GRAPH THEORY

Module 2

Rijin IK

Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Vimal Jyothi Engineering College
Chemperi

March 18, 2023

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Outline

1 Euler graph

2 Operations on Graph

3 Hamiltonian Graph

4 Travelling Salesman Problem

5 Directed Graph

6 Fleury’s Algorithm

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Euler graph

Euler graph
A connected graph G is called an Euler graph, if there is a closed
trail/walk which includes every edge of the graph G exactly once.

OR

A graph that consists of an Euler line

An Euler line: A closed walk that contains all the edges of the graph
exactly once
Closed - starting and ending at same vertex (S&E)
Walk - no edge repetition, vertex may repeat (NER)
Euler - all edges traversed exactly once (AET)

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Euler graph

Graph G is an Euler graph as we can get an Euler line,

V1 e1 V2 e2 V3 e3 V4 e7 V6 e8 V2 e6 V5 e5 V4 e4 V1
Note that starting from any vertex, we can get an Euler line
But, Graph H is not an Euler graph, as from none of the vertices, we
are able to get an Euler line

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Euler graph

Euler Path
An Euler path is a path that uses every edge of a graph exactly once.
An Euler path starts and ends at different vertices.

B→C →D→B→A→D
Non-Euler Graph

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Euler graph
Euler Circuit
An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly
once.
An Euler circuit always starts and ends at the same vertex.
A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G
are of even degree, and a connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if
its edge set can be decomposed into cycles.

The above graph is an Euler graph as a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4 e 5 c 6 f 7 g covers

all the edges of the graph.
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Euler graph

Euler’s Theorem
Suppose we have a connected graph.
If the graph has an Euler circuit, then each vertex of the graph has
even degree.
If each vertex of the graph has even degree, then the graph has an
Euler circuit.

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Euler graph

Theorem
A connected graph G is Euler if and only if all of its vertices are of even
degree

Proof
Suppose G is an Euler graph and connected
Then G contains an Euler line, which is a closed walk, containing all
the edges of G exactly once
Then, as we trace the walk, we find that the walk meets a vertex v
along one edge and leaves that vertex along another edge
This is true for all vertices of the walk, including the terminal vertex
Hence we can say that every vertex has to be of even degree

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Euler graph

Proof Cont..
Conversely:
Suppose that all vertices of G are of even degree and G is
connected
Then start a walk from an arbitrary vertex v and go through the
edges of G, one by one, without repetition and finally come back to
the vertex v
It is possible as every vertex is of even degree
And since G is connected, we can trace through all the edges of G
Then G is an Euler graph
Hence the theorem

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Euler graph-Konigsberg bridge problem
Konigsberg bridge problem

The graph representing the Konigsberg bridge problem has got all its
vertices with odd degree
Hence it is not an Euler graph
As a result we cannot trace a closed walk in it
That is how Euler proved that it is not possible to walk over each of
the seven bridges exactly once and return to the starting point
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Unicursal Graph

Unicursal Graph
An open walk(or traces) that includes (or traces) all edges of a graph
without retracing any edge is called a unicursal line or open Euler line. A
connected graph that has a unicursal line is called a unicursal graph.

It is the same as an Euler line except that the starting and the ending
vertex is not the same or it is an Open Euler Line
Starting and ending on different vertices (S&E)
No edge repetition, vertex may repeat (NER)
All edges traversed exactly once (AET)

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Unicursal Graph

Graph G is a Unicursal graph as we can get a Unicursal line,

V8 e8 V1 e1 V2 e2 V3 e3 V4 e4 V5 e5 V6 e6 V7 e7 V8 e9 V3 e10 V6
Note that we need to start from one of the odd-degree vertices and
end at the other odd-degree vertex in order to get the unicursal line
Whereas, Graph H is not a Unicursal graph, as from none of the
vertices, we are able to get a Unicursal line

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Unicursal → Euler
Just by adding an edge between the starting and ending vertex of a
unicursal line, we can get an Euler line
Hence the unicursal graph becomes an Euler graph
A connected graph is unicursal if and only if it has exactly 2
vertices of odd degree
Adding an edge between the two odd degree vertices makes the graph
Eulerian

Drawing an edge between the odd-degree vertex pair makes it possible

to take a closed walk, tracing all edges of G exactly once, there by
making it an Euler graph
Hence graph H is an Euler graph
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Unicursal Graph

Theorem
In a connected graph G with exactly 2k odd vertices, there exists k edge
disjoint subgraphs such that they together contain all edges of G and that,
each is a unicursal graph

Proof:
Let the odd vertices of the given graph be named
x1 , x2 , x3 , ..........xk , w1 , w2 , w3 , .........wk in some arbitrary order
Add k edges to G between the vertex pairs,
(x1 , w1 )(x2 , w2 )..............(xk , wk ) to form a new graph G’
Now since every vertex of G’ is of even degree, G’ consists of an Euler
line p

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Unicursal Graph

Proof Cont..:
Now if we remove from p the k edges we just added then it will split
the graph into k walks, each of which is a unicursal line
The first removal will result in a single unicursal line, the second
removal will split that into 2 unicursal lines, and each successive
removal will split a unicursal lines into 2 unicursal lines, until there
are k of them
Thus the theorem.

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Unicursal Graph

Example

No. of vertices, n=9

No. of odd vertices= 6 = 2x3; (k = 3)
Then there must be 3 edge disjoint subgraphs, each of which is a
unicursal graph as well

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Unicursal Graph
Example Cont..
Add edge between every pair of odd vertices

Now all vertices are even

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Unicursal Graph

Example Cont..
Trace an euler Line P

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Unicursal Graph
Example Cont..
Now remove the added edges

The Euler line will break into 3 pieces;

each piece is a unicursal line; and each graph is an edge disjoint
subgraph of the initial graph

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Operations on Graph

1 Union
2 Intersection
3 Ring Sum
4 Decomposition
5 Deletion
6 Fusion

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Operations on Graph
Union
Let G1(V1,E1) and G2(V2,E2) be two graphs, then union of G1 and G2 is
a graph G3
Where G 3 = G 1 ∪ G 2
Vertex set V 3 = V 1 ∪ V 2
Edge Set E 3 = E 1 ∪ E 2

Example

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Operations on Graph

Intersection
Let G1(V1,E1) and G2(V2,E2) be two graphs, then the intersection of G1
and G2 is a graph G3
Where G 3 = G 1 ∩ G 2
Vertex set V 3 = V 1 ∩ V 2
Edge Set E 3 = E 1 ∩ E 2

Example

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Operations on Graph
Ring sum
Let G1(V1,E1) and G2(V2,E2) be two graphs, then the ring sum of G1
and G2 is a graph G3
Where G 3 = G 1 ⊕ G 2
Vertex set V 3 = V 1 ∪ V 2
Edge Set E 3 = (E 1 ∪ E 2) − (E 1 ∩ E 2)

Example

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Operations on Graph

Ring sum
If G1 & G2 are edge disjoint graphs, (no common edge) then G3 will
be G 1 ∪ G 2
For any graph G,G ⊕ G is a null graph (only vertices, no edges)
For any subgraph g of G, G ⊕ g is G − g ; the compliment of g in G

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Operations on Graph
DELETION
Deleting a vertex: If Vi is a vertex of graph G the G − Vi denotes a
sub graph of G obtained by deleting vertex Vi . Deleting a vertex
implies, deleting all edges incident on it.
Deleting an Edge: If ej is an edge of G then G − ej denotes a sub
graph of G obtained by deleting edge ej . However deleting an edge
does not imply deleting its end vertices.

Example

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Operations on Graph

Decomposition
A graph G is said to have decomposed into two graphs g1 and g2 if
g1 ∪ g2 = G
g 1 ∩ g 2 = G = null graph
All edges of G must be present either in g1 or g2 but no edge can be
common for g1 and g2.
Vertices may however be common, but has to be there either in g1
and g2
A graph containing ‘m’ edges can be decomposed in 2m − 1 ways into
pairs of sub graphs

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Operations on Graph

Decomposition Example

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Operations on Graph
FUSION
A pair of vertices vi &vj are said to be fused, if the two vertices are replaced by a
single vertex vk , such that all edges incident on both vi &vj are now incident on
the new vertex or fused vertex vk
Note
Fusion reduces the no. of vertices in the graph by 1
Fusion does not alter the no. of edges
Degree of the new vertex will be the sum of the degrees of the vertices
fused
Any edge between vi &vj shall become a self loop

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Euler graph

Therom
A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if it can be decomposed
into circuit
Proof:
Suppose G can be decomposed into circuits
Then G is a union of edge disjoint circuits
We know that in any circuit, the degree of each vertex is 2
Then, when we join all these circuits together to form graph G, G will
have all its vertices with even degree
Since G has all even degree vertices, G is an Euler graph

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Euler graph
Proof Cont..:
Conversely:
Suppose G is an Euler graph
Then G has all its vertices with even degree
Consider a vertex v1. Degree of v1 is at least 2. ie 2 edges are
incident on v1.
Let one of these edges be connecting v1 & v2 . Since v2 is also of even
degree, it must have at least 2 edges incident on it.
Let one of them be connecting v2 & v3. Proceeding in this fashion we
eventually arrive at a vertex that has been previously traversed, there
by forming a circuit p1
Remove the circuit p1 from G. Then all the remaining vertices in the
graph are again of even degree. From this remove another circuit p2
in the same way
Continue this process of removing circuits from the graph, until no
edges are left
Thus we have decomposed the graph into many circuits
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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Usually in an Euler graph, we can get an Euler line starting from any
vertex irrespective of the order in which we traverse the vertices
In some Euler graphs, we may not get an Euler line if we start from a
certain vertex, due to the order in which we choose the intermediate
vertices
Such graphs are known as Arbitrarily Traceable Graphs

Arbitrarily traceable graphs

A graph is arbitrarily traceable graph from vertex v if an Euler line is
always obtained when we start from v; but an Euler line may or may not
be obtained if we start from other vertices

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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Starting from V1 may/may not

get an Euler line
Starting from V3 definitely get
an Euler line

Suppose we start from vertex V1, move to V2, and then to V3

At V3 , we have 3 choices of new edges. If we go back to V1 choosing
e2 , we would end up without getting an Euler line
Situation is the same if we start with V2 , V4 or V5
In all these cases, there is an ambiguity at V3
Even though we take an untraversed edge, we may not get an Euler line
Whereas if we start with vertex V3 , we would surely get an Euler line
Hence the name ‘arbitrarily traceable from V3
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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Starting from V4 may/may not

get an Euler line
Starting from V1 definitely get
an Euler line

H is an arbitrarily traceable graph from two of its vertices V1 and V3

Because if we start with V1 or V3 , we would surely get an Euler line
irrespective of the order in which we choose the intermediate edges
Whereas, if we start with V2 or V4 we may or may not end up with
an Euler line
Hence we say that graph H is an arbitrarily traceable graph from V1
and V3
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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Starting from V1 may/may not

get an Euler line

J is not arbitrarily traceable graph from any of the vertices

Because whichever vertex we start, there is an ambiguity at every
intermediate vertex & hence we may or may not end up with an Euler
line
However J is an Euler graph

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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Starting from any vertex

Definitely get an Euler line

Graph K is an arbitrarily traceable graph from all its vertices

Because whichever vertex we start with, we are able to get an Euler
line irrespective of the order in which we choose the intermediate
vertices
They are normal Euler graphs (definitely Euler)

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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

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Arbitrarily traceable graphs
Theorem
An Euler graph G is arbitrarily traceable from vertex v in G if and only if
every circuit in G contains v

Proof:
Suppose G is an Euler graph that is arbitrarily traceable from
vertex v
Assume that there is a cycle C not passing through v
Remove the cycle C from G to get H i.e, H = G-C
Since a cycle has all its vertices with degree 2, taking out a cycle from
an Euler graph leaves the remaining graph, Euler
Now in H trace an Euler line p starting & ending at v; obviously p
contains all edges of H
Bring back the removed cycle C to H and try to extend the v to v
walk so as to include all edges of C
It would not be possible without repeating at least one edge,
contradicting that G is an ATG from v (starting a walk from v we
should always get an Euler line)
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Arbitrarily traceable graphs

Proof Cont...:
Conversely
Let every circuit of G contain v
Assume on the contrary that G is not arbitrarily traceable from v
Then there must be a v to v closed walk, W in G that contains all
edges of G. Let one such edge be incident at a vertex u on W
So, every vertex of H=G-W is of even degree & v is an isolated vertex
of H & u is not
Then, component of H containing u is therefore Eulerian sub graph of
G not passing through v contradicting the assumption
Hence the proof

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Hamiltonian Graph

Hamiltonian Graph
A graph that contains a Hamiltonian circuit
A Hamiltonian circuit: A circuit in a connected graph that traverses
all its vertices exactly once

A Hamiltonian Path: A path in a connected graph that traverses all

its vertices exactly once
Hamiltonians graphs do not require to contain all edges of the graph;
it may or may not contain all the edges;
constrain on vertex repetition automatically controls edge repetition

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Hamiltonian Graph

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Hamiltonian Graph

More Ham-circuits of G

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Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian Path
Edges & Vertices cannot repeat
Must contain all vertices of the graph
May drop out some of the edges
Will contain exactly (n-1) edges
Hence length of Ham-path is always (n-1)
Hamiltonian circuit
Edges &Vertices cannot repeat
Starts & ends at the same vertex
Must contain all vertices of the graph
It is not necessary to contain all edges
Will contain exactly n edges,Hence length of Ham-circuit is always n
If we remove one edge from Ham-circuit, we get a Ham-path
Since Ham-path is a sub graph of Ham-circuit, every graph that has a
Ham-circuit will have a Ham-path; However, the reverse may not be
true
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Hamiltonian Graph

Necessary & Sufficient condition

How do we know if a graph is Euler?
All vertices will be of even degree
How do we know if a graph is Hamiltonian?
No conditions found yet, whereby we can identify if a graph is
Hamiltonian or not
However we can assure that all complete graphs with 3 or more vertices
are Hamiltonian

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Hamiltonian Graph

Ham-circuits in Complete graphs

In a complete graph with n vertices,
Maximum number of Ham-circuits possible is

(n − 1)!
2
Maximum number of edge disjoint Ham-circuits is

(n − 1)
if ′ n′ is odd
2
(n − 2)
if ′ n′ is even
2

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Hamiltonian Graph

THEOREM
In a complete graph with n vertices there are (n−1)
2 edge-disjoint
Hamiltonian circuits,if n is an odd number ≥ 3

Proof:
n(n−1)
A complete graph with n vertices has 2 edges
Any Ham-circuit will have n edges
(n−1)
Therefore, the no. of edge disjoint Ham-circuits cannot exceed 2
(n−1)
That means the maximum no. of edge disjoint Ham-circuits is 2

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Hamiltonian Graph

Proof cont..:
Obtaining the edge disjoint Ham-circuits
The subgraph given below is a Ham-circuit of a complete graph with
n vertices
Starting from vertex 1 and tracing along the solid lines, we get the
first circuit which is 1,2,3,4............ (n-1), n,1

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Hamiltonian Graph

Proof cont..:
Now, imagine the vertices (except 1) to be lying on the circumference
of a circle
360 0 2x360 0 3x360 0
Rotate the circle by ( n−1 ) , ( n−1 ) , ( n−1 ) ....( n−3 x360 0
2 n−1 )
Each rotation produces a new Ham-circuit that has no edge in
common with the previous ones
There for the number of edge disjoint Ham-circuits= n−3
2 +1=
n−1
2
The 1st solution is obtained in the default position, without any
rotation
Hence the theorm

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Hamiltonian Graph

Example:(Recalling seating arrangement problem)

Keeping the vertices fixed on a
circle, rotate the polygonal pattern
clockwise by
1x2π 2x2π 3x2π
8 , 8 , 8 .produces a
Hamiltonian circuit that has no
edge in common with any previous
one.
The four Hamiltonian circuits are
1234567891
1426385971
1648293751
1869472531
1987654321(Returns back
tosame sequence)

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Hamiltonian Graph

Dirac’s theorem
Let G = (V, E) be a graph with n vertices (n ≥ 3) in which each vertex
has degree at least n2 . Then G has a Hamiltonian cycle.

Example:

Here n is 4 ie ≥ 3
d(a) = d(b) = d(c) =
d(d) = 2 ie ≥ n2
So the graph is
Hamiltonian

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Travelling Salesman Problem

The real life problem

A salesman is required to visit a number of cities during a trip. Given the
distance between the cities, in what order should he travel so as to visit
every city exactly once & return at the starting point, with minimum
distance travelled?

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Travelling Salesman Problem

Representing cities as vertices & roads between them as weighted

edges
The weight of each edge represents the distance between the
connecting cities

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Travelling Salesman Problem

Number of solutions
If each of the cities has a road to every other city, we get a complete
weighted graph
The graph has numerous Ham-circuits; the salesman has to choose
the one with the smallest sum of distances
The no. of Ham-circuits in a complete graph with n vertices = (n−1)!
2
At the starting vertex, we have (n-1) edges to choose from
At the next vertex, we have (n-2) edges to choose from and so on
At the second last vertex we will have (n-(n-2)) = 2 edges to choose
from
Finally at the last vertex we will have just 1 edge to move on
Hence we have (n-1)! possible no. of choices
However this has to be divided by 2 as each Ham-circuit has been
counted twice
ie = (n−1)!
2 Ham-circuit

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Travelling Salesman Problem

Finding the solutions

Enumerating all = (n−1)!
2 Ham-circuits & calculating the sum weight
of each circuit, and choosing the one with the lowest sum-weight is
the solution for the salesman
However, It is not practical
Neither can we employ some computer algorithm for the job as no
such algorithm has proved to be efficient enough

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Travelling Salesman Problem

Example:

In the example = (4−1)!

2 = 3 Ham-circuits
If the salesman was to start from city 1, then possible routes are

He would choose the one with lowest weight, 28

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Travelling Salesman Problem

Example:
Q : Trace a travelling salesman tour on the graph given below

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Directed Graph
Directed Graph
A directed graph (or a digraph, or an oriented graph) G consists of a set of
vertices V = { v1, v2, . . . }, a set of edges E = { e1, e2, . . . }, Such that
ek ∈ E is identified by an ordered pair (vi , vj ) where vi &vj ∈ V and ek
directed from vi to vj
The vertex Vi which is the starting vertex of ek is known as the initial
vertex & Vj , which is the ending vertex of ek is known as the terminal
vertex
Example

G = (V, E)
V = {V1,V2,V3}
E = {a, b, c}

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Directed Graph

Self loop
An edge having the same vertex as its initial vertex and terminal
vertex is called a self loop
Parallel edges
Two edges of a digraph are said to be parallel edges if they have the
same initial vertex and terminal vertex; i.e, they have the same
direction

edge d is a self loop

with V2 as its initial
and terminal vertex
edge e and a are
together known as
parallel edges

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Directed Graph

Symmetric edges
Two edges of a digraph are said to be symmetric edges if the initial
vertex of one edge is the terminal vertex of the other and the terminal
vertex of the former is the initial vertex of the latter & hence they will
be opposite in direction

edge e and a are together known as symmetric edges

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Directed Graph

Degree of a vertex (Valency)

Indegree (invalency): The number of edges incident into a vertex;
It is denoted by d − (V)
Outdegree (outvalency): The number of edges incident out from a
vertex;
It is denoted by d + (V)
for any vertex V, d(V ) = d − + d + (V )

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Directed Graph

Isolated vertex
A vertex having no incident edge is called an isolated vertex
The indegree & outdegree of an isolated vertex is zero
Pendant vertex
A vertex that has only 1 incident edge is called a pendant vertex;
direction can be either ‘into the vertex’ or ‘away from the vertex’
The total degree of a pendant vertex is 1

vertex V4 is an isolated
vertex
V5 is a pendant vertex;
d − (V5 ) = 0 & d + (V5 ) = 1

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Directed Graph

Symmetric digraphs
A digraph that has a symmetric pair for all its edges
Simple symmetric digraph
A digraph that has a symmetric pair for all its edges as well as free of
self loops and parallel edges

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Directed Graph

Complete symmetric digraph

A simple digraph that has a symmetric pair of edges between every
pair of vertices
It will contain n(n-1) edges

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Directed Graph

Asymmetric digraph
A digraph that do not have a symmetric pair for any of its edges(can
have self loop)
Simple asymmetric digraph
A digraph that do not have a symmetric pair for any of its edges as
well as free of self loops and parallel edges

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Directed Graph

Complete asymmetric digraph

A simple digraph that has an edge between every pair of its vertices
and none of its edges has a symmetric pair
n(n−1)
It will contain 2 edges
Also known as complete tournament

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Directed Graph
Note:
For a graph to be symmetric, all its edges must have a symmetric pair
For a graph to be asymmetric, none of its edges must have a
symmetric pair
The graph G is neither symmetric nor asymmetric

Two of its edges have a symmetric pair

Two edges do not have a symmetric pair
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Directed Graph

Balanced digraph (Isograph)

A digraph that has all its vertices, balanced
i.e, at every vertex indegree = outdegree
Eg: G is a balanced digraph since

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Directed Graph

Regular digraph
A digraph in which all vertices have the same degree (total degree)
Eg: G is a regular digraph since
d(V1) = d(V2) = d(V3) = d(V4) = 2

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Directed Graph

Balanced regular digraph

A digraph in which all vertices have the same indegree as well as
outdegree
Eg: G is a balanced regular digraph since

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Directed Graph

Theorem
In any digraph, sum of all indegrees = sum of all outdegrees = no. of
edges
i.e ni=1 d + (vi ) = ni=1 d − (vi ) = e
P P

Proof:
Since each directed edge of any digraph, contributes ’1’ towards the
total indegree & ’1’ towards the total outdegree of the graph,
no. of edges must give the total indegree, which is the same as the
total outdegree of the graph

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Directed Graph
Isomorphic digraphs
Two digraphs are said to be isomorphic if
Their undirected versions are isomorphic
Corresponding edges are in the same direction
Hence for 2 digraphs to be isomorphic they must have
Same no. of vertices
Same no. of edges
Corresponding vertices with same indegree and out degree

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Directed Graph

Isomorphic digraphs
Example

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Directed Graph
Directed Walk
A finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges, beginning and ending
at vertices, such that
each edge is directed from the vertex preceding it and towards the
vertex following it and no edge appears more than once
All edges must be orienting in one direction

In a directed walk
No edge can appear more than once
All edges must be orienting in one direction
Vertex may appear more than once
Starts and ends at different vertices

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Directed Graph
Directed Semi-Walk
A finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges, beginning and ending
at vertices, such that
each edge is incident with the vertex preceding it and following it and
no edge appears more than once
Edges may have any direction

In a directed semi-walk
No edge can appear more than once
Edges may have any direction
Vertex may appear more than once
Starts and ends at different vertices
when the direction is taken off, walk and semi-walk is the same

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Directed Graph
Directed Closed-Walk
A finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges, beginning and ending
at the same vertex, such that that
each edge is directed from the vertex preceding it and towards the
vertex following it and no edge appears more than once
In a directed Closed-walk
No edge can appear more than once
All edges must be orienting in one direction
Vertex may appear more than once
Walk is a sub graph of G
Starts and ends at the same vertex

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Directed Graph
Directed Closed Semi-Walk
A finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges, beginning and ending
at the same vertex, such that that
each edge is incident with the vertex preceding it and following it and
no edge appears more than once
In a directed Closed-walk
No edge can appear more than once
Edges may have any direction
Vertex may appear more than once
Walk is a sub graph of G
Starts and ends at the same vertex

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Directed Graph

Directed path
An Open directed walk in which no vertex appears more than once is
called a directed path.
No vertex or edge repetition
Starting and ending at different vertices
All edges orienting towards same direction

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Directed Graph

Directed semi-path
An Open directed walk in which
No vertex or edge repetition
Starting and ending at different vertices
Edges may have any direction

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Directed Graph

Directed circuit
Closed directed walk in which
No vertex or edge repetition
Starting and ending at the same vertex
All edges orienting towards same direction

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Directed Graph

Directed semi-circuit
Closed directed walk in which
No vertex or edge repetition
Starting and ending at the same vertex
Edges may have any direction

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Directed Graph
Connected digraphs
Strongly connected:
A digraph is strongly connected if there is at least one directed path
between every pair of its vertices
Weakly connected:
A digraph is weakly connected if there is at least one path between
every pair of its vertices, irrespective of the directions. Hence the
undirected version of a weakly directed graph is always connected

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Directed Graph

Accessibility / Reachability
In a digraph G, a vertex vj is said to be accessible from vi if there is a
directed path from vi to vj

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Directed Graph

Disconnected digraph
A digraph is disconnected if its corresponding undirected version is
disconnected
Each component of the disconnected digraph is a digraph itself

Graph G has 2 components, c1 and c2

c1 is strongly connected
c2 is weakly connected
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Directed Graph
Fragments
The maximal strongly connected subgraphs of a digraph or of a
component are called fragments

In graph G, the fragments are

{e3,e9}
{e8,e7,e1,e10}
{e6}
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Directed Graph

Condensation
The condensation GC of a digraph G is obtained by replacing each strongly
connected fragment by a single vertex & all directed edges from one
fragment to another are replaced by a single directed edge
Condensation of a strongly connected digraph is a single vertex
Condensation of a digraph has no directed circuit

GC is the condensation of graph G

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Directed Graph
Euler digraph
A digraph that contains a directed Euler line
A directed Euler line:A closed directed walk which traverses every
edge of the graph exactly once

Every Euler digraph would be a strongly connected digraph; However the reverse
may not be true

Graph G is an Euler digraph as we can get an directed Euler line,

V1 e1 V2 e2 V3 e3 V4 e7 V6 e8 V2 e6 V5 e5 V4 e4 V1
Graph H is not an Euler graph, as from none of the vertices, we are
able to get a directed Euler line
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Directed Graph

Theorem
A digraph G is an Euler digraph if & only if G is connected & every vertex
of G is balanced
Proof:
Suppose G is an Euler digraph
Then G must contain a directed Euler line - a closed directed walk, W
W must contain all the edges of G
So as to visit a vertex, we need to traverse an edge directed towards
the vertex & one that is directed away from that vertex
Hence for each visit, a vertex needs an in degree and a corresponding
out degree
This is true for all the vertices of W, including the initial vertex as the
walk finally ends there
Hence every vertex need to be balanced
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Directed Graph
Proof Cont..
Suppose every vertex of G is balanced
Start a walk W from an arbitrary vertex v. Visit all possible vertices.
At each vertex we are able to leave along another edge, not yet
traversed, as indegree = outdegree. Continue the process until back
at v. If W contains all edges of G, then G is an Euler digraph
If not, remove all edges of W from G
The remaining graph G’ has again, all its vertices, balanced. Now,
since G is connected, there would be a vertex u, common to W & G‘.
Starting from u, start a walk W’ in G’. If W’ covers all the edges of G’
then then G is an Euler digraph
If not, remove all edges of W’ from G’
Call the remaining graph as G”.Continue the process, until we get a
closed walk, that traverse all edges of G exactly once
Hence G is an Euler digraph
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Directed Graph
Digraphs and binary relation
A binary relation on a finite set can also be represented using a
directed graph (a digraph for short).
If a binary relation R is defined on a set A then the elements of the
set A are represented by vertices, and the ordered pairs of the relation
R are represented by the directed edges.
Suppose we are given a set A and a binary relation R
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 5), (5, 4)}
The relation R on A is represented by its digraph as follows:

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Digraphs and binary relation

Reflexive relation:
A relation R on a set X that satisfies xi Rxi for every xi ∈ X is called a
reflexive relation.
The digraph of a reflexive relation will have a self loop at every vertex.
Such a digraph representing a reflexive binary relation on its vertex
set may be called a reflexive digraph
Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and R is the relation
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}. This is a reflexive relation, and the
associated diagram is

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Digraphs and binary relation

A digraph in which no vertex has a self loop is called an irreflexive

digraph
Example:A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R is the relation
R = {(1, 4), (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 4)}. This is a irreflexive relation, and the
associated diagram is

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Digraphs and binary relation
Symmetric Relation:
For some relation R it may happen that for all xi and xj , if xi Rxj holds
then xj Rxi also holds. Such a relation is called a symmetric relation.
The digraph of a symmetric relation is a symmetric digraph because
for every directed edge from vertex xi to xj there is a directed edge
from xj to xi
Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and R is the relation
R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (1, 3)}. This is a symmetric relation, and
the associated diagram is

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Digraphs and binary relation
Transitive Relation:
A relation R is said to be transitive if for any three elements
x,i , xj and xk in the set , xi Rxj and xj Rxk always imply xi Rxk .
A digraph representing a transitive relation is called a transitive
directed graph.
Example: A = {3, 4, 5, 7, 8} and R is the relation(is less than)
R = {(7, 4), (4, 3), (7, 3)}. This is a transitive relation, and the
associated diagram is

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Digraphs and binary relation
Equivalence Relation:
A binary relation is called an equivalence relation if it is
reflexive,symmetric and transitive.
The graph representing equivalence relation is called equivalence
graph
Example:
A set of 11 integers(10 through 20) consisting of equivalence relation
”is congruent to modulo 3”
A = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

FLEURY’S ALGORITHM
It is an algorithm used to find an Euler path or circuit in a graph, provided
it exists.

1 Start with any vertex of non-zero degree.

2 Choose any edge leaving this vertex, which is not a bridge (cut edges).
3 If there is no such edge, stop.
4 Otherwise, append the edge to the Euler tour, remove it from the
graph, and repeat the process starting with the other endpoint of this
edge.

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

FLEURY’S ALGORITHM
It is an algorithm used to find an Euler path or circuit in a graph, provided
it exists.
1 Preliminaries:Make sure that the graph is connected and either
Case (1) has no odd vertices (circuit)
Case (2) has just two odd vertices (path).
2 Start:Choose a starting vertex.
In case (1) this can be any vertex;
case (2) It must be one of the two odd vertices.
3 Intermediate steps:At each step, if you have a choice, don’t choose
a bridge of the yet-to-be-traveled part of the graph.However, if you
have only one choice, take it.
4 End:When you can’t travel any more, the circuit (path) is complete.
In case (1) you will be back at the starting vertex; in case (2) you will
end at the other odd vertex.
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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example
To find an Euler circuit in the graph shown, we will start with two
copies of the graph.
Copy 1 is to keep track of the “future”
Copy 2 is to keep track of the “past.”
Every time you travel along an edge, erase that edge from copy 1, but
mark it (say in red) and label it with the appropriate number on copy2
As you move forward copy 1 disappears and copy 2 gets redder,
showing the actual Euler path or circuit.

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}
W=F,C,D {D,A}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}
W=F,C,D {D,A}
W=F,C,D,A {A,C}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}
W=F,C,D {D,A}
W=F,C,D,A {A,C}
W=F,C,D,A,C {C,E}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}
W=F,C,D {D,A}
W=F,C,D,C {A,C}
W=F,C,D,A,C {C,E}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E {E,A}

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Example Cont...

Current Path Next edge

W=F {F,C}
W=F,C {C,D}
W=F,C,D {D,A}
W=F,C,D,C {A,C}
W=F,C,D,A,C {C,E}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E {E,A}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E,A {A,B}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E,A,B {B,D}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E,A,B,D {D,F}
W=F,C,D,A,C,E,A,B,D,F –

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Q:Perform Fleury’s algorithm on the following graph

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FLEURY’S ALGORITHM

Q:Perform Fleury’s algorithm on the following graph

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