music

theory
for

everyone
Copyright © 2022 Martin Alejandro Islas
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
form by any means without the written permission of the copyright
owner.

Music Illustrations and tracks by Martin Alejandro Islas using

MuseScore and Adobe Illustrator.
All melodies in Music Theory for Everyone that are not from the author
of the book are in public domain and can be found at imslp.org.

Cover photography is courtesy of Dreamstime.com taken by Bekir

Ugur.

ISBN: 9798846806283
music
theory
for

everyone
Martin Alejandro Islas
About the author: Martin has been teaching and developing Music
courses in Music theory and instrumental technic for the past
decade. His passion for teaching now goes beyond the classroom.
He studied in the Music Conservatory of Music Lopez Buchardo
(Argentina) and, funny to say, used to hate Music theory in his
early years. Therefore he can truly empathize with his readers. He
can read your mind, which, combined with his detailed knowledge
of the subject, means you have a key book in your hands. Music
Theory has never been put this easy!
to Rocky and Rocket
 table of contents
why music theory?����������������������� x The grand staff������������������������16
Octaves���������������������������������������17
how to use this book������������������� xi Sharps and flats���������������������17
1.1 Sound���������������������������������������� 2 Practice exercises�����������������18
Solutions������������������������������������19
1.1 pitch and notation������������������ 2
Sound �������������������������������������������2 scales and modes����������������������� 22
Timbre�������������������������������������������2 Intervals�������������������������������������22
Duration���������������������������������������2 Half step������������������������������������22
Amplitude����������������������������������� 3 Whole step�������������������������������22
Frequency���������������������������������� 3 2.1 major scales������������������������� 23
1.2 notation����������������������������������� 4 Practice exercise�������������������24
Solution�������������������������������������25
1.3 RHYTHM������������������������������������� 5
Notes and rests����������������������� 6 2.2 minor scales������������������������� 26
Examples to practice��������������7 Natural minor ������������������������26
Dots and ties����������������������������� 8 Harmonic minor ������������������� 27
Triplets and duplets��������������� 9 Melodic minor������������������������28
More examples�����������������������10 Practice exercise�������������������29
Solution�������������������������������������30
1.4 time signature���������������������� 11
Simple meter���������������������������12 2.3 key signature������������������������ 31
Compund meter���������������������13 Practice exercise�������������������32
Examples to practice�����������14 Solution�������������������������������������33

1.5 tHE STAFF�������������������������������� 15 2.4 scale degrees����������������������� 34

The treble clef��������������������������15 2.5 relative scales��������������������� 36
The bass clef����������������������������15 Practice exercise�������������������38
vii
 table of contents
Solution�������������������������������������39 3.6 cadences�������������������������������� 61
Authentic cadence����������������61
2.6 pentatonic scales���������������� 40
Plagal cadence����������������������62
2.7 MODES������������������������������������� 41 Deceptive cadence��������������63
Practice exercise�������������������43 Half cadence���������������������������63
Solution�������������������������������������44 Practice exercise�������������������64
Solutions�����������������������������������65
Harmony��������������������������������������� 45
4.1 PART WRITING�������������������������� 68
3.1 Intervals������������������������������� 46
Vocal Ranges��������������������������69
3.2 triads������������������������������������� 48 Motion����������������������������������������70
Major triad��������������������������������49 Distance������������������������������������ 72
Minor triad�������������������������������49 Doubling�������������������������������73
Diminished triad��������������������50 Resolution�������������������������������� 73
How to build a triad�������������50 Part writting cheat sheet�� 74
How to identify a triad�������50
4.2 part writing example���������� 75
"sus" chords�����������������������������51
Practice exercises����������������79
Practice exercise�������������������52
Solutions�����������������������������������80
Solutions�����������������������������������53
4.3 common progressions��������� 81
3.3 inversions������������������������������ 54
Circle progression����������������82
3.5 seven chord��������������������������� 57 Progression by thirds���������82
Major seventh������������������������57 Progression by seconds���82
Dominant seventh����������������57 Practice exercises����������������83
Minor seventh������������������������58 Solutions�����������������������������������84
Half-diminished seventh���58
4.4 harmonic functions������������� 85
Seven chord inversions�����59
viii
 table of contents
Tonic function���������������������������85 6.2 relationships������������������ 122
Dominant function�����������������85 Relative keys���������������������122
Subdominant function���������86 Paralel keys�����������������������122
Inversions�����������������������������������86 Close related keys����������122
Practice exercise�������������124
4.5 the second inversion������������� 87
Solution�������������������������������125
Passing 6/4������������������������������� 87
Pedal 6/4������������������������������������88 6.3 tonicization and mode
Neighbour 6/4�������������������������89 mixture���������������������������������� 126
Arpeggiated 6/4����������������������90 Tonicization�����������������������126
Cadential 6/4�����������������������������91 Mode mixture�������������������126
Exercises�������������������������������������92 Practice exercise������������� 127
Solutions�������������������������������������93 Solution�������������������������������128
4.6 harmonizing a melody������������ 94 6.4 modulation���������������������� 129
Exercises�������������������������������������95 Pivot chord modulation129
Solution���������������������������������������96 Direct modulation����������130
Solution��������������������������������������� 97 Enharmonic modulation130
5.1 melodic structure��������������� 100 Altered common tone
modulation�������������������������130
5.2 motivic development����������� 103 Sequential modulation�130
Chain modulation�����������130
5.3 NON HARMONIC TONES������������� 108
6.1 secondary function������������� 116
Practice exercise��������������������119
Solutions�����������������������������������120
Solutions explained��������������121

ix
 why music theory?
Music theory is a discipline that defines and studies the
elements that form Music, such as Harmony, Melody, Rhythm,
Form and others. Understanding those features will not only help
you write Music and interpret what you hear and read, but it will
also work as a boost of inspiration to create and develop music
once you understand its theory. As Jeff Titon (2016)* said: we
make Music in two different ways; physically, when we produce it
by singing or pressing the keys on a piano, we also make Music
with our minds, analyzing, evaluating, generating and developing
musical ideas.

This book’s pages will explore the fundamentals of harmony,

melody and rhythm. In addition, we will identify elements such as
scales, key signatures, intervals, chords, progressions, motifs and
devices to modulate and create and develop extended musical
pieces.

After reading this book and completing the exercises I

propose, you will understand:

• How to assemble and organize multiple sounds to create

Music.
• How to develop musical ideas.
• How to apply criteria to assess and refine technical and
expressive aspects of Music.
Music is a language, and you will benefit from developing
a richer vocabulary. In addition, it will help you sight read and
perform more accurately, improvise freely and develop a holistic
view of Music.
x
 how to use this book
knowing vs understanding

You will find many concepts, explanations, and examples

throughout this book chapters. After reading these pages, you
will know those concepts and might even memorize a few.
However, knowing something does not necessarily mean that we
understand it.
But, how can you get to understand music theory? The
answer is simple: Through practice. To truly understand Music
Theory, you need to read music, write and listen music and create.
I am inviting you to use and practice what you read here page
by page. Whenever you encounter a new concept, interval, scale,
chord progression or devise for modulation, go to your instrument
or daw and play it and write it down. Then listen, compare, analyse
and evaluate what you hear. At the end of each chapter, you will
find practice exercises. Engage with those to further support your
learning and most important of all:

Make a lot of music :)

*Titon, J. T. (2016). Worlds of music: an introduction to

the music of the world’s peoples. Cengage Learning.
xi
 1
music
theory
for

everyone
fundamentals
sound
n o tat i o n
rhythm
T I M E S I G N AT U R E
THE STAFF
 music theory for everyone

1.1 Sound
pitch and notation
Definitions of what Music is are broad, and we can find as many
of them as philosophers and musicologists have tried to define
it. They all have something in common, though. They all consider
Music as a sonic event. Therefore we will start this first chapter by
discussing the essential characteristics of sound.

Sound
A sound is an aural event with a few distinctive characteristics.
For example, it can be loud or soft; it has a frequency (how high
or low is), duration (how short or long is) and colour (timbre).

Timbre

Why does a note played on the trombone sound different from the
identical pitch played on the saxophone or the guitar? Different
instruments can play the same piece of music and sound
remarkably distinct. This is because they have different timbres.
Comparing different families of instruments brings out the effect
of timbre the most; for example, brass instruments have a very
different timbre than string instruments or the human voice.
In addition, different instruments have diverse tone timbres
even within the same family. For instance, despite being wind
instruments, the oboe and clarinet have different tonal colours.

Duration

Duration is the amount of time that a sound last. Sounds can be

long or short, and we describe them using figures such as the
whole note, the quarter note and others.

2
 fundamentals

Amplitude

The amplitude of a sound wave determines how loud or soft a

sound is. A louder sound has a bigger amplitude, and a more
soothing sound has a smaller amplitude. At the same time, the
source vibration determines the amplitude of a wave. Greater
amplitude is correlated with more intense vibration.

Frequency

We measure a sound’s frequency using units in Hertz. Hertz (Hz)

is the vibration frequency in “times per second”. The higher the
frequency, the higher the Pitch. The lower the frequency, the lower
the Pitch. For musical purposes, we use note names to describe
the different frequencies. For example, if a string vibrates 440
times in a second, we say we are listening to pitch A.

Frequency = Pitch Amplitude

Volume

The sound wave

3
 music theory for everyone

1.2 notation
Many people believe that learning and reading conventional music
notation is outdated; others fear it because they think it is too
challenging. At the same time, many musicians have succeeded
without ever learning to read music, like Jimi Hendrix, Taylor Swift,
and Paul McCartney, to mention a few. However, reading music
is a valuable skill, and you will immensely benefit from it. Here I
give three reasons why you should learn to read traditional music
notation.

1. By learning to read traditional music notation, you can read

and analyze different music and styles. That will make you a
better composer as you will be able to borrow the different
progressions, scales, chords and resources other musicians
use.

2. Learning traditional music notation is like learning a

language; soon enough, you can use this language to
communicate your ideas. Furthermore, you will be able to
collaborate with other musicians easily, as not everyone
can play by ear, and indeed, there are no performers who
read piano rolls.

3. Through traditional music notation, you will start to

understand every aspect of music, such as intervals, scales,
harmony, chords and progressions, in a better, faster and
more efficient way. In addition, through your eyes and
ears, your brain will be ready to understand more complex
aspects of music, making you a better musician.

I hope you feel more inspired to learn to read traditional music

notation, so let’s get started.

4
 fundamentals

1.3 RHYTHM
Rhythm is a concept that frequently leads to confusion. To avoid
misunderstandings, let’s define the basic terminology

RHYTHM: Series of sound, duration and silence

BEAT: The pulse (the beat of the metronome). The basic
unit of time of any given musical piece.
TEMPO: The speed of the beat.
DURATION: The length of sounds or silences.
METER: The organization of beats into regular groups.
SUBDIVISION: The division of the beat into two or three
equal parts.
We organize rhythm into PATTERNS of strong and weak
beats and call that METER. Each complete pattern is a
MEASURE.
At the same time, we categorize different patterns of strong and
weak beats into the following groups:
Duple: Two beats per measure (ex. 2/4).
Triple: Three beats per measure (ex. 3/4).
Quadruple: Four beats per measure (ex. 4/4).
Additionally, we categorize Meter into simple and compound.
SIMPLE METER: It divided the beat into two.
COMPOUND METER: It divided the beat into three.

5
 music theory for everyone

NOTES AND REST

Rhythm is how we organize sounds in time. Musical notation

tells us when to play and when to be silent (rest). Each symbol
tells us how long notes last in relation to others. For example,
two half notes equal a whole note and two-quarter notes equal
one-half note.
Notes Rest

whole
note

half
note

quarter
note

eigth
note

sixteen
note

6
 fundamentals

Examples to practice
Listen and repeat the following rhythms—first the
whole notes, then the half notes and finally the
quarter, eighth and sixteen notes. Once you are
used to them, perform these rhythms by yourself
with a metronome at different speeds.
What is a Metronome?
A metronome is a device that will help you never lose the beat. The
sooner you get used to it, the faster you master tempo. You can
use the metronome exmbedded in your favourite daw or check on
the internet for any online and free alternative.

7
 music theory for everyone

Dots and ties

Dots and ties are symbols extending a note’s length or duration.

• The dot extends the value

of a single note by half of
its original value. =

• The tie combines the

durational values of two
or more notes of the same
pitch using a curved line.
Ties also allow extending
=
the duration of a pitch
beyond a measure.

8
 fundamentals

Triplets and duplets

• Triplets are a device that we use to write three notes in the

time of two.
• We use duplets to write two notes in the time of three.
Duplets will become clear once we understand meter.

triplets duplets

= =

= =

9
 music theory for everyone

More examples

Listen and perform the following examples.

Doted eigth note and sixteen note:

Sixteen note and doted eighth note:

Sixteen note, eighth note and sixteen note:

Quarter note and triplets of eighth note:

10
 fundamentals

1.4 time signature

Time signature

At the beginning of any given music score, we will find a fraction

number. That is a time signature that specifies the meter in which
the piece occurs.
Time signatures consist of two numbers, one stacked above the
other:
• The lower number indicates the note value representing
one beat (the beat unit).
2 = half note
4 = quarter note
8 = eight note
• The upper number indicates how many of those figures fit
on each measure. At the same time, this number tells us if
we are in a simple or compound meter.
There are various types of time signatures. Here are examples of
the most common and widely used time signatures in modern
music:

11
 music theory for everyone

Simple meter

2
Simple Duple
2/4: The top number two tells us that each
measure has two beats.

4 The number four below tells us that each beat is a

quarter note and that we subdivided the beat into
two.

2
Simple Duple
2/2: The top number two tells us that each
measure has two beats.

2 The number two below tells us that each beat is

a half note and that we subdivided the beat into
two.

3
Simple Triple
3/4: The top number two tells us that each
measure has three beats.

4 The number four below tells us that each beat is

a quarter note and that we subdivide the beat in
two.

4
Simple Quadruple
4/4: The top number two tells us that each
measure has four beats. The number four below

4
tells us that each beat is a quarter note and that
we subdivide the beat in two.

12
 fundamentals

Compund meter

6
Compound Duple
6/8: The number six tells us that each measure
has two beats. The number eighth below tells us

8
that each beat is a dotted quarter note and that
we subdivided the beat into three eight notes
(3+3=6 eighth notes in each measure).

9
Compound Triple
9/8: The number nine tells us three beats in
each measure. The number eighth below tells

8
us that each beat is a dotted quarter note and
that we subdivide the beat into three eight notes
(3+3+3=9 eighth notes in each measure).

12
Compound Quadruple
12/8: The number twelve tells us that each
measure has four beats.

8 The number eight below tells us that each beat is

a dotted quarter note and that we subdivide the
beat into three eight notes (3+3+3+3=12 eight
notes in each measure).

13
 music theory for everyone

Examples to practice

Simple duple

Simple triple

Compound duple

Compound triple

14
 fundamentals

1.5 tHE STAFF

We write tones or pitches on a staff of five lines and four spaces.
Each line or space corresponds to a letter of the alphabet (only
the letters A through G). Once you arrive at G, you start over again
with A. names of the lines and space depend on the clef we use.
Many different clefs exist for various purposes. Here, for simplicity,
we will only look at the most widely used clefs: The Treble Clef
(aka G clef), the bass clef (aka the F clef) and the combination of
both; The Grand Staff.

THE TREBLE CLEF THE BASS CLEF

Notes in the staff with a treble clef

Notes in the staff with a bass clef

15
 music theory for everyone

The grand staff

16
 fundamentals

Octaves

The previous page indicates each note with its corresponding key
on a piano. The lowest note is E2, and the highest note is B5.
There are three “C“s on the graphic and with each one of them,
it begins a new octave. All pitches within the same octave are
labelled with the same number.

Ledger lines
You can write notes below or above the limits of what the staff
allows by adding ledger lines, as is the case with E2 and A5.

Sharps and flats

See how there is no “black key“ between E and F. There is a

distance of a half step between E and F and between B and C. At
the same time, there is a half step between C and the black note
to its right. That note is a half step higher than C; we call it C#
(C Sharp). A sharp (#) raises the pitch half step above its natural
pitch. A flat (b) added to the note means the pitch is a Whalf step
lower.

C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb

B B
A# C D E F A#
Cb B# Fb E# G A Cb

17
 music theory for everyone

Practice exercises

Let’s practice what we just learn so we do not

forget it that easily. Identify the notes of the
following piece by Thomas Dunhill (melody in c).)

18
 fundamentals

SOLUTIONS

E D C F B G C A

C D E F
E D
F E D C B C D C B

G E C G

E D C F B G E D C A

C D E F
D
F E D C C D E B C

B G G E
C

19
 music theory for everyone

20
 2
music
theory
for

everyone
scales
and modes
major scales
minor scales
key signature
scale degrees
rel ative scale s
pentatonic scale s
MODES
 music theory for everyone

scales and modes

Scales are a fundamental part of music, as there is always a scale
at the core of every melody you hear. Simply put, scales display a
menu of sounds that a composer can choose to create a melody
and the harmony that goes with it.
Knowing scales and functions will allow you to combine
sounds and chords effectively to create melodies and harmonic
accompaniments.

Intervals
Intervals are the distance between two notes.

Half step
A Half step is the smallest interval we can play with a piano. We
have a half step when two notes have no note in between them.
Examples: B - C, E - F, C - C#

Whole step
We have a whole step when two notes have one note in between
them. C - D, D - E, B - C#

C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb

B B
A# C D E F A#
Cb B# Fb E# G A Cb

22
 scales and modes

2.1 major scales

A scale is a sequence of sounds ordered in whole and half-step
patterns.
Many types of scales are available for composers, such as the
major and minor, pentatonic, chromatic and whole tone scales,
among others. In this chapter, you will learn to build from scratch
on any scale you need without having to memorize all of them.

The major scale

The major scale will start and end on the same note, which we will
call tonic. All major scales are created using a pattern of whole
and half steps. To make any scale fall into the pattern, we use
sharps or flats, but not both at the same time
See the following examples and notice that the half steps are
between the 3rd and 4th degrees and the 7 degrees and the tonic.

C Major half
whole whole step
step step

whole whole half whole

step step step step

D Major
half
whole whole step
step step

whole whole half whole

step step step step
23
 music theory for everyone

practice exercise

As you can see you can create any major scale you want, all you
need to do is to choose a tonic and complete the scale following
the pattern of whole and half steps for major scales (whole, whole,
half, whole, whole, whole, half).
Use the space below to write down the following major scales
(Make sure you do not mix sharps and flats on the same scale.
They all have either sharps or flats, but not both):
E major

A major

B major

E major
(pay attention to the clef)

Once you’re done, play the scales on your instrument or/and

write them down on the piano roll of your favourite daw.
24
 scales and modes

solution

E major

A major

B major

E major

25
 music theory for everyone

2.2 minor scales

The same as the major scale, minor scales will start and end on
the same note. However, the pattern of whole and half steps will
be different. There are three variants of the minor scale:

natural minor

A minor

whole whole whole whole whole

step half step step half step step
step step

C minor

whole whole whole whole whole

step half step step half step step
step step
26
 scales and modes

harmonic minor
Distintive characteristics of the harmonic minor scales are the
interval of a step and half between the 6th and 7th degrees and
the half step between the 7th and the tonic.

A minor harmonic

whole whole whole whole

step half step step half step half
step step step
and
half

C minor harmonic

whole whole whole whole

step half step step half step half
step step step
and
half

27
 music theory for everyone

melodic minor
The melodic minor scale looks different depending on whether it is
ascending or descending. When ascending has a minor third with
all the other notes the same as a major scale. When descending,
it does it like a natural minor scale.

A minor melodic minor

half half half half

step step step step

C minor melodic minor

half half half half

step step step step

28
 scales and modes

practice exercise

Use the staf below to write:

• D minor natural
• D minor harmonic
• D minor melodic
Once you’re done, play the scales on your instrument or/and
write them down on the piano roll of your favourite daw.

29
 music theory for everyone

solution

D minor natural

D minor harmonic

D minor melodic

30
 scales and modes

music theory
scales and modes
2.3 key signature
The pattern we use to generate the major scale results in the
alteration of pitches (except in C major); those altered pitches are
called key signature.
We write the key signature at the beginning of each staff to indicate
which pitches are to be sharp or flat throughout the composition.
There is a particular order in which sharps and flats should be
written on key signatures.
The order of the sharps is F C G D A E B:
To quickly find out how many and which
sharps a time signature needs, you can:
• First, memorize the order of sharps
• Then count sharps until the 7th degree
of the scale you want to find the key
signature. Example: To find B’s key
signature, count sharps until A (7th
degree of B). Then the key signature of
B has F C G D A sharps

The order of the flats is the same but reversed, B E A D G C F:

To quickly find out how many and which

flats a time signature needs, you can:
• First, memorize the order of flats.
• Then count flats until the tonic and
then add one more. Ex: To find Gb’s key
signature, count flats until G and add
one more (Cb); Then the key signature
of Gb has B E A D G C flats.
31
 music theory for everyone

practice exercise

Use the staf below to find the key signature of

• G Major • Ab Major

• D Major • Eb Major

• F# Major • Db Majo

32
 scales and modes

solution

G Major Ab Major

D Major Ab Major

F# Major Db Major

33
 music theory for everyone

2.4 scale degrees

Every major or minor scale has seven pichtes. We call these
pitches “degrees” and every single one of them has a function.

Scale Solfedge Function Description

degree
1st Do Tonic The tonic note defines the name
of the scale and functions as the
tonal centre. It serves as the natural
resolution in both major and minor
scales.
2nd Re Supertonic Super means above the Tonic. It
resolves downwards to the Tonic.
It is halfway between the Tonic and
3rd Mi Mediant the Dominant. The mediant is a
resolution tone as the Subdominant
resolves in it.
Sub means below. The Subdominant
is a fifth below the tonic and a step
4th Fa Subdominant below the Dominant. It resolves
downwards to the mediant.
The dominant is a fifth above the
5th So (sol) Dominant Tonic. It is the most important pitch
in the scale after the Tonic.
The Submediant is halfway between
6th La Superdominant the Subdominant and the Tonic.
It resolves downward to the
Dominant.

7th Ti Leading tone The leading tone resolves upwards to

the tonic.

34
 scales and modes

C major

Leading
Mediant tone

Subdominant Superdominant
Supertonic Dominant
Tonic

Certain degrees of the scale sound more stable than others,

stable sounds, also known as restive tones, are the Tonic and the
Mediant. On the other hand, some other pitches generate tension
and tend to resolve in stable tones. We call these pitches Active
Tones. The strongest active tone is the leading tone.

G major

Leading
Mediant tone

Subdominant Superdominant
Supertonic Dominant
Tonic

35
 music theory for everyone

2.5 relative scales

Relative scales are those major and minor scales with the same
pitches and, therefore, the same key signature. The only difference
is that they start on a different tonic. You will find the relative minor
of any major scale on its six degree (Ex The relative minor of F
Major is D minor). At the same time, you will find the relative major
of any minor scale on its third degree (Ex: The relative Major of E
minor is G Major).

C major
and
A minor

G major
and
E minor

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 scales and modes

B major
and
G# minor

F major
and
D minor

Gb major
and
Eb minor

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 music theory for everyone

practice exercise

Find the relative minor scale of E Major and Eb Major

Find the Relative major scale of B minor.
Tips:
• Start with the key signature.
• Build the source scale first and find its relative (6th degree
for minor relatives and 3rd degree for major relatives).
• Then, build the relative scale, and don't forget the key
signature.

38
 scales and modes

solution

E major
and
C# minor

Eb major
and
Cb minor

B minor
and
D major

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 music theory for everyone

2.6 pentatonic scales

The pentatonic scale is widely used in popular music. Many guitar
solos are made using pentatonic scales. The Pentatonic Scale has
five tones, and it is a major scale without the Subdominant and
the Leading Tones (Ex C–D–E–G–A–[C])

There are other four modes of the pentatonic scale. Which are
the same tones but with a different tonic

A–C–D–E–G–(A)

D–E–G–A–C–(D)

E–G–A–C–D–(E)

G–A–C–D–E–(G)

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 scales and modes

2.7 MODES
Modes are a type of scale with different whole and halftone
patterns. They are also called church modes, greek modes and
sometimes just modes.
Here are the six modes relative to C Major. However, remember
that you can build them relative to any major scale you want.

Ionian Mode
Relative to the 1st degree of the major scale.

Dorian Mode
Relative to the 2nd degree of the major scale.

Phrygian Mode
Relative to the 3rd degree of the major scale.

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 music theory for everyone

Lydian Mode
Relative to the 4th degree of the major scale.

Mixolydian Mode
Relative to the 5th degree of the major scale.

Aeolian Mode
Relative to the 6th degree of the major scale.

Locrian Mode
Relative to the 7th degree of the major scale.

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 scales and modes

practice exercise

1. Starting from E write the pentatonic scale relative to E Major.

2. Write the Dorian and Mixolydean modes relative to E Major.
3. Write the Phrygian mode relative to Eb Major.

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 music theory for everyone

solution

E major
penatonic

Dorian mode
relative to E
major

Mixolydean
mode relative
to E major

Phrybian
mode relative
to Eb major

44
 3
music
theory
for

everyone

Harmony
intervals
Triads
Chord function
seven chord
cadences
 music theory for everyone

HARMONY
We did learn scales. Now we will learn chords and get a step
closer to being able to create our music from scratch.
As a discipline, Harmony studies the phenomenon of combining
notes. The combination of sounds results in consonances and
dissonances that we can use to create music that portrays our
expression and intent. In the following pages, we will look at the
principles behind Harmony. Then, you will learn to build any chord
you want on the spot without the need to memorize them all.

3.1 Intervals
An interval is the distance between two notes. They are essential
for us now as they are the basis of chords. Intervals can be
melodic when the different pitches sound one after the other (as
in a melody). Or they can be harmonic when we hear the different
notes simultaneously.
We consider the size (number) and quality (major, minor, perfect,
diminished or augmented) to identify and describe intervals. All
intervals built from the tonic up are major or perfect within a major
scale. On the other hand, within the minor scale, all intervals build
up from the tonic are either minor, major or perfect.
Intervals can also be simple or compound. Simple intervals are
within the octave, and compound intervals exceed the octave
(Ex 9th, 11th, 12th etc.)
Calculating compound intervals can be easy if we think of them
as simple intervals; for that, we need to subtract seven from
whatever compound interval we have. Ex 11th - 7 = 4th.

46
 scales and modes

C major

perfect major major perfect perfect major major perfect

unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

A minor

perfect major minor perfect perfect minor minor perfect

unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

Interval Distance Examples

Minor 2nd Half step C - Db

Major 2nd Step C-D
Minor 3rd Step and half C - Eb
Major 3rd Two steps C-E
Perfect 4th Two steps and half C-F
Diminished 5th Three steps (tritone) C - Gb
Perfect 5th Three steps and half C - G
Minor 6th Four steps C - Ab
Major 6th Four steps and half C-A
Minor 7th Five steps C - Bb
Major 7th Five steps and half C-C
Perfect 8th Six steps C-C

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 music theory for everyone

3.2 triads
A chord is a group of notes that you can hear at
the same time. There are many “kinds“ of chords.
We’ll start learning the basic form of them;
TRIADS.
A triad is made of three notes, one on top the
other. If we count intervals from the root, a triad
contains a third and a fifth.

Root: We build chords

from the root. At the same
time, the root will give us
the triad's name. Root: C

Third: The third determines

the quality of our triad.
Major thirds result in major
chords. On the other hand, 3rd: E (major third)
a minor third results in a
minor chord.

Fifth: Perfect fifth results in

a perfect chord. Diminished
5th: G (perfect fifth)
fifth on a diminished chord.

C Major

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 scales and modes

Major triad
• Here there is an example
of a major triad: C Perfect
Major
• The root is C.
• The third is a major third:
E (which is two steps away
from C)
• The fifth is a perfect fifth,
three steps and a half away
from C. C E G

major minor
third third

minor triad
• Here there is an example
of a minor triad: C Perfect
Minor
• The root is C.
• The third is a minor third:
Eb (which is one step and
a half away from C)
• The fifth is a perfect fifth, Eb
three steps and a half away C G
from C.

minor major
third third

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 music theory for everyone

diminished triad
• Here there is an example
of a diminished triad: C
Diminished Minor
• The root is C.
• The third is a minor third:
Eb (which is one step and
a half away from C)
• The fifth is a diminished Eb Gb
fifth Gb (three steps away
from C). C

minor minor
third third
How to build a triad
1. Start writing the root
2. Write down the first third. It will be a major third (two steps) for
major chords or a minor third (one step and half) for minor and
diminished chords.
3. Write down the fifth. It will be a perfect fifth (three steps and
half) for perfect chords and a diminished fifth (three steps) for
diminished chords.

How to identify a triad

1. Identify the root
2. To identify the third, count how many steps are between the
root and the third (two steps for major thirds and one step and
a half for minor thirds).
3. To identify the fifth, count how many steps are between the
root and the fifth (three steps and half for perfect fifth and
three steps for diminished fifth)

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 scales and modes

"sus" chords

A sus chord or suspended chord is a chord in

which the third is replaced by either a perfect
fourth (sus 4th or sus 11th) or a major second
(sus 2dn or sus 9th).

C D G

Csus2
minor perfect
second fourth

C F G

Csus4
perfect minor
fourth second

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 music theory for everyone

practice exercise

1. Identify the following chords:

2. Build the following chords:

D major D minor A major C minor

A minor F minor G major Eb major

52
 scales and modes

solutions

E minor C major F major B minor

E major Bb Major F major C major

D major D minor A major C minor

A minor F minor G major Eb major

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 music theory for everyone

3.3 inversions
We have an inversion when a chord has any pitch other than the
root as the lowest sound.
As we have three pitches in a triad, then we have three possible
positions:
• Root position: The root of the chord is in the bass.
• First inversion: The third of the chord is in the bass.
• Second inversion: A fifth of the chord is in the bass.

Figured bass
Figured bass is a notation in which chord inversions are
indicated by numbers. Each numeral expresses the interval that
results above the bass.

inversion EXAMPLE figured bass SIMBOL

Root position: You can either write
The root of the 5 or leave the space
chord is in the besides the chord
bass. empty.
root
I
First inversion:
The third of the
chord is in the
bass. I6
third 6
Second
inversion: The
6
fifth of the chord is I6
fifth
4
in the bass 4

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 scales and modes

3.4 functions
The harmonic function of a chord depends on the scale degree on
which it is built. For example, the tonic triad in C major scale will
be the C major chord, and The tonic triad in F major scale will be
the F major chord.
We do label chords functions by using Roman numerals. Major
chords are labelled with uppercase Roman numerals, and minor
chords use a lowercase numeral. For diminished chords, we use °.

C major

C major D minor E minor F major G major A B

minor diminished

I ii iii IV V vi vii o
Tonic Subdominant
function Dominant
function

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 music theory for everyone

As all major scales use the same pattern of tones and semitones,
chords built upon every pitch of the scale create the same chord
quality (major, minor, diminished etc.) in every major scale. That
means that all major scales will have:

• Major chords: I, IV and V.

• Minor chords: ii, iii, iv.
• Diminished chord: vii

Scale and chords in G major

F#
diminished
G major A minor B minor C major D major E minor

I ii iii IV V vi vii o
Tonic Subdominant
Dominant

Scale and chords in F major E

diminished
F major G minor A minor Bb major C major D minor

I ii iii IV V vi vii o
Tonic Subdominant
Dominant

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 scales and modes

3.5 seven chord

A seven chord is a chord with four notes: The
root, the third, the fifth and the seventh. There
are several “kinds“ of seven chords. These are
the most commonly used:

major seventh
Major triad with a major
seventh.

C Maj7

dominant seventh
Major triad with a minor
seventh.

C7

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 music theory for everyone

minor seventh
Minor triad with a minor
seventh.

Cm7

Half-diminished seventh
Diminished triad with a minor
seventh

C0 or Cm7 b5

Remember: For a major seven you need to count six steps from
the root. On the other hand for a minor seven you should count
five steps and half.

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 scales and modes

seven chord inversions

As a seventh chord has four pitches there are four different

possitions possible for it.

EXAMPLE INVERSION SIMBOL

Root position 7
The root is the lowest
sound.

First inversion 6
The third is the lowest 5
sound.

Second inversion 4
The fifth is the lowest 3
sound.

Third inversion 2
The seven is the
lowest sound.

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 music theory for everyone

seven chord funtions and labels

Cmaj7 Dm7 Em7 Fmaj7 G7 Am7 B half dim 7

Imaj7 ii7 iii7 IVmaj7 V7 vi7 vii70

Tonic Subdominant Leading

Dominant tone

Note that:
• The quality of the seventh is the same as the quality of the
triad in all exept V.
• The symbol for a minor seventh is 7.
• The symbol for a major seventh is Maj 7.
• When we add a minor seventh to a diminished triad it
results on a half-diminished chord.

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 scales and modes

3.6 cadences
We did learn scales, triads, 7th chords, inversions
and functions. Now things will start getting
interesting as we can write short music sections
through our next topic: Cadences.
Cadences are the harmonic conclusion to a
musical phrase or “section“. At the same time,
through cadences, we can establish the tonal
centre of our pieces. There are several types of
cadences that we can use.

Authentic cadence
The most common phrase-ending chord progression. V-I or V-i .
In addition you can also use the V7 to add dissonance.

perfect Authentic cadence

(PAC) Both dominant and tonic

chords are in root position.
In this example you can see
both chords in root position, as
the root is the bass. It does no
matter the order in which the
other sounds are arranged.

V I

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 music theory for everyone

imperfect Authentic cadence

(IAC) It has either chord inverted.

Also, a cadence utilizing the
leading tone (vii°or vii°6) to tonic
progression is also considered
an imperfect authentic cadence.

V6 I

plagal cadence
(PC): IV-I.

IV I

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 scales and modes

deceptive cadence
(DC) (or interrupted): VI or vi.

V VI

half cadence
(HC): It is a cadence that ends on the dominant (V).

I V

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 music theory for everyone

practice exercise

Write an authentic, plagal deceptive and half cadences on A

Major.

Step 1: Build the key signature

Step 2: Build the scale and identify the chords you need
Step 3: Label the chords you need below the staf.
Step 4: Build the chords.

Authenthinc cadence Plagal cadence

Deceptive cadence Half cadence

64
 scales and modes

SOLUTIONS

Authenthinc cadence Plagal cadence

E A D A

V I IV I

Deceptive cadence Half cadence

E F#m A E

v vi i v

65
 music theory for everyone

66
 4
music
theory
for

everyone
V o i c e
lp a er ta wdr ii tni ngg
part writing example
common progressions
harmonic functions
the second inversion
harmonizing a melody
 music theory for everyone

4.1 PART WRITING

Part-writing (or voice leading) is the composition of melodic
lines considering the relationship between voices (vocal or
instrumental) and the resulting harmony. To better understand
part writing, we will use figured bass exercises. Figured Bass is
another way of notating music in which we find roman numbers
below bass notes.

Figured bass notation gained popularity among musicians during

the 17th and 18th centuries, but it is still used and taught in
conservatories and music academies worldwide.

Here’s an example of what it looks like:

I IV vi V 7 I

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 voice leading

Figured Bass is usually taught in Music Theory curricula to help

students understand voice-leading principles. But, at the same
time, it provides an excellent way to gain a deeper comprehension
of the fundamentals of harmony and composition.

When completing figured bass exercises, we write on a grand staff

for a choir. And, we need to keep in mind the following "rules":

Vocal Ranges
When doing figured bass, we compose music for a choir of four
voices. The female voices are soprano and alto. The male voices
are tenor and bass. We write female voices on the treble clef and
male voices on the bass clef. Also, it is essential to remember
the vocal range of each voice:

• The soprano and tenor range is from C to A.

• The alto range is from G to E.
• The bass range is from F to C.

Soprano range (C-A) Alto range (G-E)

Tenor range (C-A) Bass range (F-C)

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 music theory for everyone

Movement of each voice

When doing figured bass, we are writing four different voices that
have to sound harmonious and fit well within each other. That is
the challenge. We are not writing four different voices doing the
same thing. Voices need independent movement and individual
characters.

Through analysing and completing figured bass exercises, you

will find out that:

• The bass is the most disjunct (moving by leaps) voice of all.

• The soprano has the melody and most often moves by step
(conjunct motion), but sometimes it moves by leap.
• The alto and the tenor move as little as possible.

Motion

There are four tipes of motion

• Contrary motion is when the

upper and lower voices move
in opposite directions. It is the
most desirable type of motion as
we aim for voice independence.

• Oblique motion is when one

voice remains on the same note
and the other moves in either
direction.

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 voice leading

• Similar motion is when the

upper and lower voices move
in the same direction but at
different intervals.

• Parallel motion is when the

upper and lower voices move
in the same direction and at the
same interval. Parallel motion is
the least desirable type of motion,
and writing parallel octaves or
parallel fifths is considered an
egregious error. Parallel fifths
and eighths are to be avoided
as it confuses the distinction
between the independent voices
and makes them sound like one.

A good part should contain all four types of motion but feature
contrary motion most often.

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 music theory for everyone

Avoiding overlapping and Crossing voices

• Crossing voices means writing, for example, the soprano
lower than the alto or the alto lower than the tenor.
• Overlapping voices means moving one voice to the same
note, or higher or lower than the position another voice has
been in the previous chord.
We should avoid both overlapping and crossing voices.
Crossing voices Overlaping voices

In this example the bass The tenor moves to the note

moves above the tenor. the bass was in the previous
chord.

Distance
There must be an octave between the upper voices, soprano and
alto, and tenor and alto. However, it does not matter how far the
tenor is from the bass.

Between alto and soprano an

octave or less.

Between tenor and alto an octave

or less.

Between bass and tenor more

than an octave is ok.

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 voice leading

Doubling

As we have four voices available, we will write a note twice

whenever we use triad chords. We call that doubling. When
doubling notes, keep in mind the following.

1. The first option should always be the root.

2. The second choice to double it should be the fifth.
3. We should do our best to avoid doubling the third.
4. A chord in the second inversion should double the fifth.
5. Never double a leading tone.
6. Include all four notes of a seventh chord. However, it is
common to omit the fifth in V7.

The easiest way to avoid voice-leading errors is by trying to move

voices as little as possible by keeping common notes between
chords on the same voice or moving non-common notes to the
nearest note possible.
The movement of voices is more important than whether we
double the root or not.

resolution

There are rules to resolve the tension. It would help you if you
memorise and apply them when necessary.

1. Ti always resolves upward to Do (whenever V or VII goes

to I, i, VI or vi).
2. Fa resolves to Mi (whenever vii°/vii°7 or V7 goes to I, i, VI
or vi).

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 music theory for everyone

Part writting cheat sheet

1. Voice Range: the soprano and tenor range is
from C to G; the alto and bass range is the from
G to C.

2. Never write parallel fifths or eighths.

3. Do not write crossed or overlapping voices.

4. Write the soprano and the alto within an octave
of each other, and the alto within an octave of
the tenor.

5. The first choice in doubling is the root, the

second choice would be to double the fifth of the
chord.

6. A chord in second inversion should double the
fifth

7. Ti resolves upward to Do.

8. Fa resolves to Mi.

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 voice leading

4.2 part writing example

Figured notation provides information that tells us the harmony in
each measure (chord, inversion and chord quality).

There are multiple correct solutions to each figured bass exercise;

we have freedom in where we place notes. However, as we
previously discussed, there are specific guidelines.

Here is an example of a part writing exercise:

1. The key signature with no flats or sharps is telling us that

we can be either in C Major or A minor. Looking at the
music closely, we can see that the first note in the bass
melody is C. We can assume then that we are in C major.

2. As no symbols are below the bass line, we assume all

chords go in root position.

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 music theory for everyone

Step 1: Roman numerals

With this information, we can start completing the arrangement.

But, first, we will label each chord with the roman numerals, so
we know what we need in each measure.
If you want, you can add the chord's name and quality below the
roman numerals and what notes you need for each chord, but
that is optional. I recommend doing it until you feel comfortable
with this type of exercise.

I IV vi V I
C G
E
F C
A
Am E
C
G D
B
C G
E
C F A G C

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 voice leading

Step 2: write the first chord

The first chord is C Major, which has C, E, G and C (remember

the rules about doubling). How we arrange the missing notes
(C, E and G) is up to us. I recommend starting with a position
allowing us to move in contrary motion to the bass later. That
means starting with an open position if the bass moves up, so we
have space to move the soprano down, or a closed one if the bass
moves down so we can move up with the soprano.

I IV vi V I
C G
E
F C
A
Am E
C
G D
B
C G
E
C F A G C

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 music theory for everyone

Step 3: complete the exercise

Now we are ready to complete the exercise. Here

there are possible melodic lines for soprano,
alto and tenor, keeping the previously discussed
guidelines.

I IV vi V I

78
 voice leading

practice exercises

Label the harmony and complete melodic lines for soprano, alto
and tenor.

79
 music theory for everyone

solutions

Remember that multiple ways of arranging harmony and solving

figured bass exercises exist.

I IV I
G D
B
G
C G
E
C
G D
B
G

I V I
F C
A
F
C G
E
C
F C
A
F

I IV V I
C G
E
C
F C
A
F
G D
B
G
C G
E
C

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 voice leading

4.3 common progressions

As we already discussed, chords have different functions
depending on their degree in the scale. Functions are essential
when deciding what chords to use in a harmonic progression, as
chords naturally lead to other chords depending on their function.

Chord Leads to Does not lead to

I/i any other chord
ii/ii° V/v, vii° IV
III VI, VII, vii°
IV/iv I/i, ii/ii°, V/v, vii°
V/v I/i, vi/VI IV, ii 6 or ii

vi/VI ii/ii°, IV/iv, V/v 6/5

vii°/VII I, i I (i)

In harmonic progression, chords proceed from a stable beginning

(tonic function) to an unstable climax (predominant and dominant
function) to resolve once again with a stable chord. Example:
Tonic, Subdominant or predominant (Predominant = before the
dominant), dominant, tonic.

I - IV - V - I
Tonic - Subdominant - Dominant - Tonic

On the next page, you will find other examples of common

harmonic progressions that you can adapt to your compositions.
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 music theory for everyone

circle progression:
Circle progression is a movement of chords where the root (not
necessarily the bass) of each chord is a fifth above the next
chord. You can use this progression for as many chords as you
want. The most popular ending for this progression is ii - V - I.

V-I V-I V-I V-I V-I V-I V-I

in F in B in E in A in D in G in C
(ii) (V) (I)

Progression by thirds:
In this progression the root of each chord moves either up or
down by a third. Common examples of the third progression are:

I vi IV ii vii° I

Progression by seconds
In this progression the root of each chord moves either up or
down by a seconds. A common examples of the progression by
seconds is:

IV - V IV - V IV - V
in C in D in E

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 voice leading

practice exercises

Complete a circle progression in G major and a progression by

3rds in F major.

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 music theory for everyone

solutions

Circle progression in G Major

Progression by thirds in F Major

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 voice leading

4.4 harmonic functions

Harmonic Function (aka Diatonic Function) describes the
relationship between any chord or note and the tonal centre of a
scale.

The German Theory of Harmonic Function (Riemann 1899)* states

that notes or chords in a scale can have one of the three following
functions:
These are:

• Tonic function
• Dominant function
• Subdominant function

Tonic function

Chords with tonic funtion are destination chords.

I - i - VI - v
dominant function

Dominant function chords move the harmony forward.

V - viio

*Hugo Riemann (1899), Handbuch der Harmonielehre. See A. Rehding, A., &
Floud, R. (2003). Hugo Riemann and the birth of modern musical thought (Vol.
11). Cambridge University Press.
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 music theory for everyone

dominant function

Dominant function chords move the harmony forward.

V - viio
Subdominant function

Chords with subdominant function are transition chords. Their

role is to connect tonic to dominatn chords.

IV - ii
Inversions

Chords in root position are strong chords that can have tonic,
dominant or subdominant functions. However, when they are
inverted, their function gets weaker.

As we saw in the previous chapter, we can create a melodic

line that moves by step in the bass by inverting chords. Then,
the inverted chord takes on a "passing" role. Another option is
moving the bass above or below by step and then returning to
its origin. In that case, we call it the neighbour role. Also, inverted
chords may create an arpeggio in the bass line. Finally, we may
use inverted chords to hold the bass line on the same note while
the upper voices change the harmony.

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4.5 the second inversion

Second Inversion triads sound unstable.
Therefore, there are specific ways in which we
use them. The four uses are second inversion
triads are:

passing 6/4

A second inversion chord may function as a passing chord so

that the bass line moves stepwise, passing between chords that
have the bass a third apart.

I V6 I
6 4

Notice the passing 6/4 is on a weak beat within the measure,

passing between two of the same chords.

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pedal 6/4

The IV6 4 chord with a pedal function is often used near the
beginning of a phrase to extend the tonic function. As Do is in the
bass when the subdominant chord is in the second inversion, we
create a pedal—three chords in a row with the same note (Do) in
the bass.

Second inversion chords will usually double the fifth of the chord,
so all three chords have Do in the bass and Do doubled, creating
a solid tonic function.

I IV 64 I

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neighbour 6/4

Notice how similar the I and the V chords are. They have one
note in common, and the others are adjacent (neighbours). This
type of 6/ 4 chords is called a neighbour 6/4 because the upper
voices move one step up or down and back.

I V 64 I

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Arpeggiated 6/4

The arpeggiated 6 4 creates an arpeggio between the bass

notes. It should be on a weak beat

I I6 I 6
4
I

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 voice leading

Cadential 6/4

The cadential 6/4 chord is the only second inversion chord found
on a strong beat. In the I 6/4, the fifth of the chord is So, and
because it is in the bass and usually doubled as well, the I 6/4
prolongs dominant function.

I 6
4
V I

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exercises

Write examples of passing, pedal and cadencial second inversions

in A major.

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 voice leading

solutions

I 6 V 64 I

I IV 64 I

I 64 V I
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4.6 harmonizing a melody

There are many different and possible ways in which we can
arrange an existing piece of music when harmonizing a melody.
The following is just a guide you can use if you feel you need help
complete the task.

1. Identify the notes of the melody.

2. Identify phrases and sections; at the end of each, do the

cadences first.

3. Complete the chord progression that the melody implies.

What you choose depends mainly on the style and genre. If
you are starting, I would advise you that:

• Do not invert chords needlessly.

• Avoid using seventh chords excessively.
• Avoid root-position vii° chords.
• Avoid overly using non-chord tones (we’ll learn
what they are in the next chapter) in your bass
line.
• Use second inversion chords only after you
understand their function.

You could harmonize every melody with I, IV, and V7. Adding the
vi gives you every chord you need to write any cadence.

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exercises

The melody is given. Your task is to arrange melodic lines for

alto, tenor and bass.

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solution

There are multiple posible solutions. The

following is one of them.

I V6 I IV V 6 vi
4

IV iii I V7 I 6 iii 6 V7 I
4 5

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 voice leading

solution

The following solution features only chords in

root position.

I V I ii V vi

IV V I V I I V I

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 5
music
theory
for
everyone
melodic
composition
melodic structure
motivic
development
non harmonic tones
 music theory for everyone

5.1 melodic structure

In old music theory books, you will find that the elements of
music are three; melody, harmony and rhythm. In this chapter,
we will focus on the first element, Melody. It is perhaps the most
important aspect of many compositions as a melody is what we
usually end up remembering of any given piece of music we listen
to. But, what is a melody? A melody is nothing less and nothing
more than just a succession of single notes. In this chapter, you
will find a series of devices you can use and combine to create
memorable melodies.

melodic features

A melody is a recognisable unit with a logical progression of

pitches and rhythm. Not a succession of random pitches. That
would be just noise. Surely, someone could point out that noise
can be art, but we are not discussing art at the moment. As
Melodies are not a succession of random pitches, they have some
distinct characteristics.

• Beginning: Melodies have a beginning, progress, move

forward, and end. When beginning, Melodies do not always
begin on a downbeat. Sometimes they can start before the
beat. We call that “pick up“ note “anacrusis“.

• Movement: A good melody will use mostly stepwise motion

(conjunct) and some skips (disjunct) motion.

• Range: Most melodies have a range, usually limited to an

octave.

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 melodic composition

• Form: Except for Gregorian chants, melodies employ

repetition and are built from motives, short melodic ideas
and phrases.

how do we chose notes to build a melody

Harmony: If we have harmony beforehand, the harmonic

structure gives us a set of notes to choose from in each
measure. Remember that for melody and accompaniment
to sound harmonious; they should share tones.
Movement: Movement between the main melody and the
bass also impacts your choice of melody notes. We did
discuss movement in the previous chapter.
Tonality: Four scale tones help to define the tonality and
modality of a melody:
• The tonic, because it is the tonal centre of the composition
• The mediant defines its harmonic nature, whether major
or minor.
• The dominant is the fifth degree of the scale.
• The seventh degree of the scale positions your melody
to return to the tonic; emphasising the leading tone adds
tension to a melody.
• You generally want your melody to move from unstable
to stable tones, especially at the end of a phrase.

structure
Structure and form are essential in any musical composition.
Structure organises the music and guides the design through
the individual components: introduction, melody, climax,
development, and conclusion.

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phrases and subphrases

Smaller sections than the ones stated on the previous page are
phrases. Phrases are musical ideas that move toward a cadence.
They lead logically from one to the next and also have a harmonious
relationship with each other. For example, they share elements
like motives, rhythm and tones. At the same time, a four-measure
music segment only makes a phrase when it concludes with a
cadence. Often, phrases occur in pairs (question and response or
antecedent and consequent. When this happens, the first phrase
ends with a weaker cadence and the second with a more robust
harmonic conclusion. This pair of phrases together is known as
a period. In these cases, the most common antecedent ending
is a half cadence followed by the consequent conclusion with
a perfect authentic rhythm. There are different categories for
periods that you can use when generating your melodies:

• The parallel period is when the two phrases making up the

period begin identically, or the second phrase is a variation of
the first.
• The contrasting period is when the two phrases are different
from each other.
• When two phrases end with a strong cadence, there is no
antecedent–consequent relationship, and no period; you have
just two phrases.
• A double period is a group of four phrases in which the only
perfect authentic cadence appears after the fourth phrase.
• A sub-phrase is a section or unit smaller than a phrase and
does not end with a cadence.

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 melodic composition

5.2 motivic development

A motif is a section of music smaller than a sub phrase. It is a
small group of notes repeated throughout the melody to establish
its identity and character and provide unity to the whole. The
most famous motive of all time; is perhaps from Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony.

In music for films or opera, when a motive is associated with a

character, a place or an idea is called a leitmotif. Here is a fragment
of the main theme of Star Wars by John Williams with a leitmotif.

3 3 3 3

Do not confuse a motif with a theme. A musical theme is a complete

melodic phrase. The theme is typically an instantly recognizable
tune. Like the motive, it establishes the piece, strengthens it
by repetition, and provides the framework for developing and
embellishing the melody through variation.

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You can use different strategies to develop small music ideas

into bigger sections of music. The most popular strategies for
motive development are:

repetition
Repeating the motif immediately.

melodic sequence
Repeating the original motive but starting on a different pitch.

Inversion
Inversion means to flip the motive upside-down, if the original
motive moves down, an inversion will move up.

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 melodic composition

retrograde
The motif is played backwards.

rhytmic displacement
It keeps the rhythmic structure intact but moves it to a different
place in the measure.

imitation
A repetition of the motive in a different voice.

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Mode mixture
Mode mixture combines pitches from the parallel major or minor
mode to increase harmonic resources.

embellishment
It consists of adding non-chord tones to the melody.

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 melodic composition

interval contration and expansion

It consists of making the intervals within the motif smaller
(contraction) or larger (expansion).

Original motif Interval contraction

Interval expansion

diminution and aumentation

It consists of making the rhythm longer (augmentation) or
shorter (diminution).

Original motif Diminution Aumentation

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 music theory for everyone

5.3 NON HARMONIC TONES

Non harmonic tones or nchord tones are pitches
that do not belong to the harmony (the chord in
that measure). These tones create dissonance
and are usually present in the melody but may
occur in any voice. Most of the time, non-chord
tones are added as ornaments or to connect
different chords.

There are a few kinds of non-chord tones that

you can use:

PASSING NOTES
A pitch that fills in the space between two chord
tones.

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 melodic composition

Accented passing tone:

Occurs on the beat.

Chromatic passing note:

Requires an accidental and connects two chord tones, one
whole step apart.

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Neighbor tones:
It moves the melody from one pitch to another one step above
(upper neighbour) or below (lower neighbour) and then returns
to the original pitch.

appoggiatura:
It leaves the chord tone by leaping up and resolves down by
step. It occurs on the beat.

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 melodic composition

Escape tone:
It leaves the chord tone by step and then resolves in the
opposite direction by leap.

Suspension:
It occurs when the chord tone is held over (suspended) and
resolves down by step.

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anticipation and Retardation:

An anticipation tone leaves early from the chord tone by step
to become part of the resolution chord. On the other hand,
retardation is a suspension that resolves upward.

Anticipation

Retardation

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practice exercise

Following the given harmony create melodic lines for Soprano,

Alto and Tenor using non chords.

I IV V I

IV I V vi

IV I V7 I
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 music theory for everyone

solution

anticipation anticipation

I IV V I

passing note retardation anticipation

passing note

IV I V vi

neighbour neighbour

IV I V7 I

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 6
music
theory
for
everyone
tonicization and

modulation
secondary function
key relationships
tonicization and mode mixture
modulation
 music theory for everyone

6.1 secondary function

As discussed in our previous chapter, every chord has a function
that depends on its location on the scale (major or minor). So, for
example, an C Major triad could be tonic as I in C major, Dominant
as V in F major or subdominant as IV in G major.

C major tonic the key of C

C major subdominant in the key of G

C major dominant in the key of F

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secondary dominant

The Dominant chord is the only major chord in the scale with a
minor 7 (Sol ti re fa). It is an unstable chord that calls for resolution.
The secondary dominant function adds instability and increases
the pull for resolution. But, what is a secondary dominant chord?

A secondary dominant chord is a major chord with a minor seven

that does not belong to the key you are at. For example, if we
are in C and want to use C as a secondary dominant, we would
add the minor seven (Bb). In this case, the secondary dominant
resolves in F major. Why F major? Becouse C7 is V in F Major

I V/IV IV

In this example, the first chord is the first degree, C Major. The
second chord is C major with a minor seven (C major dominant). C7
is the V on F major scale. We label C7 in this case as V/IV (fifth [C]
of the four degree [F]).

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secondary leading tone chord

A secondary leading tone chord is a minor diminisehd chord with

a minor seven that does not belong to the key you are in. For
example, if we are in C and we want to use C as a secondary leading
tone then we would add the minor third (Eb), the diminished fifth
(Gb) and the minor seven to it (Bb). In this case, the secondary
leading tone chord resolves in Db major. Why Db major? Becouse
Cm dim is vii in D Major.

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 tonicization and modulation

practice exercise
Complete the following figured bass exercise. The V/V means
the fifth of the fifth. For example, in C major the fifth of G is D
dominant.

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solutions

7
120
 tonicization and modulation

solutions explained

First example:

• The first chord is C major form by (from bottom to top) C,

G E, and C.
• The second chord is D minor.
• The third chord is D Major. It is labelled V/V as D major in
this context works as dominant of the dominant (G major
in this case).

Second example:

• The first chord is F major form by (from bottom to top) F,

C, F, and A.
• The second chord is C major (V).
• The third chord is C# half-diminished 7 chord, which
is the leading chord tone of D major and D minor). It is
labelled vii/ii as C# half diminished 7 in this context and
works as the leading chord tone of D minor (ii).

Third example:

• The first chord is G major formed by (from bottom to top)

G, B, G, and D.
• The second chord is F# dim (vii).
• The vii turns into the V of the IV when F#dim turns into F#
major which, in this context, is the dominant chord of B
minor (iii).
• The chord in the third measure is B minor 7 (iii7 [B A F#
D]) that turns into B half diminished 7 when F# moves to
F).
• The last chord is C major (IV).

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 music theory for everyone

6.2 relationships
Understanding how different keys relate to eachother can help us
decide where to modulate when we're writing music. In a musical
sense, a key relationship refers to how many notes two scales
have in common. There are different ways in which we categorize
these relationships..

relative keys
It is common to find music that modulates to the relative minor
or major key. It s because relative keys share the key signature
and, therefore, all pitches. For example, C major and A minor or F
major and D minor.
Remember that you will find the relative minor on the 6th degree
of the major scale. At the same time, you will find the relative major
on the 3rd degree of the minor scale.

paralel keys
Parallel keys are those keys that share the tonic but not the key
signature. For example, C major and C minor. We use parallel keys
to mix modes.

close related keys

Close-related keys are those key signatures that differ by one
accidental. Each key has five closely related keys, the relative
major or minor and the keys with one more and the key with one
less sharp or flat and their relatives.

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 tonicization and modulation

Here are some examples of major keys and their close relative
keys:

Close related keys to C major

• Relative minor: A minor
• + #: G major and its relative, E minor.
• +b: F major and its relative D minor.

Close related keys to G major

• Relative minor: E minor
• + #: D major and its relative, E minor.
• -#: C major and its relative A minor.

Close related keys to F major

• Relative minor: D minor
• + b: Eb major and its relative, C minor.
• -b: C major and its relative A minor.

Close related keys to D major

• Relative minor: B minor
• + #: A major and its relative, F# minor.
• - #: G major and its relative E minor.

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practice exercise

Complete the chart of relatives and close related keys.

Relative
Major Key minor key Close related keys

C major A minor G major and F major and

E minor D minor
G major E minor D major and C major and
B minor
D major B minor

A major

E major

B major

F# major

F major

Bb major

Eb major

Ab major

Db major

Gb major

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 tonicization and modulation

solution

Relative
Major Key minor key Close related keys

C major A minor G major and F major and

E minor D minor
G major E minor D major and C major and
B minor A minor
D major B minor A major and G major and
F# minior E minor
A major F# minor E major and D major and
C# minor B minor
E major C# minor B major and A major and
G# minor F# minor
B major G# minor F# major and E major and
D# minor C# minor
F# major D# minor C# major and B major and
A# minor G# minor
F major D minor Bb major and C major and
G minor A minor
Bb major G minor Eb major and F major and
C minor D minor
Eb major C minor Ab major and Bb major and
F minor C minor
Ab major F minor Db major and Eb major and
Bb minor F minor
Db major Bb minor Gb major and Db major and
Eb minor B minor
Gb major Eb minor Cb major and Db major and
Ab minor Bb minor

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 music theory for everyone

6.3 tonicization and mode mixture

tonicization

Tonicization means taking a few chords from a closely related key

to add colour to our composition. If you start analyzing music, you
will soon notice accidentals resolving upward by half step. That is
a secondary leading tone.

Tonicization, involving secondary chords, can be very short or

sometimes involve several measures. To distinguish a tonicization
from a modulation, we need to remember that a modulation
requires establishing and confirming the new key through a
cadence.

mode mixture
We can add colour and interest to our compositions by borrowing
chords for the parallel key to the key we are using. Mode Mixture
is a technique that will allow us to combine chords from the major
key and the parallel minor key (C major and C minor). If we are in
a major key, we need to lower half step, the third, the sixth and the
seven. For example: in C major, instead of E (3rd), A (6th), and B
(7th), we use Eb, Ab and Bb.

You can also use chords from the major parallel key in a minor
tonality.

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 tonicization and modulation

practice exercise

Harmonize the melody below and include modal mixture and

secondary funtions.

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 music theory for everyone

solution

I IV64 I i VII

iv V/VII VII 6 vii 6 I

4 4

IV64 vii70/V V7 I 6 V7 I
4

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 tonicization and modulation

6.4 modulation
Modulation is simply the change or switches from one key to
another one. Remember that a change of key signature might
not necessarily accompany a modulation. So, you are likely to
be in another key whenever you are reading music and spot a
consistent and recurring accidental. When composing music,
there are several strategies that we can use to modulate and
make the change of key subtle or abrupt.

Pivot chord modulation

The most common and smoothest way to modulate is by using one

or several "pivot "chords that are common to both keys. When the
modulation occurs between closely related keys, we can be sure
there will be several chords in common. So to modulate using
a common chord, we need first to establish which chords both
keys share. Then, we will consider the harmonic function of those
common chords to choose our pivot chord. Composers usually
choose a pivot chord with a tonic function in the new key.

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DIRECT MODULATION
It is the simple and most dramatic strategy for modulation. It occurs
when the new key is introduced suddenly with no preparation.

enharmonic modulation
The enharmonic modulation is a common tone modulation, but
the pivot chord has a different name. Example D# / Eb.

altered common tone modulation

You can use an altered common tone modulation when you wish
to modulate to a distant key with no common chord with the
original key. In this case, you will use a chord with the same root
in the target key. You will be transforming the chord to fit the new
key and using it as a pivot chord. For example; from C to A, using
Fm as a pivot .

C - F - Fm - E - A
I - IV (iv=vi) V - I

sequential modulation
Common in pop music, for a sequential modulation we need to
transpose a section, phrase or chord progression of music to a
different key.

chain modulation
To do a chain modulation, you will use a sequence of chords
based on any interval of your choice until you arrive at the new
key.

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 tonicization and modulation

Through the six chapters of music theory for everyone, you have
learned how to write and read pitch and rhythms on a music
sheet, recognize and build scales, harmony, chord progressions
and different strategies such as tonicization, mode mixture and
modulation to add colour to your compositions.

Well done!

Remember that this is an introductory book and that for the

sake of simplicity and because I do not want to overwhelm you
with concepts, there are several elements that I left out, such as
syncopations, form or augmented chords. However, I trust that
with the knowledge you have gained from this book, you can
effortlessly search for the answer to whatever question might
arise. So now it is time to use what you have learned and make
music. Good luck!

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