Design of High-Strength Concrete Members State-Of-The-Art

Concrete Construction
Design of high-strength concrete

members: state-of-the-art
Priyan Mendis
University of Melbourne, Australia
Summary
The advancement of material technology and and equations meant for NSC to HSC may lead to
production has led to higher grades of concrete unsafe designs. Major codes of practice around
strengths. In recent years a marked increase in the world are still based on experimental and
the use of high-strength concrete (compressive theoretical results derived from investigations on
strength, f c0 4 50 MPa) has been evident in NSC. Individual design rules codified in any of the
construction projects around the world. national and international design codes need to
High-strength concrete (HSC) offers significantly be experimentally verified and categorized with a
better structural engineering properties, such as view to taking further action. In some instances
higher compressive and tensile strengths, higher structural designers are unable to take full
stiffness, better durability, compared with advantage of the material because of insufficient
conventional normal-strength concrete (NSC). information.
Many structures built now have at least some Recent developments in design and
components constructed with HSC. However, to performance of HSC members, especially the
a large extent, practice has preceded theory with papers published within the last two or three
constitutive equations simply being extrapolated years are presented in this paper. The paper
to higher strengths. The main concern regarding covers the topics of engineering properties, fire
the use of HS Concrete is the reduction in design, flexural members, shear and torsion, bond
ductility with the increase in compressive and anchorage, HSC columns, transmission of
strength observed under uniaxial compression. HSC column loads through weaker slabs, walls,
Past research has shown that members made of impact resistance and seismic design of HSC
HSC exhibit, in some instances, different failure structures.
mechanisms, and simply extrapolating models
Key words: high-strength concrete; engineering properties; fire design; shear; columns; impact resistance
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:1–15 (DOI: 10.1002/pse.138)
1 Introduction been introduced recently[11, 12]. This trend will

continue in the future, and many other new
The advancement of materials technology and applications will be developed. Very-high-strength
production methods has led to the development of concrete can be produced by conventional production
higher grades of concrete strengths. The use of procedures. Quality control is an essential part of the
high-strength concrete (HSC) elements for structures production of HSC, hence full collaboration between
has proven most popular, with economy, superior the material and ready-mixed concrete suppliers,
strength, stiffness and durability being the major engineers and builders is required for the effective
reasons for its popularity. With future advances in application of this valuable product. Guidelines to
concrete technology, the definition of HSC will facilitate the proper evaluation of HSC through
undoubtedly change, however for the purposes of this quality control and testing have been published by the
paper, it is considered to be concrete with a 28-day ACI 363 Committee on High-Strength Concrete[13].
characteristic compressive strength of at least 50 MPa. HSC will normally consist of not only Portland
Presently, concretes with strengths more than 50 MPa cement, aggregates and water, but also
are used in many buildings, bridges and other superplasticizers and supplementary cementitious
projects around the world[1–10]. Some columns in high- material[14].
rise buildings have been constructed with up to A significant cost saving can be achieved by
130 MPa concrete. New applications of HSC have utilizing HSC because member sizes can be
Published online 24 February 2003 Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:1–15
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
reduced[7]. A summary of typical applications of HSC verified and categorized with a view to taking further
in recently constructed infrastructure and advantages action. Although interest in HSC has been around for
offered in design and construction by application of some time (since the 1970 s) and a number of research
HSC is presented in a book published by the author projects have been undertaken, some design issues are
recently[15]. still not fully addressed. There is also a need to
HSC is structurally a different material, and consolidate the knowledge and make it readily
extrapolating the design rules intended for NSC to available to the practitioners for whom the research
(HSC), fc0 450 MPa, is not appropriate. These rules was intended. A summary of major codes of practice,
may not always be conservative when applied to including the allowable concrete strengths and
HSC, owing to the variations in fracture modes, comments on proposed extensions to cover HSC, is
microstructure and the differences brought about by presented in Table 1.
various additives, such as silica fume, fly ash, slag,
superplasticizers, etc. Therefore the empirical design
rules originally intended for NSC need to be
re-evaluated. The main concern regarding the use of 2 Engineering Properties
HSC is the reduction in ductility with the increase in
compressive strength observed under uniaxial General performance characteristics and micro- and
compression. This issue is addressed later in this macromechanics of (HSC)/high-performance
paper. The main purpose of this paper is to review concrete (HPC) are described in detail by Nawy[35].
and present the latest developments in the design and There are non-structural benefits of using HSC, for
performance of HSC members. Especially the example the improved durability of the material
published papers within last two or three years are which is a result of reduced porosity and the use of
evaluated. The details given in the published state-of- high-quality materials. Baoyu et al.[36] found that, for
the-art reports and list of references[16–18] are not approximately 50% increase in strength, resistance to
repeated here. Although some research projects freezing-thawing was increased by 10 times,
reviewed in this paper are based on earlier editions of impermeability by 6–15 times, resistance to
a code of practice (e.g. ACI 318–1995 instead of the carbonation increased by over 5 times, resistance to
recent version AC 318–2002), the recent version is chloride ion penetration by over 10 times, protection
quoted (e.g. ACI 318–02), if no modifications to that of rebar from corrosion of chlorides by 50 times and
particular clause are included in the recent version. If resistance to abrasion erosion by 0.5–2.5 times.
that particular clause is modified in the recent version The most comprehensive study reported in the
(e.g. clauses relevant to shear in ACI 318–02), it will be recent literature on long-term properties of HSC
highlighted. incorporating supplementary materials is reported by
Malhotra et al.[37]. This paper presents the results of
tests performed on the compressive strength of HSC/
1.1 CODES OF PRACTICE HPC at ages up to 10 years, the modulus of elasticity
Individual design rules given in national and after 2, 4, and 10 years, and the carbonation depth and
international design codes need to be experimentally the resistance of concrete to chloride ion penetration
Table 1 Summary of codes of practice

Code Year (latest) Country Maximum strength Notes
(MPa)
.......................................................................................................................................................
ACI 318[19] 2002 USA Not specified Some limitations for specific clauses on
bond (70 MPa). Restrictions on shear
removed in 2002 version. Some pro-
posed extensions are described in[20,21]
EC 2[22] 1992 Europe 60 (cube) Some extensions proposed by PR
50 (cylinder) 5480[23] to cover HSC
BS 8110[24] 1997 UK 60 (cube) Extensions proposed by Concrete
50 (cylinder) Society Working Group[25]
CEB-FIP MC[26] 1990 International 80 (cylinder) Extensions proposed[27]
DIN 1045[28] 2001 Germany 115 (200 cube)
100 (cylinder)
AS 3600[29] 2001 Australia 65 (cylinder) Extensions up to 100 MPa proposed[15]
NZS 3101[30] 1995, new version New Zealand 70 (cylinder, ductile) Only ductile design is allowed in earth-
by end of 2002 100 (non-ductile) quake resistant structures
NS 3473[31] 1998 Norway 105 (100 cube) Changes described in[32]
94 (cylinder)
CSA 23.3[33] 2001 Canada 50 (ductile) Some of the important aspects for HSC
80 (non-ductile) explained in[34]
.......................................................................................................................................................
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:1–15
HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE MEMBERS 3
after 10 years. The tests were performed on drilled The term Z has the value of 1 for NSC and is less than
cores taken from the structural test elements 1 for HSC. This formula was derived by calibrating
simulating concrete columns. In addition, the experimental results and comparing them with the
compressive strength of cylinders cured in a moist widely used Carrasquillo et al.[39] formula
room and in the field, as well as the compressive recommended by the ACI 363 Committee[17] and also
strength of drilled cores taken from the structural included in the New Zealand and Canadian Codes:
elements (walls) at ages up to 4 years was determined.
After 10 years, the compressive strength of the cores qffiffiffiffi r 1:5
c
drilled from the column elements of the control Ec ¼ 3320 fc0 þ 6900
2320
Portland cement concrete and concrete incorporating
various supplementary cementing materials was Mokhtarzadeh & French[38] found that the data
measured. The highest strength was obtained for the obtained for modulus ofprupture
ffiffiffiffi ranged between the
high-volume fly ash concrete followed by the control ACI 318 value fcf0 ¼ 0:62 fc0p and
ffiffiffiffi ACI 363
Portland cement concrete, slag concrete, silica fume recommendations fcf0 ¼ 0:94 fc0 . They also found that
concrete, and concrete incorporating a combination of the splitting tensile strength
pffiffiffiffi also ranged between the
slag and silica fume, in that order. Even though the ACI 318 value fcf0 ¼ 0:50 fc0p and
ffiffiffiffi ACI 363
high-volume fly ash concrete at ages up to 28 days recommendations fcf0 ¼ 0:59 fc0 . Their tests covered
had lower strength (49.9 MPa) than the other concrete with compressive strengths up to about
concretes, it attained the highest strength gain of more 95 MPa.It was shown by Kovler et al.[40] that the tensile
than 120% between 28 days and 10 years. On the and compressive strength obtained is higher for HSC
contrary, the concrete incorporating 12% silica fume with higher silica fume (SF) contents. However, the
had the highest compressive strength (75.8 MPa) at ratio of tensile to compressive strength decreased with
ages up to 28 days, but it had a strength gain of only increase in SF.
18% beyond that age. In general, the moduli of The behaviour of HSC specimens up to 103 MPa
elasticity of the moist- and field-cured cylinders and subjected to uniaxial tension has been investigated by
the cores taken from the column elements were Li & Ansari[41]. They showed that the higher-
similar. For the cores drilled from the column compressive-strength concretes exhibited larger
elements, the fly ash concrete had the highest fracture energies and lower characteristic lengths.
E-modulus at all three ages of 2, 4, and 10 years. The Knowledge of the elastic properties (e.g. modulus
experimentally determined E-moduli ranged from 83 of elasticity) of concrete at young ages is very useful
to 116% of the values calculated according to ACI 318. for designers, especially from a serviceability point of
In tests performed in accordance with ASTM C 1202 view. Poisson’s ratio was found to decrease sharply to
(C1202-97 Standard Test Method for Electrical reach a value of 0.14 (from about 0.2) at a very young
Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion age of 10–20 h, and then increased to approximately
Penetration), the charge passed through all the 0.24 after 7 days[42].
concretes at 10 years was less than 1000 C, indicating
very high resistance of the concretes to chloride ion 2.1 SHRINKAGE AND CREEP IN HSC
penetration. After 10 years of outdoor exposure, the 2.1.1 Shrinkage
depth of carbonation in all the concretes was Shrinkage in concrete consists of three distinct
negligible. components: plastic shrinkage; autogenous shrinkage;
A comprehensive study to document the effects of and drying shrinkage. Most codes and procedures do
mix materials, proportions, curing conditions, age and not differentiate between the three types of shrinkage.
test procedures on the compressive strength, modulus Empirical procedures laid out in most codes
of elasticity, modulus of rupture and splitting tensile determine only the total shrinkage at the end of a
strength is described by Mokhtarzadeh & French[38]. stipulated time or design period.
Approximately 150 mixes totalling over 7000 For HSC, which is expected to be produced with
specimens were cast over a period of three years in low w/cm (water/cementitious) ratios and better
this study. They
pffiffiffi found that the ACI 318 equation aggregates, the total shrinkage should decrease in
Ec ¼ 0:43r1:5 fc0 overestimates the measured comparison with NSC specimens. The cementitious
modulus of elasticity. Mendis[15] proposed that the component includes the weight of cement and other
following modification to the ACI 318 equation pozzolonic admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume,
is appropriate to predict the elastic modulus rice-husk ash, etc. Because of the high paste content in
of all grades of NSC and HSC concretes HSC, autogenous shrinkage due to self-dessication is
(up to 100 MPa) with various types of expected to be higher, and in some cases doubled[43].
aggregates: However, since the specimens contain very little
qffiffiffiffi water, the drying shrinkage will be significantly
Ec ¼ 0:43Zr1:5 fc0 reduced. All experimental results point to the fact that
the total shrinkage values for HSC specimens are less
where Z ¼ 1:1 0:002 fc0 41:0 than those obtained for NSC specimens[44].
Although several potential benefits, such as HSC for similar values of specific creep. A reduction
improved surface abrasion resistance, reduced in w/cm ratio in the HSC mix will lead to a reduction
chloride penetrability, and improved resistance to in creep.
freezing and thawing damage are associated with the It must be noted that the creep coefficients for
use of HSC, these mixtures may exhibit increased concretes of varying strengths depend on many
sensitivity to early shrinkage cracking, owing to the factors other than the compressive strength. They are
increased autogenous shrinkage component[40,45]. mix components and proportions, w/cm ratio,
Weiss et al.[45] showed that a shrinkage-reducing supplementary cementitious materials and other
admixture (SRA) may be used to decrease the additives. The effects of ultrafine ground granulated
potential for early shrinkage cracking in HSC, while blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and silica fume (SF) on
sustaining the advantageous mechanical and creep and drying shrinkage of HPC were compared
durability properties associated with HSC. and the mechanism was analysed by Li & Yao[50].
Sato et al.[46] found that, at early age, the autogenous Ultrafine GGBS and SF will greatly increase the
shrinkage strains develop more rapidly in concrete amount of C–S–H gel hydrates and the density of
without any admixtures and in concrete containing hardened cement paste, which make concrete stronger
silica fume, than in concrete containing blast-furnace and more resistant to deformation caused by force
slag. The final autogenous shrinkage strains in applied on it. Under the same test conditions (e.g.
concrete containing blast-furnace slag were largest, same load applied on specimens), the amount of creep
and were smallest in concrete without admixtures. and drying shrinkage of concrete will decrease greatly
Convenient nomograms for use by practising with the addition of GGBS and SF[50].
engineers for the prediction of both early-age strength Modifications to the ACI 209 guidelines[51] on creep
and shrinkage properties of HSC, have been and shrinkage have been recommended by
developed by Kovler et al.[40]. Mokhtarzadeh & French[52] based on tests of over 250
Persson[47] outlined experimental laboratory and specimens.
field studies on creep and shrinkage of young or
mature HSC/HPC with strengths ranging from 69 to 2.2 STRESS STRAIN MODELS
112 MPa, carried out between 1991 and 1999. For this The stress-strain behaviour of HSC differs from that of
purpose, about 400 cylinders made of eight mix NSC as shown in Fig. 1. The reasons for the variance
compositions of HPC were studied in the laboratory. in behaviour are as follows:
The results and analyses of the laboratory studies
showed a large influence of the maturity and of the * For HSC, the stress–strain curve remains
mix composition of the HPC on the measured creep. approximately linear up to the the ultimate stress.
The creep coefficient of HPC was smaller than in The internal microcracking that occurs in concrete
normal concrete (see next section). In contrast, as load is applied is delayed until a large
shrinkage of HPC was somewhat larger than in proportion of the ultimate load is reached.
normal concrete, owing to the large autogenous Therefore the elastic response to compression is
extended;
shrinkage component. The results obtained in the
laboratory were correlated to field tests on 27 beams.
The results in the field (for 10–200 days after casting)
coincided well with the results in the laboratory
studies.
Kojima et al.[48] used three w. cm ratios (0.2, 0.3, 0.5)
and three levels of silica fume replacement ratios[0,
7.5 and 15%] to determine the shrinkage
characteristics of HSC. The autogenous shrinkage
strain increased both in its amount and its percentage
of the total shrinkage strain with the decrease of w/
cm ratio. Almost the same total shrinkage strain (sum
of autogenous and drying) was observed after about
one year in the specimens independent of the mixture
proportions of concrete, the curing method or its
period.
2.1.2 Creep
Creep decreases with an increase in strength of
concrete. Thus, it is expected and experiments
confirm that HSC creeps to a lesser degree than
NSC[44,49]. A resulting advantage is that higher Fig. 1 Some typical uniaxial stress–strain relationships for
proportions of the maximum stress can be endured by concrete
* the strain at the peak stress increases with strength; or small, and detachment can either occur explosively
* the post-peak branch becomes steeper as the or pieces may dislodge and subsequently fall. The risk
strength increases (or reduced ductility). The of spalling is higher in HSC, for the following reasons:
extensive ductility exhibited by lower strength
concretes beyond maximum stress, caused by the * low permeability of HSC retains the moisture
spreading of microcracks which form an inside the concrete, resulting in a high moisture
interconnected network with large redundancies to content being present for prolonged periods;
dissipate the energy is not observed in HSC; * low porosity of HSC creates higher pore pressure;
* the typical ultimate compressive strain decreases as * HSC tends to be subject to higher compressive
the strength increases; stresses than lower-strength concrete.
* the typical fracture surface of an ordinary concrete
is rough. The fracture occurs along the aggregate-
In 1996, a comprehensive experimental and
matrix interface; the aggregates are not broken. For
analytical investigation was conducted at NIST on
HSC, a typical fracture surface is smooth and the
fire performance of HSC. The key findings and a
cracks pass without any discontinuity through both
the matrix and aggregates. The fracture mode of literature review are given elsewhere[60,61]. Some tests
HSC is brittle compared with that of NSC. reviewed by Phan[60] have shown explosive spalling
of HSC, while others have reported no difference from
It is important to know the details of stress-strain the behaviour of NSC. Of ten materials test
relationships of HSC in order to determine the programmes reviewed, with nine of ten tests
full-range behaviour of HSC members. Various conducted on unstressed specimens, five reported
stress–strain relationships for both unconfined and explosive spalling. Of five element test programmes
confined HSC under uniaxial compression and reviewed, three reported spalling. Also, it was
triaxial compression have been proposed in the observed that explosive spalling does not occur for
literature[53–58]. every specimen tested under identical conditions. The
reported temperature range when explosive spalling
occurred was 300–6508C. Concretes with dense pastes
resulting from the addition of silica fume were more
3 Fire resistance
susceptible to explosive spalling. HSC made with
Fire resistance of concrete members is normally lightweight aggregate appeared to be more prone to
accomplished by structural adequacy and insulation explosive spalling than HSC made of normal-weight
for a specified fire resistance period. Several aggregate concretes.
researchers have concluded that with the exception of Chan et al.[62] showed that moisture content and
spalling, which is defined as the detachment of pieces strength are the two main factors governing explosive
of concrete when a concrete member is exposed to thermal spalling of concrete. They investigated the
fire, there is no apparent reason to treat HSC spalling of 100-mm cube specimens with strengths
differently from lower-strength concrete. Spalling can ranging from 47 to 128 MPa under ISO Standard Fire.
take place, as shown in Fig. 2, over the whole surface The moisture content (mc) had a dominant influence
area of a member or in localized areas. The dense on spalling frequency. For fc0 560 MPa there was no
cement paste prevents moisture from escaping at spalling even with the concrete fully saturated
elevated temperatures, thus developing a pressure (mc ¼ 100%). The higher the mc, the greater the
build-up which cause spalling. The pieces can be large spalling frequency. The threshold values of mc at
spalling for 78, 115 and 128 MPa concrete were 88, 63
and 63% respectively. Spalling in all their specimens
occurred between 480–5008C. Also, HSC specimens
heated at rapid heating rates, such as hydrocarbon fire
which occurred in the World Trade Center collapse on
11 September 2001, and larger specimens are more
prone to spalling than specimens heated at lower rates
and of smaller size. A recent study to highlight
spalling of HSC columns under rapidly increasing
temperatures is reported by Ali et al.[63]. They tested
18 columns under four loading levels and two heating
rates. Among the 18 columns tested under different
loads and heating intensities, 17 columns suffered
various types of spalling. Interestingly they found that
increasing the loading level did not increase the
probability of concrete spalling, both under high and
low heating regimes. Low heating rates minimized
Fig. 2 Behaviour of HSC in fire[59] the risk of explosive spalling.
Polypropylene (PP) fibres can be used to prevent Residual strengths are important to assess the
spalling[59,64,65,66]. PP melts at about 1708C, which performance of a structure after a fire. In residual
is lower than the spalling temperatures[66]. When strength tests, the specimens are subjected to elevated
melted and partially absorbed by the cement temperatures, and the stresses are applied only after
matrix, the fibres leave a pathway for gas. This results cooling to a particular temperature. An analytical
in the reduction of pore pressure, and hence model for the residual stress–strain relationship for
reduces the risk of spalling. However the length of uniaxially loaded HSC (fc0 ¼ 70 MPa) after a single
fibres is very important. Short fibres, combined thermal cycle up to 9008C, was empirically developed
with a high fibre content may give adverse spalling by Wu et al.[69]. Gowripalan et al.[70] showed that
effects. ultrasonic pulse velocity seems to be useful in
According to the review by Phan[60], the material assessing the damage of HSC due to high
properties of HSC vary differently with temperature temperatures. Chan et al.[71] found that the variation of
compared with those of NSC. The differences are pore structure after exposure to high temperature,
more pronounced in the temperature range of including porosity and pore size distribution could be
between 258C to about 4008C, where higher strength used to indicate the degradation of mechanical
concretes have higher rates of strength loss than properties of HSC/HPC subjected to high
lower-strength concretes. HSC showed a 15–20% loss temperature. They developed a model to predict the
of compressive strength, whereas the NSC showed no relationship between porosity after exposure to high
such strength loss. These differences between NSC temperature and the strength.
and HSC become less significant at temperatures Hoff et al.[72] studied the residual strength of
above 4008C. Compressive strengths of HSC at 8008C concrete with strengths ranging from 49 MPa (NSC) to
decrease to about 30% of the original room 83 (HSC) MPa, under a heating regime associated
temperature strengths. The difference between the with a hydrocarbon fire. Interestingly they found a
compressive strength–temperature relationships of slight improvement in residual strength of HSC at
normal-weight and lightweight aggregate HSC 2008C (3928F) exposure compared with 1008C (2128F).
appears to be insignificant, based on the limited However at exposures of 3008C (5728F) or higher,
amount of existing test data. HSC mixtures with silica there was a significant loss of strength. At these
fume have higher compressive strength loss with higher temperatures, the residual strength of HSC
increasing temperatures than HSC mixtures without was not significantly different from that of NSC. At
silica fume. The compressive failure of HSC is more exposure temperatures of 9008C (16528F), all the
brittle than NSC at temperatures up to 3008C. concretes (NSC and HSC) had no structural integrity.
With further increase in temperature, specimens There are only a few studies reported recently on
exhibit a more gradual failure mode. The tensile the structural behaviour of HSC members subjected to
strength–temperature relationships decrease similarly fire. Meda et al.[73] studied the ultimate behaviour of
and almost linearly with temperature for HSC three different HSC square sections, at high
and NSC. temperature and after cooling, subjected to an
Phan & Carino[67], by considering several eccentric axial force and to several fire durations.
experimental results on mechanical properties of They concluded that HSC sections are more
concrete when exposed to rapid heating as in a fire, temperature sensitive than NSC sections, however the
showed that Eurocode provisions and the CEB design difference was not significant. Ongah et al.[74]
curves are unsafe for HSC. They also measured the developed a method using an incremental solution
elastic modulus and compressive strength of HSC by procedure to find the fire resistance period of HSC
heating 100 200 mm cylinders at 58C/min to slender walls. In this method, for each time step
temperatures of up to 6008C. The properties were during fire exposure, equilibrium is sought between
measured at elevated temperatures as well as after the external load and internal resistance and
cooling to room temperature. Results indicated that deflection of the wall. A finite difference scheme was
losses in relative strength due to high-temperature employed to calculate wall deflections. The
exposure were affected by the test condition (i.e. at incremental procedure is repeated until equilibrium
elevated temperatures or after cooling to room of the wall cannot be maintained, thus indicating
temperature) and w/cm ratio. Measurements of structural collapse of the wall.
temperature histories in the cylinders revealed
complex behaviour, believed to be linked to heat-
induced transformations and transport of free and
chemically combined water. They also found that the 4 Flexural members
presence of silica fume did not appear to have a
significant effect. Recently, Phan & Carino[68] reported 4.1 DEFLECTIONS
a study on effects of test conditions and mixture By using HSC, smaller cross-sections with reduced
proportions on behavior of HSC exposed to high dead load and longer spans can be designed[75]. For
temperatures. the smaller cross-sectional members, excessive
deflections may become a problem. The ACI state-of- 5 Rectangular stress block model
the-art report for HSC[17] recommends the use of the
Branson’s formula for calculating the effective The equivalent rectangular stress block (RSB) has
moment of inertia. However, Lambotte & Taerwe[76] been the key concept behind the development of the
suggested that the exponent of Mcr/Ms may be codified, simple ultimate strength theory. Ultimate
greater than 3 for HSC beams. strength design of members subjected to axial load
As the creep coefficient is lower than that of NSC, and bending is usually carried out with the RSB.
the long-term deflections of HSC beams should be Presently, most codes for concrete structures,
significantly less than those of NSC elements. This including ACI 318[19], fix the value of a equal to 0.85,
means that the predicted long-term deflection using and vary the value of b between 0.85 and 0.65 for
the code methods will be higher than the actual concrete strengths between 28 and 50 MPa (Fig. 3.)
values. However, the effect of compression steel in As mentioned earlier in Section 2.2, the unconfined
reducing the long-term deflection in beams is less for stress–strain curves for NSC and HSC vary
HSC[77], which is not accounted for in the code significantly. Therefore the equivalent RSB parameters
formulae. The long-term multipliers used to modify need to be appropriately modified for HSC, especially
the short-term deflections to predict the long-term for members subject to an axial load component.
deflections should be developed using the These modifications require both a and b to vary with
aforementioned factors. Mendis[15] has suggested a concrete strengths. These values can be derived by
revised formula for the long-term deflections of HSC considering a triangular stress–strain relationship at
by considering these factors. Ghali & Azarnejad[78] very high strengths (100 MPa) and keeping the
showed the influence of varying fc0 (up to 100 MPa) on present stress block in ACI 318 up to 60 MPa[15]. It
the predicted deflections. Their analysis procedure must be noted that the ultimate moment capacity of
was verified by comparisons of predicted deflections flexural members is relatively insensitive to the stress
with published experimental data. Sherif & Dilger[79] block model. However the calculation of available
used test data from the literature to assess the ductility of different cross-sections in both flexural
calculation methods suggested by the codes, EC 2[22] members and columns is affected by the selected RSB
and CSA A23.3[33], for NSC and HSC beams. These parameters. By comparing various stress blocks
methods are the effective moment of inertia approach, available in the literature for HSC and the present ACI
the mean curvature approach, and the bilinear 318 model, Stewart and Attard[85] found that the
method. They concluded that these methods, column capacity in primary compression failure is
originally developed for NSC beams, are valid for also significantly affected by the choice of the stress
HSC beams. They also found that the CSA approach block model.
for calculating the long-term deflections overestimates
the ratio of long-term to initial deflections. Choi &
Scanlon[80] have demonstrated, through Monte Carlo 6 Shear resistance
simulation techniques, some differences between the
variability of deflections in beams made with NSC There is a concern amongst researchers and designers
and HSC. This is due to the uncertainties associated that HSC may not be strong in shear, as some of the
with NSC and HSC material properties (i.e. modulus mechanisms that function to resist shear, notably the
of elasticity, modulus of rupture and creep coefficient aggregate interlock mechanism, may be absent.
used in the calculation of beam deflections) The shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams is
characterized by different probability distribution dependent on the tensile strength of the members. In
functions. HSC, where the difference in strength of the concrete
matrix and the aggregates is comparatively less than
in NSC, the fracture planes are relatively smooth[86,87].
4.2 DUCTILITY The smooth fracture planes reduce the shear
Despite HSC being a more brittle material, HSC
flexural members exhibit greater ductility, owing to αf′c
shallower neutral axis depths. This has been
experimentally verified by Pendyala et al.[81] and Lin MNA = Cdn(1-β/2)
& Lee[82]. Therefore, the same moment redistribution βdn
factors can be maintained for HSC flexural members. dn C = αf′c.βdn.b
However Shehata et al.[83] demonstrated the reduction
of rotation capacity due to bond slip of both HSC and
NSC beams. Pecce & Fabrocino[84], by testing beams
NA
up to 95 MPa, showed that, with respect to nonlinear
design of continuous beams, the allowable plastic
rotation capacities given in CEB[26] and EC 2[22] codes
are acceptable for HSC. Fig. 3 Rectangular stress block
resistance of concrete by reducing the aggregate minimum amount of reinforcement defined in ACI
interlock between the fracture surfaces. Pendyala and 318 is inadequate for equilibrium torsion of high
Mendis[86], through a comprehensive experimental strength RC beams, and a new expression was
and analytical investigation, concluded that when proposed. This was confirmed by Fang et al. [97] in
current code provisions to determine the concrete another study conducted on strength and ductility of
component of shear resistance are extrapolated for HSC beams with minimum torsion reinforcement.
HSC, the safety margins for structural design are Koutchoukali & Belarbi[96] found that the torsional
reduced. Kong & Rangan[88] have reported tests on 48 capacity of under-reinforced beams is independent of
HSC beams (fc0 up to 89 MPa) under combined concrete strength, and the amount of longitudinal
bending moment and shear. They compared the shear reinforcement was more effective in controlling crack
design provisions contained in the Australian width than the amount of transverse reinforcement.
Standard, ACI 318, Canadian Standard, and Eurocode
with the test results. On average ACI, 318
underestimated the experimental results by 80%.
7 Bond and anchorage
However the coefficient of variation was 41%. Similar
results were obtained for other codes. A As illustrated in Fig. 4, the bond stresses in NSC are
comprehensive review of shear design of HSC beams typically assumed to be relatively uniform. The bond
is given elsewhere[87]. stresses in HSC are relatively nonuniform, and follow
Although the restriction of the maximum shear a triangular pattern, with peak stresses at the splice,
strength (69 MPa) in ACI 318 is removed, some gradually decreasing towards the end[98].
clauses relevant to shear need attention. (Note: the Mendis & French[99] used the results of a series of
minimum shear reinforcement requirements have tests on HSC, reported in the literature, from six
been
p ffiffiffiffi revised in ACI 318–02. It is proportional to research studies, including a study at University of
fc0 , thus requiring more shear reinforcement for Minnesota to review the existing recommendations in
higher strengths.) Several extensions have been ACI 318 for design of splices and anchorage of
proposed recently so that the shear friction clauses in reinforcement. It was shown that ACI 318 equations
ACI 318 can be applied to the full range of concrete may be unconservative for some cases beyond
strengths[89–91]. 62 MPa. Azizanamini et al.[100] found that adequate
ductility can be achieved by using a minimum splice
6.1 PUNCHING SHEAR
length, as defined by ACI 318 for beams without
The use of HSC can improve the punching shear transverse reinforcement, plus a minimum quantity of
resistance, allowing higher forces to be transferred transverse reinforcement over the tension
through the slab–column connection[92–95]. This is due development/lap splice length with an area equal to
to the increase in tensile strength in HSC. However 50% of the area of the bars being developed/spliced.
none of the studies investigated the reduction of shear Modifications to current design criteria in ACI 318
transfer across the smoother fracture planes in HSC have been suggested that will allow removal of the
specimens when subjected to punching shear. This limit on the compressive strength of 69 MPa.Yerlici &
aspect needs further investigation. Various studies on Özturan[101] found that the bond strength increased
punching shear capacity of HSC slab have been with increasing concrete strength, cover thickness,
reviewed by Ngo[95]. It was shown that the present and amount of web reinforcement, while it decreased
provisions on punching shear in some codes, such as with increasing bar size. They have also suggested an
AS 3600 and EC 2, are applicable up to 100 MPa. empirical expression to cover HSC. Zuo & Darwin[102]
found that the splice strength of bars confined by
transverse reinforcement increases with an increase in
6.2 TORSION relative rib area and bar diameter for HSC up to
Studies on torsion of HSC beams are very limited. To
study the effect of HSC on the torsional behavior of
reinforced concrete (RC) beams, nine full-size beams
were tested by Koutchoukali & Belarbi[96], under pure
torsion. The main parameters in this study were
concrete strength (up to 95 MPa) and amount of (a)
reinforcement. The amount of reinforcement varied
from less than the minimum to the so-called balanced
condition (when expected crushing of concrete occurs
at the same time as yield of steel). With the intention
of keeping the inclination of the concrete struts
approximately equal to 458, equal percentages of
(b)
reinforcement were provided in the transverse and
longitudinal directions. Results indicated that the Fig. 4 Idealized bond stress distribution in: (a) NSC; and (b) HSC
108 MPa.The use of stronger coarse aggregate resulted of the core and activation of the confinement provided
in an increase in splice strength for bars both with and by the ties.
without confining reinforcement. They also found that Paultre et al.[111] showed that, at constant volumetric
for splices confined by transverse reinforcement, the ratio of confinement reinforcement and constant level
higher the quantity of coarse aggregate, the greater of axial compression, concrete strength significantly
the contribution of transverse reinforcement to splice influences the flexural behavior of HSC columns.
strength. They also showed that, in some cases, high-yield-
strength reinforcement may be used to effectively
confine HSC while reducing the volumetric ratio of
8 Design of HSC columns lateral transverse reinforcement. The test results from
this research programme and others indicate that the
HSC is an extremely cost-effective material for the confinement reinforcement requirements of the ACI
construction of columns. In addition to reducing 318 and New Zealand Codes are not directly
column sizes and producing a more durable material, applicable to columns confined with high-yield-
HSC reduces the cost of formwork. strength steel.
The extrapolation of code formulae valid for NSC to Lee & Son[112] have investigated the failure and
concrete compressive strengths greater than 50 MPa is strength of HSC columns subjected to eccentric loads
a common design procedure, however it does raise to verify the basic design rules used in practice.
some concerns. One particular concern is the
application of this approach to the design of HSC
columns loaded predominantly axially, where it has 8.1 SLENDER COLUMNS
been shown that there is an apparent lack of ductile While the strength of a short column is governed
behaviour when stirrups are provided in accordance solely by the strength of its cross section, the strength
with the present codes of practice. of a slender column is strongly influenced by its
There are some codes of practice which cover HSC effective length. In most cases, the use of HSC in
(see Table 1) and a state-of-the-art report on HSC columns enables the use of smaller cross-sections,
columns (ACI 441[103]). However, these codes and the with the implication that slenderness effects are
report do not provide simple and adequate rules to enhanced. This outcome means that consideration
design HSC columns and calculate the stirrup and evaluation of slenderness effects in HSC columns
spacings to satisfy ductility requirements. is more critical than in NSC columns.
Mendis et al.[104] suggested a method for the design Claeson & Gylltoft[113] found that HSC slender
of HSC columns in terms of the required spacing of columns subjected to short-term loading displayed
lateral reinforcement in order to provide a similar less ductility and more sudden failures than the NSC
level of ductility that an equivalent column columns. Furthermore, the tests conducted indicated
constructed with normal strength concrete would that the structural behaviour of HSC is favourable
possess. They showed that in order to achieve this, under sustained loading, i.e. the HSC column
important concepts need to be addressed, such as the exhibited less tendency to creep, and could sustain the
choice of measure of ductile behaviour and a realistic axial load without much increase in deformation for a
HSC stress–strain model, as well as limiting factors longer period of time.
such as longitudinal steel buckling and lateral steel Mendis[114] reviewed the applicability of the
fracture. It was shown that both buckling of existing moment magnification method given in ACI
longitudinal steel and hoop fracture will not demand and Australian codes to cover the slenderness effects
a reduction in spacing of lateral ties with increase in in high-strength columns up to 100 MPa. From
compressive strength of concrete. Mendis[15] has comparison with experimental results, he showed that
suggested a simple method to extend the present the moment magnification method suggested in ACI
rules in ACI 318 and AS 3600 for spacing of stirrups in 318 and AS 3600, combined with an interaction
HSC columns, which includes the axial load level as a diagram derived using a suitable equivalent stress
parameter. Légeron & Paultre[105] have also block [see Section 5], is suitable for HSC columns up
emphasized the need to include the axial load level in to 100 MPa. Generally ACI formulae gave better
code requirements for confinement reinforcement. predictions for the calculation of the EI value,
Bayrak & Sheikh[106] and Razvi & Saaticioglu[107,108] compared with the AS 3600 formula.
have also reported recent studies on confinement of Chuang et al.[115] showed that generally, EC 2 is
HSC columns. more conservative than BS 8110 for slender HSC and
Liu et al.[109] and Foster[110] have studied the cover NSC columns. While both codes tend to give smaller
spalling prior to a section reaching its squash load. safety margins for column capacity as eccentricity
They showed that the longitudinal reinforcement is at increases, BS 8110 could be unconservative for large
yield at the spalling load, while the tie steel is not at eccentricities for both NSC and HSC walls. Both codes
yield at the point of cover spalling. After cover appear to be more conservative for slender columns of
spalling, microcracking of the core leads to expansion higher-strength concrete.
9 Transmission of HSC column loads reinforced HSC walls. The use of thinner HSC walls
through weaker slabs not only reduce the cost, but also increase the net
lettable space of a building. Some comparisons are
For economic reasons, columns in multi-storey given elsewhere[15]. Fragomeni & Mendis[121]
reinforced concrete buildings are often built with presented an overview of testing undertaken to
HSC, whereas slabs are built with concrete of weaker determine the axial load capacity of NSC and HSC
strength. In the preferred method of construction, the walls. They concluded that modifications to the ACI
columns are first cast up to the soffit of the slab they 318 code wall design equation may be required when
will support, then the slab concrete is cast, continuous HSC is used. According to the ACI 318 equation, a
through the columns. This process is repeated until particular percentage increase in concrete strength
the last floor is cast. As a result, the axial load that is will result in the same percentage increase in wall
transmitted from a column above the floor must pass strength. The experimental results indicated that a
through a layer of weaker concrete before reaching the 40% increase in concrete strength (from 50 to 80 MPa)
column below the floor. A design question arises as to results in a much smaller percentage increase (25%) in
what concrete compressive strength should be used in wall strength. Gupta & Rangan[122] tested eight HSC
the design of the column and the ways of improving concrete walls under in-plane axial (kept constant
the performance of the joint. Some buildings have during the test) and horizontal loads. The predicted
already been designed without considering this values for shear strength, based on modified
problem. The limited amount of experimental studies compression field theory, showed good correlation
conducted on transmission of HSC column loads with the test strengths. Sanjayan & Maheswaran[123]
through lower-strength slabs are reviewed found that, in HSC walls (up to 96 MPa), simply
elsewhere[15]. The recommendations in ACI 318 supported along side edges and subjected to eccentric
are based on tests conducted by Bianchini et al.[116] in loading, the failure modes were similar to the classical
1960s. Ospina & Alexander[117] have conducted a two-way buckling of plates, but the walls also
comprehensive study on transmission of axial loads exhibited a torsional failure mode near the
of HSC interior columns through weaker slabs, corners. However, the authors could not determine
and have suggested modifications to the ACI 318 the predominant type of failure mode from the
recommendations. They developed an equation for observations. The test set-up may also
effective strength of columns based on the ratio of have contributed to the torsional failure in the
minimum column dimension (h) to slab thickness (c), specimens.
and concluded that the present rules are
unconservative for large h/c ratios. Although
these modifications are not included, the ratio of
column concrete strength to slab concrete strength 11 Impact resistance
for design is limited to 2.5 in the recent version of Responding to the threat of terrorist attacks around
ACI 318. the world, structural engineers are seeking new
HSC column–NSC slab joints in corner columns are methods of assessment and prevention of damage to
critical because of the absence of confinement from high-risk facilities. It is becoming a topic of great
the outside slab. The results of a study conducted interest in both civilian and military applications.
by Portella[118] revealed no distinguishable difference After the 11 September 2001 event, a great deal of
in behaviour between sandwich columns (without concern has been raised by building owners and
the surrounding slab) and corner columns. Portella[118] tenants regarding the vulnerability of structures
and Lee[119] have suggested formulae to design under extreme conditions, such as severe blast or
HSC corner columns intersecting a layer of weaker impact. With better engineering properties compared
slab, by conducting experimental work and also a with NSC, HSC is an obvious choice to improve the
theoretical formulation, using a brick–mortar analogy. resistance of structures under these types of loads.
McHarg et al.[120] have demonstrated the beneficial The problem of NSC structural concrete under
effects of concentrating the slab reinforcement near impulsive loadings has been studied by several
the column and of using fibre-reinforced concrete researchers[124–131]. It has been found that concrete
in transmission of HSC column loads through strength is highly sensitive to loading rate, especially
NSC slabs. in the cases of blast or high-velocity impact. Concrete
exhibits an enigmatic phenomenon of increased
resistance when it is loaded at very high rate. While
10 HSC walls the dynamic stiffness does not change very much
compared with the static stiffness, the stresses that are
The increased acceptance of tilt-up and other types of sustained for a certain period under dynamic
precast structures and a trend towards reinforced conditions may reach values that are remarkably
concrete core walls in high-rise buildings is the reason higher than the static compressive strength. Strength
for the recent popularity in the use of load-bearing magnification factors as high as four in compression
and up to six in tension for strain rates in the range of Li et al.[137] developed a stress–strain relationship
102–103/s have been reported[132, 133]. The rate for confined HSC loaded at a high strain rate
dependence of concrete has been found to be more (comparable with seismic loading) and compared it
significant at higher strain rates. with the relationship based on tests conducted at low
Research on the behaviour of HSC members under strain rates. They conducted full-scale tests of HSC
severe impulsive loading (blast, impact, shock) is very columns with varying axial load, transverse
limited. Recently Ngo & Mendis[134] assessed a tall reinforcement ratio and concrete strength to find the
building with HSC elements under extreme loadings hysteretic response under reversed cyclic loading.
such as blast and light-aircraft impact. They Saatcioglu & Baingo[138] investigated
considered the beneficial effects, such as extra experimentally the performance of circular HSC
compressive strength and shear strength in HSC, and columns under simulated seismic loading. The results
also the deficiencies, such as the reduced ductility in indicated that the deformability of HSC columns can
columns, and identified several weaknesses in design be improved significantly through confinement. Yan
and detailing, which may cause progressive collapse & Martirossyan[139] found that model columns with
in these structures. transverse reinforcement designed following the
seismic provisions of ACI 318 code developed
sufficient ductility, with displacement ductility factors
12 Seismic design of HSC structures equal to or exceeding 6.0. Martirossyan & Yan[140]
investigated the flexural–shear behaviour of HSC
There are a number of advantages of using HSC in short columns, which was a common failure mode for
earthquake-resistant structures. Concrete structures many columns in recent earthquakes. Six short
are inherently heavy, and hence have the potential to columns (height/depth ratio 4, fc0 between 76–83 MPa)
induce substantial inertial forces. HSC members will were tested up to a displacement ductility level of 8,
have the distinct advantage of reducing these inertial under constant axial load and cyclic shear (in double
loads due to the reduction in member sizes. Higher curvature). Plastic hinges formed at top and bottom
elastic modulus will reduce the drift due to lateral ends which contributed to the significant ductility of
load. Despite HSC being a more brittle material, the columns. Assa & Nishiyama[141] presented an
flexural members made with HSC exhibit greater analytical method for prediction of the load–flexural
rotational ductility, due to shallower neutral axis deformation curve of HSC columns subjected to
depths (see Section 4.2). In seismic design, a beam simulated seismic loading. The method is based on a
mechanism is preferred to a column sideways finite element approach which allows for the
mechanism. The formation of beam hinges is assured spreading of inelasticity along the member. The effect
by having a strong column–weak beam system. of the configuration of transverse steel and the
Therefore, higher rotational ductilities of HSC can be presence of strain gradient on confinement
an advantage in frames. effectiveness is considered by introducing two
There are other benefits in using HSC, such as confinement effectiveness factors in the stress–strain
improved shear capacity of columns, and stronger model of confined HSC. The influence of the
beam–column joints[135]. In a beam–column joint, a bar difference between plastic hinge length assumed in
may be stressed to yield in tension on one side of the the analysis and the gauge length used in the
joint core, and to yield in compression on the other measurement of stress–strain relations of concrete is
side. In order to reduce the amount of slip due to this also considered in the analysis. Laogan & Elnashai[142]
significant change in force, the ratio of the bar designed and detailed 10 buildings of 24 storeys
diameter to the column depth is limited[30]. Larger bar according to modern seismic codes. They found that
diameters are allowed within a HSCp joint
ffiffiffiffi to transfer significant member reductions may be achieved by
bond as this ratio is proportional to fc0 HSC can be using HSC.
an attractive option to reduce member sizes in Saatcioglu & Razvi[143] have developed a
secondary frames not resisting earthquake loads. displacement-based design procedure for
These frames will attract significantly reduced forces, confinement of earthquake-resistant concrete
owing to the increase in flexibility. columns. Both NSC and HSC columns with circular
With increasing concrete compressive strength, the and square cross-sections were included. Improved
section sizes in columns can be effectively reduced. design expressions were developed for column
This reduces the flexural capacities of the columns confinement utilizing both the current design
framing into a joint, which in turn may change the criterion, which is based on column axial
response from extensive beam hingeing to extensive deformability, and the recommended design criterion,
column hingeing. Greater detailing may be needed in which is based on lateral deformability as expressed
such potential column plastic hinge regions[131]. by column drift ratio. Xiao and Yun[144] found that the
There are several papers[136], on the behaviour of hysteretic behavior and ultimate deformability of high
HSC elements subjected to seismic loading. Other strength concrete columns were significantly
recent papers are briefly reviewed here. influenced by the amount and details of transverse
reinforcement in the potential plastic hinge regions of on Utilization of High strength/High performance Concrete. Paris, May 1996:
the column, as well as by the axial load level. On the 1581–1590.
[5] Chang PK, Hwang CL & Peng YN. Application of high performance
basis of a large number of data from tests, an
concrete to high-rise building in Taiwan: Advances in Structural Engineerin, 2001: 4(2):
extensive study was conducted by Beolchini et al.[145] 65–74.
in order to investigate the assessment of earthquake [6] French C, Mokhtarzadeh A, Ahlborn T & Leon R. High strength
damage in HSC columns. Nagaii and Otani[146] concrete applications to prestressed bridge girders. Construction and Building Materials
studied the nonlinear hysteretic load-deformation 1998: 12(2–3): 105–113.
[7] Persson BSM, Johansson AG & Johansson PS. Prefabrication with
relationship of HSC beams.
HSC. Concrete International 1999: 21(9): 58–62.
[8] Charles HT, Hamdan M, Udom H, Leonard MJ & Hashimah H.
The Petronas Twin Towers and high performance concrete. ACI 1999: SP-172.
[9] Tadros MK, Huo X, Ma ZJ & Baishya M. Structural design of high
13 Concluding Remarks
performance concrete bridges. ACI 2000: SP–189.
[10] Breitenbuecher R. Developments and applications of high perfor-
Many structures built now have at least some
mance concrete. Materials and Structure. 1998: 31(207): 209–215.
components constructed with high strength concrete [11] Beck RA. High performance columns with 17% steel-to-concrete Ratio.
(HSC). Recent developments in design and Concrete International 1999: 21(4): 51–54.
performance of HSC members, especially the papers [12] Donnaes P. High speed train bridge over the Rhone river. Concrete
published within last 2–3 years are presented in this International 2000: 22(4): 49–50.
paper. Despite the benefits of using HSC, some [13] ACI Committee 363. Guide to Quality Control and Testing of High
strength Concrete, ACI 363.2R 1998
structural engineers are reluctant to use this material,
[14] Aitcin PC. High performance Concrete. London E & FN Spon,
owing to the lack of provisions in the design 1998.
standards. Major codes of practice around the world [15] Mendis P. Design of High strength Concrete Members: State-of-the-Art. EA
are still based on experimental and theoretical results Publishers Ltd., 2001. (http://www.engaust.directone.com.au/epublications.html).
derived from investigations on normal-strength [16] CEB-FIP. State-of-the-art report on high strength concrete, 90/1/1.
Bulletin d’Information 197, 1990.
concrete (NSC). Many code committees and working
[17] ACI Committee 363. State of the Art Report on High Strength Concrete
groups are presently meeting to update the existing (ACI 363R-92), American Concrete Institute: 1992.
codes. Extrapolating these design rules intended for [18] Mokhtarzadeh A & French C. Bibliography on high strength
NSC to HSC, 505fc0 5100 MPa, is not appropriate. concrete. PCI Journal 2000: 38(3): 130–137.
HSC is structurally a different material and rules [19] ACI 318. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and
Commentary. American Concrete Institute. 2002.
applicable to NSC are not always conservative when
[20] Ghosh SK. Provisions in US Codes related to high strength concrete: In
applied to HSC. Owing to the variations in fracture Azzizinamini A, Darwin D & French C (eds). High Strength Concrete}First International
modes, microstructure and the differences brought Conference, Proceedings, United Engineering Foundation Conference, Hawaii, 1997. ASCE,
about by various additives, such as silica fume, fly 1999: 568–581.
ash, superplasticizers, etc., the empirical design [21] Ali M & White R. On extending ACI 318 to High strength Concrete: In
Azzizinamini, A, Darwin D & French C. (eds.). High strength Concrete-First International
rules originally intended for concrete strengths
Conference, Proceedings, United Engineering Foundation Conference, Hawaii, 1997,
fc0 550 MPa, need to be reevaluated. published by ASCE, 1999: 554: 567.
[22] Eurocode 2. Design of Concrete Structures. Part 1. General Rules and Rules
for Buildings. 1992.
[23] BRITE EURAM Project 5480. Economic design and construction
Acknowledgements with high strength concrete-draft (continuous upgrade).
[24] BS8110. Structural Use of Concrete, Part 1}Code of Practice for
I wish to acknowledge the contributions of my Design and Construction London: British Standards Institution 1997.
graduate students Tuan Ngo, Gideon Kusuma, [25] Concrete Society. Design Guidance for High Strength Concrete, TR 49.
Amarjit Singh, Mukesh Soni, Robby Ongah, Narayan UK, 1998.
Baidya, Denny Teo, Massoud Sofi and Tahmina [26] CEB-FIP. Model Code 1990. London: Thomas Telford 1993.
Hossain, who assisted in researching the literature [27] Holand I. HSC in Model Code 90. Proceedings of the 5th World
Conference on Utilization of High strength/High performance Concrete, Norway, 1999:
for the review. Special thanks to Tuan Ngo and
362–367.
Amarjit Singh for their assistance in formatting the [28] German Code. DIN 1045-4: Concrete, Reinforced and Prestressed
document. Concrete Structures, Part 1: 2001.
[29] AS 3600. Concrete Structures. Australian Standard, Sydney: Standards
Association of Australia 2001.
[30] NZS 3101. New Zealand Concrete Structures Standard. New Zealand
References Standards Association. 1995.
[31] NS 3473E. Concrete Structures: Design Rules. Norwegian Council for
[1] Russell H. Structural design considerations and applications, In: Shah SP Building Standardisation. 1992.
& Ahmad SH. (eds.) High Performance Concretes and Applications. London: Edward [32] Thorenfeldt E. High strength/high performance concrete in the
Arnold. 1994. Norwegian Code NS3473-1998. Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on Utilization
[2] Malier Y, (ed.) High Performance Concrete}From Material to of High Strength/High Performance Concrete. Norway, 1999: 656–666.
Structure. London: E&FN Spon. 1994. [33] CSA 23.1. Design of Concrete Structures. Ontario: Canadian Standards
[3] CEB. Bulletin 222. Application of High performance concrete. Lausanne: Association. 2001.
CEB. 1994. [34] Mitchell D. High strength Concrete: design issues in the Canadian
[4] Mendis PA & Pendyala R. High strength/high performance concrete Code. Provisions in US Codes related to high strength concrete: In: Azzizinamini A,
in Australia: design and Applications. Proceedings of the 4th World Conference Darwin D & French C (eds). High Strength Concrete–First International Conference,
Proceedings, United Engineering Foundation Conference, Hawaii, 1997. ASCE, 1999: [61] NIST. Special Publication 919, Proceedings of International Workshop on Fire
582–595. Performance of High Strength Concrete. Phan LT, Carino N, Duthinh D &
[35] Nawy E. Fundamentals of High Performance Concrete. 2nd edn. New York Garboczi E.(eds). Gaithersburg MD NIST. 1997.
Wiley. 2001. [62] Chan SYN, Peng GF & Anson M. Fire behavior of high performance
[36] Baoyu L, Guoliang S & Yuebo C. Studies on high performance concrete made with silica fume at various moisture contents. ACI Materials Journal
concrete and its application. ACI 1999: SP-172. 1999: 96(3): 405–411.
[37] Malhotra VM, Zhang MH, Read PH & Ryell J. Long-term [63] Ali FA, Connor O & Abu-Tair D. Explosive spalling of high strength
mechanical properties and durability characteristics of high strength/high perfor- concrete columns in fire. Magazine of Concrete Research 2001: 53(3): 197–204.
mance concrete incorporating supplementary cementing materials under outdoor [64] Bentz DP. Fibers, percolation, and spalling of high performance
exposure conditions. ACI Materials Journal 2000: 97(5): 518–525. concrete. ACI Materials Journal 2000: 97(3): 351–359.
[38] Mokhtarzadeh A & French C. Mechanical properties of high strength [65] Kodur V. Fiber reinforced concrete for enhancing structural fire
concrete with consideration for precast applications. ACI Materials Journal 2000: resistance of columns. ACI 1999: SP-182.
97(2): 136–147. [66] Kalifa P, Chéné G & Gallé C. High-temperature behaviour of HPC
[39] Carrasquillo RL, Slate FO & Nilson AH. Microcracking and with polypropylene fibres From spalling to microstructure. Cement and Concrete
behaviour of high strength concrete subjected to short term loading. ACI Structural Research 2001: 31(10): 1487–1499.
Journal 1981: 78(3): 179–186. [67] Phan LT & Carino NJ. Review of mechanical properties of
[40] Kovler K, Schamban I, Igarashi SI & Bentur A. Prediction of HSC at elevated temperature. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 1998: 10(1):
strength and shrinkage for early age high performance concrete. ACI 2000: SP-189. 58–64.
[41] Li Q & Ansari F. High strength concrete in uniaxial tension. ACI [68] Phan LT & Carino NJ. Effects of test conditions and mixture
Materials Journal 2000: 97(1): 49–57. proportions on behavior of high strength concrete exposed to high temperatures.
[42] Mesbah HA, Lachemi M & A.ıtcin PC. Determination of elastic ACI Materials Journal 2002: 99(1): 54–66.
properties of high performance concrete at early ages. ACI Materials Journal 2002: [69] Wu B, Su XP, Li H & Yuan J. Effect of high temperature on residual
99(1): 37–41. mechanical properties of confined and unconfined high strength concrete. ACI
[43] De Larrard F & Malier Y. Engineering properties of very high Materials Journal 2002: 99(4): 399–407.
performance concretes. In: Malier Y (ed.) High Performance Concrete}From Material [70] Gowripalan N, Salonga P & Dolden C. Residual strength of high
to Structure. London: E&FN Spon; 1994: 85–114. performance concrete subjected to high temperatures. ACI 1999: SP-172.
[44] Huo X. Structural design of high performance concrete bridge beams. [71] Chan YN, Luo X & Sun W. Compressive strength and pore structure
Transportation Research Record, 5th International Bridge Engineering Conference, 2000: of high performance concrete after exposure to high temperature up to 8008.
2: 171–178. Cement and Concrete Research 2000: 30(2): 247–251.
[45] Weiss WJ, Yang W & Shah SP. Factors influencing durability and [72] Hoff GC, Bilodeau A & Malhotra VM. Elevated temperature effects
early age cracking in high strength concrete structures. ACI 2000: SP189. on HSC residual strength. Concrete International 2000: 22(4): 41–47.
[46] Sato R, Xu Ming & Yang Y. Stresses of high strength concrete [73] Meda A, Gambarova PG & Bonomi M. High performance concrete
due to autogenous shrinkage combined with hydration heat of cement. ACI 1999: in fire-exposed reinforced concrete Sections. ACI Structural Journal 2002: 99(3):
SP-172. 277–287.
[47] Persson B. Correlating laboratory and field tests of creep in high [74] Ongah R, Mendis P & Sanjayan J. Fire performance of high strength
performance concrete Cement and Concrete Research 2001: 31(3): 389–395. reinforced concrete walls. Proceedings of the 17th Australasian Conference on the
[48] Kojima T, Takagi K & Horikawa S. Study on shrinkage character- Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Gold Coast, Australia, June 2002. Paper available
istics of high strength silica fume concrete. ACI 2001: SP-199. at http://www.civag.unimelb.edu.au/seeg/aptes
[49] Setunge S & Padovan C. Early creep, shrinkage in high performance [75] Mendis P, Nicholls S & Duffield C. Optimum use of high
concrete in arid environments. Proceedings, at Concrete 97, Concrete Institute of performance concrete in prestressed concrete super-T bridge beams. PCI Journal
Australia, Adelaide, 1997; 37–43. 2000: 45(3): 56–65.
[50] Li J & Yao Y. A study on creep and drying shrinkage of high [76] Lambottee H & Taerwe LR. Deflection and cracking of high strength
performance concrete.Cement and Concrete Research 2001: 31(8): 1203–1206. concrete beams and slabs. Proceedings of the High Strength Concrete. 2nd International
[51] ACI 209. Report on Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects Symposium, California, ACI 1990; SP-121.
in Concrete Structures: 1992. [77] Paulson K, Nilson AH & Hover KC. Long-term deflection of high
[52] Mokhtarzadeh A & French C. Time-dependent properties of high strength concrete beams. ACI Materials Journal 1991: 88(2): 197–206.
strength concrete with consideration for precast applications. ACI Materials Journal [78] Ghali A & Azarnejad A. Deflection prediction of members of any
2000: 97(3): 263–271. concrete strength. ACI Structural Journal 1999: 96(5): 807–816.
[53] Van Gysel A & Taerwe L. Analytical formulation of the complete [79] Sherif AG & Dilger W. Critical review of CSA A23.3-94 deflection
stress-strain curve for high strength concrete. Materials and Structures 1996: 29: prediction for normal and high strength concrete beams. Canadian Journal of Civil
529–533. Engineering 1998: 25(3): 474–489.
[54] Shehata IAEM. Stress–strain curve for the design of high strength [80] Choi BS & Scanlon A. Comparison of beam deflection variability in
concrete elements. Materials and Structure 2000: 33: 411–418. members using high strength concrete and normal strength concrete. ACI 2001:
[55] Mendis P, Pendyala R & Setunge S. Stress–strain model to predict SP-203.
the full-range moment curvature behaviour of high strength concrete sections. [81] Pendyala R, Mendis P & Patnaikuni I. Full-range behavior of
Magazine of Concrete Research 2000: 52(4): 227–234. high strength concrete flexural members: comparison of ductility parameters
[56] Candappa DP, Setunge S & Sanjayan JG. Stress versus strain of high and normal-strength concrete members. ACI Structural Journal 1996: 93(1):
relationship of high strength concrete under high lateral confinement. Cement and 30–35.
Concrete Research 1999: 29(12): 1977–1982. [82] Lin CH & Lee FS. Ductility of high performance concrete beams
[57] Li Q & Ansari F. Mechanics of damage and constitutive relationships with high strength lateral reinforcement. ACI Structural Journal 2001: 98(4):
for high strength concrete in triaxial compression. Journal of Engineering Mechanics 600–608.
1999: 125(1): 1–10. [83] Shehata IAEM, Ventorini LA & Shehata LCD. Bond influence on
[58] Li B, Park R & Tanaka H. Stress-strain behavior of high strength rotation capacity of high strength and normal strength beams. ACI 1999: SP-186.
concrete confined by ultra-high and normal-strength transverse reinforcements. [84] Pecce M & Fabrocino G. Plastic rotation capacity of beams in normal
ACI Structural Journal 2001: 98(3): 395–406. and high performance concrete. ACI Structural Journal 1999: 96(3): 290–296.
[59] Breitenbucker R. HSC C105 with increased fire resistance due to [85] Stewart M & Attard M. Reliability and model accuracy for high
polypropylene fibres. Proceedings of the 4th Conference Utilisation of High Strength/High strength concrete column design. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1999:
Performance Concrete, Paris, 1996: 571–577. 125(3): 290–300.
[60] Phan LT. Fire Performance of High Strength Concrete: A Report of the State- [86] Pendyala RS & Mendis P. Experimental study on shear strength of
of-the-Art. 5934: Gaithersburg, MD, N IST. 1996. high strength concrete beams. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(4): 564–571.
[87] Duthinh D & Carino N. Shear Design of High Strength Concrete Beams: A [115] Chuang PH, Kong SK & Kong FK. Slender columns in high strength
Review of the State-of-the-Art. 5870: Gaithersburg MD Nis. 1996. concrete and normal strength concrete: BS 8110 and EC 2 compared. Structural
[88] Kong PL & Rangan BV. Shear strength of high performance concrete Engineer 2000: 78(23–24): 34–41.
beams. ACI Structural Journal 1998: 95(6): 677–688. [116] Bianchini AC, Woods RE & Kesler CE. Effect of floor concrete
[89] Mattock AH. Shear friction and high strength concrete. ACI Structural strength on column strength. ACI Journal 1960: 31(11): 1149–1169.
Journal 2001: 98(1): 50–59. [117] Ospina CE & Alexander SDB. Transmission of interior concrete
[90] Loov RE & Peng L. Strength of high strength concrete-ACI 318-95 column loads through floors. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1998: 124(6):
versus shear friction. ACI 2000: SP-189. 602–610.
[91] Kahn LF & Michell AD. Shear friction tests with high strength [118] Portella J. Transmission of high strength concrete corner column loads
concrete. ACI Structural Journal 2002: 99(1): 98–103. through weaker slabs. MEng Thesis. University of Melbourne. 2002.
[92] Ramdane KE. Punching shear of high performance concrete slabs. [119] Lee SC. Effect of slab thickness and column rectangularity on
Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Utilization of High Strength/High transmission of high strength concrete corner column loads through weaker slabs.
Performance Concrete, Paris, 1996: 1015–1026. MEng Thesis. University of Melbourne. 2001.
[93] Hallgren M & Kinnunen S. Increase of punching shear capacity by [120] McHarg PJ, Cook WD, Mitchell D & Yoon YS. Improved
using high strength concrete. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on transmission of high strength concrete column loads through normal strength
Utilization of High Strength/High Performance Concrete, Paris, 1996: 1037–1046. concrete slabs. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(1): 157–165.
[94] Megally S & Ghali. Punching of concrete slabs due to column moment [121] Fragomeni S & Mendis PA. Applicability of current ACI 318 wall
transfer. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 2000: 126(2): 180–189. design formula for high strength concrete walls. Advances in Structural Engineering
[95] Ngo T. Punching shear resistance of high strength concrete slab. 1999: 2(2): 103–108.
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering, 2001: 1(1): 52–59. http://www.ejse.org. [122] Gupta A & Rangan BV. High strength concrete (HSC) structural walls.
[96] Koutchoukali NE & Belarbi A. Torsion of high strength reinforced ACI Structural Journal 1998: 95(2): 194–204.
concrete beams and minimum reinforcement requirement. ACI Structural Journal [123] Sanjayan JG & Maheswaran T. Load capacity of slender high
2001: 98(4): 462–469. strength concrete walls with side supports. ACI Structural Journal 1999: 96(4):
[97] Fang I, Shiau J & Young W. The strength and ductility of HSC beams 571–576.
with minimum torsion reinforcement, Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on [124] Otani RK & Krauthammer T. Assessment of reinforcing details for
Utilization of High strength/High performance Concrete. Norway, 1999: 262:271. blast containment structures. ACI Structural Journal 1997: 94(2): 124–32.
[98] Azizinamini A, Stark M, Roller J & Ghosh SK. Bond Performance [125] Krauthammer T. Recent structural dynamic research with precision
of Reinforcing Bars Embedded in high strength concrete. ACI Structural Journal 1993: impact tests, Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Interaction of the Effects
90(5): 554–561. of Munitions with Structures McLean, VA, 1997:1109–1116.
[99] Mendis P & French C. Bond strength of reinforcement in high strength [126] Weerheijm J. Prediction of dynamic tensile strength, concrete and blast
concrete. Advances in Structural Engineering 2000: 3(3): 245–253. effects. ACI 1998: SP-175.
[100] Azizinamini A, Darwin D, Eligehausen R, Pavel R & Ghosh SK. [127] Zeng S, Haussler CU & Eibl J. New approach to strain rate sensitivity
Proposed Modifications to ACI 318-95 tension development and lap splice for high of concrete in compression. Journal of Engineering Mechanics 1999: 25(12):
strength concrete. ACI Structural Journal 1999: 96(6): 922–926. 1403–1410.
[101] Yerlici VA & Özturan T. Factors affecting anchorage bond strength in [128] Jensen J &Tomaszewicz A. Impact Resistance of Fibre Reinforced High
high performance concrete. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(3): 499–507. Strength Concrete Slabs. SINTEF Report STF22, 1997.
[102] Zuo J & Darwin D. Splice strength of conventional and high relative rib [129] Dancygier AN. Rear face damage of normal and high–strength
area bars in normal and high strength concrete. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(4): concrete elements caused by hard projectile impact. ACI Structural Journal 1998:
630–641. 95(3): 291–304.
[103] ACI Committee 441. Reinforced Concrete Columns. State of the Art [130] Ross CA, Tedesco J & Kuennen ST. Effects of strain rate on
Report: High Strength Concrete Columns. American Concrete Institute, 1997. concrete strength. ACI Materials Journal 1995: 92(1): 37–47.
[104] Mendis PA, Kovacic D & Setunge S. Basis for design of lateral [131] Grote DL, Park SW & Zhou M. Dynamic behavior of concrete at
reinforcement for high strength concrete columns. Structural Engineering and high strain rates and pressure: I. Experimental characterization, and II. Numerical
Mechanics Journal 2000: 9(6): 589–600. simulation. Journal of Impact Engineering 2001: 25: 869–910.
[105] Légeron F & Paultre P. Behavior of high strength concrete columns [132] Ross CA, Thompson PY & Tedesco J. Split–Hopkinson pressure–
under cyclic flexure and constant axial load. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(4): bar tests on concrete and mortar in tension and compression. ACI Materials Journal:
591–601. 1989: 86(5): 475–81.
[106] Bayrak O & Sheikh SA. Confinement reinforcement design [133] Weerheijm J. Prediction of dynamic tensile strength, concrete and blast
considerations for ductile HSC columns. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1998: effects. ACI 1998: SP-175.
124(9): 999–1010. [134] Ngo T & Mendis P. Assessment of tall buildings under blast loading,
[107] Saatcioglu M & Razvi SR. High strength concrete columns with aircraft impact. Proceedings of IABSE Conference, September 2002, Melbourne (CD).
square sections under concentric compression. Journal of Structural Engineering Paper available at http://www.civag.unimelb.edu.au/seeg/aptes/
ASCE) 1998: 124(12): 1438–1447. [135] Mendis PA & Panagapoulous C. Application of high strength
[108] Razvi S & Saatcioglu M. Confinement model for high strength concrete in seismic regions. Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Earthquake
concrete. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1999: 125(3): 281–288. Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, 2000: Paper 0809 (CD only).
[109] Liu J, Foster SJ & Attard MM. Strength of tied high strength concrete [136] French C & Kreger M (eds.). High strength concrete in seismic
columns loaded in concentric compression. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(1): regions. ACI SP-176. 1998.
149–156. [137] Li B, Park R & Tanaka H. Constitutive behavior of high strength
[110] Foster SJ. On behavior of high strength concrete columns: cover concrete under dynamic loads. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(4): 619–629.
spalling, steel fibers, and ductility. ACI Structural Journal 2001: 98(4): 583–589. [138] Saatcioglu M & Baingo D. Circular high strength concrete columns
[111] Paultre P, Légeron F & Mongeau D. Influence of concrete strength under simulated seismic loading. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1999: 125(3):
and transverse reinforcement yield strength on behavior of high strength concrete 272–280.
columns. ACI Structural Journal 2001: 98(4): 490–501. [139] Yan X & Martirossyan A. Seismic performance of high strength
[112] Lee JH & Son HS. Failure and strength of high strength concrete concrete columns. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1998: 124(3):
columns subjected to eccentric loads. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(1): 75–85. 241–251.
[113] Claeson C & Gylltoft K. Slender concrete columns subjected to [140] Martirossyan A & Yan X. Flexural-shear behavior of high strength
sustained, short-term eccentric loading. ACI Structural Journal 2000: 97(1): concrete short columns. Earthquake Spectra 2001: 17(4): 679–695.
45–52. [141] Assa B & Nishiyama M. Prediction of load-displacement curve of high
[114] Mendis PA. Behavior of slender high strength concrete columns. ACI strength concrete columns under simulated seismic loading. ACI Structural Journal
Structural Journal 2000: 97(6): 895–901. 1998: 95(5): 547–557.
[142] Laogan BT & Elnashai AS. Structural performance and economics of [145] Beolchini GC, Galeoia D, Giammatteo MM & Zulli M.
tall high strength RC buildings in seismic regions. Structural Design of Tall Buildings Seismic behavior of high strength RC columns. Proceedings of the 12th World
1999: 8(3): 171–204. Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, 2000: Paper 0593
[143] Saatcioglu M & Razvi SR. Displacement-based design of reinforced (CD).
concrete columns for confinement. ACI Structural Journal 2002: 99(1): 3–11. [146] Nagaii S & Otani S. Hysteresis characteristics of high strength
[144] Xiao Y & Yun HW. Experimental studies on full-scale high strength reinforced concrete beams. Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Earthquake
concrete columns. ACI Structural Journal 2002: 99(2): 199–207. Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, 2000: Paper 0680 (CD only).
Priyan Mendis
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Melbourne
Parkville, 3052 Victoria
Australia
E: mail: [email protected]

Design of High-Strength Concrete Members State-Of-The-Art

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of High-Strength Concrete Members State-Of-The-Art

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of High-Strength Concrete Members State-Of-The-Art

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Concrete Construction

Design of high-strength concrete

Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:1–15 (DOI: 10.1002/pse.138)

1 Introduction been introduced recently[11, 12]. This trend will

Table 1 Summary of codes of practice

You might also like