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Republic of the Philippines

Region I
SCHOOLS DIVISION OFFICE-CITY OF SAN FERNANDO (LU)
La Union National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Catbangen, City of San Fernando, La Union
Telephone Number: (072) 682-9626 / E-mail: [email protected]

RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Descriptive Research

 designed to give “answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how” which relates to
the research problem.
 descriptive research does not answer the question “why” because it does not seek to explain why
certain things happen.
 It is applied only to describe what exists and to gather information about a certain phenomenon.
When to use descriptive research design?

 It is an appropriate choice when the research objective is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends,
and categories.

Examples of Descriptive Research:

• A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation
• A description of the tobacco habits of adult males in a community
• A description of the kinds of physical activities that elders do in nursing homes, and how often each
occurs
2. Correlational Research
 This type of research is designed to seek and understand what kind of relationships naturally occurring
variables have with one another.
 In simple terms, correlational research seeks to figure out if two or more variables are related and, if so,
in what way.
When to use correlational research design?

 It is the design of choice if 1) you want to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, but
you don't expect to find a causal relationship between them and if 2) statistical relationship of interest is
thought to be causal, but the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is
impossible, impractical, or unethical.
Example of Correlational Research:
• A study on the corrélation between cancer and marriage. In this study, there are two variables: cancer and
marriage. Let us say marriage has a negative corrélation with cancer. This means that people who are
married are less likely to develop cancer.
3. Experimental Research

 This type of research design allows researchers to manipulate one or more independent variables
and measure their effect on one or more dependent variables by performing an experiment.
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 This design involves two groups of subjects: the experimental group on which the condition,
treatment, or intervention is applied and the control group that is not given any treatment or
condition.

When to use experimental research design?

This research design is suitable for research whose goal is to examine cause-
effect relationships. It is often used where there is time priority in a causal
relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship
(a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation
is great.
Examples of Experimental Research:
• The effect of new treatment plan on breast cancer
• The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
• Comparison on the effect of personalized instruction versus traditional instruction on computational skill
SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling means choosing from a large population of respondents or subjects to answer your research
questions. The entire population is involved however, for your research study, you choose only a part of the
whole.
Why do we do sampling?

1. It saves time, money, and effort. With only a small number subjects to be collected, tabulated, presented,
analyzed and interpreted, the use of sample gives comprehensive information of the results of the study.

2. It is more accurate. Fewer errors are made due to small size of data involved in collection, tabulation,
presentation, analysis and interpretation.

3. It gives more comprehensive information. Since there is a thorough investigation of the study due to small
sample, the results give more comprehensive information because all members of the population have an
equal chance of being included in the sample.
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How to determine sample size?

Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the result of the study will be. Hence, it is advisable
to have a sample large enough to yield reliable results, yet small enough to be manageable within the constraints
of the study.
Approaches to Determining Sample Size
1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution of the mean will
approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990)
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the sample size. This
is called universal sampling.
3. Slovin's formula may be used to compute for the sample size.

Slovin’s Formula Acceptable Error Value is the alpha

n=N÷(1+Ne2) level used in determining the sample
N = known population size size in most of academic research
e = acceptable error value studies, either 0.05 or 0.01. The lower
n = sample size the alpha level, the larger is the sample
size.

4. According to Fraenkel & Wallen (2012):

 For descriptive studies, a minimum number of 100 is essential.
 For correlational studies, a sample of at least 50 is deemed necessary to establish the existence of a
relationship.
 For experimental studies, a minimum of 30 individuals per group is recommended.
SAMPLING METHODS
Sampling methods refer to how we select members from the population to be in the study. If a sample
isn't randomly selected, it will probably be biased in some way and the data may not be representative of
the population. There are two groups of sampling methods.
A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 This sampling method makes you base your selection of respondents on pure chance. All are given
equal opportunity to be chosen as a sample for the research. The following are the different probability
sampling techniques:
1. Simple Random Sampling: Every member and set of members has an equal chance of being included
in the sample. Technology, random number generators, fishbowl technique can be used to select you
sample.

A teacher puts students' names in

a hat and chooses without looking
to get a sample of students.
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3. Systematic Random Sampling: Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in

which sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a
fixed, periodic interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population
size by the desired sample size. In using this method, the researcher has to determine first the sampling
interval he will use.

Where:
A principal takes an alphabetized list of K = sampling interval
N = total population
student names and picks a random
n = the desired sample size
starting point, then picks every 20th
student to take a survey.
Practice Exercise: Applying the formula, what is the appropriate sampling
interval if the desired sample size is 286 and the total population is 1000?

3. Stratified Random Sampling: The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of some
members from every group. The members from each group are chosen randomly. A stratified
sample guarantees that members from each group will be represented in the sample, so this
sampling method is good when we want some members from every group.

A student council surveys 100 students

by getting random samples of 25
freshmen, 25 sophomores, 25 juniors,
and 25 seniors.

4. Cluster Sampling: The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of every member
from some of the groups. The groups are selected at random. A cluster sample gets every member from
some of the groups, so it's good when each
group reflects the population as a
whole.

B.

An airline company wants to survey its

customers one day, so they randomly
select 5 flights that day and survey every
passenger on those flights.

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
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The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly, but purposefully. Not
randomized, they are susceptible to bias. Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the
researcher’s judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the control, likes, or wishes of the
researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure.

The following are the non- probability

sampling techniques:
1. Convenience Sampling: The researcher
chooses
a sample
A researcher polls people as they walk that is
by on the street. readily
available
Why it's probably biased: The location in some
and time of day and other factors may
produce a biased sample of people.

non-random way.

2. Voluntary Response Sampling: The researcher puts out a request for members of a population to join
the sample, and people decide whether or not to be in the sample.

3. A TV show host asks his viewers to visit his

website and respond to an online poll.

Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling method is purely based on referrals and that is how a researcher is
able to generate a sample. Therefore, this method is also called the chain-referral sampling method. This
sampling method is extensively used where a population is unknown and rare, and it is tough to choose
subjects to assemble them as samples for research.
 This sampling technique can go on and on, just like a snowball increasing in size (in this case the
sample size) until the time a researcher has enough data to analyze, to draw conclusive results that
can help an organization make
informed decisions.
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Research Instruments are measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales) designed to obtain data
on a topic of interest from research subjects. When you do research, you have to gather information and
evidence from a variety of sources:
a. A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena
that you are researching. It provides raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include
interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the
subject of your research.
b. A secondary source provides second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. It
describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples
include books, journal articles, documentaries, reviews, essays, and academic books.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

1. Questionnaire
2. Interview Guide
3. Observation Guide
4. Checklist
1. Questionnaire
This is the most common instrument or tool for obtaining data in research. It is a list of planned, written
questions about a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response to each question, intended to be
answered by a number of respondents. It is relatively inexpensive, easy to administer, potentially more
consistent than other methods, assures confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing modes.
However, a disadvantage of questionnaire is that respondents may interpret the questions differently and may
answer them in ways the researcher did not intend.

Questionnaires can contain closed-ended and open-ended questions. Types of questions used in
questionnaires are:
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In writing questions for your questionnaire, consider the following:

1. State questions in an affirmative manner rather than negative.
2. Avoid questions containing words like many, always, usually, and few.
3. Double negative questions should also be avoided.
Example: Don’t you disagree with the idea that…..?”
4. Avoid asking two questions in one.
Example: Do you want to become the president and seek position in the student council?
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

Name (Optional): _______________

Contain different types of questions: Age ________ Sex: __M __F
1 personal, attitudinal or behavioral; Grade level _______

Use strategies for good construction: I am enthusiastic about being a student

uses clear language, makes sure that ___ SA ___ A ___ DA ___ SD
2 answer options do not overlap; posing
questions that are applicable to
participants. Validity – is the ability of an instrument to
measure what it intends to measure.
Valid and reliable. Underwent pilot
3 testing to a small number of individuals Reliability - refers to the consistency of
results.

2. INTERVIEW GUIDE
The interview guide is a list of questions you will ask your participants during the interview. There are
three standard types of interviews one can choose to conduct: structured, unstructured or semi-structured. With
a structured interview, each participant is asked the exact same question in the same order that is in the
interview guide.

Sample of an Interview Guide

https://www.betterevaluation.org/en/evaluation-options/interviews
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3. OBSERVATION GUIDE
Observation is a systematic data collection approach wherein the researchers use all of their senses to
examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations. The researcher uses a guide to record the
behavior of the participants that they observed.

Sample Observation Guide

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4. CHECKLIST
Checklists are used to encourage or verify that a number of specific lines of inquiry, steps, or actions are

being taken, or have been taken, by a researcher.

Sample Checklist
http://korbedpsych.com/R09dItems.html
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
1. Likert Scale. This is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative statements that
express a viewpoint on the topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree
with the statements. The answers usually come in the form of an acronyms, e.g. SA - strongly agree, A -
agree, D - disagree, SD - strongly disagree.
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2. Semantic Differential Scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar adjectives.
This scale is flexible and easy to construct.

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Characteristics of Good Data Collection Instrument

1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. The length of a questionnaire must be two to four
pages and the maximum time of answering is 10 minutes. The desirable length of each question is less
than 20 words (Shelley, 1984).
2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources like documents available at hand.
3. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from the simplest to the most complex.
4. It should pass validity and reliability tests.
5. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.

A good research instrument must be valid and reliable. An instrument is valid if it collects data which are
intended for it to collect and long enough to be able to collect adequate information to complete the study or
investigation. On the other hand, it is reliable if it is administered to the same subject twice without any
practice, it gives consistent result or measure.
When an instrument is adopted, it is important to appropriately describe the instrument in
the Instruments section and include the following information:
 Who developed the instrument
 Who validated the instrument
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 Other studies that have used the instrument

 The Cronbach’s alpha which is a measure of the internal consistency reliability of the instrument
When distributing questionnaires, a cover letter should be attached and given to your respondents. The
purpose and importance of the survey should be explained clearly in the cover letter to make sure the
respondents understand it, thus encouraging cooperation. Respondents should also be assured that their
privacy and anonymity will be maintained.

Data collection is a process of collecting or gathering information regarding variables the study sought to
examine and analyze to answer the stated research questions and evaluate outcomes. It is important to ensure
that the procedure follows an accurate and honest collection. Common data collection methods used in
quantitative research are survey, experiment, and observation.

Data collection methods

Method When to use How to collect data

Experiment To test a causal relationship. Manipulate variables and measure their effects on
others.

Survey To understand the general Distribute a list of questions to a sample online,

characteristics or opinions of a group in person or over-the-phone.
of people.

Interview/focus To gain an in-depth understanding of Verbally ask participants open-ended questions

group perceptions or opinions on a topic. in individual interviews or focus group
discussions.

Observation To understand something in its natural Measure or survey a sample without trying to
setting. affect them.

Ethnography To study the culture of a community Join and participate in a community and record
or organization first-hand. your observations and reflections.
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FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

1.TEXTUAL - This form of presentation combines text and numerical facts in a statistical report
WHEN TO USE A TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA?
 This kind of representation is useful when you are looking to supplement qualitative statements with some
data. For this purpose, the data should not be voluminously represented in tables or diagrams. It just has to be
a statement that serves as a fitting evidence to our qualitative evidence and helps the reader to get an idea of
the scale of a phenomenon.

2. TABULAR
This form presentation is better than textual form because it provides numerical facts in a more concise
and systematic manner. Statistical tables are constructed to facilitate the analysis of relationship. Each class and
subclass are assigned to a row or column and figures for various classifications.
The following are the main parts a table:
Table Number  Table No. is the very first item mentioned on the top of
each table for easy identification and further reference.
Title  Title of the table is the second item which shown just
above the table.
 It narrates about the contents of the table so, it has to be
very clear, brief and carefully worded.
Headnote  It is the third item just above the Table & shown after the
title.
 It gives information about unit of data like, “Amount in
Rupees or $”, “Quantity in Tonnes” etc.
 It is generally given in brackets.
Captions or Column  At the top of each column in a table, a column
designation/head is given to explain figures of the column.
Headings
 This is column heading is called “Caption”.
Stubs or Row  The title of the horizontal rows is called “Stubs”.
Headings
Body of the Table  It contains the numeric information and reveals the whole
story of investigated facts. Columns are read vertically
from top to bottom and rows are read horizontally from
left to right
Source Note  It is a brief statement or phrase indicating the source of
data presented in the table.
Footnote  It explains the specific feature of the table which is not
self-explanatory and has not been explained earlier. For
example, Points of exception if any.

ADVANTAGES OF TABULAR PRESENTATION

a. It is brief; it reduces the matter to the minimum.
b. It provides the reader a good grasp of the meaning of the quantitative indicated in the report.
c. It tells the whole story without the necessity of mixing textual matter with figures.
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d. The systematic arrangement of column and rows makes them easily read and readily understood.
e. The column and rows make comparison easier. On the other hand, according to Calmorin & Calmorin (2007),
data matrixes are useful in analysis and interpretation of data in tabular form because they give a clear picture of
the study. It has three types namely:
a. Univariate matrix - it involves only one variable
b. Bivariate matrix - it involves two variables
c. Multivariate matrix - involves three or more in the tables.
WHEN TO USE TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA?
 It is commonly used as a documentation in any QUANTATIVE research.
Below is a sample of a tabular presentation of data and its interpretation. Read and analyze intently on how this
table is presented and interpreted.
3. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
This form is the most effective means of organizing and presenting statistical data because the important
relationships are brought out more clearly and creatively in virtually solid and colorful figures.
Different Kinds of Graphs and Charts
1. LINE GRAPH
It shows relationship between two sets of quantities. This is done by plotting point of X set of quantities
along the horizontal axis against the Y set of quantities along the vertical axis in a Cartesian coordinate plane.
Those plotted point will be connected by a line segment which finally forms the line graph. It is often used to
predict growth trends for a longer period.

2. BAR GRAPH
It consists of bars or rectangles of equal widths, either draws vertically or horizontally segmented or
non-horizontally segmented or non-segmented. This is done by drawing rectangles with length proportional to
the frequencies of observed items or magnitude of classes under study. Two or more kinds of information can
be compared by showing them in multiple bar graphs, each of which is shaded with different colors to give
distinction of each. In some cases, bars can be shown in opposite direction above and below a zero line to
illustrate cases, bars profits or earnings (positive and loss / deficits relationships). Qualitative data can be
graphically represented by using this graph.
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3. CIRCLE GRAPH OR PIE CHART

It represents relationship of the different

components of a single as revealed in the sectors of a circle. The
angles or size of the sectors should be proportional to the
percentage component of the data which give a total of 100%.
Color, legends, and cross hatching will be useful in identifying
each component. The steps to create a pie chart using MS Excel is
like column chart and, but they differ only in Step 10.

4. SCATTER POINT DIAGRAM

It is a graphical device to show the relationship between quantitative variables. Unlike the line graph, the
plotted point for every pair of X and Y set quantities are not connected by line segments but are simply
scattered on the Cartesian coordinate plane. In this diagram, a line that provides an approximation of the
relationship between the variables is known as a trend line.

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WHEN DO WE USE GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA?

 Graphs enable us in studying the cause and effect relationship between two variables. Graphs help to
measure the extent of change in one variable when another variable changes by a certain amount.

WHAT IS STATISTICS?

Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics
then means performing some arithmetic procedures like addition, division, subtraction, multiplication, and other
mathematical calculations.
Statistics demands much of your time and effort, for it is not merely a matter of collecting and
examining data, but involves analysis, planning, interpreting, and organizing data in relation to the design of the
experimental method you chose. Statistical methods then are ways of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting
variable or fluctuating numerical data.
Statistics is divided into descriptive and inferential. Descriptive is concerned of organizing, analyzing,
and interpreting numerical data about the population, while inferential statistics is concerned of making
generalization about population basing on a sample.
The selection of the appropriate statistical tools depends on two factors:
1. The question or statement of the problem of the research. That is, a descriptive question needs to be analyzed
with descriptive statistical tools, while an inferential question needs to be analyzed with an inferential statistical
tool.
2. The measurement of data from nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio level.

1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

This describes a certain aspect of a data set by

calculating the Mean, Medium, Mode and Standard Deviation. It tells
about the placement or position of one data item in relation to the other
data, the extent of the distribution or spreading out of data, and whether
they are correlations or regressions between or among variables. This kind
of statistics does not tell anything about the population.
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a. Mean or Weighted Mean- are the common descriptive statistical tool to answer the specific descriptive
research problem. It is computed by getting the sum of all the observations divided by the number of
observations.
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Where,

x is the repeating value

w is the number of occurrences of x weight
x is the weighted mean
SOLVED EXAMPLES OF WEIGHTED MEAN

A. Question: Suppose that a marketing firm conducts a survey of 1,000 households to

determine the average number of TVs each household owns. The data show many
Solution:
households with two or three TVs and a smaller number with one or four. Every
Number of TVs per Household Number of Households
household in the sample has at least one TV and no household has more than four.
1 73
2 378
3 459
4 90

As many of the values in this data set are repeated multiple times, you can easily compute the sample mean as a
weighted mean. Follow these steps to calculate the weighted arithmetic mean:

Step 1: Assign a weight to each value in the dataset:

x1=1,w1=73
x2=2,w2=378
x3=3,w3=459
x4=4,w4=90

Step 2: Compute the numerator of the weighted mean formula.

Multiply each sample by its weight and then add the products together:
∑4i=1wixi=w1x1+w2x2+w3x3+w4x4
= (1)(73) +(2) (378) +(3) (459) +(4)(90)
=2566

Step 3: Now, compute the denominator of the weighted mean formula by adding the weights together.
∑4i=1wi=w1+w2+w3+w4
= 73 + 378 + 459 + 90
=1000
Step 4: Divide the numerator by the denominator
∑4i=1wixi∑4i=1wi
=2566/1000
=2.566
The mean number of TVs per household in this sample is 2.566

B. The specific research problem is “What is the flavor of acceptability of Seaweed Ice Cream with
Moringa and Cucurbita Ice Cream with Moringa? The table below will present the tabulation of data
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Tabulation of Data on the Flavor Acceptability of Seaweed Ice Cream with Moringa and Cucurbita with
Ice Cream with Moringa Evaluated by 30 Panelists (Artificial Data)
Ice Cream with Moringa

Seaweed (101) Cucurbita (202)

X Tally Frequency X Tally Frequency

9 10 9 9
8 13 8 15
7 7 7 4
6 0 6 2
Total 30 Total 30

Scale:
9- Extremely Acceptable 7- Moderately Acceptable
8- Very Much Acceptable 6- Slightly Acceptable

HOW TO COMPUTE?

1. Seaweed Ice Cream with Moringa

X1= f1X1+ f2X2+f3X3……fkxXk Given

f1+f2+f3………. Fk f1= 10
= 10(9) + 13(8) + 7(7) X1= 9
10+13+7
= 90 +104 +49 f2= 13
30
=243 f3= 7
30
X1= 8.1 (Very Much Acceptable) X3- 7

2. Cucurbita Ice Cream with Moringa

X1= f1X1+ f2X2+f3X3+ f4X4……fkxXk Given

f1+f2+f3………. fk f1= 9
= 9(9) + 15(8) + 4(7) + 2(6) X1= 9
9+15+4+2
= 81+120+28+12 f2= 15
30
=241 X2= 8
30
X2= 8.03 (Very Much Acceptable) f3= 4
X3=7
F4= 2
X4= 6
2. Median-a central value that divides a set of observation into two equal parts such that 50% falls below I and
50% falls above it.

Here is the formula on how to get the median.

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How to find the median?

Step 1: Order the numbers in the set from smallest to largest
Step 2: Find the middle number

- If the is an odd number of values in the set, then the median is the middle value.
- If there is an even number of values in the set, then the median is the average of the two middle values.

Here is a sample of getting the median:

1. Find the median of 5, 7, 8, 2 and 4
Step 1) Put the numbers in order: 2, 4, 5, 7, 8
Step 2) There is an odd number of values in the set, so the median is the middle value which is 5.
Answer: the median is 5.

2. Find the median of 23, 27, 16, 31

Step 1) Put the numbers in order: 16, 23, 27, 31
Step 2) There is an even number of values in the set, so the median is the average of the middle two values.
(23+27) ÷ 2 = 25
Answer: the mean is 25
3. Mode-the most frequent value; the observation with the highest frequency, the most “fashionable value”
How do we find the mode?
Step 1: Order the numbers from smallest to largest
Step 2: Find the number that occurs most often.

09994854321 mode= 9

What if there is more than one number that appears the most amount of times? Then there is more than one
mode.

09994888574321 mode= 9

What if all the numbers appear the same amount? In this case, there is no mode.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 there is no mode
2. Inferential Statistics