Chapter one

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents spatial or geographic data. It integrates
hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.
Subsystems of gis
INPUT The data input subsystems collect and /or allows the user to enter spatial data derived from existing maps, remote sensors, digital files, tables and
airphotos.
STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL (MANAGEMENT) subsystems organizes the spatial data in a form that allows it to be quickly retrieved, updated and collected.
DATA MANIPULATION AND ANALYSIS subsystem performs a variety of tasks depending on the specific application. A GIS is distinguished from other information
systems by its functions that permit spatial analysis.
DATA OUTPUT subsystem is capable of displaying all the parts of the original database as well as the manipulated data. The reporting subsystem must be able to
output data in a variety of forms (i.e. maps, digital files and tables).
Components of gis
The network – It is the most fundamental component of a GIS without which no rapid communication or sharing of digital information could occur except
between a small group of people crowded around a computer monitor. GIS today relies heavily on the internet as a mechanism of information exchange.
Hardware – The device that the user interacts with directly in carrying out GIS operations by typing, pointing, clicking or speaking and which returns information
by displaying it on the device’s screen or generating meaningful sounds.
Software – This runs locally in the user’s machine.
Database – This consists of a digital representation of selected aspects of some specific area of the earth’s surface or near-surface, built to serve some problem
solving or scientific purpose.
Procedures – (management) an organization must establish procedures, lines of reporting, control points and other mechanism for ensuring that its GIS activities
stay within budgets, maintain high quality, and generally meet the needs of the organization.
People – GIS requires people to design, program, and maintain it, supply it with data, and interpret its results. These people will have various skills depending on
the roles they perform.
Chapter two
Data and information----Data are what you collect through observation, measurement, and inference. Information is obtained after analysis and organization of
data, therefore information is data in useful form, useful for solving problem and decision making.

Spatial data-data that contains positional value. Geospatial data (spatial data that is georeferenced).

Modeling- A representation of some part of the real world can be considered as a model of that part. Models as representations, comes in many different flavors.
In the environment, the most familiar model is that of a map. A map is a miniature representation of some part of the real world. Paper maps are the best known
but digital maps also exist.

Data modeling – Is the common name for the design efforts of structuring a database.

Spatial databases – Are a specific type of database. They store representations of geographic phenomena in the real world to be used in GIS.

GIS and databases – A database like a GIS is a software Package capable of storing and manipulating data.

RASTER DATA In raster representation space is divided into an array of square cells. All geographic variation is then expressed by assigning properties or
attributes to these cell

Characteristics of a raster
Resolution-The size of the cells contained in a raster can vary therefore the spatial resolution of the data is determined by the size of the grid. High resolution
refers to rasters with small cell dimensions, lots of detail, lots of cells; low resolution refers to rasters with large cell dimensions, less detail and the number of
cells is small

Orientation – refers to the angle between true north and the direction defined by columns of the raster. Raster columns are usually having a North/South.
However, this may vary depending on user’s application.

Zone –Often adjacent cells in a raster have the same value. The contiguous locations (cell that touch each other) having the same value can be grouped into
zones. Cells in the same zone have the same value. By defining zones within the raster, area and perimeter calculations may be performed.

Location –In a raster, location is generally identified by an ordered pair of coordinates (row and column numbers) that identify the location of the cell within the
raster

VECTOR DATA The vector data model represents space as a series of discrete entity - defined by point, line or polygon units which are geographically referenced
by Cartesian coordinates.

Point representation – A point entity implies that the geographic extents of the object are limited to a location that can be specified by one set of xy coordinates
at the level of resolution of the abstraction. e.g. a town could be represented by a point entity at a continental level of resolution but as a polygon entity at a
regional level.

Line representation – A line entity implies that the geographical extents of the object may adequately be represented by sets of xy coordinate pairs that define a
connected path through space, but one that has no true width unless specified in terms of an attached attribute e.g. a road at a national level is adequately
represented by a line; at street level, it becomes an area.
Polygon – Is a homogenous representation of a 2D space. This too depends on the level of resolution. The polygon can be represented in terms of xy coordinates
of its boundaries, or in terms of the set of xy coordinates that are enclosed by such a boundary. Polygons may contain holes, they have direct neighbours, and
different polygons with the same characteristics can occur at different locations

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VECTOR DATA MODELS

Advantages Disadvantages

- Precise expression - Complicated structure

- Less data volume - Difficulty in overlay

- Full topology - Difficulty in updating

- Fast retrieval - Expensive data capture

- Fast conversion

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RASTER DATA MODELS

Advantages Disadvantages

- Simple data structure - Large data volume

- Easy to overlay and model - Low precision

- Suitable for 3D display - Difficulty in network analysis

- Integration of image data - Slow conversion

- Automated data capture

Remote sensing (RS) is the science and art of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing
and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information .The process of RS involves an interaction between incident
radiation and the targets of interest. Remote sensing also involves the sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.

The seven processes of remote sensing

Energy source or illumination (A)- This is a fundamental requirement in RS and the purpose is to provide electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)- As the energy travels through the atmosphere from the source to the target some interactions will take place.

Interaction with the Target ( C) – Interactions will take place between the target and the radiation and this will depend on the properties of both the target and
the radiation.

Recording of Energy by the sensor (D) – Emitted energy from the target is recorded by a sensor.

Transmission, Reception and Processing (E)-the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing
station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was
illuminated.

Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery
about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem