. A work-package-based information model seizes the entire
data of RCPSP. Both semiautomatic and manual tasks are introduced for workflow.
This paper focused on genetic algorithm techniques to solve Resource-Constrained
Project Scheduling Problem. This paper’s novel appeal integrates actual construction
data and the formation of effective solutions using an algorithm. Simultaneously, the
work-package-based information is beneficial in the future for a similar project. The
extension of BIM and comparison of the various algorithm can be determined in the
future.

Keywords Algorithm · Scheduling · Resource constraint · Optimization · Data

integration

1 Introduction

In construction management, the importance of scheduling cannot be neglected since

it plays an essential role. It manages the delay and limited resource availability. In
Reference [1], the basis term “planning and controlling” is the project objective
provided by construction scheduling. In the early days, CPM and PERT were used

P. Devagekar · M. Balasubramanian (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM IST, Tamil Nadu, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu 603203, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Devagekar
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 513
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_44
514 P. Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian

to manage the project schedule. However, the logical dependencies of assuming

infinite resources were not reasonable in real-life project problems, and constraints
assumptions follow certain limitations. In Reference [2], genetic algorithm (GA) is
proven to be effective when the deadline duration of the project is not specific and
resources are constrained with availability or duration.
The highlight advantage of CPM is managing both critical and near-critical activ-
ities, primarily in large projects. The optimal solutions are not obtained and follow
constraint restrictions, leading to other techniques known as Resource-Constrained
Project Scheduling Problem. It is also known as an NP-hard problem and termed
complex than CPM. It aims to minimize the project duration, relates to resource avail-
ability and precedence constraints. RCPSP problems are used for various information
such as duration of project, earliest start time and end time, slack time.
The general objective of RCPSP is to minimize project duration and determine
the start day of each activity such that both resource and precedence constraints
are satisfied. RCPSP has various features like single-mode, multi-mode, renewable
or non-renewable, preemptive, or non-preemptive. An algorithm such as heuristic
and metaheuristics is used to solve RCPSP. It consists of activities and resources
with available information of activity duration, precedence relation, resource avail-
ability, and resource demand. Recently, RCPSP is evolved with a solution by various
methods. In the present scenario, most construction industry schedules the project by
formulating software. Actual project data input needs a trusted structural data source
which is discussed in this paper.
Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a representative model of building
components with physical or functional characteristics. It places an appropriate
solution due to its ability to store information and interlinking software for data
exchanges, which boosts the project’s work performance. For construction projects,
BIM provides extensible data integration and an entire life-cycle approach [3]. BIM
can link with a bill of quantities and also with enterprise resource planning informa-
tion. The BIM technology has recently overcome the challenge of producing a 4D
schedule from 3D. These involve the capacity to visualize construction progress, indi-
vidual object and solve construction collisions. Due to this, the 4D schedules are avail-
able for use in a variety of commercial software. BIM-based 6D project management
is also introduced with the addition of cost, progress, and safety information.
The information provided by BIM is not sufficient, so few researchers followed the
extension of IFC. Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is an enabler research hotspot
in the AEC industry. Reference [4] exported schedule data from Industrial Founda-
tion Class (IFC). BIM software is obligate for both experts and non-experts for the
acquisition of flexible and practical data. The extension of IFC is provided in few
papers as a data source. But most used the BIM-based information modeling method
to cover the gap of details.
In Reference [5], genetic algorithm has been introduced. This research used a
genetic algorithm (GA) for solving single-mode construction projects. In References
[6, 7], genetic algorithm is selected for solving RCPSP because it is complementary
in several aspects. This algorithm is categorized under metaheuristic and heuristics
methods. Coding is inherited to design an algorithm. A recent function of the genetic
Investing the Application of Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem … 515

algorithm is highlighted due to efficient and accurate results. The specific parameter
study on the genetic algorithm is neglected in this study.

2 Literature Search

2.1 Resource—Constrained Scheduling Problem

in Single-Mode Construction Projects

When jobs executed by resource requirement are constrained, then we have resource-
constrained project scheduling either in single-mode or multi-mode RCPSP [8].
Single-mode presents that each project’s activity has single execution or single-mode,
and both activity duration and its requirement are assumed to be fixed. The recent
research on single-mode RCPSP followed data sources from Project Scheduling
Library (PSPLIB) with the adequate performance of the proposed two-stage multi-
operator differential algorithm with opposition to a recent familiar state-of-the-art
algorithm in resultant of compelling and competitive solution [9]. The main objective
for single-mode RCPSP (SM-RCPSP) is to determine the proper activity schedule.

2.2 Building Information Modeling (BIM) Schedule

BIM with various standards has been studied for at least 30 years. Each literature on
BIM has individual aspects such as data exchange standard, future usage of BIM.
The integration process of BIM is technical, and few researchers discussed it. In the
planning phase of construction, the productivity is predicted by Building Information
Modeling (BIM) integrated simulation framework designed by surveying critical
factors that affect productivity at the functional level [10]. The extensive usage of
BIM in construction has not yet stretched to its full capacity. Reference [11] presented
the integration of schedule with work package information, algorithm, and process
simulation which lead to ease the flow of the automatic formation of optimized
activity for panelized building projects under resource constraints.

2.3 Genetic Algorithm (GA)

The genetic algorithm (GA) method is a valuable procedure to solve resource-

constrained project scheduling problems. Reference [12] proposed a novel approach
based on a genetic algorithm that automatically forms an optimal solution for a spec-
ified architectural in IFC format to formulate multiple objectives. Reference [13]
introduced certain modifications to the Genetic Algorithm system.
516 P. Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian

Fig. 1 Methodology of
research
Preliminary Study

Literature Review

Data Collection

Data Integration

Design Information Modeling

Data Analysis and Conclusion

3 Methodology

3.1 Research Methodology

The methodology of this project includes six steps as shown in (Fig. 1). In detail the
research problem is identified and the literature is studied to fill a gap. The literature
study helps to gain knowledge on a particular topic and represents the various methods
or tools been used to date. The next core step is data collection. The data related to
RCPSP such as activities, duration, precedence relations, and new work templates
are generated. The second core step is data integration. Into integration part both the
above-mentioned steps, work package templates from BIM are integrated with new
work package templates. The available data is then integrated with the BIM. In the
last step, scheduling details are solved by using an algorithm. The final step is to
analyze the data by setting it into commercial software.

3.1.1 Data Integration

Build on a literature study of RCPSP information demand using the Object-Oriented

Modeling (OOM); data source structures as shown in (Fig. 2). These design structures
generate a new work package template that expresses engineering experience. The
work package template is utilized to a category all tasks together to organize the work
effectively. In this study, the work package used is called work package instances
which present construction project information. The work package instances consist
primarily of information and resources. From the work package template database,
the work package instances are initiated, and from the database, resources are directly
ejected. The BIM and work package templates are integrated depend on present data.
Basic quantity in building elements refers to the area, volume, weight, and length of
Investing the Application of Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem … 517

+ +
Work package Building Classification Work package Building
template (1) element (1) template (1) element (1)

Element code Material code

Coding Standard

OmniClass UniClass

Fig. 2 Integration between BIM and work package template

the building. Element types are classified into two codes: material code and element
code. The primary material is added manually.

3.1.2 Link Between BIM and Work Package Template

According to company or national level elements, the levels of detail in BIM and
organized standards are classified by codes. They permit the management of project
reports, estimate cost, and define material specialization. The two classification
codes: material codes and element codes, use coding standards, such as UniClass and
OmniClass (OCCS). The efficient result between building elements and the work
package template is assured by correlating the BIM and work package templates
with similar classification codes. The table under both coding standards (table Ef
and Table 21) is used to structure the element code specification and add to building
elements throughout the project’s design phase. The two codes are linked when the
work package template contains the element code of the building element. One work
package template has one element code as it is parallel to one building element. The
work, which includes multiple elements such as reinforcement, scaffolding, or form-
works, has various work package template with different element categories. For
the association of BIM and work package templates, the material code of UniClass
and OmniClass (Table Pr and Table 23) is used, but this is also used during work
instantiation, as shown in (Fig. 2).
The material and classification code in work package templates includes quota.
The quota is defined as a type of activity with a list of required resources and every
item in the record delivers an essential amount of one resource per unit quantity
conforming to the activity type. Multiple material codes may persist in both BIM
and work package templates. An element code tree “first matching” operation of
the BIM and work package template is a deal at the starting step. The algorithm
design is used to deal with the code tree’s depth and abbreviate Nw as an integer of
work package templates, Ne integer of building elements. The time complexity of
518 P. Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian

Fig. 3 Linkage between BIM and work package template

the matching process is O(Ne.D + Nc), and the time complexity of the building step
is O(Nw.D). This time complexity of the algorithm is entirely dependent on Nc as
well Ne. At the next step, “second matching” is proceeded by excluding the elements
which restrict the matching concept of material code. The straightforward matching
solution can assure material code in building elements included by the work package
template’s material code. After two steps of the matching process, links were formed
between BIM and the work package template as shown in (Fig. 3).
After linking work package templates and building elements, the next phase is
to create a work package template using the construction area. We considered each
floor as construction areas: hence, each floor’s instances would be generated with
building elements by work package templates.

3.1.3 Work Package Instantiation and Reorganization

To certify building elements linked with each instance, use a similar quota work
package instances that are reorganized. Building elements are divided into groups of
construction areas and generate instances for each work package template. This is
done by crossing all building elements and determining whether conditions of quota
meet their properties. A new work package is designed when building elements use a
new quota. The present quotas and their quantities have been determined and can be
used for scheduling after reorganizing. While using a new quota merger in building
elements, a new work package instance is formed.
Investing the Application of Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem … 519

3.1.4 Sequel Arrangement

The work package instance details make the automated process possible. In construc-
tion, the events’ pattern is arranged and defined as a “precedence relation” and
designed in work package instances. This paper focuses on sequential logic, which
is technical precedence relation followed in construction based on the primary rule.
The rule descriptions are depending on element category, spatial, and construction
location. The precedence relations in work package instances can be formed by
exploring the attributes after describing the rule. These rules specify settings, prece-
dence relation, and one description specify a set of work package instances, and
multiple descriptions specify intersections of these sets.

3.1.5 Scheduling Process

In this paper, the scheduling problem is solved by using a genetic algorithm (GA). The
objective of the algorithm is to decide the project’s shortest duration with specified
resource units. Alternatively, the resource allocation and leveling are done. The entire
project duration determined by classic CPM analysis is 32 days by considering only
the main activities of the project without eliminating resource over-allocation as
shown in (Fig. 4). This duration extends to 78 days by resource allocation as well as
resource leveling in software terminology.
The blind parameter of the algorithm is considered while carrying out the RCPSP
problem with an extended duration. To encode a feasible solution to the optimization
problem, GA requires a representation scheme. The primary operator systems of
the genetic algorithm are reproduction, crossover, and mutation. A set of genes are
formed and joined together, which form chromosomes. Chromosomes are viewed in
form boxes as shown in (Fig. 5). Each gene in a box represents an activity on the mode.
The position of the activity in the critical path can be viewed through the number on
the box. In reproduction, the individual is formed, which generates next-generation
production of offspring. From the population, the parents are randomly selected and
recombined. Using two operators, crossover and mutation, the chromosome solution

Fig. 4 Resource histogram

520 P. Devagekar and M. Balasubramanian

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 AP
1 2 3 4 5 P
Parent gene – R1

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 BP Parent gene – R2

A1 B2 B3 B4 B5 AP
Random Range (e.g.., 2-5)
Offspring

Fig. 5 Elements of genetic algorithm

is examined with criteria. Objectives evaluate the fitness solution. If the objectives
satisfy, then it is a feasible solution or best solution; otherwise, it is an infeasible
solution and repeats the process of evaluating the next population until getting a
suitable solution. At initial, the priority for each activity is made by considering its
predecessors or successors. The new chromosome is modeled in the population by
interchanging the place of activities, which has a similar priority.
The parts of a good solution are recombined and obtained to form a new solu-
tion by crossover operator’s probabilities. The selection of a good solution is done
randomly, which leads an individual to a better solution. The two individual parents’
cell are denoted as R1 and R2. s is the number selected randomly from A1 and AP.
The crossover operator obtains new individual T1. T 1 contains R1 and R2 from the
position I = 1 to P. Next proceeds to mutation which alters the divisions of chromo-
somes from the initial stage. During the mutation process, the solution alters from
the previous one and determines the appropriate result. At the final stage, some of the
organisms are carried to the next generation from the current generation, resulting
in an effective solution.

4 Conclusion

Scheduling of resources decides when the project will start and how the process is
carried. Such decisions can cause a great impact on the total project. In this research,
the outcome of the result shows the feasible application of BIM with coordination
to both work package templates and algorithms (GA). The integration process of
BIM enables coherent data flow from information standards to RCPSP standards.
The genetic algorithm approach is an efficient method with extension in further
performance and makes it possible to use in the construction industry with benefits.
Additionally, the formation of RCPSP solution using the newly proposed approach
Investing the Application of Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem … 521

takes less duration as compare to the manual solution. Also, the information model
fills complete details of the project by eliminating duplication of work.
Further, BIM is expected to discover more objectives for different RCPSP model
and to store more relevant data as cost estimation, resource details, and safety compo-
nents. Even the tracking of schedule can be developed to automatic progress or
software-based solution which is still lacking. Finally, the limitations detected for
the model are: the machinery resources or crews are neglected, the algorithm param-
eters were not considered and this study neglects preference on dead stock or wastage
of resources factor and expected to carry for future research work.

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Identification of Cost Over Run Issue
in Preventive Management
in Construction Workplace––Chennai

M. Balasubramanian , T. L. Abinaya, V. R. Prasath Kumar ,

and S. Gopinath

Abstract Nowadays, construction industry is one of the cannonading industries

that has a great impact on the economy of any nation. This report identifies the cost
overrun issues in construction companies using preventive management activities
in Chennai. A preventive management survey has been conducted in construction
companies based on a literature and questionnaire survey. There are many serious
hazards in the construction industry, including falling or being struck by heavy
construction equipment, combined with the associated financial loss resulting from
budget overrun, worker’s compensation, indirect cost hikes, and impact of the prof-
itability of any constriction operation. This paper aims to find the influencing factors
causing accidents and thereby giving importance to those factors and preventing
it from an occurrence. The most influencing factor has been identified through a
questionnaire survey. The information has been assessed using statistical analysis
to understand the circumstances well which will help scrutinize the factors. The
tests such as reliability, ranking by RII (Relative Importance Index), and correlation
for all the attributes were found to be good and so the data collected was highly
consistent. The correlation test has been done and few factors are highly correlated.
The RII has been calculated for every attribute and it has been found that effective
preventive management can reduce the indirect cost and also avoid cost overrun and
budget overrun. This study also proposes that the government should pay attention
to enhancing legal enforcement and organizing safety training programs.

Keywords Construction management · Cost overrun · RII (Relative importance

index) · Construction safety · Effective preventive management

M. Balasubramanian (B) · V. R. Prasath Kumar · S. Gopinath

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM IST, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
T. L. Abinaya
School of Architecture and Interior Design, SRM IST, Kattankulathur,
Chengalpattu 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 523
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_45
524 M. Balasubramanian et al.

1 Introduction

All over the world, construction is one of the most hazardous industries due to its
unique nature. The Indian economy has been on a very positive development curve
for years now, posting impressive growth rate percentages. The Indian construc-
tion industry is an important part of the country’s economy and growth, as well
as a conduit for a significant portion of India’s development investment [1]. The
construction industry employs roughly 31 million workers, accounts for 6–8% of
GDP, and is the country’s second-largest employer after agriculture. In general, it
has grown at a 9–11% annual rate, owing primarily to the strength of increased
domestic and international manufacturing activities and industrial growth. Both prac-
titioners and researchers are always concerned about construction safety. All the
factors influencing safety performances in the construction industry were identified
by workers’ attitudes, construction company size, security policies, project coordi-
nation, economic pressure, management training, and safety culture. Construction
sites are hazardous environments where workers can be injured, killed, or become
ill [2]. It can be due to electrocution, height loss, injuries caused by tools, equip-
ment, and machinery; moving vehicles, injuries caused by manual operations, and
diseases caused by dangerous substances like dust and chemical products. Even a
nail coming from a discarded piece of wood, if used with inappropriate footwear,
can cause serious injury.
Accident statistics in India’s construction industry are scarce [3]. In India as well as
in a number of other countries, including developed ones, building industry accidents
are common. UK, US, and other countries’ statistics show a very large potential for
hazards and fatal accident incidences in the industry. In the United Kingdom, for
example, the average annual accident rate for 1000 building workers is about four
times the combined rate for all manufacturing industries.

2 Problem Statement

In India, preventive measures in construction are a source of concern. The construc-

tion industry in India is the most vulnerable segment of unorganized labor. It is
estimated that approximately 165 workers per 1000 are injured in the construc-
tion industry [4]. The construction industry has four to five times the number of
fatal accidents as the manufacturing industry. Many construction professionals are
exposed to accidents at work and health issues, including manual handling, noise,
and vibration, as well as exposure to various hazardous substances, such as concrete,
asbestos, soldering fumes, etc. For a construction company, accidents and disease
can be extremely costly. If a worker is ill or injured by negligence unlawful, compen-
sation may be requested that is significant if the damage or disease is serious. The
basic goal in any industry is to complete the project on time and within the budget.
It’s the same in the construction industry. The construction industry, which is one
Identification of Cost Over Run Issue in Preventive Management … 525

of the most complex, fragmented, schedule-driven, and resource-driven industries,

is constantly confronted with serious issues such as preventive management, low
productivity, low quality, delay, cost overrun, and so on.
Construction injuries affect both the worker and the worker themselves directly.
All consequences are personal injuries to the wounded worker, delays in construction,
loss of productivity, higher insurance premiums due to injuries, and the possibility
of liability suits for all project participants [5]. Many other indirect implications are
also present, such as loss of income on the part of the owner as a result of late project
delivery and lower labor morals. This study describes the results of the research in
preventive management of the Indian building industry in Chennai in literature and
questionnaires.

2.1 Barriers to Implement Preventive Management

The country’s economy has become more dynamic and complex. As a result,
economic measurement and analysis, particularly in relation to cost overruns in
safety, have become more difficult and complicated. The main issue is lack of exper-
tise or resources, tight project deadlines, the fragmented nature of the construction
industry, incorrect perception or underestimation of risk, onerousness, and variability
of legislation, and a lack of safety awareness. This process is further complicated by
the collection of questionnaire surveys from the industries [6]. Questionnaire survey
data is quite difficult to collect and sorting resulting from variations in the importance
given to the preventive measures by the industries. Much effort has been expended
in determining the factor that influences preventive management. Apart from that,
some factors influencing the occurring of accidents are more as a Safety net, Work
environment, Scaffolding, Welding and Electric, and Underground services.

2.2 Importance of Cost Overrun in Preventive Management

The construction industry, which employs the most people in the country, has been
responsible for approximately 11% of all occupational injuries and 20% of all occu-
pational deaths. At all times, health and safety must be prioritized in all aspects of
construction [7]. The construction industry is rife with hazards and the potential for
accidents. Accidents can occur as a result of poorly implemented health and safety
techniques, design, and management. Illness and, in extreme cases, death accidents
cost a lot of money. However, the financial cost is not the only reason why a contractor
should be aware of preventive measures.
526 M. Balasubramanian et al.

3 Research Methodology

The first step of the research discusses the background, various definitions, measure-
ments, problem statements, misconceptions, and facts related to the cost overrun
issue in preventive management. The second step focuses on the previous study
about cost overrun and preventive management issues and preparing various factors
affecting it from the professional journals and texts. The third step of this research is
the preparation of the questionnaire and based on the various factors the cost overrun
issue in preventive management [8]. The fourth step of the research is a personal
survey and data collection from the Project Managers, Assistant Project Engineer,
Site Engineer, Site Supervisor, and Engineer. The fifth step of the research is data
analysis. The Relative Importance Index (RII) method is used to perform the required
analysis. Further comparison, results, and discussions will be made after analyzing
the data. The methodology of the project is explained in a flowchart (Fig. 1).
Hypotheses shall be stated and data from the RII analysis will be used for testing.
Further SPSS software shall be used for reliability analysis, correlation analysis shall
be carried out to verify the reliability and correlation between the values collected
during the questionnaire survey (Fig. 2).

3.1 Questionnaire Survey

Collecting general information on various factors influencing the cost overrun issues
in preventive management in building construction was the basic aim of the survey.
Questionnaire survey is used to collect data either by direct interview or by site

Fig. 1 Flowchart of
Review of Literature
research methodology

Preparing list of various factors affecting cost

overrun issue in Preventive management

Questionnaire survey - Engineer

Reliability and Correlation Analysis- Using SPSS Software

Ranking of data using Relative Important Index Method

Discussion & Result

Identification of Cost Over Run Issue in Preventive Management … 527

Correlation Factors affecting Cost overrun issue in preventive

management
1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
1 2 3 4 5
Factor 1 1 0.125 0.25 -0.335 -0.374
Factor 2 0.125 1 0.663 0.427 -0.59
Factor 3 0.25 0.663 1 -0.97 -0.262
Factor 4 -0.335 0.427 -0.97 1 -0.441
Factor 5 -0.374 -0.59 -0.262 -0.441 1

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5

Fig. 2 Correlation factors affecting cost overrun issue in preventive management

investigation. A comprehensive assessment of probability, occurrences, and impacts

on project goals has been conducted on the basis of several building firms in and
around the region of Chennai [9]. The questionnaire is also distributed by mail, verbal
commitment through telephone to participate in the survey. A web-based survey
format questions will take less time and cost the researcher less money, while allowing
respondents to answer freely. However, in comparison to face-to-face interviews, the
response rate for this approach usually is lower. To ensure proper follow-up to the
error reduction procedure, respondents were fully explained about the purpose and
approach employed in the survey. During the survey period, some monitoring was
done to ensure that the process was run smoothly and consistently. The questionnaire
survey was conducted among 34 site engineers and labors of different construction
firms.
528 M. Balasubramanian et al.

4 Data Collection and Analysis

Collecting general information on various factors influencing cost overrun issues in

preventive management in building construction was the basic aim of the survey. To
achieve the objective of the project successfully, it is the most important phase to
collect accurate and reliable data from the project manager, assistant project manager,
site supervisor, and engineer [10]. Data collection is a process through which the
critical data collection, sample observations, or population of observations can be
collected. For the research study, questionnaires were given to the respondents in
person, a brief discussion on cost overrun issues in preventive management was
conducted. Further, the intentions of the project have been explained to rate the
degree of effect precisely. Reasons for the degree of effect marked have also been
discussed with the respondents. Responses were collected on an individual basis and
also interviews were conducted with respect to questionnaires distributed.

4.1 Reliability Analysis—Using SPSS Software

Reliability analysis has been carried out to verify the internal consistency of the data
having multiple scales. This test is to find whether the information collected is fit for
analysis. Here, the Cronbach α test was used to verify the internal consistency of the
survey questionnaire. To prove the consistency level of the questionnaire, the Cron-
bach α value should be greater than 0.7. The Cronbach α value for the factors affecting
cost overrun issue in preventive management in the view of respondents is found to
be 0.758 so the data collected were consistent and they are fit for analysis [10].

4.2 Data Analysis—RII Method

It is widely believed that there may be disturbances with varying degrees of danger
during various construction projects. In order to deal with these differences, three
conditions were taken into account: The three evaluation levels are excellent, satis-
fying, and unsatisfactory. In order to distinguish the degree of each adverse level, it
was necessary to clearly specify the standard conditions. For prevention factors, the
concept of different levels of severity had been used by other studies [11, 12]. After
reviewing the typical conditions with the participants during the pilot survey, minor
changes were made. In addition, a detailed questionnaire survey was created to rate
the factors influencing cost overruns in building construction preventive manage-
ment. The level of measurement must be investigated in order to select the most
appropriate technique of study. There is a method that can be used for each type of
measurement. Ordinal scales were used in this study.
Identification of Cost Over Run Issue in Preventive Management … 529

4.3 Method of Analysis

A plan for collecting field information and developing an assessment process and
numerical values was drawn up to facilitate the study. In order to ensure a clear
understanding of all applicable definitions, procedures, and guidance used in the
data collection, it was necessary to provide direct communication with respondents.
Results of the survey were analyzed with the RII method. Ranking by engineers,
the site supervisor, and the project manager of various factors according to their
importance. The RII was used to determine the views of different respondents in
building projects. RII is calculated as stated below (1).

W
RII = xN (1)
A

where W-Weight given to each factor by the respondents range from 1 to 3.

H-Highest weight 3.
N-Total number of responses collected for the ordinal scale.

The RII is used in preventive management to classify the different factors affecting
the cost overrun problem. This classification allows the relative importance of the
factors that the respondents perceive to be cross-comparable. Each RII factor that all
respondents perceive should be used to assess the overall ranking of each individual
factor to provide an overview of the issue.

5 Result and Discussion

5.1 Ranking of Factors by RII Method

Table 1 shows the RII value for the highest five factors that affect cost overrun
issues in preventive management in building construction. It also clearly depicts that
the top factors are work environment, safety net, scaffolding, welding and electric,

Table 1 RII value for the factors that affect cost overrun issue in preventive management
S. no Factors affecting cost overrun issue in preventive RH (Weighted average)
management
Factor1 Safety net 78.17
Factor2 Work environment 78.38
Factor3 Scaffolding 77.88
Factor4 Welding and electric 77.00
Factor5 Underground services 76.14
530 M. Balasubramanian et al.

underground services [13]. This bar chart representing the factors that affect the
cost overrun issue in preventive management. Further, Fig. 1 shows the relative
importance index of the various responses for individual factors are safety net, work
environment, scaffolding, welding and electric, underground services respectively.

5.2 Correlation Analysis—Using SPSS Software

The correlation test helps to determine the strength of the association among the
variables as well as to establish a mutual connection between two or more variables
[14]. It is important for the construction professionals to understand the similarities
perception on cost overrun issue in preventive management factors. Here, the Pearson
correlation test has been used to find the degree of association between the variables.
Its value varies from –l to + 1 according to the level of agreement. If the value is close
to + 1 (positive correlation) indicates the extent to which those variables increase or
decrease in parallel then the variables are said to closely related to each other and
have a positive relationship [15]. If the value is close to –1(negative correlation), it
indicates the extent to which one variable increases as the other decreases then the
variables are said to be unrelated to each other and have a negative relationship. The
values will be high if the observations have chosen a similar or identical rank for any
attribute. The correlation coefficient test has been done for the five factors ranked
by the RII method. For these factors, the correlation test has been carried out to find
their degree of association.
It has been found that the pair of factors having values above 0.663 were said to
highly correlate and the pair of factors having values below –0.970 were said to have
a low degree of correlation [16].
As per the analysis performed for the collected data, the shortlisted list of 35
factors influencing the cost overrun issue in preventive management has been studied
and interpretations have been made. Initially, the collected data were checked for
reliability to find the internal consistency of the data. The test Cronbach was used to
test the data that should have values over 0.7 in order to make the data valid. As per
the criteria, all the factors listed were found to be above 0.7 and this showed that the
data were highly reliable and fit for analysis.

6 Conclusion and Recommendations

The assessments have been done to identify the most influencing factors that result
in increasing indirect costs in construction projects. The degree of importance given
by the respondents has clearly been investigated and correlated. All the factors were
clearly discussed among the respondent’s in order to give a suitable degree of impor-
tance for the factors. From all the factors work environment ranked high among the
Identification of Cost Over Run Issue in Preventive Management … 531

remaining factors. This should be controlled and eliminated by proper supervision

and necessary steps to take by the organization to avoid accidents and also to reduce
indirect cost, cost overrun, and budget overrun.
Further safety net related factors are the safety nets less than 30 feet below the
working surface ranked first high among the remaining degrees of importance. This
can be controlled and eliminated with the help of effective preventive management
techniques and also can control the cost overrun issues. In the work environment,
workplace should have sufficient ventilation to enable workers to carry out work
ranked the high among remaining degrees of importance. This can be controlled
and eliminated with the help of preventive measures that should be taken by the
organization to avoid accidents.
Case of scaffolding related factor, couple of respondents have a high degree of
importance. There is one thing if there is a safe manner for employees who are
building or using the scaffold to get on and off the scaffold-like ladder, trained and
monitored to confirm their structural capacity. This can be controlled and eliminated
with the help of preventive management that should be taken by the organization to
supervise properly and also to take necessary actions against this to avoid the issues.
In welding and electric related factor, whether firefighting equipment is located near
the welding work area have a high degree of importance. This can be controlled by
proper supervision and also can be eliminated by preventive measures that should be
followed to reduce indirect cost.
The excavations, adjacent areas, and protective systems inspected by a qualified
employee daily before work begins is of great importance to the underground services
factor. This can be reduced and controlled by proper preventive measures to be
taken and can be properly supervised and also necessary actions to be taken by
the organization to control cost overrun issues. Thus, as per the assessments, the
knowledge of factors and their impact on the cost overrun issues will be prevented
in the way of implementing preventive management to avoid cost overrun factors.

References

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Estimation of Probability on Delay
in Desalination Plant Construction
Projects in Lakshadweep Island

P. Divya and G. Beulah Gnana Ananthi

Abstract This paper presents the use of relative importance index (RII) technique
combined with fuzzy logic and thereby supporting the contractors early to the bidding
stage so that possibilities of delay in the construction of desalination plants in
Lakshadweep islands can be predicted. To achieve the objective, 76 delay issues
are recognized, characterized into 10 major sets through a comprehensive literature
study in addition to telephonic discussions with construction professionals who are
involved in the desalination plant construction in Lakshadweep islands. The relative
reputation of these delay issues and sets is measured using the RII technique. Ranking
between issues with sets is established conferring to stages in outcome towards delay.
Delay valuation pattern is suggested by making use of a fuzzy set of delay issues in
the desalination plant works in Lakshadweep islands. The valuation model is done
by making use of a commercial software product. This planned procedure is verified
in an actual study while the delay in the scheme is assessed to be satisfactory.

Keywords Delay · Desalination plant construction · Relative importance index ·

Fuzzy theory · Probability

1 Introduction

Any structural work is said to be successful only when it is done within a stipulated
time, inside the estimated budget, and should have met with all the specifications
recommended in the standards. In the construction sector, contractors may have
tendency to make profit by which the market share is increased. To attain this purpose,
it’s always a challenge for builders to sensibly classify the probable factors which
will disturb the scheme and assess the impacts right before the start of bidding.
Construction delay means non-completion of work within the estimated target time.
The possible delay is high in the Lakshadweep Island building works compared to
construction projects on the mainland. So the contractors undertaking construction

P. Divya · G. B. G. Ananthi (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Structural Engineering,
Anna University, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 533
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_46
534 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

projects on the island should carefully look into the likelihood of delays in construc-
tion. Thus, there is a requirement to identify and establish a suitable technique that
will assess the likelihood of time extended or delayed in building the desalination
plants. This will support the contractors with clear ideas well before the bidding
stage.
The Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) plant structure project
which is developed by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, India, through the National
Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) is carried out in the Lakshadweep island
region. Three LTTD plants have been successfully opened in India at Kavaratti,
Minicoy, and Agatti islands in the Lakshadweep Union Territory. At Androth,
Kalpeni, Kiltan islands, the construction of the desalination plant is in progress.
This paper aims to: (i) Recognize to classify delay in building-schedule-related
issues (ii) Enumerate the qualified position in delay issues with sets, establishing the
issue with sets by means of the relative importance index (RII), (iii) Suggest a delay
investigation model to evaluate the likelihood of delays by means of using fuzzy,
(iv) Testing the planned methodology and assess the probability of delays, and (v)
To disclose the issues and sets that are most probable to cause delays.

1.1 Literature Review

There have been many studies conducted on construction delays over the past years.
Table1 shows several studies that have been studied and acknowledged the reasons
for the reasons of delay in structural works.
Substantial past studies carried out by many researchers by using a fuzzy set
theory are displayed in (Table 2).
The studies conducted on reasons for the delay in construction works show that
various factors affecting the schedules of a construction project, which in turn lead
to delay, time, and cost overrun in projects and allows construction firms to foretell
causes of delay on their construction works.
The studies on fuzzy set theory provide various applications of fuzzy theory in
construction project works for various processes in order to help the organization for
making decisions in a more effective manner and to increase the efficiency of produc-
tion in a great way. As per the previous literature findings, there are two significant
issues regarding the success rate of completing a project: (1) The specifications are
in accordance and within the planned period of time (2) Satisfying the stakeholders
qualitatively.
The delay in desalination plant building in Lakshadweep islands takes into account
a combined method to link the RII method combined with fuzzy techniques.
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 535

Table 1 Existing studies describing delay in construction works

Author (year) Remarks
Karthik and Ayushi [1] Examined ways to minimize the cause of delays. The delay
factors considered are drawings changes, missing funds,
effectiveness in communication, and project organization
inadequacy
Tsegay and Hanbin Luob [2] Investigated the typical causes of delay at different stages of
construction and its effect in the Ethiopian construction projects.
The methodologies used in this research are relative important
index (RII). Based on the comparison, the impact of delay is
found as, construction stage, pre-construction stage, and
post-construction stage sequentially
Rahul and Akhil [3] Estimated the various kinds of delay and the causes of the delays
which are presently impacting the progress of major construction
works in the India. Methods of mitigation or acceleration are
analyzed and possible solution are recommended
Amin et al. [4] Analysed the factors that causes delays in building construction
work in Morowali Regency. By using the factor analysis method
(SPSS 17), the research results are obtained
Iman et al. [5] Investigated the reasons and analyze the issues responsible for the
delay in building works at Oman. They have reported that the
client-related factors, equipment-related factors, and material
related factors have an notable impact on the completion of
building works
Omid et al. [6] Identified the most prominent causes of delays, classify and rank
them to find the origin in delays, also suggesting suitable solution

Table 2 Existing studies describing Fuzzy Set Theory

Author (year) Remarks
Ali and Gopal [7] Built the model by using Fuzzy Logic Toolbox MATLAB
Programming Software to evaluate and rank the factors of poor
planning which cause a construction delay. Finally, it concluded
that the developed fuzzy logic model, named the Mamdani model
is more accurate and simple to use, and efficient to analyze the
delay in construction projects
Mohammad and Aminah [8] Developed a procedure for the expansion of fuzzy models in
construction, and its application is showed using a case study
Aminah [9] Discussed the limits of FL and how it is combined with other
techniques to develop fuzzy hybrid methods, and describing the
aspects of building difficulties and choice deciding that mostly
affect using these techniques
Mathew and Reshma [10] Described the application of fuzzy logic toolbox of MATLAB
Software for identifying the scheduled delays in construction
projects. Fuzzy logic provides a convenient deduction of result
with vague input. The scheduled delay was obtained to be 32.9
percent from the actual schedule
536 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

2 Quantifying the Delay Issues Applying the RII Method

2.1 General

The main objective of this study is to quantify the importance of delay issues in
desalination plant construction projects. Results from this study established the issues
with sets in relation to delay. This finding helped to define the weights by creating a
valuation pattern to evaluate the likelihood of delay.

2.2 Methodology

The procedure for the quantification of the comparative position in delay issues by
the RII method is summarized as follows: Research literature has been collected and
interviews with professionals who were involved in the desalination plant construc-
tion in Lakshadweep island is also carried out for the better understanding and to
conceive the overall picture of the factors that caused a delay in building works
in islands. Finally, 76 factors of delay were identified, and then they are split into
ten primary categories that include contractor, consultant, design, material, labor,
equipment, site, finance, rules and regulations, and external related factors, to attain
a better knowledge of the root cause for these delays.
An online survey questionnaire was prepared based on the factors identified. A
Likert-style rating scale allocating the standard of the importance of issues ranging
between 1 and 5 (from low to very high level of importance) is considered in the
survey as a measure of how strongly the causes of delay may affect the progress on
the projects and how frequently they occur in the structural works. Then, the ques-
tionnaire was circulated to 67 practicing construction experts including consultants,
contractor employees, scientists, and designers, the data acquired were analyzed
using the RII method. According to relative importance indices, the positioning of
different causes is included. This investigation revealed the issues and sets that led
to the delays.

2.3 Data Analysis

The collected data via online survey is analyzed by using the RII method. The impact
of each delay factor is quantified by means of five-point Likert scale adopted in the
questionnaire survey, ranging from 1 to 5 and it is used to calculate the relative
importance index (RII) for each factor using Eq. (1).

W i
RII = (1)
(A ∗ N )
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 537

where, RII = Relative Importance Index, varies from 0 to 1.

W = Weight given to each factor by the respondent range from 1- 5.
A = Highest weight equals 5.
N = Number of respondents in total.
For every delay factor, the RII value is calculated and it was used to rank the
factors causing delay on the Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination plant project in
Lakshadweep islands. These rankings are used to identify the significant factors
causing delay based on the relative importance of the delay factors as per the
responses obtained from the respondents. The higher the RII value the higher the
rank of the factors. The highest rank represents the factors causing a delay which has
more significance on project delay.

2.4 Results and Discussion

Based on the position of the sets, the factors of each set that pay way for most of the
postponements are as follows:
1. Contractor: RII - 0.521. In this set, postponement issues are important
towards delay. This is due to relevant errors (RII - 0.767), improper plan-
ning and scheduling (RII - 0.625), and inadequate contractor experience
(RII-0.584);
2. Material: RII - 0.508. In this set, the most noteworthy issue is late transporta-
tion of materials (RII - 0.805), shortage in materials (RII - 0.654), and delay
in manufacturing materials (RII - 0.606);
3. External: RII - 0.443. The outside issue takes the third vital set. The substantial
issues are natural disasters (RII - 0.823), weather conditions (RII - 0.789), and
pandemic conditions (RII - 0.760);
4. Design: RII - 0.426. The design set of delay issues ranks as the fourth most
important set. The eminent issues are non-availability of design and drawing
on time (RII - 0.565), faults and delays in making design reports (RII - 0.528),
and poor using advanced engineering design software (RII - 0.458);
5. Finance: RII- 0.413. The fifth vital set is the finance set. The noticeable issues
are trouble in procuring materials at reasonable prices (RII - 0.668), cash flow
problems during constructions (RII - 0.623), and material and labor wage
escalation (RII - 0.497);
6. Labour: RII- 0.4. The labor issue is the sixth vital set. The substantial issues
are native of labor (RII - 0.655), low productivity of labor (RII - 0.622), and
strike (RII - 0.585);
7. Rules and regulations: RII - 0.388. An alien with the labor-related set, the
rules and regulations related set of delay issues ranked as the seventh most
important set. The distinguished issues are coastal construction control line
538 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

permit (RII - 0.683), obtaining permits for laborers (RII - 0.657), and changes
in laws and regulation (RII - 0.404);
8. Consultant: RII - 0.376. The eighth significant set is the consultant-linked
set. The noticeable issues are lack of skill in construction project RII - 0.559),
lesser communication with other parties (RII - 0.443), followed by late in
reviewing and approving plan documents (RII - 0.402);
9. Site: RII - 0.357. The site connected issues ranked as the ninth significant
set. The noticeable issues are unexpected underground condition (RII - 0.550),
geological problems on-site (RII - 0.495), and effects of subsurface condition
(RII - 0.461); and
10. Equipment: RII - 0.305. The equipment-linked issues is the last significant
set. The noticeable issues are inappropriate equipment (RII -0.522), slow mobi-
lizing of the equipment (RII - 0.391), and frequent breakdown of equipment
(RII - 0.363).

3 Projected Fuzzy Valuation Pattern to Evaluate

the Likelihood in Delay

3.1 General

Probability analysis has impreciseness and uncertainty in its essence. The fuzzy
theory is suitable to process linguistic manner, and is also employed by suggesting
a structured uncertainty system of modeling. For developing the proposed model of
fuzzy assessment to evaluate the delay probability in desalination plant construction,
the subsequent steps are adopted:
Step 1: The delay issues and sets which are well-known in the earlier sections are
the base input issues and sets of this valuation model;
Step 2: The fuzzy associated functions and linguistic variables are determined;
Step 3: The fuzzy guidelines are constructed, the RIIs of issues and sets of factors
which are calculated previously are allotted as weights and the accumulation alien
with defuzzification are found to build the fuzzy model in estimating the delay;
Step 4: Built fuzzy valuation model is developed by using MATLAB;
Step 5: Built fuzzy valuation model is tested against an actual existing case.
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 539

Table 3 Delay probability

Sl. No Categories of factors Delay Possibility
outputs of the case study
(0–100%)
1 Contractor 59.6
2 Consultant 53.4
3 Design 41.8
4 Material 64.9
5 Labour 55.6
6 Equipment 47
7 Site 57.7
8 Finance 59.4
9 Rules and Regulation 64.7
10 External 69.4

3.2 Applications of the Planned Model

3.2.1 Input Issues and Sets to Build the Pattern

Seventy-six delay issues and 10 issue sets, which are recognized in the earlier section
are illustrated in Table 3 as the key input issues in this assessment model.

3.2.2 Fuzzy Membership and Linguistic Variables Functions

The variables are categorized as very low, low, medium, high, very high on a scale
of 0 to 100. Five associated purposes are well-demarcated for all variables. Figure 1
shows all the associated functions, which are characterized by a combo of trapezoidal
and triangular fuzzy members.

Fig. 1 Association and linguistic variable functions

540 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

3.2.3 Building the Fuzzy Guidelines

A Mamdani fuzzy rule is applied considering the advantage of Mamdani’s approach

which is the prevalent and well-matched to human input.
To complete the fuzzy suggestion, the guidelines that link the input and output
variables are analyzed. Rather than the mathematical formulas, the desired model is
used which describes the linguistic variables.
• Abbreviations of the variables are VL: Very-Low; L: Low; M: Medium; H: High;
and VH: Very-High;
• Abbreviations are Contractor set: CRG1; Consultant set: CRG2; Design set:
DRG; Material set: MRG; Labour set: LRG; Equipment set: ERG1; Site set:
SRG; Finance set: FRG; Rules and Regulations set: RRG; External set: ERG2
and
• The abbreviation in likelihood of delay as output was DP.

3.2.4 Assigning Rule Weights

To evaluate the delay, the fuzzy pattern is constructed by assigning weights to fuzzy
rules. The fuzzy-rule weights are framed by using RIIs of issues. The fuzzy-rule
weights differ accordingly as the RII has an unlike rate.
Each rule has a diverse weight, indicating the absolute importance of the rules.
Some samples describing the significances of the rules are described below:
• Rule 41: Lack of experience of the construction project (LCC)––very low (VL),
then––CRG2 causing a delay with a weight of 0.584;
• Rule 180: Strike-related category (STR) is very high (VH), then labor-related
category (LRG) will have a very high (VH) likelihood with the weight of 0.585;
• Rule 408: Equipment-related category (ERG1) is medium, then delay probability
(DP) will have a medium (M) likelihood with the rule weight of 0.305.

4 Fuzzy Pattern Construction—MATLAB Software

Fuzzy toolbox inbuilt inside MATLAB Program Software assessment model is

created. The functions built in MATLAB® environment is the Fuzzy Logic Tool-
box™. There are 5 basic interface tools in observing and constructing the fuzzy
systems as shown in Fig. 2.
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 541

Fig. 2 Graphical user interface tools in the fuzzy logic toolbox

5 Actual Pilot Study

This constructed fuzzy pattern is experimented on the desalination plant in the

Lakshadweep islands. To validate the constructed fuzzy pattern in constructing the
low-temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) plant in Kiltan Lakshadweep islands,
a consultation module is established to measure the insights from the professionals
involved in desalination plant construction projects in islands. The project was
executed by a construction company in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The desalination plant
component includes marine structures, submarine HDPE pipe, processing compo-
nents of the plant. The marine structure includes a sump and an approach bridge.
542 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

The project owner was NIOT (National Institute of Ocean Technology). The planned
time span was 300 days. The contract price was around |29 crores.
The respondents are invited to: (1) Seal up the delay likelihood assessment form
by adopting values of input (factors causing delays) from 1% (VL) to 100% (VH), (2)
Evaluate the delay likelihood of the work. To fulfil the responsibilities, Fig. 1 shows
the membership functions for linguistic variables; very low–VL, low–L, medium–
M, high––H, and very high–VH was given as an instruction to the respondents. The
respondents observed notable evidence leading to construction works delays in the
island and assigned the required time to carry out the required tasks. The respondents
analyzed and completed the form that contained 76 issues considering the contractor,
consultant, design, material, labor, equipment, site, finance, rules and regulation, and
external—related delay factor categories.

5.1 Research Findings

Table 3 shows the outputs.

5.1.1 Contractor-Related Category

For the contractor factors, the delay possibility output is evaluated as 59.6% indi-
cating a scale of medium to high possibility level. The important paying delay
issues are rework because of errors with 85% (high to the very high possibility);
deprived site supervision and management with 70% (high); poor communication
and coordination with other parties with 60% (medium to high possibility).

5.1.2 Consultant-Related Category

For the consultant factors, the delay possibility output is evaluated as 53.4% which
shows a medium to high likelihood level. The important paying delay issues are
lack of practise of consultant shows 75% (H to VH); clashes between specialist
with planner showing 70% (H); delayed approving shows 60% (medium to high
probability).

5.1.3 Design-Related Category

For the design factors, the delay likelihood output is evaluated as 41.8%, which shows
a range between low–medium likelihood levels. The important paying delay issues
are the difficulty of project design with 65% (medium to high); plan and drawing
not available in time with 60% (medium to high); and errors made by engineers 50%
(medium).
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 543

5.1.4 Material-Related Category

For the material factors, the delay possibility output shows 64.9%, which shows
medium–high likelihood level. The important paying delay issues are late distri-
bution of materials with 100% (very high). Also, variations in material forms and
stipulations while execution shows 80% (high to very high possibility) and absence
of construction materials shows 70% (high possibility).

5.1.5 Labor-Related Category

For the labor factors, the delay likelihood output was assessed as 55.6% and shows
medium to high likelihood standards. The important paying delay issues are strike
with 85% (high-very high probability); native of labor shows 80% (high to very high
possibility); and slow mobilization of labor with 80% (high to very high possibility).

5.1.6 Equipment-Related Issues

For the equipment issues, the delay likelihood output was calculated as 47% which
shows a range of low to medium likelihood level. The important paying delay issues
were frequent equipment breakdowns with 65% (medium–high likelihood); Inade-
quate modern equipment with 65% (medium–high likelihood); and less efficiency
with 60% (medium to high likelihood).

5.1.7 Site-Related Delay Issues

For the site-related delay factors, the delay likelihood output was calculated as 57.7%
which shows a range of medium to high likelihood level. The important paying
delay issues are effects of subsurface condition with 90% (very high probability);
Geological problems on site with 90% (very high probability); and Unexpected
underground condition with 90% (very high probability).

5.1.8 Finance-Related Delay Issues

For the site-related delay issues, the delay likelihood output was calculated as 59.4%
which shows a range of medium to high likelihood level. The important paying delay
difficulties related to procurement with 85% (high to very high probability); financing
by a contractor during constructions with 65% (medium to high probability); and
material and labor wage escalation with 65% (medium to high probability).
544 P. Divya and G. B. G. Ananthi

5.1.9 Rules and Regulations-Related Delay Issues

For the rules and regulations factors, the delay possibility outcomes were calculated
as 64.7% which shows medium to high likelihood level. This important delay factor
is to earn permit for laborers with 90% (very high probability); Coastal construction
control line permit with 85% (high to very high probability); and obtaining permits
from the municipality with 75% (high to very high probability).

5.1.10 Outside-Related Delay Issues

For the external-related delay issues, the delay likelihood output is calculated as
69.4% shows a range of medium to high likelihood level. The important paying
delay issues are weather conditions with 100% (very high likelihood); Pandemic
conditions with 95% (very high probability); and natural disasters with 90% (very
high probability).

6 Conclusions

By identification of causes of delay, the minimization of delays can be achieved. So,

in this study, a decision-aid kit for builders prior to bidding in order to assess the
delay likelihood of desalination plant structures in Lakshadweep islands making use
of the Relative Importance Index (RII) technique integrated into alien with the fuzzy
was proposed.
• Through literature studies and discussion with authorities who are involved in the
desalination plant construction in Islands, 76 factors causing delay are determined
and categorized into ten major divisions. The RII delay issues and categories of
issues are allotted as weights of fuzzy rules. For all linguistic variables, five
membership functions are determined.
• All of the membership functions are illustrated by grouping of triangular and
trapezoidal forms of fuzzy members. The Mamdani-style fuzzy rules are created
after a detailed literature study.
• So as to experiment suggested fuzzy pattern on the construction of a low-
temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) plant in Kiltan, Lakshadweep islands,
which was executed by a construction company in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, a final
interview was developed.
• The authorities involved in the desalination plant construction evaluated the delay
likelihood for the latest completed desalination plant construction work ranging
between 40 and 70%, presenting a medium to high likelihood in delay.
• This suggested fuzzy pattern computed likelihood in delay as 55.5%, showing
medium to high level in this particular work. These findings from the present
study are found to be acceptable. In this study, an incorporated method to connect
Estimation of Probability on Delay … 545

the RII method and the fuzzy pattern to evaluate the likelihood of delay in the
desalination plants construction in Lakshadweep islands is adopted.
• Hence the decision-makers may engage the suggested device to evaluate possi-
bility in delay.
In conclusion, related studies can also be expanded in other types of construction
works, such as dam structures, pipeline laying, etc. These studies can be directed to
evaluate the consistent time and contingencies in building works, thereby the works
can be successfully completed.

References

1. Bagrecha, K., & Bais, A. (2017). Study on delay construction project in India. International
Journal of Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology, 4(11), 6–10.
2. Gebrehiweta, T., & Luo, H. (2017). Analysis of delay impact on construction project based on
RII and correlation coefficient: Empirical study. Procedia engineering Creative Construction
Conference, 196, 366–374.
3. Rahul Razdan and Akhil Goyal. (2019). To study the delay to construction projects- cause,
effect and measures to reduce. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research,
6(6), 115–126.
4. Amin, M., et al. (2020). Analysis of factors causing the delay of implementation of building
construction work in Morowali district. International Journal of Innovative Research in
Advanced Engineering, 7(1), 1–8.
5. Maktoumi, I. S. A., et al. (2020). Assessing the factors causing project completion delays in
the construction sector of Oman using SEM-Pls. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 8(3),
900–912.
6. Abbasi, O., et al. (2020) Exploring the causes of delays in construction industry using a cause-
and-effect diagram: case study for Iran. Journal of Architectural Engineering, 26(3), 1–16.
7. Manea, A. K., & Gopal Naik.M. (2018). Analysis of construction delay due to poor planning
using Fuzzy Logic Technique. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and
Engineering Technology, 6(7), 491–498.
8. Raoufi, M., & Fayek, A.R. (2018) Fuzzy agent-based modelling of construction crew motivation
and performance. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 32(5), 1–16.
9. Aminah Robinson Fayek. (2020). Fuzzy Logic and Fuzzy hybrid techniques for construction
engineering and management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 146(7),
1–12.
10. Mathew, B. K., & Kassim, R. (2020). Fuzzy logic approach in construction delay analysis.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(3), 218–4221.
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics
Pollution in Coastal Water and Sediment
of Chennai, India

S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

Abstract Event of microplastics (plastic garbage < 5 mm) along the coast is a devel-
oping concern around the world, because of the expanded contribution of disposed
of squanders from different sources. Around 400 million tons of plastic are produced
per year worldwide, out of which only 18% is recycled that has led to its poor disposal
practices. The significance of my work is to analyze mainly the positive impacts due
to lockdown during COVID-19. The discharged plastics remain in the environment
for several 100 years either in their original or fragmented form. The fragmentation
of particles is caused by several factors like wind currents, wave currents, abra-
sions, exposure to sunlight, etc. The study of the distribution of microplastics in
time and space, as well as their distribution on parameters, such as polymer type,
size, shape, in different coastal environmental all over the world, is the need of the
hour. This study describes a framework to assess the presence and distribution of
microplastics in marine water and sediments of Adyar and Cooum Estuary along
the Chennai coast. Ten sampling sites from each estuary were selected from which
surface water and sediments were collected. The samples were carried over to the
laboratory for analyzing the presence of microplastic content, and also basic seawater
quality parameters were analyzed in the Environmental Engineering Department
laboratory. The study investigated the presence and distribution of microplastics
before and during COVID-19. The presence and distribution study of microplas-
tics in coastal waters and sediments were carried out by means of FTIR and XRD
spectroscopy methods. From this analysis, microplastics occur in both estuaries and
there is a significant reduction in Microplastic content in both estuaries because of
continuous lockdown due to COVID-19. From FTIR analysis, it was found that the
concentration of Polyethylene(PE) and Polypropylene (PP) was higher than the other
types of polymer in both the locations and both the times (August 2019 and 2020).
And from XRD analysis, black residues were found on most of the microplastics
surfaces.

S. Ramesh (B) · R. Nagalakshmi

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu 603203, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Nagalakshmi
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 547
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_47
548 S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

Keywords Microplastics · Chennai coasts · COVID-19 · Estuary · FTIR · XRD

1 Introduction

Plastic is widely used in everyday life in countless sectors because of its innumerable
benefits and low cost. In 2018, global plastics production almost reached 360 million
tonnes [1]The extended use of these plastics, combined with poor waste management
practices or irresponsible behavior, has, however, lead to plastic accumulation in the
environment [2]. Around 18% of the produced plastic is recycled that has led to
its poor disposal practice because discharged plastics overcome in the environment
for several 100 years either in their original or fragmented form. The fragmenta-
tion of particles is caused by physical, biological, and photochemical degradation of
plastic surface [3] The fragments with sizes between 0.001 and 5 mm are defined
microplastics [4]. Due to their size, these particles can be ingested by several animal
species [5] potentially causing negative effects on these organisms, even though the
translocation, bioaccumulation, and trophic accumulation are still under investiga-
tion [6]. The event of microplastics along the coast is a developing concern around
the world because it has been identified as the ultimate endpoint of most of the lost
plastic (Fig. 1). It is because of the expanded contribution of disposal of squan-
ders from different sources. The main sources of the marine microplastics pollution
have, however, been recognized to be land-based [7]. Land-based polymeric particles
can be transported to aquatic environments via different pathways, like incomplete
microplastics removal in conventional WWTPs [8] road runoff, storm water systems
[9], combined and misconnected sewer systems, and so forth. Microplastics’ atmo-
spheric fallout driven by wind transportation is also suspected to contribute signifi-
cantly to the spreading of microplastics in the environment [10], and is undeniably
an under-investigated area, which clearly requires further investigation. The study

Fig. 1 Plastics deposited on Adyar Riverbank. (Source Google images)

Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution … 549

of the distribution of microplastics in time and space, as well as their distribution on

parameters, such as polymer type, size, shape, in different coastal environmental all
over the world, is the need of the hour.
India has a coastline that is more than 7500 km long [11]. The diverse environments
of its numerous beaches make it impossible to generalize the factors contributing to
the microplastic pollution at these beaches. Micro plastic pollution is a site-specific
phenomenon, although one can get insights into it by studying the pathways of
pollution already identified by previous researches. However, studies are deficient
about micro plastic pollution of Indian beaches. So far, only a few studies have been
carried out in India [12]. These studies show that micro plastics can severely affect
the marine environment. In recent years, microplastics pollution is introducing new
research challenges which clearly are interdependent and need an interdisciplinary
approach. Hence, there is a need for validated and trustable methods to produce
reliable and comparable data [12].
This study describes a framework to assess the presence and distribution of
microplastics in marine water and sediments of Adyar and Cooum Estuary along the
Chennai coast. The study investigated the presence and distribution of microplastics
before and during COVID-19. The presence and distribution study of microplas-
tics in coastal waters and sediments were carried out by means of FTIR and XRD
spectroscopy methods.

2 Materials and Methodology

2.1 Study Area

The study was carried out in Adyar and Cooum estuary Chennai. Chennai is the
capital of the Indian state, Tamil Nadu, and is located on the Coromandel Coast
of the Bay of Bengal. It is one of the megacities of India with a coastal belt of
more than 19 km. The Adyar and the Cooum are two of the three rivers which
wind through the city. For my Research Work, I have taken a 2 km stretch in both
locations. The River Adyar, 42 km long and 860 km2 catchment area originates near
the Chembarambakkam Lake, Kanchipuram district and joins the Bay of Bengal
at the Adyar estuary. The River Cooum, 72 km long, and 290 km2 catchment area
originates from the surplus waters from the Cooum tank, Thiruvallur taluk, and is
one of the shortest rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal. It runs from west to east
and almost divides the city into two halves [15–19]. The riverbanks provide habitat to
more than 40,000 hut dwelling families. Most of the waste from the city is discharged
into these rivers. Further, there are numerous waste discharges from thermal power
plants, leather ternaries, petroleum and tire industries and fishing harbors. Hence,
these rivers carry a major portion of domestic and industrial wastes into the coast.
Marina Beach spans 6 km between the deltas of Adyar and Cooum and is the second
longest urban beach in the world. Eliot Beach lies to the south of the Adyar delta
550 S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

[20–24]. These beaches are the major weekend resort destinations and a lot of non-
biodegradable waste is disposed of. Although Chennai’s coast has been extensively
explored over the years, and many studies have been carried out to address the
effects induced by extensive human activities impacting this environment, but less
data is available on the occurrence of microplastics Hence, these places are chosen for
monitoring the microplastics contamination. Figures 1 and 2 show images of plastics
deposited on Adyar and Cooum Riverbanks respectively. Figure 3 shows the study
area and monitoring stations along Chennai Coast. X-Ray Diffraction, frequently
abbreviated as XRD, is a non-destructive test method used to analyze the structure
of crystalline materials. XRD analysis, by way of the study of the crystal structure,
is used to identify the crystalline phases present in a material and thereby reveal
chemical composition information.

Fig. 2 Plastics deposited on

Cooum Riverbank. (Source
Google images)

Fig. 3 Study area and

monitoring stations along
Chennai coast. (Source
Google Earth)
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution … 551

Fig. 4 Microscope images showing shapes, colors, and surface properties of microplastics. (Source
[47])

2.2 Sampling Data Analysis

Ten sampling sites from each Adyar and Cooum estuary were selected from which
surface water and sediments were collected. The figure shows the ten sampling sites
on the map of Chennai Coast [25, 26]. To study the presence and distribution of
microplastics before and during COVID-19 in each sampling site, sampling was
conducted between August 2019 and October 2020.
Water samples were collected from each site by towing a neustonic plankton net
of size 153 µm at a speed of three to five knots for 30 min [27–30]. The particulates
in the net and the net tube were washed into a glass container for laboratory analysis.
Water samples were first screened using a 32 µm sieve to remove the large debris.
If the suspension was too turbid saturated sodium chloride solution was added to
extract the low-density microplastics. The samples were then filtered using glass
fiber filter paper, dried at 50 °C, and stored in Petri dishes (Fig. 4).
552 S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

Water quality parameters measured in this study included temperature, pH, elec-
trical conductivity (EC), turbidity, salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved
oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand
(COD). Water samples were collected, transported, and analyzed following the stan-
dard methods (APHA, 1999). Portable sensors were used to measure temperature,
pH, and EC [31–34]. Turbidity was measured by using Nephelometer. Salinity was
determined by the Argentometric titration method. TDS were determined by filtra-
tion and gravimetric method using temperature-controlled oven. DO was analyzed
by Winkler’s titration method. BOD concentration was determined by measuring the
decrease in oxygen concentration after five days of incubation in the dark at 20 °C.
COD concentration was determined by oxidation with potassium-di-chromate in a
concentrated sulfuric acid medium.
The sediment samples were collected using Ekman Grab before or after towing.
The samples were freeze dried before laboratory analysis. The microplastics extrac-
tion from sediment was carried out by using sodium iodide, high-density liquid, so
that the low-density microplastics would float up to the surface. The final digestion
step involved oxidation using a 30% hydrogen peroxide solution. After shaking, the
suspension was allowed to settle for one day and then filtered using glass fiber filter
paper.
The particles retained on the filter paper were visually identified as microplastics
under stereo-microscope if there was no cellular or organic morphological structure
and the particles were not shiny and had consistent diameter etc. [35, 36]. The
particles identified as microplastics were retrieved with forceps and transferred into
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for polymer-type identification
[37].
A Shimadzu Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) together with
Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) diamond crystal attachment was used to iden-
tify the polymer compositions of microplastics [38–41]. The absorption spectra were
recorded at a resolution of 4 cm−1 and 64 co-added scans, in the 4000–400 cm−1
infrared range. Polymers of different types were identified based on the absorp-
tion frequencies of chemical bonds present in samples. Polymer type was identified
by comparing the sample FTIR spectra with a specific Shimadzu reference library
database.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Water Quality Analysis

The water quality of any water body is mainly assessed by its temperature, salinity,
pH, DO, BOD, etc. Table 1 shows the water qualities measurements on August 4,
2019 and Table 2 shows the water qualities measurements on August 4, 2020. In the
present study, water temperature was around 29 °C for both the estuaries. Salinity
Table 1 Water quality measurement at monitoring stations along Adyar coast on August 4, 2019
Station Water pH EC Turbidity TDS DO BOD COD Salinity
temperature (NTU) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
(o C)
Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug.
2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020
A1 29.2 29.1 6.80 6.94 34,400 31,700 2.00 4.5 19,680 18,064 4.70 6.1 25.80 5 1250 64 17.58 16.82
A2 29.2 29.1 6.90 6.82 35,200 32,500 4.00 4.9 20,143 18,527 5.00 5.9 18.80 7 590 76 18.24 17.35
A3 29.1 29.2 7.00 6.52 36,200 33,500 6.00 4.9 20,263 18,647 3.10 6.1 9.80 6 650 67 17.95 17.95
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution …

A4 29.2 29.1 6.70 6.76 37,200 34,500 7.00 4.8 20,283 18,667 4.60 5.9 16.80 7 1320 68 17.57 17.34
A5 29.1 29.1 6.50 6.82 40,100 31,600 8.00 4.3 20,492 18,458 4.30 5.7 15.6 8 690 67 17.28 17.23
A6 29.2 29.1 6.80 6.71 39,180 30,680 8.00 4.9 20,796 18,762 4.80 5.8 24.80 6 1050 66 16.95 17.33
A7 29.1 29.2 6.60 6.90 39,750 31,250 5.00 4.6 20,999 18,965 4.20 5.1 12.80 7 680 68 17.12 16.91
A8 29.2 29.1 6.70 6.30 41,750 33,250 3.00 4.9 21,395 18,569 3.50 5.6 18.20 6 420 63 17.55 17.82
A9 29.3 29.1 6.50 6.70 43,000 34,500 7.00 4.6 21,576 18,750 3.80 5.1 12.80 8 690 61 17.96 17.22
A10 29.2 29.2 6.40 6.80 46,100 31,400 9.00 4.8 21,676 18,650 3.60 5.8 10.60 5 980 66 16.82 17.67
553
 554

Table 2 Water quality measurement at monitoring stations along Cooum coast on August 4, 2020
Station Water pH EC Turbidity TDS DO BOD COD Salinity
temperature (NTU) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
(o C)
Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug.
2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020 2019 2020
C1 29.1 29.1 6.90 7.39 31500 29200 9.00 12 17345 16650 3.20 6.2 18.80 9 1050 80 16.12 15.95
C2 29.0 29.2 7.10 7.41 33800 31500 4.00 15 18659 17964 3.80 6.1 24.80 7 980 88 16.66 17.88
C3 29.2 29.2 6.90 7.82 34700 32400 6.00 18 19283 17340 5.00 6.2 29.20 8 360 89 17.25 17.27
C4 29.3 29.1 6.50 7:40 35860 33560 6.00 17 19943 16680 4.20 6.9 27.80 8 400 83 17.01 17.08
C5 29.1 29.1 6.80 7.10 36800 34500 8.00 16 20913 17650 2.90 6.8 102.8 9 1360 89 16.92 17.89
C6 29.0 29.2 6.70 7.80 39800 31500 5.00 17 21153 17890 3.20 7.1 78.20 7 560 86 16.52 17.88
C7 29.0 29.1 6.90 7.30 42820 34520 8.00 14 21393 17650 3.80 6.8 63.80 6 650 80 16.91 16.81
C8 29.0 29.2 6.80 7.89 45010 32330 4.00 15 21603 17860 4.20 7.1 95.20 8 1010 79 17.21 17.03
C9 29.0 29.1 6.70 7.80 46110 31230 3.00 17 21633 17890 3.10 7.3 33.80 7 320 83 17.24 17.81
C10 29.1 29.2 7.30 6.90 47220 32340 7.00 18 21733 17990 4.80 7.9 38.70 6 420 90 17.55 17.88
S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution … 555

ranged between 15 and 18 PSU for both the locations. pH was in the range between
7 and8 which matched reported values for the Bay of Bengal. The higher values of
EC could be because of effluents from the nearby industries. The TDS ranges from
15,000 to 22,000 mg/L which may be due to insoluble organic matter. DO ranged
between 3- and7 mg/L and BOD between 5 and 100 mg/L. The COD values ranged
between 50 to 1500 mg/L. The BOD values at stations A6 and C5 were observed to
be 24.80 mg/L and 102.80 mg/L in August 2019, respectively [42–44]. These results
show that at the river mouths the pollutants’ concentration was more than the other
stations. A similar trend was also observed in August 2020 and with other parameters
analyzed. And the results also show that in August 2020 the pollution was reduced
considerably due to continuous lockdown in the country. At some stations, high
BOD associated with low DO was observed due to pollution loads from different
sources like domestic sewage and industrial wastes. At some stations, DO is more
than 5 mg/L it could be due to wind effects and mixing patterns. Episodes of the
mass fish kill were also reported in these areas. The water quality analysis results
clearly indicate that the pollution levels were high in 2019 before COVID-19 and
lockdown.

3.2 Microplastics Abundance and Characteristics

Microplastics less than 5 mm in size were identified at all sampling stations of the
two coastal areas. There was a noticeable difference between the concentrations of
microplastics in the coastal waters and sediments with time and space and are shown
in Tables 3 and 4. The maximum number of microplastics pellets in coastal waters
and sediments were found in August 2019 at the river mouths and near beaches [45].
The number of microplastics particles identified in August 2020 (during COVID-
19) was almost 30% less than those identified in August 2019 (before COVID-19).
These findings show that the human activities near these beaches are among the major
sources of microplastics in these coastal areas. These results clearly show microplas-
tics particle abundance near the rivers and the concentration decreases far away from
the rivers. Microplastics are released in the environment during manufacturing and
transport and are ultimately carried to sea by surface runoff and or by surface water
bodies [46, 47]. Accidents during shipping can also introduce microplastics into the
oceans. The higher concentration of microplastics near the mouths is mainly due to
waste discharge from the rivers. The activities at the Chennai harbor also enhance
the plastic pollution at the Cooum river mouth as it is very near. Along with the land
inputs, microplastics are also transported by winds and currents [13].
The microplastics shapes recognized were mainly ovoid, fibrous, disk, and rod
like. The colors varied widely from white to yellow, blue, gray, black, green, and red.
The white microplastics were always found at the river mouths. The color changes
due to various factors like exposure to UV light, high temperature, weathering, etc.
The yellowing of the microplastics is caused due to photo-oxidative weathering and
it usually occurs on beaches. The process of sorption of persistent organic matter
generally occurs in seawater [14].
 556

Table 3 Polymer types detected at Adyar sampling stations from coastal water and marine sediments of Chennai Coast
Station PE PP Others
Coastal water Marine sediments Coastal water Marine sediments Coastal water Marine sediments
Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020
A1 275 197 45 31 97 70 16 8 15 11 3 5
A2 254 180 47 32 85 60 16 9 14 10 3 4
A3 347 247 53 37 109 78 17 10 19 14 3 3
A4 435 307 59 42 129 91 18 12 24 17 3 2
A5 680 465 161 120 190 130 45 32 36 25 9 8
A6 982 669 219 152 258 176 58 38 52 35 12 10
A7 666 471 154 108 164 116 38 24 35 24 8 8
A8 703 507 163 117 153 111 36 24 45 33 10 9
A9 480 336 141 102 97 68 28 21 30 21 9 6
A10 466 330 90 61 87 62 17 12 29 21 6 6
S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi
Table 4 Polymer types detected at Cooum sampling stations from coastal water and marine sediments of Chennai Coast
Station PE PP Others
Coastal water Marine sediments Coastal water Marine sediments Coastal water Marine sediments
Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020 Aug 2019 Aug 2020
C1 244 175 65 41 86 62 23 15 14 10 4 3
C2 347 243 71 48 116 81 24 16 19 13 4 4
C3 607 426 140 89 191 134 44 27 33 23 8 6
C4 867 607 185 122 258 180 55 35 47 33 10 8
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution …

C5 1191 833 228 156 333 233 64 42 64 44 12 10

C 827 579 173 128 218 152 45 32 44 30 9 9
C7 601 385 155 114 148 95 38 27 31 20 8 9
C8 540 381 142 98 118 83 31 22 35 24 9 7
C9 396 292 119 86 80 59 24 18 25 18 8 6
C10 309 221 80 56 58 41 15 11 19 14 5 3
557
558 S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

Fig. 5 PE distribution

Figure 5 shows the microscopic images exhibiting the most common surface
properties of microplastics. Most of them were white with a virgin surface, adhesion,
erosion, cracked and glazed surface and change in colour. These could be due to
anthropogenic activities in the study area.
All the microplastics were analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy. The spectra
revealed that most of the microplastics were polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene
(PP). It was found that in both cases the quantity of PE and PP microplastics were
higher near the river mouths. Figures 6 and 7 are colored based on corrected peak
height values. The peak height from the baseline of the characteristic peak of each
plastic [48]. The absorption peak for PE with wavenumber 718 cm−1 is caused by CH2
rocking vibrations, the absorption peak for PP with wavenumber 2839 cm−1 is caused
by CH2 stretching vibrations. The red areas shown in the figure indicate points where
the plastic component is present in high amounts and blue areas indicate points with
low amounts. Figure 8 shows the typical infrared spectra from the areas in (Figs. 6
and 7).

Fig. 6 PP distribution
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution … 559

Fig. 7 Infrared spectra Blue PP

Series1,
Others, 350,
6%
Series1, PP,
1285, 21%

Series1, PE,
4557, 73%

PE PP Others

Series1,
Series1, PP, OTHERS, 3,
22, 22% 3%
PE

Series1, PE, PP
75, 75% OTHERS

Fig. 8 a, b Proportion of microplastics recovered from Chennai coastal waters and sediments from
August 2019 to August 2020
560 S. Ramesh and R. Nagalakshmi

Figure 7 shows the proportion of microplastics recovered from Chennai coastal

waters from August 2019 to August 2020. It is found that 76% of Mps are PE,
20% are PP and 4% belong to other polymer types. Figure 8 shows the proportion
of microplastics recovered from Chennai marine sediments from August 2019 to
August 2020. It is found that 73% of Mps are PE, 21% are PP and 6% belong to
other polymer types.

3.3 XRD Analysis

FTIR spectroscopy method is capable of performing only qualitative analysis of

organic matter and some inorganic matter, hence this method was used to identify
the main components of plastic pellets of sediments of Chennai coast. X-ray diffrac-
tometers can perform both qualitative and quantitative analysis of substances non-
destructively. The results showed that there were black residues (Petroleum hydro-
carbons) on the microplastics surfaces. These could be oil residues from Chennai
harbor and shipping activities. The results of XRD analysis are not mentioned in
this paper because before and during COVID-19 what about the volume of different
types of plastics collected from the site is very important.

4 Conclusion

Microplastics have evolved as an emerging pollutant in recent years. Despite signif-

icant progress in this field of science, scientific knowledge in this area is still consid-
ered limited. But the amount of knowledge available has made society realize that it
is a real threat. The influence of COVID-19 on microplastics pollution was studied
along the Chennai coast. It was found that around 30% of pollution occurred because
of various beach activities. The investigations also showed that the stations near the
river mouths and beaches were highly polluted. From FTIR analysis, it was found
that the concentration of Polyethylene (PE) and Polypropylene (PP) was higher than
the other types of polymer in both the locations and both the times (August 2019 and
2020). It is seen that from XRD analysis black residues were found on most of the
microplastics surfaces.
Microplastics pollution is highly influenced by various complex hydrological
and geological features. The Adyar and Cooum river discharges carrying domestic
sewage and waste from heavily industrialized areas are the biggest land-based
sources. Microplastics pollution is also influenced by winds, tides, waves, and
currents which can carry floating debris far away from its origin.
Beach cleaning activities have to be enhanced to reduce the level of pollution.
There is a need for the development of standards to check the extent and severity of
microplastics pollution. Developments in the sampling protocols, sample preparation
procedures and analysis are important for detailed studies on microplastics pollution
Influence of COVID-19 on Microplastics Pollution … 561

and for developing effective management practices. The procedures for tracking
Microplastics sources have to be developed and more research has to be carried out
to develop more effective Microplastics pollution management strategies.

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Estimation of Shortest Route
with Minimum Travel Time Using GIS
and MSSTT Algorithm

A. Jackulin Mahariba, R. Annie Uthra, and R. Golda Brunet

Abstract The proposed methodology aims at dynamically allocating ambulance

service and providing the shortest route for emergency medical service with improved
response time as per the demands across spatial and temporal heterogeneity. When-
ever a road traffic accident occurs, the victim’s life will be saved only if the
victim receives appropriate treatment within the golden hour. Geographic Informa-
tion System plays a predominant role in handling spatial data and non-spatial data.
Geo-database enables the identification of the nearest ERS and hospitals for EMS.
Dynamic routing for the identified ERS towards the incident location and adjacent
hospital with reduced ART in real-time traffic challenge is addressed in this research
work. A multiple-source shortest travel time (MSSTT) algorithm is proposed to
determine the route with limited travel time to reach the destination. Traveling time
is contemplated as the primary element in determining the optimal route. MSSTT
algorithm combined with the tools of GIS contributes an efficient approach for effec-
tive utilization of ambulance service to save the life. The proposed system can be
adapted to the wide geographic area of any developing nation without any additional
requirement of new road infrastructure at a low cost.

Keywords Emergency rescue service · GIS · Road accidents · Shortest route

A. J. Mahariba · R. A. Uthra (B)

Department of CSE, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu 603203, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. J. Mahariba
e-mail: [email protected]
R. G. Brunet
Department of CSE, GCE, Salem, Tamilnadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 565
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_48
566 A. J. Mahariba et al.

1 Introduction

Emergency management in case of road accidents requires adequate planning to

reduce the accident response time (ART) to prevent the loss of human life. ART is
defined as the time duration between the accident reported to the emergency service
providers and admission of the victim to the nearby hospital for emergency medical
service (EMS). Reducing ART reduces the fatality rate in a road accident. With the
available number of emergency vehicles (EV), the reduction in ART can be achieved
by reducing EV travel time either in reaching the incident location or in dispatching
the victim for EMS. Across India, each state has its policies and regulations to be
followed for EMS. Accordingly, the average ART changes for each state. For Tamil
Nadu, the average ART is 13 min [1] if there is a clear provision of accident loca-
tion spotted with standard traffic conditions. The biggest challenge in emergency
management of traffic accidents is the lack of coordination and effective flow of
information to the first responder Unit (FRU), especially in many developing coun-
tries. The anti-social behavior, lack of humanity, fear of legal queries, crowding on
the location affected are some of the causes for delay in emergency response.
To reduce the delay in operational time in traffic accidents, emergency planning
is to be carried out beforehand. Adequate planning is required in the case of highly
populated urban areas with good road infrastructure. On the other hand in rural areas,
the road infrastructure is a major drawback in emergency routing. Emergency plan-
ning and emergency management for a traffic accident is an interdependent process
to reduce the response time and saves a human life. Particularly there is a tremendous
increase in emergency call volumes and reduction in response time in urban areas
nowadays due to higher traffic volumes, increased number of intersections, narrow
roads, and more traffic signals.
Navigation is the main task in emergency planning and it should result in an
optimized route. Identifying or building such a navigation system is a hardship and
it involves research and experimental analysis for the required geographic location.
A geographic information system (GIS) is one of the solutions to achieve such a
navigation system. In approaching strategic applications where information is orga-
nized in the database as multilayered documents, GIS is becoming supportive of
its location. GIS also provides various features, and it has proved its usefulness by
solving numerous types of problems in many scientific disciplines, which has made
it so common and wide ranging. It enables accurate visualization and presentation
of emergencies as a device capable of collecting, examining, and delivering data
associated with various geographic regions. It has been used for various purposes to
examine the spatial and temporal variations of emergency call volume raised due to
different reasons. GIS software is used to model the shortest route using spatial data
and it can also be used to automate relocation through network analysis.
Hence, traffic road safety systems and emergency management and planning for
road accidents cannot be formulated and generalized because the dependent param-
eters to design such a model are varying concerning the environmental condition,
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 567

road infrastructure, type of government policies, traffic safety regulations, and so on.
Scenario or case study area-based model is to be framed for each country according
to their demands and policies.

2 Literature Survey

The de-centralized emergency plan is laid in three levels such as basic, standard, and
regional level [2]. A GIS-based web portal is designed at the basic level to managing
the different hazardous situations, which can be accessed by all the citizens of the
nation. The standard level includes emergency as well as evacuation plans at the
municipal level. The regional level is the extension and ordered information present
in the standard level to a national wide application. The results and conclusions of
the proposed work by [3] stated that adjacent regions should work together to design
their traffic management strategies to mitigate the negative structural effects resulting
from those regions and to benefit from the positive location, where the crashes are
very minimal. Availability of hospitals with intensive care unit (ICU) or casualty
care unit (CCU) will also play a predominant role in reducing the mortality rate of
traffic accidents. The population density and number of fatal accidents crashes, and
injuries of any region are considered to decide the establishment of an emergency
care center in that location [4].
Other than the presence of medical services, the logistic issue is one of the primary
factors in emergency management. Allocation of an emergency vehicle to the correct
CCU via an optimal route is the objective of emergency planning. A mixed-integer
programming model is proposed for the allocating of ambulance services for a large-
scale disaster [5]. This model can even provide dynamic reallocation services based
on the patient’s condition.
Maximum expected coverage location problem (MECLP) and set covering loca-
tion problem (SCLP) are combined to select the emergency management service
providers with minimal service time [6].
Vehicular communication was used efficiently to manage traffic congestion and a
content-centric network [7] was used to identify the fastest route during rescue service
for roadside accidents. Some authors have proposed techniques to handle emergency
arises due to road accidents through intelligent transportation systems (ITS). Vehic-
ular communication plays a key role in ITS, in which vehicles communicate to
other vehicles and the roadside unit (RSU) through different modes of communica-
tion like dedicated short-range communication (DSRC), Microwave, infrared, global
navigation satellite system (GNSS), and cellular networks [8, 9]. To make vehicular
communication secure and safe, vehicle communication messages are encrypted
using blockchain [10] was introduced. But developing and underdeveloped coun-
tries did not have such a good and advanced road infrastructure to utilize the ITS
solutions.
A route plan with less obstruction and minimal construction cost is identified
using GIS [11] for utility mapping. As an emergency requirement for any cause is
568 A. J. Mahariba et al.

completely uncertain, Bo Zhang et al. proposed a location set covering model with
uncertainty theory to find the optimal solution for an emergency facility location that
covers a widespread geographical location. A system status management strategy
[12] with GIS spatial analysis and mixed-integer programming was proposed to
provide an efficient solution for EMS in Singapore. The results are superior when
compared against the discrete event simulation model for reallocation of ambulance
service in a dynamic environment. The GIS modeled route is compared with the
actual route estimated using GPS [13]. The GPS-modeled routes show very close
proximity with the actual routes and it performs better at some locations. Exploration
of the active and potential route is possible using GIS while GPS routes are precise
with environmental context [14].
The spatial data is geocoded in GIS and the nearest ambulance service was found
with the shortest straight line distance [15] from the incident location, then the shortest
path was identified through the GPS data collected from the ambulance. The emer-
gency response time is shortened by allocating the ambulance to the incident location
and thereby providing medical service to the patient very quickly. A study was made
to compare the routes identified by the global positioning system (GPS) and GIS. No
remarkable difference was found between routes identified by GPS and GIS [16].
But the number of traffic barriers is not examined using GIS.
The localization problem was solved by considering the moving vehicles as robots.
The digital navigation systems along with multiple lidars [17] on the body of the
vehicle are used to identify the optimal route with high accuracy. An impedance
model [18] was developed with sub-variables such as weather condition, road type,
sight-seeing, tourism, security, facilities, and so on. These attributes are added along
with the road segments in GIS for route planning. Hence efficient routes are identified
using the impedance model on GIS.
Dynamic maximum expected coverage location problem (DMEXCLP) and
penalty heuristic methods [19] are combined to solve the navigation problem for
roadside accidents. So that the emergency medical service and dynamic relocation
were provided with the improved response time.
There are many shortest path algorithms available to find the shortest and fastest
route for emergency medical service. As the road environment is highly dynamic,
there is always a requirement of rerouting whenever an unexpected event occurs at
the path, which can increase the estimated travel time to be higher. Hence rerouting
should also be planned in emergency management and planning. Modified Dijkstra’s
algorithm [20] was used to find the alternate route for the emergency vehicle during
unfavorable conditions like an increase in traffic flow. The unexpected increase in
rescue time was assessed by calculating the critical flow time in road traffic contin-
uously. Distance capacitated vehicle routing problem (DVCRP) [21] was proposed
using a loose coupling strategy of spatial decision support system in GIS to solve the
vehicle routing problem.
The inference obtained from the literature for emergency navigation systems
consolidates the existing techniques on three major disciplines. They are naviga-
tion systems based on vehicular communication with ITS, emergency routing based
on graph theory algorithms, and GIS. A generalized system would not serve the
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 569

purpose due to the diverse geographical nature and traffic laws of each country.
A new emergency navigation system for road accidents is suggested based on the
infrastructure and policies of the selected study area. As the selected study area lacks
well-built road infrastructure with ITS, the suggested framework makes use of both
GIS and graph theory algorithms.

3 Proposed System

The emergency response to road accidents requires detailed knowledge of the study
area and adequate planning [22]. The implementation of an Emergency Rescue
Service (ERS) using a standalone software-GIS and proposed MSSTT algorithm
is carried out in the following Sects. 3.1 and 3.2.

3.1 ERS Using GIS

To accomplish the efficient navigation system for ERS, GIS requires precise and
prevalent data spatially. Chennai city in Tamil Nadu, India, is chosen as the study
area. The study area extends its boundary over 426 km2 , lies at a mean altitude
of 6 m above sea level, 12° 59’ and 13° 9’ at the northern latitude and 80° 12’
and 80° 19’ at east longitude with 11,235,018 population. Based on the current
‘Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India 2019’ survey of the National Crime Record
Bureau, a total of 69,064 traffic incidents were observed in 53 cities during 2019. The
fatal road accidents are high on national highways followed by state highways. The
proportionate of road fatalities over different types of roads are depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Number of road fatal ROAD FATALITIES

accidents over different types
of roads adapted from [1]
12%

37%
17%

34%

National Highways State Highways

Major District Roads other secondary roads
570 A. J. Mahariba et al.

The study area, “Chennai”, is chosen wisely to have both the police-controlled and
uncontrolled areas in its geographical origin. Of the overall road accidents recorded
in the cities, Chennai recorded 10.2% (6,871 out of 67,228 cases) [1].
The geo-database for ERS must be precise, up-to-date, and exhaustive. Decen-
tralization access of database management will help in constructing, maintaining the
robustness, validating, and updating the data (Fig. 1). The spatial data are visualized
and configured in the structure of layers. The base map of the city is georeferenced
using the ground control points (GCP) accurately and the boundary is digitized. The
road network is added as a line layer and overlayed on the base map. The geo-database
of ERS requires the uncondensed road network of the entire city from highways to
tertiary roads/streets. The road network layer covers each turn-by-turn direction in
the form of edges. Junctions of roads are interpreted in the form of intersections of
road segments. Edges and intersections are topologically related to one another at
intersections must bind to other outlines such as boundaries, and the migration from
edges in the network is passed via intersections to other edges. The road network
with all primary (highways), secondary, and tertiary roads are digitized to generate
the study area road network base map as explained in (Fig. 2).
Hospitals, ambulance on-call services, and other important hotspot locations
required for ERS are created as separate point layers and added to the generated
base map of Chennai city. Each layer has an attribute table that contains non-spatial
and metadata about the spatial structures included in the map. The attribute table

Fig. 2 Construction of geo-database to identify the shortest path using GIS

Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 571

Fig. 3 Chennai city road network map with the required hotspots

contains the object id of each edge, length of each edge in meters, and the location
expressed in lat/long. The required hotspot locations to drive the emergency planning
and routing are added along with the road network layer in the generated base map
(as shown in Fig. 3) and the incident location can be assumed to be randomly on any
road as depicted in (Fig. 3) with the red marker symbol on the map.
Figure 4 displays the magnified view of the shortest path identified from the
nearest ambulance service to the incident location.

3.1.1 Identification of Nearest Available Hospital Using Buffer Tool

The nearest hospital from the incident location is identified through buffering. As
the map is constructed using a projected coordinate system, euclidean buffers are
best suited to provide the boundary precisely. The distance can be specified in linear
units such as meters and kilometers. Internally the linear units are converted into
feet and applied to the selected feature. To find the hospitals with closer proximity,
a buffer distance of 1 km is initially applied to check for availability as shown in
Fig. 5. Scrutinized for the immediate three adjacent hospitals. If the hospitals are
not available within the buffer distance of 1 km, then the distance is incremented by
every 1 km radius to get at least 3 hospitals. The green circle in Fig. 5 represents the
buffer created around the incident location to identify the nearest hospital. The gray
shaded line in Fig. 5 represents the shortest path identified from the nearest available
ambulance location to the incident location.
572 A. J. Mahariba et al.

Fig. 4 Routing result from nearest ambulance to incident location

QGIS has a provision to modify the attribute table of the polyline (road segments)
at user convenience. The road graph plugin of QGIS accommodates the preference of
adding attributes such as road direction, length, and speed value. The road direction
can be specified as forward, reverse, or two-way direction. The length of the road
segment can either be entered or extracted by the tool without deviation. The speed
value is entered in kilometers. These three attributes are brought to bear the shortest
path between any two points.

3.1.2 Identification of Shortest Path to Reach Accident Location

and the Nearest Hospital

The network analysis of QGIS uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to extract the path in the
road network. Dijkstra’s algorithm operates with the input parameters such as graph
(G), source vertex (s), and destination vertex (t). The shortest path is stored in the
form of an array. To reduce the time complexity, a binary heap is used to extract
the path from the output array and it is visualized in the graph. The pseudocode of
Dijkstra’s algorithm is given below (Fig. 6).
The final solution with the shortest path on the map is exported in the form of a
URL, which can be communicated to any ambulance service driver. It is visualized
using any browser as an interactive map as shown in (Fig. 7).
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 573

Fig. 5 Nearest hospital identified using Buffer of 1 km radius

Fig. 6 Pseudocode of Dijkstra’s algorithm

574 A. J. Mahariba et al.

Fig. 7 Routing results exported in the form of an interactive map

3.2 ERS Using Conventional Gps Based Navigation System

The case study is implemented in the same study area (Chennai) as used in ERS
using the GIS method. The city map is considered as a weighted directed graph G(V,
E, w) with ambulance services and hospitals are taken as vertices. The road network
is taken as the edges between them and w represents the cost of each edge.

3.2.1 Identification of Nearest Available Fru

Let G be the graph with V number of vertices and E number of edges. The ambu-
lance locations are taken as vertices to construct G. Once the accident notification is
received with the accident location is represented in latitude and longitude (ϕ1, λ1).
It is considered as the new vertex and inserted in the graph. To identify the nearest
ambulance service (ϕ2, λ2) in the graph, the haversine formula is used. The haversine
formula is used to find the distance between the accident location and ambulances.

a = sin2 (φ/2) + cos φ1. cos φ2. sin2 (λ/2) (1)

√ 
c = 2.a tan 2( a, (1 − a)) (2)

d = R.c (3)
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 575

where R = 6371 km, the radius of the earth; ϕ is the difference between latitudes
of the two locations; λ is the difference between longitudes of the two locations.
On substituting, the real values of Eqs. (1) and (2) in (3), the distance between
the geo-locations will be determined. If all the nearest ambulances are examined as
sources, then the time complexity of the proposed algorithm will be increased. So,
the ambulance available within 1 km or three nearest ambulance services are added
to the source list (S) and the destination is the accident location. The time complexity
of finding the nearest FRU using the haversine formula is O(n), where n is the number
of ambulance services currently available.

3.2.2 Multi-source Shortest Travel Time (Msstt) Algorithm

The MSSTT algorithm identifies the optimal path by using time as the heuristic
function rather than distance. The weight matrix of the graph contains the travel time
of each edge.
Let G be the Graph with V number of vertices and E number of edges. The
intersections of roads are taken as vertices to construct G. The weight matrix of size
EXE is generated. Each Wij represents the travel time of the route with source ‘i’ and
destination ‘j’. The MSSTT algorithm takes the entire graph, list of sources in set S
(obtained from Sect. 3.2.1), and incident location ‘I’ as the input. On each execution
of this algorithm, ‘I’ is considered as the destination node. The algorithm initially
checks for the reachability from each source to destination through exhaustive search.
The multisource BFS is utilized as the search algorithm with the time complexity
O(V.E). Once the search is performed the cost of each path from source to destination
is updated and stored in the form of a minimum heap tree along with a table. The
table contains the set of vertices involved in the shortest path. In the minimum heap
tree, the root node contains the minimum travel time and its corresponding path is
extracted. In case of the non-availability of any ambulance service, the other nodes
in the minimum heap tree and its corresponding path will be utilized.
The pseudocode of the MSSTT algorithm and construction of a minimum heap
is given in Fig. 8. To identify the nearest hospital from the incident location, again
the haversine distance is calculated among the list of available hospitals, clinics,
and emergency centers. Standard Dijkstra algorithm is used to find the shortest path
between the incident location and identified the nearest hospital. The path is then
communicated to the ambulance driver in the form of a URL, which guides the driver
to reach the hospital with minimal travel time.
The geo-location of ambulance on-call service and the hospitals in the entire
study area is extracted in the form of a XML file from google earth. These files are
then converted into an attribute table with three columns namely, latitude, longitude,
and name. Once the accident notification is received from a geo-location(X, Y), the
haversine formula is used to find the set S. The algorithm is executed and its results are
compared with the results obtained using GIS in Sect. 3.1. The proposed algorithm
selects the optimal route with less travel time. The time complexity of the simple
BFS algorithm is O(V.E). The worst-case time complexity of multisource BFS is
576 A. J. Mahariba et al.

Fig. 8 Pseudocode of proposed algorithm

given as O (α *(V.E)). The time complexity of constructing, inserting, and searching

a node in a minimum heap tree is O(log n), where n is the number of nodes in a
minimum heap tree. In the worst case, the tree will be constructed with α number of
nodes. And O(n) is the worst-case time complexity for the algorithm used to identify
the nearest ambulance service. Hence, the time complexity of the MSSTT algorithm
is

3(V.E) + log 3 + O(n) If there is no or less than 3 ambulance available within 1 km
T (n) =
α ∗ (V.E) + log α + O(n) Otherwise
(4)

If the travel time is increasing than the estimated travel time due to an unfavorable
scenario, in such case an alternate route can be identified through the same proposed
algorithm. The request is made with the current geo-location and dynamic route
planning is carried out automatically. The newly identified route is communicated in
the form of a URL.
Estimation of Shortest Route with Minimum Travel Time … 577

3.3 A Hybrid Model for ERS

ERS using GIS and the conventional system has its own merits and demerits. A
hybrid model can be crafted in such a manner that it utilizes the advantages of both
the GIS and MSSTT algorithms of the conventional system. The following steps are
required to implement hybrid model,
Step 1: To identify the nearest ambulance to the incident location can be identified
easily by applying the buffer of varying diameter from 1 km until finding at least three
ambulances that are close to the location. In the conventional system, identification
of ambulance service through haversine formula increases the time complexity of
the system.
Step 2: In the network analyst tool of GIS, Dijkstra’s algorithm is used to find the
shortest route between any two lats/longs on the map. But it works well on the directed
acyclic graph. In a real-time road network map, there are many parallel roads between
the source and destination location points, which leads to forming a cycle in the
graphical representation. The proposed MSSTT algorithm can provide better results
with the existence of parallel edges and cycles in the graph. Hence implementing
the MSSTT algorithm as a plugin in GIS software will serve the purpose. The time
complexity of the MSSTT algorithm is reduced when the proposed algorithm is
blended with the tools available in QGIS.

3(V.E) + log 3 If there is no or less than 3 ambulance available within 1 km
T (n) = (5)
α ∗ (V.E) + log α Otherwise

As the MSSTT algorithm uses traveling time as the cost metric and it selects an
optimal route out of all available routes to reach the incident location and the nearest
hospital for EMS.

4 Conclusion

In this study, the problem of reducing ART was addressed by combining the ERS
using GIS and the conventional system. The objective is to develop a web-based
centralized emergency management system for road traffic accidents to cover emer-
gency demands. The hybrid model utilizes the proposed MSSTT algorithm with the
available tools in GIS. It aims to prevent rerouting so that the cost and time exploited in
identifying the shortest route will not be in vain. The time complexity of the proposed
algorithm is low when compared to the existing shortest path algorithms such as set
covering localization problem, DVCRP, genetic algorithm, and DMEXCLP. Also,
the model can serve the purpose across political boundaries. Future enhancement of
the work can automate the entire process of emergency management with minimal
resources.
578 A. J. Mahariba et al.

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Correction to: Greenhouse Gases
Emission from Municipal Solid Waste
in Thanjavur

D. Deepa, P. Sharmila, and S. Mary Rebekah Sharmila

Correction to:
Chapter “Greenhouse Gases Emission from Municipal Solid
Waste in Thanjavur” in: L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances
in Construction Management, Lecture Notes in Civil
Engineering 191,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_12

The chapter was inadvertently published with incorrect affiliation of the third author
“S. M. R. Sharmila”. It has been corrected now. The chapter and book have been
updated with the requested changes.

The updated version of this chapter can be found at

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_12

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 C1
L. Y. Loon et al. (eds.), Advances in Construction Management, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 191, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5839-6_49