Proper tools and equipment are essential for the effective operation of any civil works site.

Equipping the
construction site with the correct tools and equipment plays an essential role in achieving timely and good
quality results.
For every construction activity there is an optimal combination of tools, equipment and labour. Depending
on the nature and content of the works, the technical staff needs to know which tools to use and how to
effectively combine them with manual labour.

The advent of tool mechanisation and the easy availability of specialised equipment have had an enormous
effect on productivity.
a) Work is now less labour intensive. This has led to many social problems, because machines now
carry out tasks that previously employed numerous people to carry out.
b) Other than productivity benefits, people also have to be trained to use specialised equipment.
The purpose of any tool is to assist a worker to perform a task. Over the last few decades, great technical
progress has been made, especially with regard to tools and equipment

Reasons for electing to use building plant

 Increase rate of output

 Reduce overall building costs
 Carry out activities which cannot be done manually or to do them most economically (reduce the
amount of manual work)
 Eliminates heavy manual work, thus reducing fatigue and increasing the productivity of manual work
 Maintain the rate of production where there is a shortage of either skilled or unskilled labour.
 Maintain the standards often required by present day designs and specifications especially when
concerned with structural engineering work.

Building plant and equipment can be bought, that is owned by the contractor or can be hired by the
contractor when needed. The type of plant to be considered for selection will depend upon the tasks
involved, the time element and the staff available

Advantages of owning mechanical building plant

 Plant is available when required

 Lost time caused by delay in deliveries of materials will generally be less on owned plant than hiring.
 Builder can apportion the plant costs to the various contracts using the plant by his own chosen
methods. (program your own with plant)

Advantages of hiring plant

 Plant can be hired as required and for short period

 Hire firm are responsible for repairs and replacement
 Contractor is not left with expensive plant items on his/her hands after completion of the contract

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  Hire rates can include operator, fuel and oil.

Factors affecting efficient employment of mechanical plant

 Size of the contract: Mechanization is better on a larger contract rather than small contracts. A large
contract normally has sufficient work for machine and to enable them to be used economically. Site
considerations must be suitable for its safe, efficient and economic use.
 Relation between operation of plant and of men. The number of men working on an operation
should be correctly related to the output of the mechanical plant so as to save time
 Careful planning and programming of the contracts to ensure the expensive plant to hire or
purchase and maintain is occupied to the maximum extent while on the site, it is ideally to sequence
all operations throughout that no plant on the site is ever idle.
 Suitability of the design of the building: the use of the mechanical plant should be considered at
the design stage carefully. The architect should be aware of the advantages of mechanical methods
which include continuity of operations and the use of plant at maximum capacity every time it is
operated.
 The soil conditions and mode of access to the site. This will often influence the choice of plant
items which could be considered for a particular task. Congested towns may severely limit the use of
many types of machinery and/ or plant.
 The size of site: if the proposed structure occupies the whole of the site it could eliminate the use of
large plant
 The nature of the site: wet site usually require plant equipped with caterpillar tracks whereas dry
sites are suitable for tracked and wheeled vehicles or power units.
 Topography: sloping sites are usually unsuitable for rail-mounted cranes and steep sloping sites may
deter use of plant.
 Heights and proximity of adjacent structures or buildings: this may limit the use of a horizontal jib
crane and may even dictate the use of a crane with a luffing jib.
 Safety and noise emission requirements: this may affect the choice of plant depending on the noise
it emits and the local area requirements with regards to noise emission

The influence of choosing appropriate equipment on productivity and quality of work

The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required amount
of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore important for site managers
and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment most
commonly used in construction.
There are four basic types of tools and equipment used in the construction industry, namely:
• hand tools
• Portable electric tools
• Light machines and equipment, and
• Heavy machines and equipment.
Hand tools are operated and powered by humans. Examples are screwdrivers, planes, saws and hammers.
Portable tools are normally electrically powered (sometimes pneumatically or hydraulically) and examples
are electric drills, grinders and routers.
Light equipment can be fairly easily moved about, for example step ladders, scaffolds and wheelbarrows.

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Heavy equipment consists of items such as trucks, cranes, forklifts and bulldozers.
There is a saying that applies to the use of tools and equipment:
‘Always use the correct tool for the job’ or ‘Use a tool for what it is meant’.

 Careful planning and an understanding of the work to be carried out are prerequisites to the
successful and economical completion of any work. For example, if you are required to remove half
a ton of rubble, it is not good practice to hire a 10-ton truck to do this. It is a waste of resources.
 The equipment must also be available at the correct time. This involves careful planning. A bulldozer
should not be made available long before or after a site is ready to be cleared. It should ideally
arrive just in time.

In order to increase job-site productivity, it is beneficial to select equipment with proper characteristics and
a size most suitable for the work conditions at a construction site. In excavation for building construction,
for examples, factors that could affect the selection of excavators include:
1. Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or smaller excavators in
greater number.
2. Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to increase the size or
numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation.
3. Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the equipment used to
perform them is available but not the most adequate.
4. Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the distance of
transportation, and the means of transportation.
5. Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or fill, excavation
massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most adequate equipment to perform one of
these activities is not the most adequate to perform the others.
6. Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing the most adequate
equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for different soils. Moreover, one
excavation pit could have different soils at different stratums.
7. Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: Functional characteristics of different types of
equipment make such considerations necessary.

8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial limitations for the
movement of excavators.
9. Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units if there is a constraint
on the size and/or number of these units.
10. Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and dumping areas could be
relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers, but also the type of excavators.
11. Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect the job-site
productivity of labor and equipment.

The importance and economic benefits of maintaining and caring for equipment
Faulty equipment is a common reason for delays on construction sites. A major responsibility of the project
management is to ensure that tools and equipment are maintained in a good condition and are readily
available when required for the various work activities.

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The care of facilities and the avoidance of failure of machinery are of utmost importance for any
organisation. Maintenance should be a planned set of activities that is carried out systematically in order to
avoid costly and time-consuming breakdown and failure.
Maintenance of Equipment
Regular mechanical maintenance of the equipment prevents breakdowns and ensures a long equipment
lifetime. The project manager must ensure that:

(i) the operators are aware of the required maintenance and service of their equipment
(ii) that the site has access to adequate workshop facilities, and
(iii) that service and repairs are carried out at the right time.

In either case, it is important that the construction equipment is inspected on a regular basis by competent
staff. Equally, it is the responsibility of the mechanic to instruct the operators in the proper use of the
equipment and routine service requirements.

Maintenance Considerations ~ on large contracts where a number of plant items are to be used it may be
advantageous to employ a skilled mechanic to be on site to carry out all the necessary daily, preventive and
planned maintenance tasks together with any running repairs which could be carried out on site.
There are many benefits to careful maintenance, including saving money and ensuring safety.

Some of the advantages are;

Lower operating costs

Equipment and machinery that constantly breaks down and needs repair can be costly, especially if the
cause is due to poor or no maintenance

Increased reliability
Well-maintained equipment and machinery will perform constantly and reliably without disruption to
productivity.

Increased safety
Machines that are not well maintained can prove dangerous to staff. This can lead to injury or even death.

Higher resale value

A well-maintained piece of equipment or machine can fetch a higher resale price on the second-hand
market than one that has been badly looked after.

Better quality
The output of well-maintained equipment and machinery is of much higher quality than poorly maintained
ones. For example, a badly maintained forklift may actually damage the goods that it is transporting.

Increased life span

Well-maintained equipment and machinery can last longer than badly maintained pieces.
There are three main types of maintenance processes:
1. run-to-breakdown maintenance
2. condition-based maintenance, and
3. preventative maintenance.
Sometimes more than one type is used simultaneously.

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Construction plant

Construction plant can be classified according to their functions. There is building plant for: site clearance,
site levelling and excavation as well as setting out.

1. Site clearance plant

These are used to clear a site of any obstacles such as boulders, trees and grass. The site clearance plant
include the bulldozer, and the grader

Bulldozer

Consists of a rectangular steel blade with renewable cutting edge attached by steel arms to the side frames
of a crawler tractor. It may be used for excavating natural soil or moving loose soil or debris which it pushes
forward as the tractor forces it ahead. It can also be used to remove trees.

Grader

They are used for finishing to fine limits large areas of ground to the required formation level.

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Scraper

This plant is used to excavate and transport soil where surface stripping, site leveling and cut and fill
activities are planned. These machines are capable of producing a very smooth and accurate formation
level.

2. Site leveling and excavation plant

Site excavation and levelling plant include; the bulldozer, grader, scraper, skimmer, face shovel, backacter,
dragline, trench digger, crane and grab,

Face shovel

Is used to excavate against a face or bank, consisting of an open top bucket or dipper with a bottom
opening door, fixed to an arm or dipper stick which slides and pivots on the jib of the crane. It is suitable for
excavating all clay, chalk and friable materials and for handling rock and stone.

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Front loaders

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Backacter

Is similar to face shovel except that the dipper stick pivots on the end of the jib and the dipper or bucket
works towards the chassis and normally has no bottom door but is emptied by swinging away from the
chassis to invert the bucket. It is mainly used to excavate trenches and occasionally used for the excavation
of open areas such as small basements

Skimmer

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Is similar to the face shovel except that in this case the bucket slides on rollers directly along the jib and
thus has a more restricted movement. It is used for surface exaction and leveling in conjunction with
transport to haul away the excavated material.

Dragline

It is usually fitted with a long slender boom or jib and the bucket, which in operation faces the machine and
has no door, is supported by cable only as on a crane. It works from the side of the excavation at normal
ground level and is used for excavating large open excavations such as basements when the depth is
beyond the limit of the boom of a backacter.

Multi-purpose Excavators ~
These machines are usually based on the agricultural tractor with two- or four-wheel drive and are
intended mainly for use in conjunction with small excavation works such as those encountered by the small
to medium sized building contractor. Most multi-purpose excavators are fitted with a loading/excavating
front bucket and a rear backacter bucket both being hydraulically controlled. When in operation using the
backacter bucket the machine is raised off its axles by rear mounted hydraulic outriggers or jacks and in
some models by placing the front bucket on the ground. Most machines can be fitted with a variety of
bucket widths and various attachments such as bulldozer blades, scarifiers, grab buckets and post hole
auger borers.

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Crane and grab

It consists of two hinged half-buckets or jaws pivoted to a frame which is suspended by cable from a long jib
of an excavator. The grab is used for deep excavations of limited area on all types of soil except rock.

Transport Vehicles

Dumpers ~ these are used for the horizontal transportation of materials on and off construction sites
generally by means of an integral tipping skip. Highway dumpers are of a similar but larger design and can
be used to carry materials such as excavated spoil along the roads. A wide range of dumpers are available
of various carrying capacities and options for gravity or hydraulic discharge control with front tipping, side
tipping or elevated tipping facilities.
Special format dumpers fitted with flat platforms, rigs to carry materials skips and rigs for concrete skips for
crane hoisting are also obtainable. These machines are designed to traverse rough terrain but they are not
designed to carry passengers, and this misuse is the cause of many accidents involving dumpers.

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Hoists
These are designed for the vertical transportation of materials, passengers, or materials and passengers.
a) Materials hoists are designed for one specific use (i.e. the vertical transportation of materials) and under
no circumstances should they be used to transport passengers. Most material hoists are of a mobile format
which can be dismantled, folded onto the chassis and moved to another position or site under their own
power or towed by a haulage vehicle. When in use material hoists need to be stabilised and/or tied to the
structure and enclosed with a protective screen.

b) Passenger Hoists ~ these are designed to carry passengers, although most are capable of transporting a
combined load of materials and passengers within the lifting capacity of the hoist. A wide selection of hoists
is available ranging from a single cage with rope suspension to twin cages with rack and pinion operation
mounted on two sides of a static tower

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Cranes ~
These are lifting devices designed to raise materials by means of rope operation and move the load
horizontally within the limitations of any particular machine. The range of cranes available is very wide and
therefore choice must be based on the loads to be lifted, height and horizontal distance to be covered, time
period(s) of lifting operations, utilisation factors and degree of mobility required. Crane types can range
from a simple rope and pulley or gin wheel to a complex tower crane but most can be placed within one of
three groups, namely mobile, static and tower cranes.

Self Propelled Cranes ~ these are mobile cranes mounted on a wheeled chassis and have only one operator
position from which the crane is controlled and the vehicle driven. The road speed of this type of crane is
generally low, usually not exceeding 30km p.h. A variety of self propelled crane formats are available
ranging from short height lifting strut booms of fixed length to variable length lattice booms with a fly jib
attachment.

Lorry Mounted Cranes ~ these mobile cranes consist of a lattice or telescopic boom mounted on a specially
adapted truck or lorry.
They have two operating positions: the lorry being driven from a conventional front cab and the crane
being controlled from a different location. The lifting capacity of these cranes can be increased by using
outrigger stabilising jacks and the approach distance to the face of the building decreased by using a fly jib.
Lorry mounted telescopic cranes require a firm surface from which to operate and because of their short
site preparation time they are ideally suited for short hire periods.

Lorry Mounted Lattice Jib Cranes ~ these cranes follow the same basic principles as the lorry mounted
telescopic cranes but they have a lattice boom and are designed as heavy duty cranes with lifting capacities
in excess of 100 tonnes. These cranes will require a firm, level surface from which to operate and can have
folding or sectional jibs which will require the crane to be rigged on site before use

Track Mounted Cranes ~ these machines can be a universal power unit rigged as a crane or a purpose-
designed track mounted crane with or without a fly jib attachment. The latter types are usually more
powerful with lifting capacities of up to 45 tonnes. Track mounted cranes can travel and carry out lifting
operations on most sites without the need for special road and hardstand provisions but they have to be
rigged on arrival after being transported to site on a low-loader lorry.

Gantry Cranes ~ these are sometimes called portal cranes and consist basically of two `A' frames joined
together with a cross-member on which transverses the lifting appliance. In small gantry cranes (up to 10
tonnes lifting capacity) the `A' frames are usually wheel mounted and manually propelled whereas in the
large gantry cranes (up to 100 tonnes lifting capacity) the `A' frames are mounted on powered bogies
running on rail tracks with the driving cab and lifting gear mounted on the cross-beam or gantry.

Small gantry cranes are used primarily for loading and unloading activities in stock yards whereas the
medium and large gantry cranes are used to straddle the work area such as in power station construction or
in repetitive low- to medium-rise developments. All gantry cranes have the advantage of three directions
movement:

1 . Transverse by moving along the cross-beam.

2. Vertical by raising and lowering the hoist block.
3. Horizontal by forward and reverse movements of the whole gantry crane

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Mast Cranes ~ these are similar in appearance to the familiar tower cranes but they have one major
difference in that the mast or tower is mounted on the slewing ring and thus rotates, whereas a tower
crane has the slewing ring at the top of the tower and therefore only the jib portion rotates. Mast cranes
are often mobile, self-erecting, of relatively low lifting capacity and are usually fitted with a luffing jib. Wide
varieties of models are available and have the advantage over most mobile low pivot cranes of a closer
approach to the face of the building.

Tower Cranes ~ most tower cranes have to be assembled and erected on site prior to use and can be
equipped with a horizontal or luffing jib. The wide range of models available often makes it difficult to
choose a crane suitable for any particular site but most tower cranes can be classified into one of four basic
groups thus:

1. Self-supporting Static Tower Cranes high lifting capacity with the mast or tower fixed to a foundation
base they are suitable for confined and open sites.

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2. Supported Static Tower Cranes similar in concept to self-supporting cranes and are used where high lifts
are required, the mast or tower being tied at suitable intervals to the structure to give extra stability.

3. Travelling Tower Cranes: these are tower cranes mounted on power bogies running on a wide gauge
railway track to give greater site coverage only slight gradients can be accommodated, therefore a
reasonably level site or specially constructed railway support trestle is required.

4. Climbing Cranes † these are used in conjunction with tall buildings and structures. The climbing mast or
tower is housed within the structure and raised as the height of the structure is increased.

Upon completion the crane is dismantled into small sections and lowered down the face of the building

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All tower cranes should be left in an `out of service' condition when unattended and in high wind
conditions, the latter varying with different models but generally wind speeds in excess of 60 km p.h. would
require the crane to be placed in an out of service
Concreting ~
This site activity consists of four basic procedures:
1. Material Supply and Storage † this is the receiving on site of the basic materials namely cement, fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate and storing them under satisfactory conditions

2. Mixing † carried out in small batches this requires only simple handheld tools whereas when demand for
increased output is required mixers or ready mixed supplies could be used

3. Transporting † this can range from a simple bucket to barrows and dumpers for small amounts. For larger
loads, especially those required at high level, crane skips could be used.

For the transportation of large volumes of concrete over a limited distance concrete pumps could be used.

4. Placing Concrete † this activity involves placing the wet concrete in the excavation, formwork or mould;
working the concrete between and around any reinforcement; vibrating and/ or tamping and curing

Concrete Mixers
Apart from the very large output mixers most concrete mixers in general use have a rotating drum
designed to produce a concrete without segregation of the mix.
Concreting Plant ~ the selection of concreting plant can be considered under three activity headings:

1. Mixing.
2. Transporting.
3. Placing.
Choice of Mixer
The factors to be taken into consideration when selecting the type of concrete mixer required are:
1. Maximum output required (m3/hour).
2. Total output required (m3).
3. Type or method of transporting the mixed concrete.
4. Discharge height of mixer (compatibility with transporting method.

Concrete mixer types are generally related to their designed output performance, therefore when the
answer to the question

`How much concrete can be placed in a given time period?' or alternatively `What mixing and placing
methods are to be employed to mix and place a certain amount of concrete in a given time period?' has
been found the actual mixer can be selected.
Generally a batch mixing time of 5 minutes per cycle or 12 batches per hour can be assumed as a
reasonable basis for assessing mixer output.

Small Batch Mixers

These mixers have outputs of up to 200 litres per batch with wheelbarrow transportation an hourly placing
rate of 2 to 3m3 can be achieved. Most small batch mixers are of the tilting drum type. Generally these
mixers are hand loaded which makes the quality control of successive mixes difficult to regulate .

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Medium Batch Mixers ~
Outputs of these mixers range from 200 to750 litres and can be obtained at the lower end of the range as a
tilting drum mixer or over the complete range as a non-tilting drum mixer with either reversing drum or
chute discharge. The latter usually has a lower discharge height. These mixers usually have integral weight
batching loading hoppers, scraper shovels and water tanks, thus giving better quality control than the small
batch mixers. Generally they are unsuitable for wheelbarrow transportation because of their high output.

Transporting Concrete ~ the usual means of transporting mixed concrete produced in a small capacity
mixer is by wheelbarrow.
The run between the mixing and placing positions should be kept to a minimum and as smooth as possible
by using planks or similar materials to prevent segregation of the mix within the wheelbarrow.

Dumpers ~ these can be used for transporting mixed concrete from mixers up to 600 litre capacity when
fitted with an integral skip and for lower capacities when designed to take a crane skip.

Ready Mixed Concrete Trucks ~ these are used to transport mixed concrete from a mixing plant or depot to
the site. Usual capacity range of ready mixed concrete trucks is 4 to 6 m3. Discharge can be direct into
placing position via a chute or into some form of site transport such as a dumper, crane skip or concrete
pump.

Concrete Pumps ~ these are used to transport large volumes of concrete in a short time period (up to 100
m3 per hour) in both the vertical and horizontal directions from the pump position to the point of placing.
Concrete pumps can be trailer or Lorry mounted and are usually of a twin cylinder hydraulically driven
format with a small bore pipeline (100 mm diameter) with pumping ranges of up to 85„000 vertically and
200„000 horizontally depending on the pump model and the combination of vertical and horizontal

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distances. It generally requires about 45 minutes to set up a concrete pump on site including coating the
bore of the pipeline with a cement grout prior to pumping the special concrete mix.
The pump is supplied with pumpable concrete by means of a constant flow of ready mixed concrete lorries
throughout the pumping period after which the pipeline is cleared and cleaned.
Usually a concrete pump and its operator(s) are hired for the period required.

Placing Concrete ~ this activity is usually carried out by hand with the objectives of filling the mould,
formwork or excavated area to the correct depth, working the concrete around any inserts or
reinforcement and finally compacting the concrete to the required consolidation. The compaction of
concrete can be carried out using simple tamping rods or boards, or alternatively it can be carried out with
the aid of plant such as vibrators.

Poker Vibrators ~ these consist of a hollow steel tube casing containing a rotating impeller which generates
vibrations as its head comes into contact with the casing. Poker vibrators should be inserted vertically and
allowed to penetrate 75mm into any previously vibrated concrete.
Clamp or Tamping Board Vibrators ~ clamp vibrators are powered either by compressed air or electricity
whereas tamping board vibrators are usually petrol driven

Power Float - a hand-operated electric motor or petrol engine, surmounted over a mechanical surface
skimmer. Machines are provided with an interchangeable revolving disc and a set of blades. These are used
in combination to produce a smooth, dense and level surface finish to in-situ concrete beds.

The advantages offset against the cost of plant hire are:

* Eliminates the time and materials needed to apply a finishing screed.
* A quicker process and less labour-intensive than hand trowelling.
Application
 After transverse tamping, the concrete is left to partially set for a few hours.
 Amount of setting time will depend on a number of variables, including air temperature and
humidity, mix specification and machine weight.
 As a rough guide, walking on the concrete will leave indentations of about 3 to 4 mm.
 A surfacing disc is used initially to remove high tamping lines, before two passes with blades to finish
and polish the surface.

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Setting out equipment

This equipment is used when setting out buildings and other structures and some of them are: theodolites,
dumpy level, the large builder’s square.

Theodolite:

Is a surveying instrument, consisting of a small mounted telescope, used to measure horizontal and vertical
angles.

Theodolite a tripod mounted instrument designed to measure angles in the horizontal or vertical plane.

The theodolite in principle

Measurement a telescope provides for focal location between instrument and subject. Position of the
scope is defined by an index of angles. The scale and presentation of angles varies from traditional
micrometer readings to computer compatible crystal displays. Angles are measured in degrees, minutes
and seconds, e.g. 165_ 530 3000.

Direct reading micrometer scale

Application at least two sightings are taken and the readings averaged. After the first sighting, the
horizontal plate is rotated through 180_ and the scope also rotated 180_ through the vertical to return the
instrument to its original alignment for the second reading. This process will move the vertical circle from
right face to left face, or vice-versa. It is important to note the readings against the facing.

Builder’s square:
Is used for setting out small projects

Dumpy level
Is a level having a short telescope rigidly fixed to a table capable of only rotatory movement in a horizontal
plane. The telescope is usually an inverting one

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Taking levels ~ an Ordnance Datum bench mark or a temporary bench mark is located. The levelling
instrument and tripod are positioned on firm ground and sighted to the bench mark. Further staff height
readings are taken at established positions around the site or at measured intervals corresponding to a grid
pattern at convenient intervals, typically 10m. Each intersection of the grid lines represents a staff position,
otherwise known as a station.
Levels taken from the staff readings (4 No. from the grid corners) are computed with the plan area
calculations (100m2 for a 10m grid). From this the volume of site excavation or cut and fill required to level
the site can be calculated.

Storage of equipment
Equipment should be stored where they are not likely going to get in people’s way and they are not going
to be knocked about and get damaged. Small equipment should be stored in storerooms inside cabinets for
security. Larger equipment may be stored in sheds or garages where there are fewer chances of them
getting affected by bad weather elements.
The storeroom should be lockable to ensure maximum security to valuable equipment

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Tools should be stored in a dry and secure place. They should be stacked neatly so that they can easily be
counted. Stack different items and items of different sizes separately.

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