08/08/2023

1 Introduction and Basic Concepts

2 Properties of Pure Substances Lectures

3 The First Law of Thermodynamics

4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Thermodynamics

5 Atmospheric Air: Properties
and Processes
Prof. NGUYEN VAN MUOI, Ph.D.
Department of Food Technology
Can Tho University

2023

1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
Concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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Thermodynamics 28oC
The Science of Energy Warm! So hot!

It is difficult to give a
precise definition for
ENERGY

Everybody has a feeling

Too cold! So pleasant!
of what energy is
17oC

Introduction and Basic concepts Introduction and Basic concepts 3

1.1

Thermodynamics = Therme (heat) + dynamis

(power)

During an interaction of a
system:
Conservation of energy principle - the total amount of energy
remains constant
- energy can change from one form
The first law of thermodynamics to another

Energy
storage
The second law (2 init)
of thermodynamics
Energy in
(5 units)
Energy out
(3 units)

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1.1

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Thermodynamics = Therme (heat) + dynamis

(power)

Energy is a thermodynamic
The first law of thermodynamics
property

Định luật II nhiệt động học

Introduction and Basic concepts Introduction and Basic concepts 5

1.1

TOC Thermodynamics = Therme (heat) + dynamis

First (power)
Previous

Next

Last

Cool environment 70oC

20oC

The second law of Energy = quantity + quality

thermodynamics Actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of
energy

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TOC Thermodynamics = Therme (heat) + dynamis

First (power)
Previous
Surrounding air
Next 30oC

Last

No heat transfer

The second law of Energy = quantity + quality

thermodynamics Actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of
energy

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Introduction and Basic concepts Introduction and Basic concepts 7
1.1

TOC
Application areas of Thermodynamics
First

Previous

Next

Last

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TOC
Application areas of Thermodynamics
First

Previous

Next

Last

Otto Cycle 
“Four-stroke engine”

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Introduction and Basic concepts 9
1.1

1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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Dimensions and Units

1 Definition of terms
Systems of measurement

Precision, Rounding-Off Rule, Significant Digits

2 Conversion of Units
The dimentional equation
Conversion of Units Using the Dimensional Equation

3 Determination of appropriate SI
unit

4 Dimensional consistency of
equations

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Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 11
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TOC Dimension Unit

First
 Dimensions are the general  units are the means of
expression of a characteristic explicitly expressing the
Previous of measurement. dimensions.
Simple dimensions: Example: m for length, kg for
Next weight
Base units are dimensionally
independent. They are used to
Last
designate only one dimension
- Length,
- Time,
.
- Quantity,
- Temperature. Types of Unit

Derived dimensions: - Base unit

A combination of various
- Multiple unit
dimensions.
- Volume, - Derived unit
- Velocity,
- Density,
- Concentration.
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TOC

Base Unit Multiple units are defined as

First
 Base units are dimensionally multiples or divisors of the
Previous independent. They are used to base unit.
designate only one dimension
Next
Incluce unit of dimensions:
Last
length,
base unit of time is second
time,
mass,
In all of systems of
temperature,
measurement, multiple units
electric current,
minute, hour, day, milliseconds,
light intensity. microseconds,...

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TOC
Prefixes Recommended for Use in SI
First
Prefix Symbol Multiple
Previous Tera T 1012
Next Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Last
kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
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TOC
Another derived units: Derived unit
First
velocity,
 Derived units are
Previous acceleration, algebraic combinations
Next
flow rate, of base units expressed
concentration, by means of
Last
composition,
multiplication and
division
energy,
density,
heat capacity,
pressure,
work,
volume.

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TOC
Different unit systems used
according to the purpose
First
In the chemical and food industries,
Previous AES systems are often used
Scientists and textbooks like to use
Next the SI unit system.
Last
SYSTEMS OF
Systems of Measurement:
MEASUREMENT
American Engineering System
(AES): England (1215)
Centimeter-Gram-Second (CGS):
France (1790)
Systeme Internationale (SI) - 1960
to clarify problems in the system
CGS.

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TOC Unit of some basic dimensions in

measurement systems
First

Dimension A.E.S. Unit CGS Unit SI Unit

Previous
Length Foot (ft) Centimeter (cm) meter (m)
Next
Mass Pound (lbm) Gram (g) kilogram (kg)
Last
Amount lb-mole gmole kgmole

Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

Temperature Fahrenheit (0F) Celcius (0C) Kelvin (K)

Volume Gallon (gal) cm3 m3

Force Pound lực (lbf) dyne Newton (N)

Pound per square inch Pascal
Pressure dyne/cm2
(psi) (Pa=N/m2)
British thermal unit
Quit Energy calorie hay erg Joule (J)
(Btu)
Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 17
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TOC
Some SI and English Units
First
• The mass and length units in the two systems are
Previous related to each other by:
Next 1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
Last

• Force is derived from Newton’s second law: F = ma

- In SI: the force unit is the newton In the English system, the force
N – force required to accelerate a unit is the pound-force. lbf - the
mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. force required to accelerate a
1 N = 1 kg.m/s2 mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a
rate of 1 ft/s2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2

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TOC
Some SI and English Units
First
Weight is often incorrectly used to express mass.
Previous Weight W is a force
W = mg
Next

Last

Another force unit in common use

in many European countries is the
kilogram-force (kgf)

the weight of 1 kg mass at
sea level (1 kgf = 9.807 N)

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1.2.1

TOC

First

Previous

Next

Last

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Dimensions and Units

1 Definition of terms
Systems of measurement

Precision, Rounding-Off Rule, Significant Digits

2 Conversion of Units
The dimentional equation
Conversion of Units Using the Dimensional Equation

3 Determination of appropriate SI
unit

4 Dimensional consistency of
equations

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Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 21
1.2

TOC

First PRECISION

Previous
Conversion from one system Conversion of
Next of units to another should be
done without gain or loss of
Units
Last precision.
Results of measurements
must be reported such that a
reader can determine the
precision.

The easiest way to convey

precision is in the number of
significant figures

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TOC
Examples
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS 123 has three significant figures.
First
103 has three significant figures.
• Significant figures include all 103.03 has five significant figures.
Previous
nonzero digits and nonterminal 10.030 has five significant figures.
Next zeroes in a number.
0.00230 has three significant
• Terminal zeroes are significant figures.
Last
in decimals and they may be 1500 has two significant figures
significant in whole numbers unless the two terminal zeroes are
when specified. specified as significant.

When the precision of numbers

Note: Zeroes preceding used in mathematical operations
nonzero digits in decimal is known, the answer should be
fractions are not significant. rounded off following these rules
recommended by the American
National Standards Institute
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Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 23
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TOC
Rounding-Off Rule
First

Previous In addition or subtraction, the In multiplication or division, the

answer shall not contain a number of significant digits in
Next significant digit to the right of the answer should not exceed
Last
the least precise of the that of the least precise among
numbers. the original numbers.
Example: Example,
1.030 + 1.3 + 1.4564 = 3.8 123 x 120 = 15,000
The least precise of the numbers - If the terminal zero in 120 is
not significant.
is 1.3 → Any digit to the right of the
tenth digit is not significant. - The least precise number
has two significant figures
 the answer should also
have two significant figures.
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TOC
Rounding-Off Rule
First

Previous When rounding-off:

- raise the terminal significant figure retained by 1 if the discarded
Next
digits start with 5 or larger,
Last
- otherwise the terminal significant figure retained is unchanged.

1253 rounded-off to two significant figures = 1300.

1230 rounded-off to two significant figures = 1200 (2 is even).
1350 rounded-off to two significant figures = 1400 (3 is odd).
1253 rounded-off to three significant figures = 1250.
1256 rounded-off to three significant figures = 1260.

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1.2.2

TOC DIMENSIONAL EQUATION

First
The magnitude of a numerical
quantity is uncertain unless the
Previous unit is written along with the + = Meaningless!
number.
Next
 To eliminate this ambiguity,
Last make a habit of writing both a
number and its unit + =

An equation that contains both

numerals and their units is
called a dimensional equation
E = 25 kJ + 7 kJ/kg
-The units in a dimensional
equation are treated just like
algebraic terms.
cannot be simplified unless
-All mathematical operations done
their units are expressed in
on the numerals must also be done
on their corresponding units
like units.
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TOC
The following procedure may
First be used to set up the
dimensional equation for
Previous
conversion:
Next • Place the units of the final answer
on the left side of the equation.
Last
CONVERSION OF
• The number being converted and
its unit is the first entry on the right-
UNITS USING THE
hand side of the equation. DIMENSIONAL
• Set up the conversion factors as a EQUATION
ratio using Appendix Table A.1
• Sequentially multiply the
conversion factors such that the
original units are systematically
eliminated by cancellation and
replacement with the desired units.
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Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 27
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TOC
CONVERSION OF UNITS USING THE DIMENSIONAL
First EQUATION

Previous
Example 1.1
Next
Convert 1 BTU/lb.0F to J/g.K
Last J BTU
 0 x appropriate conversion factors
g .K lb. F
J BTU 1054.8 J 2.2046 x10 3lb 1.8 0 F
 0 x x x
g.K lb. F BTU g K
Another form for the dimensional equation is:
J BTU J lb 1.8 0 F
 0 x 4
x x
g.K lb. F 9.48.10 BTU 453.6 g K
J BTU
 0 x 4.185
g .K lb. F
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TOC
CONVERSION OF UNITS USING THE DIMENSIONAL
First EQUATION

Previous

Example 1.2: The heat loss through the walls of an electric oven
Next
is 6,500 BTU/h. If the oven is operated for 2 hours, how many
Last kilowatt hours of electricity will be used just to maintain the oven
temperature (heat input = heat loss)?

To solve this problem, rephrase the question.

In order to supply 6,500 BTU/h for 2 hours, how many
kilowatt hours are needed?
Note that power is energy/time; therefore the product of
power and time is the amount of energy.
Energy in BTU is to be converted to J.

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TOC
CONVERSION OF UNITS USING THE DIMENSIONAL
First EQUATION

Previous
The dimensional equation is:
Next
6,500BTU .2h 1054.8J
J x
Last h BTU
W = J/s, therefore J = W.s
1kW 1h
kW .h  W .s.
1000W 3600s
6500BTU .2h 1054.8J 1kW 1h
kW .h  x  3.809
h BTU 1000W 3600s
An alternative dimensional equation is:

6500BTU .2h h 1.767.10 2 kW

kW .h  x x  3.809
h 60 min BTU / min
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Dimensions and Units

1 Definition of terms
Systems of measurement

Precision, Rounding-Off Rule, Significant Digits

2 Conversion of Units
The dimentional equation
Conversion of Units Using the Dimensional Equation

3 Determination of appropriate SI
unit

4 Dimensional consistency of
equations

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TOC
Determination of appropriate
SI unit
First

Previous • A key feature of SI is expression of

any dimension in terms of the base
Next units of meter, kilogram, and
second.
Last
• Some physical quantities having
assigned names can also be
expressed in terms of the base units
when used in a dimensional
equation.
• When properly used, the coherent
nature of SI ensures dimensional
consistency when all quantities used
for substitution into an equation are
in SI units
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TOC
Determination of appropriate The original units have:
SI unit - unit of mass (lbm),
First
- unit of distance (ft),
Previous Example 1.3: - and unit of time (h).
Next A table for viscosity of water at The corresponding SI base
different temperatures lists units should be: kg/m.s.
Last
viscosity in units of lbm/(ft.h).
Determine the appropriate SI The dimensional equation for
the conversion is:
unit and calculate a conversion
kg lbm
 x conversion factor
m.s ft.h

lbm lb 1kg 3.281 ft 1h kg

1 1 m . . .  (41.3403x105 )
ft.h ft.h 2.2046.lbm 1m 3600s m.s

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1.2.3

Dimensions and Units

1 Definition of terms
Systems of measurement

Precision, Rounding-Off Rule, Significant Digits

2 Conversion of Units
The dimentional equation
Conversion of Units Using the Dimensional Equation

3 Determination of appropriate SI
unit

4 Dimensional consistency of
equations

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TOC
Principle
First
All equations must have
Previous
the same units on both sides
Next of the equation
Last
Equations should be tested
for dimensional consistency Dimensional
before substitution of values consistency of
of variables
equations

A dimensional equation would

easily verify dimensional
consistency
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Dimensions and Units Dimensions and Units 35
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TOC
Dimensional consistency of equations
First

Previous
D.V . m.kg 1
Reynolds Re  m
Next  s.m3 kg /(m.s )
Last
h.D W 1
Nusselt Nu   2 m
k m K W /(m.K )

Dimensionless Cp J kg 1
Prandtl Pr  
Equations k kg.K m.s J /( s.m.K )

t m2 1
Fourier Fo  2
 .s. 2
L s m

h.L W 1
Biot Bi   2 m
k m K W /(m.K )
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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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TOC
What is the system?
First
A quantity of matter or a region
Previous
in space chosen for study
Next The mass or region outside the
system is called the surroundings.
Last
The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings is called the
boundary.

The boundary of a system can be Mathematically speaking:

fixed or movable. - the boundary has zero thickness,
Note that the boundary is the - and thus it can neither contain
contact surface shared by both the any mass nor occupy any volume
system and the surroundings. in space.
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TOC
What is the system? Boundary
First

Previous
Hệ thống
Next

Last
- Closed system HệSystem
thống
- Open system
- Steady system

Closed system
consists of a fixed amount of
mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary

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TOC
SOME OF CLOSED SYSTEM
First

NO
Previous
Moving boundary
Closed Mass
Next system
Gas
Last m = const YES 2 kg
Energy 1 m3 Fixed
boundary

Closed system with

mass = const
Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a Gas
closed system, but energy can
2 kg
3 m3

E = const  Isolated system

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TOC

First
A system as a control mass
YES
Previous
Mass
Next
CLOSED SYSTEM
Last CONTROL
VOLUME

YES
Energy

Both mass and energy can cross What is THE

the boundary of a control volume OPEN SYSTEM?

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TOC

Open system
First
 any arbitrary region in
Previous
space can be selected
Next  An open system is one
that may have a transfer
Last
of both mass and energy
in a fixed volume.

OPEN SYSTEM =
CONTROL VOLUME The boundary
SYSTEM  A control surface
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TOC
SUMMARY
First
BOUNDARIES
real, imaginary
Previous Hệ thống
System
Next Một vật hoặc một
A substance groupvật
or nhóm of
được
mattertách ra trong ý nghĩ
is separated in a SURROUNDING
Last hoặc bằngorbề amặtboundary
thought chia cắt
để
for nghiên cứu về mặt or
theoretical lý
thuyết
empirical thực nghiệm
hay research OPEN SYSTEM

SURROUDING CLOSED SYSTEM

The mass or region No mass transfer between

outside boundary system and surrounding

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TOC
SUMMARY
First
Homogeneous system Heterogennous system
Previous
The system does not have a The system has a boundary
Next boundary between its between its different parts
different parts
Last

PHASE  The collection of homogeneous

parts of the system
Has the same physicochemical properties

System consists of 1 phase  System from 2 phases or more 

Simple phase Mixed phase

Thermal isolated system (Adiabatic)

 There is no heat transfer through the boundary
Isolated system (full)
Quit  Can’t have heat and mass transfer
44
1.3

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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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TOC
Any characteristic of a system is called a property
First
CHARACTERISTIC  PROPERTY
Previous

Next Independent properties

- Pressure P
Last
- Temperature T Dependent properties
Basic
- Volume V
- Density
- Mass m
- Specific gravity
- Viscosity
- Specific volume
- Thermal conductivity
Extended
- Electric resistivity
- Velocity, acceleration

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TOC
Density  At 20oC
First P = 1 atm  water = 998 kg/m3
m
Previous
  (kg / m 3 ) P = 100 atm water= 1003 kg/m3
V → A change of just 0.5%
Next

Last -Temperature
Depends on Density of liquids and
- Pressure
solids depend on
temperature > pressure
The density of most gases is
proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to At 1 atm
temperature: T = 20oC  water = 998 kg/m3

Temperature   gas  T = 75oC water = 975 kg/m3

→ A change of 2.3%
Pressure   gas 
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Properties of a system T Properties of a system 47
1.4

Apparent density

Apparent density = Mass of a substance : volume of its

Apparent density < Real density

The volume that the air Factors affecting change of

occupies is called porosity of apparent density
the whole grain - Density of dried matter
Є = Va/Vb - Shape, size
Va – volume of air (m3) - Surface properties of the
Vb – volume of the whole grain individual particles.
(m3)

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TOC
Specific gravity - SG
First
At the same temperature
Previous SG = mass of a substance/mass of water (the same volume)
Next SG = density of a substance/the density of water

Last
At a defined temperature, if SG of a liquid is known  Density

L = (SG)T. w
ρL – density of liquid (kg/m3);
ρw – density of water at temperature T (0C).

Note
- The density of water = 1,000 kg/m 3 at T = 4oC, and P = 1 atm
- The specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless quantity
- In SI units: the numerical value of the specific gravity of a substance is
exactly equal to its density in g/cm 3 or kg/L
Example: At 0oC, SGice = 0.92
Quit  ice = 0.92 g/cm3 = 0.92 kg/L = 920 kg/m3
Properties of a system Properties of a system 49
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TOC

First
Specific volume
Previous
V = 12 m3
Next
m = 3 kg
V 1
Last
v   (m 3 / kg)
m  v
1
 4(m 3 / kg)

 = 0,25 kg/ m3

1
Density is mass per unit v  4(m 3 / kg)
volume; 
specific volume is volume
per unit mass.

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Properties of a system
First
Extensive properties
Previous m Properties are those whose values
depend on the size — or extent — of
Next V the system

T Mass m, volume V, energy E

Last
P
½m ½m Extensive
 properties
½V ½V
T T
Intensive properties Intensive
P P properties
Properties that are independent of
the mass of a system  
temperature, pressure, and density

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TOC
Properties of a system
First
Extensive properties = Specific properties
Previous m Mass

Next V V E
v e
m m
Last T
P
½m ½m Extensive
 properties
½V ½V
T T
Intensive properties Intensive
P P properties
Properties that are independent of
the mass of a system,  
temperature, pressure, and density

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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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TOC
State
First The condition of a system is At a given state
determined based on the  all the properties of a system
Previous change in the value of the have fixed values
properties and characteristics
Next of the system
Last If the value of even one property
changes
The state of a system  the state will change to a
is determined by the collection different one
of system characteristics

Equation of state Volume

changes
V
f ( P, ,T )  0
n
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Condition of state Equilibrium of a system
First

Independent properties
Previous There are no unbalanced
are required in order to potentials (or driving forces) within
Next fix the state of a system the system

Last
A system in equilibrium
experiences no changes when it is
isolated from its surroundings.

Nitrogen Types of Equilibrium

T = 25oC
V = 0,9 m3/kg - Mechanical equilibrium
- Thermal equilibrium

The state of nitrogen is fixed by two - Phase equilibrium

independent, intensive properties - Chemical equilibrium
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TOC
Mechanical equilibrium
First
All the forces have opposite
Previous
effect due to balance
Next

Last At under balanced conditions

When the lifting force and weight
The forces cancel each other of the plane are in balance
out

Mechanical equilibrium Traction force balances with the

is related to pressure thrust generated by the engine

 a system is in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any
Aircraft
point of the system with time
in mechanical equilibtium
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Thermal Equilibrium Chemical Equilibrium
First
The temperature is the same
Previous Chemical composition
throughout the entire system.
Next → the system involves no
does not change with
temperature differential. time
Last
There is no heat transfer No chemical reactions
between system and occur
surrounding
20oC 23oC 32oC 32oC
30oC 32oC
35oC 40oC 32oC 32oC
42oC 32oC
(a) (b)
A closed system reaching
thermal equilibrium
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Phase Equilibrium
First

Previous Occur to the heterogeneous

system
Next (2 phase and more)
Last When the mass of each
phase reaches an Composition of gas drinking water
equilibrium level and stays = CO2 + water
there
The space above incluces vapour
water + CO2 gas
Liquid phase containing water
together with CO2
When the bottle is closed
The mass of water and of CO2 in the
bottle are constant
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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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Process
First Any change that a system
undergoes from one
Previous
equilibrium state to another
Next

Last The series of states through

which a system passes during
a process

 the path of the process Expand process of piston

Volume changes 
Property A Pressure changes
State 2
●
Process
path
●
State 1

Property B
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Quasi – equilibrium
First process
The process is slow enough that
the system remains in
Previous The system remains equilibrium throughout the
infinitesimally close to an process
Next
equilibrium state at all times  Property in part of the
Last system has not changed

Quasi – static or
Quasi – equilibtium process
Slow compression  quasi-equilibrium

Idealized process
 Serve as standards to
which actual processes
can be compared Very fast compression  nonquasi-
equilibrium
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First
a process during which the
pressure remains constant,
Previous P = const.
● Cycle ●
Next
Isothermal process
a process during which the
Last temperature remains
constant, T = const.

Isothermal (isometric) Closed change

process
a process during which the
specific volume remains if system returns to its
constant, v = const initial state at the end of
the process
Adiabatic process
zero heat exchanged with the
surroundings
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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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Energy Forms of energy
First

Previous
- Symbol: E
- Kinetic energy
- Units: - Potential energy
Next
J, N.m, BTU, ft.lbf - Internal energy
Last

+ Chemical energy
Property of a system
+ Nuclear energy
Measure the working ability + Electric energy
of the system +…

E = U + KE + PE (kJ)
e = u + ke + pe (kJ/kg)

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Factors affecting the
Kinetic energy KE
First energy formation of a
The energy that a
system
Previous
system possesses as
a result of its motion
Next
relative to some
- Movement of elements reference frame
Last When all parts of a system
- Influence of some
move with the same velocity
external effects
- gravity, m 2
KE  , kJ
- magnetism, 2
- electricity,
2
- surface tension,… ke  , kJ / kg
2

Have little influence

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Internal energy U Potential energy - PE
First
The energy that a
Previous Symbol: U system possesses as
a result of its
Next Unit: J, N.m, BTU, ft.lbf elevation in a
gravitational field
Last Internal energy  The sum
PE = mgz, kJ
of all the microscopic forms
of energy
pe= gz, kJ/kg
Internal energy related to the
molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the E = U + KE + PE (kJ)
molecular activity e = u + ke + pe (kJ/kg)
Independent of outside
reference frames Closed system: v, z = const
 E = f(U)
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Determine the internal The relationship
First energy between forms of
Based on math equations, energy
Previous
graphs, experiments,... Energy can be converted
Next directly from one form to
another
Last
There are at least two fixed
parameters  require by state

In closed system
2 forms of major energy
interaction
Temperature
- Heat energy Q
- Work W

Driving force for energy interaction

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The sign of energy exchange between
First the system and the environment
Previous

Next When a system exchanges Q and W  algebraic quantity

Last
energy with its surroundings Q > 0: heat addition
 The energy that the system Q < 0: heat rejection
receives is positive
 The energy that the system W > 0: work addition
releases has a negative sign W < 0: work gain

Surrounding
Surrounding W < 0, Q < 0

W > 0, Q > 0

Energy receiving system Energy releasing system

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1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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TOC When a body is brought into

Temperature contact with another body
First that is at a different
Symbol: T temperature
Previous
As a measure of “hotness” or Heat is transferred from the
Next “coldness”, it is not easy to give body at higher temperature
an exact definition for it. to the one at lower
Last temperature

Thermal equilibrium
The heat transfer stops
Basic characteristics have an
Both bodies attain the same
impact on energy interaction temperature

Two bodies reaching thermal 150oC 60oC

equilibrium after being brought
into contact in an isolated 20oC 60oC
enclosure

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The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
First

Previous
if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
→ they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other
Next
(The principle of bridging)
Last

TA = TB
TA = TB = TC
TB = TC

By replacing the third body with a thermometer

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the

same temperature reading even if they are not in
contact

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Temperature scales • Four temperature scales:
First • Fahrenheit (0F)
• Celcius (0C)
Previous
• Rankine (R)
• Kelvin (K)
Next to use a common basis for
temperature measurements • Absolute temperature scales
Last and relative temperature scales
1R Absolute temperature: R và K
TR  TF  460
10 F Relative temperature : 0F và 0C
The temperature scales in the two
unit systems (Kelvin-Celcius and
1K
TK  TC  273 Rankine-Fahrenheit) are related by:
10C
0F = R và 0C = K
 0C   0F
1,8 0 F
TF  32  TC
1 0C K
 0C
 1, 8  1,8
 0F  0R
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First
1K 1oC 1,8R 1,8oF
Previous

Next

Last Example 1.4

During a heating
process, the
temperature of a
system rises by
10°C. Express
this rise in
temperature in
K, °F, and R.
Comparison of temperature scales
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Temperature Temperature 73
1.8

1 Thermodynamics and Energy

2 Dimensions and Units

3 Closed System and Open System

4 Properties of a system 1. Introduction

5 State and Equilibrium
and Basic
6 Processes and Cycles
concepts
7 Forms of Energy

8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law

of Thermodynamics
9 Pressure

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Pressure Pressure is defined as a
First normal force exerted by a
Symbol P fluid (Liquid, gas) per unit
Previous area
Units: psia, kPa Stress is the force acting
Next perpendicular to the surface
per unit area
Last Pressure is defined as force
per unit area
In the SI system: It depends greatly on the
weight of the object
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
150 300
pounds pounds
Pressure
Liquid, gas A feet = 50 in2

Solid Stress

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1 P2
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In engineering, it is necessary
First to distinguish:

Previous

Absolute Pressure Gause Pressure

Next
Pressure is measured Pressure is related to the
Last relative to absolute vacuum atmospheric pressure

Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmosphere (for pressure greater than Patmosphere

Pvacuum = Patmosphere - Pabsolute (for pressure below than Patmosphere

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The relationships between the various
First terms used to define pressure
Previous

Next

Last

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Units of pressure
First
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0,1 MPa
Standard atmosphere pressure
Previous - atm = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101325 Pa
Next As the pressure produced by a
column of mercury 760 mm high = 101,325 kPa
Last = 1.01325 bar
760 mmHg ở 00C
1 kgf /cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2
29.921 in.Hg
= 9.807.104 N/m2
1 atm = 14.696 psia = 9.807.104 Pa
33.94 ft nước ở 4 0C = 0.96788 atm
407 in. nước

In the SI system:
1 psia = 6.89476.103 Pascal (Pa) 1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi

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Pressure
First
Pressure is often expressed in terms
Previous of height or head of a fluid
p = gh
Next

Last
Example 1.5
A mercury manometer at 80F
measured height h = 23.82 in.
Acceleration in the read position 

is 32.1 ft/s2. How much (atm) is

the column compressed?
P
Give (80F) = 0.488 lbm/in3

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