MODULE 3

unit 1
What is the criteria for choosing buckling class and axis for a rolled I-
section?
What is the buckling class for a Hollow section?
What is the buckling axis and buckling class for Channel, Angle, T and
solid sections?

When column bends at critical load, it is said to have buckled. What is a bulit-up member? What is the buckling class in a
Therefore, critical load is also called the buckling load. build-up member?

Built-up compression members are used in structural

engineering for bridge and building columns, and as
bracing and truss members. These built-up compression
members are composed of two or more structural sections
connected by transverse members which can be batten
plates, lacing bars, or perforated plates.

For Built-up Member Buckling Class C is used.

Size and shape of rolled sections are limited because of

limitation of rolling mills. When rolled section do not
furnish required sectional area or when special shape or
large radius of gyration is required in two different
direction, a built up section is used.
What is slenderness ratio? What does it indicate?
The slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of length l to the radius
of gyration k, represented as l/k. When the slenderness ratio
exceeds a value of 100 for a strong slim column, failure by buckling
can be expected. Columns of stiffer and more brittle materials
will buckle at lower slenderness Ratios.

Unit 2

What are the IS code recommendations for design of Double Angle

Strut?
A double angle discontinuous strut with angles placed back to back
What is effective lengths for prismatic compression members for and connected to both sides of a gusset or any rolled steel section by
different boundary conditions? not less than two rivets or bolts or in line along the angles at each
Column or strut is a compression member, the effective length of end or by equivalent in welding.
which exceeds three times the least lateral dimension.
Prismatic Members 11-1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION A body What are the IS code recommendations for design of Single Angle
whose cross-sectional dimensions are small in comparison with its Strut? What are the IS code recommendations for design of Double
axial dimension is called a member. If the centroidal axis is straight Angle Continuous Strut? What are the IS code recommendations for
and the shape and orientation of the normal cross section are the combined stresses in Angle Strut?
constant,-'- the member is said to be prismatic.
The single angle sections are commonly used in the single
plane trusses (i.e., the trusses having gusset plates in one
plane). The angle sections simplify the end connections. The The length of an appropriate pin-ended column with about the same
tee-sections are suitable for the compression members for load-carrying capability as the component under study is the effective
small trusses. The tee-sections are more suitable for welding column length. The higher the load-bearing capacity and that the
lower the risk of lateral buckling, the shorter the effective length of a
column.
It is important to note that in actuality, column ends are neither fully
fixed nor perfectly hinged. To get a reasonable approximation to
actual constraint circumstances, the designer may have to interpolate
If strut is spanning between 2 gusset plate only, then it is. called a
between the theoretical values provided.
discontinued strut. If it is spanning over more than. two gusset
In other words, According to the structure point of view, the effective
plate, then it is called a continuous strut.
length of column is defined as the vertical distance between the two
points of contra flexure of the buckled column that is between two
Write a note on various effective length taken for
floors.
different end connections for angle strut.
Effective length of column formula
The column is the vertical compression member of the structure. The The Effective length of column (Le) = K x L
column is used to transfer the load of the superstructure to the
substructure or foundation safely. K is the effective length factor that depends on the degree of fixity at
the ends of the column
The column is mainly subjected to the axial load which exceeds 3 L is the unsupported length of the column.
times its lateral dimensions. The length of the column is 3 times
more than the lateral dimensions.
Effective length of column for different end conditions
The column end conditions significantly influence the amount of
load that a column can sustain.

Any column having fixed end conditions on either endpoint is

better than the column of the identical size, length, as well as
composition except with loose ends. Both columns’ load-carrying
capacity will be different.

After understanding the column end criteria, the effective length

of a column is determined.

The effective length changes as the column end conditions differ.

The column end criteria are shown below.

Both Ends Hinged

Both Ends Fixed
One End Fixed and Other Hinged
One End Fixed and Other Free

More details on :Equivalent & Effective Length of Column for

Various End Conditions (expertcivil.com)

write a note on different angle sections available.

 Write notes on eccentric loading in compression members using
figure.

When the load applied to a portion of the column (spring) is not

symmetric with the central axis of the column (spring), the load
applied is called eccentric load.

Unit 3
Write notes on axial loading in compression members using figure.
A member which carries an axial compression is known as a
compression member. It is also called a strut. A compression
member may be called – short or long depending on the slenderness
ratio (KL/r), where KL is the effective length and r is the least radius
of gyration of the cross section.
Structural Members subjected to axial compression/compressive
forces
Columns are subjected to axial loads through the centroid.
Failure modes of an axially loaded column
Local buckling
Squashing
Overall flexure buckling
Torsional buckling
What are the IS code recommendations for eccentricity in stanchions
and columns?

Eccentricity is to determine the strength of given column cross

section that carries load at various eccentricities. is defined as the
nominal axial load strength at a given eccentricity.

The design steps required to determine the axial load carrying

capacity of columns.

1) calculate self load of column

2) calculate self load of beam per metre
3) calculate slab load per square metre
4) calculate dead load of brick wall per metre
5) ultimate load carrying capacity of column

Unit 4
What are the IS code recommendations for compressed members
composed of two components placed back-to-back?

The steps for the design of compression members.

 Sketch different types of built-up column sections.

Write the design steps involved in finding bolted connections in built-

up columns.
What are the IS code recommendations for column splicing?
Lap Splices for Columns The important considerations on length,
location, and position of lap splices as per IS 456-
2000, clause.26.2.5.1 are explained below. Lapping is not used for
bars greater than 36 mm.
 what is a laced column
Unit 5

Why lacings are needed in columns? Explain.

To carry heavy loads a built-up column also called an open web

column is provided. Such a column may consist of different
components like, two channels, four angles, two I-sections etc. If
an arrangement to connect or stitch together the individual
components of such a column is not made then each component
will act as a separate or independent unit.

In such case the design strength of the column will be the sum of
the design strengths of the individual components which will What are battens in column
definitely be much less than the design strength of the composite
unit acting as a single unit. By providing an arrangement to
connect the individual components, full use of the strength of the
material is utilized.

Connecting the individual components assists in holding the

components in their respective positions. The components of a
built- up column can be connected by- (i) lacing and (ii) battening
and accordingly such columns are called laced columns and
battened columns respectively.
What is the difference between lacing and bracing? State some of the important emperical rules that are to be followed
while designing (a) lacing bars (b) end battens ( c ) intermediate
battens.

State some of the important emperical rules given in the code for
designing compression members composed of the components back-
to-back.

Unit 6
Draw the column Base plate diagram

What is meant by Slab base?

a slab basement is a solid slab of concrete used as a foundation

below the house, rather than having a full basement or a
crawlspace. Foundations are dug two to three feet below the
house around the base of the walls and sometimes under the
entire house.
What is a column base? Mention the design procedure of a slab base

Column bases are structural elements used in the design of Step 1: Area of slab base required
steel structures to transfer the column load to the footings. Step 2: Projections of base plate
Types of Column bases Slab base Gusseted base Slab Base Step 3: Thickness of slab base
Slab bases are used where the columns have independent
concrete pedestals.

What is the necessity of slab base ?

Imagine placing a pane of glass on a mattress. Now, imagine

standing on that pane of glass. It’s going to crack and break,
right? Essentially the same thing is going to happen to your
concrete slab if it does not have a proper base to support it
over its lifespan. The base provides a few important
functions:
#1: Reduces Settlement
The dirt beneath your concrete slab is constantly moving.
The base prevents the movement of the dirt from cracking
the concrete slab by providing a layer that absorbs the
differential movement often found in existing soil.
#2: Promotes Drainage
If a slab is poured on dirt, that dirt will be washed away, and
the concrete will sink and crack. When a gravel base is
applied, runoff washes through the gravel base keeping your
slab well supported and crack free.
What is a gusseted base? Mention the Failures in column

A gusseted base consists of a base of reduced thickness and The following types of column failure could be identified.
two gusseted plates are attached one to each flange of the • Pure Compression Failure
column. Gusseted Column Base. The gusseted plates, cleat • Combine stress failure
angles and fastenings (bolts, rivets) in combination with • Buckling Failure
bearing area of shaft shall be sufficient to take all loads. • Shear Failure
• Failure due to Lack of Confinement Reinforcement
• Torsional Failures
• Failures due to Construction Defects
• Failures due to errors in the Construction
Pure Compression Failures
• Reinforcement and concrete have certain capacity based on there
amount and area of the section. If axial stress is greater than that
capacity column will fail in compression.
• Further, the reinforcement and concrete have their own stain that
they can bear.
• If the section is sufficiently reinforced, it will provide warnings
Enumerate the types and applications of column bases before these types of column failure.
Which type of column base is used for heavy load?explain
with neat figure Combined Stress Failure
The column end is faced for bearing over the whole area. • Bending stress and axial compression stress are added together
The gussets (gusset plates and gusset angles) are not to get the final stress in the section.
provided with the column with slab bases. The sufficient • It will not be uniform stress. However, failure of the column will
fastenings are used to retain the parts securely in plate and be based on the above criteria discussed under the
to resist all moments and forces, other than the direct pure compression failure.
compression.
Buckling Failure What are gusseted base used for?

The additional bending moment of the column slenderness of the Gusseted base Gussetted bases are provided for columns carrying
column is considered in the design. heavier loads requiring large base plates. A gusseted base consists
Further, the effective height of the column is considered based on its of a base of reduced thickness and two gusseted plates are
pattern of bucking. attached one to each flange of the column.
Buckling failure is the other basic mode of failure of columns in
addition to crushing failure of columns. How does the behavior of a compression member differ based on
its length
Shear Failure
Steel compression members are commonly classified as short,
Lateral loads are generated by winds, earthquake loads, from intermediate or long members. Each range has its own
retaining structures, etc. characteristic type of behaviour. For example, local buckling
Shear links are provided to columns based on the shear forces and/or yielding is the major concern for short compression
excreted on them. Further, the size of the columns is increased in the members while overall buckling affects the strength of long
direction of shear to increase the shear capacity. members.

What are column splices? Is buckling a strength problem or a stiffness problem?

The load at which buckling occurs depends on the stiffness of a
A column splice means the joining of two parts of a column whereas a component, not upon the strength of its materials. Buckling refers
column base transfers forces and moments at the lower end of a to the loss of stability of a component and is usually independent
column to a foundation. The common thing between these is the use of material strength. This loss of stability usually occurs within the
of bearing plates since to splice columns of different sizes bearing elastic range of the material. The two phenomenon are governed
plates are used as is also the case with column bases. 9.2 Column by different differential equations . Buckling failure is primarily
Splices characterized by a loss of structural stiffness and is not modeled
by the usual linear finite element analysis.
Explain the concept of column splice • While the effective length of the columns to the
A column splice means the joining of two parts of a lowest lateral dimension of the columns will be less than 12, the
column whereas a column base transfers forces and moments at ratio of the effective length to the lowest lateral dimension of
the lower end of a column to a foundation. The common thing the columns will be less than 12.
between these is the use of bearing plates since to splice • When the column length is lowered, the load-carrying capacity
columns of different sizes bearing plates are used as is also the of short columns increases.Rankine’s principle will apply in these
case with column bases. types of columns.
• The lateral dimensions will be greater than the column length
How are the gusset plates sized in the gusseted base plate? • There will be a slenderness ratio of less than 45.
The gusseted base plate may be designed as follows: (i) Divide What is Long Column?
the factored load on the column by the design bearing strength We must determine the group of columns during the design phase,
of concrete and find the area of the base plate required. (ii) which is separated into two groups based on the length and lateral
Choose a thickness of gusset plate (16 mm) and gusset angle dimensions of the columns. Long columns are those that have a ratio
(say 150 x 115 x 15). The vertical leg of the angle must have a of the efficient size of the column to the least lateral dimension of
length to accommodate two bolts. the column that is larger than 12.
Long columns Important characteristics:
What is the difference in behaviour of a long column and • Buckling or bending will cause long columns to fail.
an intermediate length column • Euler’s theory will be used for longer columns.
The ratio of a long column’s effective length to its gyration radius • The lateral dimension will be considerably smaller than the
is greater than 40. Long and slender columns are prone to column length.
buckling. A long column has a lower load-carrying capacity than a • The slenderness ratio will be more than 45.
short column with the same cross-sectional area. • While the effective length of the columns will be more than the
Short columns are defined as those with a ratio of less than lowest lateral dimension of the columns, the ratio of the effective
12 between the efficient length of the columns and the lowest length to the lowest lateral dimension of the columns will be less
lateral dimension of the columns. than 12.
Short Column Important Characteristics: • The load-carrying capacity decreases as column length increases.
• Only crushing or direct compression will cause
 What is local buckling?
How can local buckling be elimated in the compression •Damages inflicted by users / occupants and maintenance of
member? columns.​
Loaded in compression these plates may buckle locally. Local •Overloading of columns.​
buckling may limit the section capacity by preventing the •Slenderness ratio.​
attainment of yield strength. Premature failure (by local
buckling) may be avoided by limiting the width to thickness
ratio (or slenderness) of individual elements within the cross
section.

State the parameters that affect the strength of the column

There are several factors that affect the strength of a column.
• The grade of the Concrete specified and finally poured and
attained.
• Cohesive / segregated concrete nature when poured.
• Denseness of concrete obtained.
• Steel design and details in concrete.
• Type of boundary conditions of the column.
• Relative stifness of connected beam with respect to
column.
• The curing of the column.
• The flexibility design of the Beam & Column joint.
• Exposure of the column and damage due to exposure to
environment and weather or wind or waves / freezing &
thaw etc.