Chapter 1

Seeking success in university

Step 1: Set Goals

• Goals help to keep you going by:

• Providing direction
• Increasing your attention and focus
• Increasing your motivation and effort
• Reducing your anxiety and increasing your confidence
• Develop SMART goals that are: Specific, Measureable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely

Step 2: Have a Positive Attitude

Be positive about your ability to succeed

Look forward to what your will learn

Have an inquiring mind: get curious about your subjects!

Step 3: Manage Your Time

• Set a realistic schedule for yourself

• Know where your time goes (awareness is key)
• Study for 2-3 hours for every hour of class time (eg. If you have 6 hours of class per week, aim to
study at least 12-18 hours per week).

Step 4: Read Textbooks & Course Readings

• Survey chapters before reading; read the chapter summary, look for bold and italicized words to
indicate important concepts
• Review chapters and readings before class
• Re-read chapter and readings after class
• Make study notes
Step 5: Attend your Lectures

• Intend to learn something each class you attend

• Do assigned readings before class- you’ll take better notes
• Ask questions: this will enhance your learning process
• Sit in the first few rows – you’ll pay closer attention

Step 6: Record your Lecture Notes

• Take notes in class

• Review and edit notes after class (within 24 hours)
• Aim for 3-4 major reviews of your notes before exams
• Highlight import points, draw diagrams, make definitions

Step 7: Prepare for Exams

• Review past exams

• Make practice study questions
• Memorize definitions and formulae – try cue cards
• Know the type of exam to expect
• Eat balanced meals and sleep 8 hours per night

Step 8: Write Your Exams

• Have a positive attitude; do your best

• Arrive early with an extra pen and any necessary supplies (e.g., calculator if permitted – with fresh
batteries)
• Read test questions and instructions very clearly
• Budget your time; leave time for review
• Relax and don’t forget to breathe

Chapter 2

Motivating yourself to learn .

Here are some ways to increase your motivation to study.

• Reward yourself for studying. For example, after a successful study session, have a treat like a nice
big ice cream cone. Go crazy and add some cherries and nuts.
• Study with your friends. Don’t make it party time, but you can have fun as you do this.
• Remind yourself of your long-term goals. Achievement of your goals likely requires educational
success. Educational success requires studying.
• Eliminate distractions. If you are surrounded by things you would rather do than study, you will
probably do those things instead of studying.
• Develop interest in what you have to study. This will make studying more enjoyable.
• Take breaks. When you feel that you need to take a break, try to stop at a point where it is logical
to stop. This will make it easier for you to resume studying after your break.
• Establish a comfortable environment. You will be more inclined to study if you feel comfortable.
• Establish reasonable goals for a study session. You probably won’t get very far if you look at your
study session as “mission impossible.”
• Use a motivational poster. Place the poster where you can see it as you study. The poster should
include positive words and a picture depicting success. You can buy one or even make your own.
You can also read inspirational stories about real people who have achieved success through
effort.
• Just do it. Once you do, you will feel a lot better than if you are worried about getting it done.

Whenever you experience difficulty sitting down to study, follow the suggestions above to motivate you
to do what you have to do.

Asses acedemic strength and weaknesses

Strength.....

Curiosity
Having an inquisitive nature is a strength for a student. The student will try to learn more than what is
being told in the course books and avoid cramming the concepts. That will lead them to discuss the topics
with their teachers and learn independently through different sources like books or the internet.

With e-learning becoming common, it is easier now for students to study independently. Students who
want to learn beyond the class lectures and course books can use the internet to stimulate their brains.
Nevertheless, this trait is a necessity for students and the foundation of quality education.

Organization

Organization is an important academic strength. Students have to be organized and have a preplanned
system for their studies. They plan their day and set targets for themselves. They do everything on a
predetermined time, be it sports, study, or social activities.Staying organized helps with exam preparation
and keeps the stress at bay. Moreover, this quality helps them perform better in professional roles as well.

Self-Learners

Independent learning is a trait that helps one throughout their life. Learning without any guidance and
finding the learning resources by oneself trains the student for professional challenges. Moreover, self-
learning is more effective than taking help from others. That does not mean one should not ask for
guidance. The student should be able to perform the educational tasks by themselves as well.In this era
of digital advancement, self-learning has become quite easier. Many e-learning platforms are available
that not only offer guidance on independent learning but also provide tools for that.

Weaknesses

There are some traits that disrupt the flow of the learning process. These traits can be worked on and
mitigated with some effort.

Lack of Focus
Some students struggle to stay focused or have a short attention span. They find it hard to concentrate
during the lecture or study for long hours. Some students may suffer from attention deficit disorder (ADD)
and might need professional help. The rest can adopt a few behavioral changes and take help from a few
techniques to focus more.

Procrastination

Procrastination is the major disrupter of the education process. Students tend to put off work until the
last moment and waste their time on other things. That can only render sloppy work and a plethora of
errors. While some students still manage to get good grades despite procrastinating, this is not a good
habit to carry on with. It can take a toll on their marks even if it does not harm them now.

Fear of Failure

Some students experience the fear of failure, which renders them unable to perform optimally. They
stress too much and are not able to focus on their studies. No matter how hard they work, they still cave
in to the anxiety and are at a risk of doing badly in exams.

Discover and use your learning style

Visual

Visual learners learn by sight. These learners benefit from:

• Images and diagrams

• Graphics and visuals
• Charts
• Maps
• Mind-maps
• Flash cards
Auditory

Auditory learners learn by hearing. These learners benefit from:

• Listening
• Speaking
• Group discussions
• Verbal repetition
• Sound recordings
• Mnemonic devices

Read/Write

Read/write learners learn by reading and writing. These learners benefit from:

• Reading
• Writing
• Making detailed notes
• Re-writing notes to revise
• Viewing information in word form

Kinaesthetic

Kinaesthetic learners learn by touch. These learners benefit from:

• Movement
• Tactile representations
• Models and materials
• Physical interactions
• Hands-on approaches
• Experience and practice

How to develop critical thinking

Critical thinking is key for many aspects of life and an important skill for university study across a range of
disciplines. No matter what you’re studying, you’ll likely be required to use critical thinking to interpret
and analyse information. Strong critical thinking skills can help you form better arguments in your
assessments, as you’ll be required to engage with materials – not just regurgitate your textbooks.If you’d
like to improve your critical thinking in preparation for your studies, these strategies can help you hone
these skills to support a successful academic life.

Don’t Believe Everything You’re Told

The first step to critical thinking is to consider more than one point of view. It’s important to go beyond
trusting what you hear or read as the truth, because everyone has their own opinions, motives, and biases
– even academics. When learning, you should ask what evidence the source has to support their
argument. Consider if there may be other possible solutions or methods. Evaluate every side to the story
or problem and the strengths and weaknesses of these arguments to make an informed decision.

Don’t Believe Everything You Think

It’s easier said than done, but critical thinking requires you to leave your own opinions and biases at the
door and embrace other information. Just because you’ve always done something a certain way doesn’t
mean it’s the right way. Question your assumptions and beliefs. Be open to considering different points
of view and the validity of other arguments – you just might learn something new.

Ask Questions
Not sure about something you read in your textbook? Want your professor to elaborate on a claim they
made in a lecture? Don’t be afraid to ask. Asking questions is a great way to not only learn more about a
topic, but also to learn new ways of thinking about things. Questions can be the catalyst to intelligent
discussions with teachers and classmates, where participants can exchange ideas and learn more than
what’s in their textbooks.

Research Deeper

The more information you have, the better. Doing your own research goes hand in hand with not taking
what you’re taught at face value. Dig deeper and take a dive down the rabbit hole – whether it’s in the
library or online. Research is your best friend when it comes to solving problems, so get your hands on
several sources to be better prepared to form an educated solution.

Evaluate Your Work

Critical thinking involves evaluating your work and the strength of your arguments to determine whether
there’s room for improvement. Relying solely on repeating what’s taught in your textbooks isn’t enough.
You need to think critically about the material and think for yourself to craft worthy arguments supported
by evidence.A great way to develop critical thinking skills is to engage in conversations with other students
– either in the classroom or common areas of your student accommodation. UniLodge can help you find
the perfect home away from home with communal areas in a vibrant student community.

10 Steps to Improve Your Study Skills

 • Behavior modification can work for you.
• Do not study more than an hour at a time without taking a break.
• Separate the study of subjects that are alike.
• Do not study when you are tired
• Prepare for your class at the best time.
• Use the best note-taking system for you
• Memorize actively, not passively.
• Read and study at the same time.
• Make up a color and sign system for text and notes.
• Do not buy underlined textbooks

Tips for adapting learning style to teaching style

• Engage the student in conversation about the subject matter

• Question students about the material
• Ask for oral summaries of material
• Have them tape lectures and review them with you
• Have them tape themselves reviewing material and listen to it together
• Read material aloud to them
• Use a talking calculator
• Have them put materi

Chapter 3

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying,
analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form,
it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness.

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between
ideas. Critical thinking has been the subject of much debate and thought since the time of early Greek
philosophers such as Plato and Socrates and has continued to be a subject of discussion into the modern
age, for example the ability to recognise fake news.Critical thinking might be described as the ability to
engage in reflective and independent thinking.

Critical thinking is the analysis of available facts, evidence, observations, and arguments to form a
judgement.[1] The subject is complex; several different definitions exist, which generally include the
rational, skeptical, and unbiased analysis or evaluation of factual evidence. Critical thinking is self-
directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.[2] It presupposes assent to rigorous
standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and
problem-solving abilities as well as a commitment to overcome native egocentrism[3][4] and
sociocentrism.

Examine your assumption

An assumption is an unexamined belief: what we think without realizing we think it. Our inferences (also
called conclusions) are often based on assumptions that we haven’t thought about critically. A critical
thinker, however, is attentive to these assumptions because they are sometimes incorrect or misguided

Just because we assume something is true doesn’t mean it is.Think carefully about your assumptions when
finding and analyzing information but also think carefully about the assumptions of others. Whether
you’re looking at a website or a scholarly article, you should always consider the author’s assumptions.
Are the author’s conclusions based on assumptions that she or he hasn’t thought about logically?

Make predictions

Making predictions is a strategy in which readers use information from a text (including titles, headings,
pictures, and diagrams) and their own personal experiences to anticipate what they are about to read (or
what comes next).are about to read (or what comes next). A reader involved in making predictions is
focused on the text at hand, constantly thinking ahead and also refining, revising, and verifying his or her
predictions. This strategy also helps students make connections between their prior knowledge and the
text.
Predicting is also a process skill used in science. In this context, a prediction is made about the outcome
of a future event based upon a pattern of evidence. Students might predict that a seed will sprout based
on their past experiences with plants or that it will rain tomorrow based on today’s weather. Teachers can
help students develop proficiency with this skill by making connections between predicting while reading
and predicting in science. Students will not necessarily make these connections independently, so teacher
talk and questioning are important.

Read with a purpose in critical reading

Critical reading

Critical reading is a form of language analysis that does not take the given text at face value, but involves
a deeper examination of the claims put forth as well as the supporting points and possible
counterarguments. The ability to reinterpret and reconstruct for improved clarity and readability is also a
component of critical reading. The identification of possible ambiguities and flaws in the author’s
reasoning, in addition to the ability to address them comprehensively, are essential to this process. Critical
reading, much like academic writing, requires the linkage of evidential points to corresponding arguments.

Critical reading means engaging in what you read by asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the author
trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main argument being presented?’Critical reading involves presenting a
reasoned argument that evaluates and analyses what you have read. Being critical, therefore – in an
academic sense – means advancing your understanding, not dismissing and therefore closing off
learnings.Critical reading means being able to reflect on what a text says, what it describes and what it
means by scrutinising the style and structure of the writing, the language used as well as the content.

Critical reading is reading with the purpose of critical examination of the text and its ideas. To add a bit
more to that definition, we might say, “Critical reading is reading with the purpose of critical examination
of the text and its implicit and explicit themes and ideas.”Critical reading is the process of reading texts
with the purpose to understand them fully. It involves asking questions about the author’s intention, the
text’s structure and purpose, and the meanings of individual words and phrases. Critical readers also
consider the context in which a text was written and how it might be interpreted by different audiences.
Sharpen your interpretation

• Know exactly what you want

• Deal with your biases
• Consider the consequences of your options
• Do your research
• Accept the fact that you’re not always right
• Break it down
• Don’t overcomplicate things

Find implications in what you learn

Critical Thinking enhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and systematically can
improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to analyse the logical structure of texts, critical
thinking also improves comprehension abilities.Critical thinking can help you better understand yourself,
and in turn, help you avoid any kind of negative or limiting beliefs, and focus more on your strengths.
Being able to share your thoughts can increase your quality of life.

Critical thinking helps people better understand themselves, their motivations and goals. When you can
deduce information to find the most important parts and apply those to your life, you can change your
situation and promote personal growth and overall happiness.

Read and understand graphics

The first step to efficient reading is to become selective.

If you cannot read all of the books on a recommended reading list, you need to find a way of selecting the
best texts for you. To start with, you need to know what you are looking for. You can then examine the
contents page and/or index of a book or journal to ascertain whether a chapter or article is worth pursuing
further.

Once you have selected a suitable piece the next step is to speed-read.

Speed reading is also often referred to as skim-reading or scanning. Once you have identified a relevant
piece of text, like a chapter in a book, you should scan the first few sentences of each paragraph to gain
an overall impression of subject areas it covers. Scan-reading essentially means that you know what you
are looking for, you identify the chapters or sections most relevant to you and ignore the rest.

When you speed-read you are not aiming to gain a full understanding of the arguments or topics raised
in the text. It is simply a way of determining what the text is about.

When you find a relevant or interesting section you will need to slow your reading speed dramatically,
allowing you to gain a more in-depth understanding of the arguments raised. Even when you slow your
reading down it may well be necessary to read passages several times to gain a full understanding.

As a critical reader you should reflect on:

What the text says: after critically reading a piece you should be able to take notes, paraphrasing – in
your own words – the key points.

What the text describes: you should be confident that you have understood the text sufficiently to be
able to use your own examples and compare and contrast with other writing on the subject in hand.

Interpretation of the text: this means that you should be able to fully analyse the text and state a meaning
for the text as a whole.

Critical reading means being able to reflect on what a text says, what it describes and what it means by
scrutinising the style and structure of the writing, the language used as well as the content.

Evaluate what you learn

What is critical thinking? Critical thinking is the act of analyzing facts to understand a problem or topic
thoroughly. The critical thinking process typically includes steps such as collecting information and data,
asking thoughtful questions and analyzing possible solutions.Evaluation is a form of critical thinking that
involves examining evidence to make a judgement. Evaluative claims have two parts: a conclusion and an
explanation
Chapter 4

Setting goals and solving problems

Tips

Write down your goals!

The act of actually writing down your goals makes them more “real” and gives you something concrete to
refer to.

Get SMART.

When goals are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-Oriented, and Time-Based), you’ll have
a better sense of how to tackle them.

Follow your interests.

Rather than setting goals that you think you “should” set, think about what you actually want for yourself
and set goals around that.

Goal setting, not fretting.

Figuring out your lifetime goals can feel overwhelming. It’s important to think carefully about your goals,
but remember that nothing is set in stone – your plans are a work in progress, because so are you.

Start somewhere.

When you’re feeling defeated, completing short-term goals can give you experience, confidence, and a
sense of accomplishment.

Treat yourself.

When you’re not seeing the results of all your hard work, create a positive, immediate consequence by
giving yourself a small reward.

Make time for your goals.

Keep an agenda and make sure you have specific times set aside to work towards your goals.

What is a problem solving and goal setting strategy?

A strategy is an organized approach to solving a problem or meeting a goal. Your partner will be more
likely to solve problems and meet desired goals if he or she uses an effective strategy. You can help your
partner by asking questions to encourage him or her to:

• Describe the specific problem or the goal.

• Outline lots of different ways to reach the goal or solve the problem.
• Identify the consequences of each of these options, and choose the best plan.
• Take action and check that he or she is making progress toward the goal.
• ! Celebrate success when your partner reaches his or her goal!

Set goals for success in college

Below are six smart goals for college students, as well as some criteria for setting new goals for yourself.

Set S.M.A.R.T. Goals

One of the most important things about setting goals while you’re in school is that each one needs to be
distinct, achievable, and rewarding in order to keep you moving forward.

Set a Goal for Grades in Each Class

While you always want to strive to do your best in every class, there are a number of factors that may
impact how you’re able to do from course to course. First, take into account the subject matter, the level
of the class (is it an introductory 100-level or a more advanced 300 or 400-level?), how essential the course
is to your degree program and the other courses you’re taking during the same term. Then set a realistic
goal for the grade you think you can earn if you work hard, and invest a reasonable amount of time
working toward this goal. Some courses are just harder, or more relevant to your intended career path,
than others, and setting a specific grade goal can help you prioritize effectively.
Plan Homework/Study Times for Every Course

At the beginning of the term, try to plan out specific time blocks for each class throughout the week, and
hold yourself accountable for spending these time periods completing homework and studying. If
something comes up and you’re unable to devote the usual time to a course one week, make sure you
can reschedule the entire block of time for that class to another day (which can help prevent you from
getting behind or missing an assignment).

If you have trouble making good use of study time you set aside for a specific class, consider rescheduling
your study block for this course at another time when you’re more productive. You may also set specific
goals for each study block week-by-week, such as not stopping or moving onto your next task until a
particular section of a book is read, or the assignment for the week is finished.

Visit With Each Instructor at Least Once Per Term

This one can be helpful even if you’re taking online or remote courses. Visiting an instructor during office
hours or scheduling some time to talk over the phone or through email can be a good way to get to know
someone who may be a great resource down the road. Instructors who know you well can speak to your
strengths in recommendation letters, and it’s always good to have someone to go to for help and support
during especially difficult periods like during finals or when you’re approaching graduation. Try to get to
know at least one instructor well during each term, and make sure to take some time to speak personally
with each one at some point.

Take an Extra Challenging Course

Look for courses that interest you outside your degree program or current area of focus, and try to
challenge yourself to move out of your comfort zone. While there may not be time to do this every session,
you can calculate how many elective credits you need to take and then set aside a certain number of these
for challenging, unfamiliar courses. Pushing yourself to try something new can be a great way to keep
yourself intellectually engaged, especially during sessions where your coursework is otherwise focused on
general education credits or basic introductory classes in your degree program.1,2
Join an Extracurricular Group or Organization

Getting an on-campus job or joining a student group (which you can also do when taking online classes)
can be a great way to get to know other students – and sometimes faculty – in your degree program.
While this offers valuable networking opportunities for when you eventually go on the job market, it can
also be a great way to reduce stress and allow yourself to take much-needed breaks from studying and
work. Just remember, you still need to make sure you have time and energy to invest in coursework, so
try to set goals for what days you can spend on extracurriculars and how much time you can set aside for
activities.

Explore Career Services Resources

Even if you’re still in your first year, learning about your career options can be a valuable experience. Set
aside some time to speak with someone about career services resources each year, and consider
scheduling more frequent appointments the closer you get to graduation. Setting specific goals to visit
each term can help avoid procrastination and ensure you start planning ahead.

How to develop a positive attitude

Make Yourself Happy

Your mind is a powerful thing. If you allow yourself to keep a positive state of mind, your attitude will
follow.

There are many ways to develop your positive attitude. Here are a few to help you get started.

Listen to your internal dialogue. When faced with a negative thought, turn it around to make it into a
positive thought. (For example, “I am no good at this!” could be changed to, “Maybe this is not one of my
strengths, but I’ve tried my hardest, and I am skilled in many other things.”)

Interact within positive environments and with positive people. Do things with people who reinforce
you in a positive way. Go places that have special meanings and positive memories or associations.
Volunteer. Do something that will help others. This will give you a sense of fulfillment and make you feel
happy inside.

Get pleasure out of the simple things in life. Laughter is one of the most powerful mood enhancers. Allow
yourself to laugh.

Permit yourself to be loved. Everyone deserves to be loved. Everyone is loved.

Your actions and reactions toward other individuals can determine the end result of the interaction. For
example, if you are receptive and respectful to individuals’ opinions, they in return could be more open
to what it is you have to say.

Take responsibility for your actions, thoughts and feelings. No one can make you feel any way that you do
not want to feel.

Accept that no one is perfect and that includes you. Be proud of your accomplishments and the hard work
you’ve done. Use the moments when you think you have not succeeded as learning experiences.

Take a close look at your life. Examine your daily routine and the effects it has on your life and most
importantly your attitude. Ask yourself these questions:

• Do I have beneficial, positive relationships?

• How do I start my day? Do I have a routine that promotes positive energy to keep a positive
attitude all day long?
• Am I aware of my state of mind and its changes? If I am in a negative state of mind, am I able to
change it?
• Is my living space a positive environment? If not, what can I do to make it a positive environment
(examples: change the lighting, add color, and/or cleaning)?

Chapter 5

Prepare for class

Below are some helpful tips on how best to prepare for class:
Arrive early.

Try to arrive early for class, at least a few minutes before it begins. Many professors arrive ahead of time
to chat with students, but even if they do not, you can review class materials to put you in the right
mindset to begin learning as soon as class gets going.

Another way to get in the right mindset for class is to use the travel time between classes to mentally
prepare for the class you are headed to. So put your courses into your calendar with a free 10- to 15-
minute block ahead of their start, so you are not in a rush and can instead take advantage of that travel
time.

Review what has been covered.

Whether you’re attending lecture or section, looking over the material from previous classes or relevant
readings can help you prepare to learn. This is best done right ahead of class, but even preparation the
night before will go a long way toward helping you get the most out of class time.

Anticipate what’s coming.

Before class, try to think about what’s likely to happen in the lecture or section you’re attending. Will a
particular topic be covered? Are you expected to contribute to a discussion? Will you need to have
command over some set of readings? If you have readings to complete, but aren’t sure how to approach
them ahead of hearing the professor’s take on them, here are some tips:

Read the title and chapter objectives. Skipping the title and chapter objectives can be detrimental. It’s
virtually impossible to process information when you have no overarching framework to apply it to.

Read the chapter summary. The summary combined with the information on the title page can act as a
movie preview, creating intrigue and providing a bit of familiarity with the concepts.

Skim the chapter by reading subheadings and viewing the content under those subheadings. Begin
applying what you see within the text and images to what you already know.
Identify vocabulary that you’re unfamiliar with so that you’re not intimidated when you hear the same
term(s) again in lecture. Also, be sure to note questions that arise during the pre-lecture prep.

Assess your understanding

As part of your preparation for class, try to assess your understanding of course material. Are there
questions you have about the material? Things you’re still confused about? Bring this confusion to class,
and use the time to clarify things you don’t understand. For more information, visit the ARC webpage on
Assessing Your Understanding.

Formulate your questions and comments.

If you’re going into a class where you can participate actively, try to have your questions or comments
ready ahead of time. You may not be able to ask all your questions or contribute with the comments you
bring, but you’re more likely to engage actively if you come prepared with these things.

Come organized (or at least look like it!).

Make sure you have everything you need for class with you when it starts. You don’t want to be looking
for readings that you haven’t pulled up on your desktop or have everyone flipping to a particular page in
a text you don’t have on hand. Try to appear awake and alert during class, since this will actually help you
be more alert and awake, thus, making better use of your time in the classroom!

Active listening

Active listening is the practice of preparing to listen, observing what verbal and non-verbal messages are
being sent, and then providing appropriate feedback for the sake of showing attentiveness to the message
being presented.This form of listening conveys a mutual understanding between speaker and listener.
Speakers receive confirmation their point is coming across and listeners absorb more content and
understanding by being engaged. The overall goal of active listening is to eliminate any misunderstandings
and establish clear communication of thoughts and ideas between the speaker and listener. It may also
be referred to as Reflective Listening.[2] Active listening was introduced by Carl Rogers and Richard Farson

Techniques and Tips for note taking

Write phrases, not full sentences. Only record the key words that you need to get the idea of the point.
Skip words like “the” and “a” that don’t add additional meaning to the lecture content. Retain key
technical or discipline-specific terms.

Take notes in your own words. Paraphrase what you hear so it makes sense to you—it helps you to
understand and remember what you hear. Try to paraphrase everything except where information needs
to be noted exactly.

Structure your notes with headings, subheadings and numbered lists. Use headings to indicate topic
areas or to include bibliographic details of the sources of information. Use outline form and/or a
numbering system and indenting to help you distinguish major from minor points and as a clear way of
indicating the structure of lecture information.

Code your notes— use colour and symbols to mark structure and emphasis.

Use colour to highlight major sections, main points and diagrams. You can also use different colours to
classify and link concepts or information by topic. However, don’t focus too much on colour coding when
you’re in the lecture. It requires time and concentration, so it’s more useful to do most of the highlighting
and underlining when you’re revising your notes later.

Underline, circle, star, etc. To identify key information, examples, definitions, or other important
materials. Devise your own marking code to indicate each type.

If you miss something, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later. Leave a space
on the page for your own notes and comments.

Use Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbols and abbreviations for frequently used words, phrases or names are useful for note taking in
lectures when speed is essential. It’s important to be consistent so you remember what they represent
and can use them easily. Keep a ‘key list’ of frequently used symbols/abbreviations and their meanings so
that you can refer to them in the future.

Use concept maps and diagrams

Information can also be recorded using a concept map or diagram. Try drawing diagrams or pictures for
concepts that are hard to note quickly. For instance, draw a pie chart to roughly indicate the relative
strength of political parties in an election instead of writing these details out. Information can be added
to the concept map later.Concept maps can easily become cluttered. Use both facing pages of an open
A4 notebook to set out your concept map and allow plenty of space for adding ideas and symbols.

1. Begin in the middle of the page and add ideas on branches that radiate from the central idea or
from previous branches.
2. Arrows and words can be used to show links between parts of the concept map.
3. Colour and symbols are important parts of concept maps, helping illustrate ideas and triggering
your own thoughts.

DEVELOPING AN INFORMAL OUTLINE

An informal outline is a series of notes—single words or phrases—jotted down to refresh your memory
as you write. An outline of this sort is useful when time is limited, as when you are writing examinations
or brief papers in class.

Matching note taking style and learning style

There are 4 main learning styles: Visual Learning, Auditory Learning, Kinaesthetic/Tactile Learning, and
Read/Write Learning. Although there are many ways to take notes, some methods work better for certain
learning styles than others.Keep on reading to determine which learning style you are and which note-
taking methods will work best for you

Cornell method of note taking

The Cornell Notes system (also Cornell note-taking system, Cornell method, or Cornell way) is a note-
taking system devised in the 1950s by Walter Pauk, an education professor at Cornell University. Pauk
advocated its use in his best-selling book How to Study in College.
The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes. This system of
taking notes is designed for use by a high school or college level student. There are several ways of taking
notes, but one of the most common is the “two-column” notes style. The student divides the paper into
two columns: the note-taking column (usually on the right) is twice the size of the questions/keyword
column, which is on the left. The student leaves open five to seven lines, or about two inches (5 cm), at
the bottom of the page.

Notes from a lecture or text are written in the note-taking column; notes usually consist of the main ideas
of the text or lecture, and longer ideas are paraphrased. Long sentences are avoided; symbols or
abbreviations are used instead. To assist with future reviews, relevant questions or keywords (which
should be recorded as soon as possible, so that the lecture and questions will be fresh in the student’s
mind) are written in the left-hand keyword column. These notes can be taken from any source of
information, such as fiction books, DVDs, lectures, or textbooks, etc.

When reviewing the material, the student can cover the note-taking (right) column while answering the
questions/keywords in the key word or cue (left) column. The student is encouraged to reflect on the
material and review the notes regularly.

Here are 15 tips for killer presentations:

Tip 1: Maintain eye contact while presenting and smile

In order to give each of your listeners the feeling of being important and to make them feel personally
addressed, it is particularly important to maintain eye contact with the audience during the presentation.
Not only does this exude confidence, but it also helps your audience to connect with you and your subject.
It also helps you feel less nervous.

Tip 2: Use of gestures and facial expressions

To emphasize the content of your presentation, it is advisable to use appropriate gestures and body
language to get your message across. Avoid crossed arms, hands behind your back, or in your pockets
during a presentation. Always stand up straight, and try not to appear tense or stressed. You can do that
by using your hands and arms to emphasize what you are saying and get your message across. Your facial
expressions should always be friendly and open. Smile and show that you enjoy the topic and you are
confident in the information you are presenting.

Tip 3: Avoid distractions

Often you will not be able to avoid the use of aids. For example, you may need to use a laser pointer to
show something on the screen, or you may need to use a pen to write something down on a flipchart.To
avoid distractions for you and the audience, get into the habit of putting down tools you don’t need! That
way you will not be tempted to deal with them in the first place. You will also have your hands free for
gestures.

Tip 4: Be prepared: Practice makes perfect

Practice makes perfect, right? If you prepare well before the presentation, you will feel more relaxed and
confident while presenting and it will also improve your body language. Here are some ways to help you
prepare for a presentation:

1. Rehearse in front of a crowd

2. Take notes
3. Experiment
4. Time yourself
5. Record yourself

Tip 5: Be confident

By appearing self-confident, you convey to the listener that you are confident in your topic and have
prepared yourself sufficiently. Try to relax and not appear too stressed or nervous.Another tip for
advanced speakers: Step out in front of the podium and walk around the room and get closer to the
audience. This also exudes self-confidence and helps in attracting your audience’s attention.

Tip 6: Effective beginning/end

Good presentation skills can help you in captivating your audience straight away. In order to do that, you
should start your presentation with a bang. Many studies show that if you can capture someone’s interest
straight away, there’s a good chance they’ll listen to the rest of the presentation. Shock the audience, ask
them to imagine something or think of a what-if situation, share a personal story, share a joke, use a
quote, or a video. You should also give an overview of the time and structure of your presentation. This
outline should run through your presentation so that you can always assign the individual contents to an
outline point. It is also helpful for your audience to have the outline displayed in a slimmed-down form
during the whole presentation.How you end the presentation is as important as how you start it. A weak
ending will leave the audience uninspired. But a good ending will motivate them and help them walk away
on a positive note. For example, include a call to action, end the presentation with a memorable quote,
or a personal story, and don’t forget to thank and acknowledge the audience.

Tip 7: Speak freely

The headline speaks for itself. To make the presentation as lively and enjoyable as possible, you should
avoid reading it off. Speak freely, slowly, and clearly. If you are not yet confident in what you are
presenting, try using note cards. But keep in mind: No continuous text, but only short, concise bullet
points!If you use note cards to support you, it is especially advisable at this point to memorize at least the
beginning and end of your presentation, as eye contact is crucial at these points.

Tip 8: Avoid filler words

In order to make your presentation flow as smoothly and confidently as possible, you should avoid using
filler words such as “um,” “so,” and so on. For your listeners, these words convey insecurity and
inadequate preparation.

Tip 9: Bring along something to share

In addition to a handout, other small takeaways can also significantly improve your presentation. For
example, if you are giving a presentation on gummy bears, why not offer some to your audience? If you
are giving a presentation about your fishing hobby, why not show the audience your fishing equipment?

Tip 10: Use different types of media

A presentation can quickly become boring and monotonous. To avoid this, it is advisable to use different
types of media. For example, combine videos and flipcharts, use the whiteboard, or show something
practical on a model. This will increase the attention of your audience enormously and will help in keeping
them engaged until the end.
Tip 11: Use effective pauses

When giving a presentation, you should keep in mind that you have already heard the content several
times – your audience probably hasn’t! Therefore, give your audience enough time to read and
understand the content of your slides.Effective use of speech pauses is a master technique. It is one of
the most versatile tools in a presenter’s toolbox. Yet very few people perform it well. A pause, if used
correctly, can add a great deal to your presentation or speech. Pause before, during, or after saying
something that you would like to emphasize. Pausing between two different parts of your presentation
can indicate to the audience that something new is coming. A quick pause could also help you in
remembering your next point, without the audience noticing that you forgot what to say.

Tip 12: Speak the language of the audience

When creating your presentation, you should already think about your target audience. This will help you
present successfully later on. It is especially important that you speak the language of the audience. Use
appropriate and relevant examples. Use “strong” and meaningful words in short sentences to avoid losing
the audience.Make sure to use appropriate analogies and anecdotes and avoid foreign words, empty
phrases, and clichés. If you have to use foreign words, explain them in a handout or footnote within the
presentation.

Tip 13: Engage with the audience

Always try to keep the attention of your audience and keep them engaged during a presentation. To do
this, it is advisable to regularly involve the audience. One way to do this is to ask questions. Deliberately
ask “easy” questions so that can easily be answered by your audience.Another way to involve the
audience in your presentation is by interacting with them. To make a point clearer, you can use an example
to explain it in more detail, using a person (whose name you should know). You can address participants
directly and refer to their work.

Tip 14: Don’t fight the stage fright & take deep breaths
Stage fright is one of the biggest enemies of a presentation, yet you shouldn’t let yourself be a victim of
your feat. Do not fight it, rather address your fear and try and accept it, and transform it into positive
enthusiasm. Don’t let your stage fright get you all worked up and nervous. Take a couple of deep breaths
to get oxygen to your brain and relax your body.

Tip 15: Choose the right angle on standing during a presentation

One of the most frequent questions that speakers ask themselves during a presentation is, how do I best
position myself, and where do I stand in front of the audience?

Chapter 6

Making the most of your time

How to grab some time

As a professional going back to school, it’s important to make sure that you have enough time to study.
Whether preparing for an exam or staying on top of homework, your success as a student may depend on
how you use your time outside of class. These six steps may offer tips to help those who are struggling to
find time to balance school, work and life.

1. Identify Your Priorities

Think about your goals. “More time to study” is often too broad a goal. List your priorities specifically.
Perhaps your primary issue is that you struggle finding time to prepare for exams. You may have issues
with procrastination, like waiting to write a term paper until the night before it’s due. Whatever your
issue, it may be helpful to clarify exactly what you have difficulty with and where you’d like to see
improvement.
 2. Keep a Log of Your Daily Habits

Try to spend some time and at how you structure your days. What is your morning routine? How much
time do you typically spend on entertainment? What other activities do you try to include in each day?
How much sleep do you tend to get? At this stage, you’re not questioning whether any of these activities
are useful; you’re simply fact-finding and trying to understand where your time goes.

3. Analyze Your Routines

After you detail your daily schedule, analyze specific patterns or timeframes. Certain activities may be
grouped into categories, such as health, work or entertainment. By grouping activities in this way, you can
start to understand the amount of time you spend on each area of your life. It can also be useful at this
point to try to reflect on your mood or energy level with each of your activities. Do you tend to spend time
on various entertainment activities at certain points of the day? When do you find yourself working most
effectively?

4. Eliminate Unnecessary or Redundant Tasks

Start to trim your schedule down a bit. Look at areas of your schedule where you tend to spend too much
time. You might find yourself spending a good part of your free time with entertainment, for example, or
scanning through social media. You don’t have to cut out such activities entirely, unless you find them
doing more harm than good. Instead, try to be mindful and cut down on things that might not be as
important for your studies.

5. Change the Script

With your tasks trimmed, change your routine to fit in study time, along with other daily commitments.
Write down the tasks that remain in your day and those that you now plan to include.

6. Test and Make Adjustments

Routines can be useful, and it’s important to try to stick with them. That said, you shouldn’t view your
new routine as set in stone. Test your routine and find what works and what doesn’t. In order to avoid
making more adjustments than necessary, you should give yourself a set timeframe to experiment:
perhaps a month or two. After that period, you should reassess your routine and make adjustments if
necessary. Research has suggested that it can take an average of two months to form a new habit. If you
find yourself struggling, try to remind yourself that adjustment is normal.

Scheduling your time

Here are some simple steps to help you schedule your time effectively:

• Make a plan. Follow the steps in this article to make a simple plan of all of the tasks that you need
to complete
• Break tasks down into smaller tasks. If you have any large tasks (say over one hour in length),
break these down into smaller tasks. You can do this by looking for the natural breaks or
milestones in the task and splitting them there.
• Create a planner. Use a blank calendar, day to a page diary or create a template using Microsoft
Excel or Word that shows the days of the week and 1-hour slots for your working day for each day
• Add in your lunch and other breaks. Treat lunch and breaks as tasks to remind you to take these
each day
• Start with your regular tasks. Identify from your plan in step one the tasks that are regular or
repeatable tasks. Look at the deadlines, give yourself some contingency time and decide when
they will be done (you’re aiming to do these at the same time, on the same day each week or
month)
• Block out the time for your most important tasks. Add your tasks to your planner by blocking out
the time. You should make it clear what the task is. You could also add a priority to each task to
show how important it is
• Add the least important tasks. Add your least important tasks into your planner, filling the gaps
between your more important tasks.
• Move things around as things change. If something changes, for example, you get a new one-off
task, work out where it goes. Add it into a gap, move things around or, if you don’t have space,
remove some of your least important tasks to make room for it (but only if this new task is more
important than them).
Time management and learning style

Effective time management allows students to complete more in less time, because their attention is
focused and they’re not wasting time on distractions (such as social media, for example. Efficient use of
time also reduces stress, as students tick off items from their to-do list. It can also provide a sense of
achievement from fulfilling goals. For example, they might plan to complete an assignment by Friday so
they can see friends on the weekend.

Furthermore, by using time efficiently, students can complete their work on time, stay engaged with their
learning, and have more time free for pursuing activities that are important to them, such as sports,
hobbies, youth group and spending time with friends and family.Good time management allows students
to make the most of their abilities and enjoy the satisfaction of accomplishment. It is also one of the most
desirable skills for employment.The Bible also has a lot to say about managing our time. Christians have a
different time perspective to the world’s – we know we are part of God’s eternal plan of salvation through
Christ Jesus (Eph 1:4).As a result, we need to ensure our priorities are right, by seeking first His kingdom
and righteousness (Matt 6:33). We are instructed to use our time wisely (Eph 5:15-17), and to seek God’s
wisdom about how best to do this (Ps 90:12). We are encouraged to make plans for the future (Prov 21:5)
but keep them in balance with knowing they aren’t guaranteed (Js 4:13-14).Keeping our eyes fixed on the
eternal perspective (2 Cor 4:18) will lead to time management that glorifies God and helps us live out His
will.

Procrastination

Procrastination is the habit of delaying an important task, usually by focusing on less urgent, more
enjoyable, and easier activities instead. It is different from laziness, which is the unwillingness to act.
Procrastination can restrict your potential and undermine your career.

Procrastination is the action of unnecessarily and voluntarily delaying or postponing something despite
knowing that there will be negative consequences for doing so. The word has originated from the Latin
word procrastinatus, which itself evolved from the prefix pro-, meaning “forward,” and crastinus, meaning
“of tomorrow.”[1] Oftentimes, it is a habitual human behaviour.[2] It is a common human experience
involving delay in everyday chores or even putting off salient tasks such as attending an appointment,
submitting a job report or academic assignment, or broaching a stressful issue with a partner. Although
typically perceived as a negative trait due to its hindering effect on one’s productivity often associated
with depression, low self-esteem, guilt and inadequacy,[3] it can also be considered a wise response to
certain demands that could present risky or negative outcomes or require waiting for new information to
arrive.According to Joseph Ferrari, a professor of psychology at DePaul University in Chicago and author
of “Still Procrastinating: The No Regret Guide to Getting It Done,” around 20% of U.S. adults are chronic
procrastinators.

Causes

Remember that time that you thought you had a week left to finish a project that was really due the next
day? How about the time you decided not to clean up your apartment because you “didn’t feel like doing
it right now?”

We often assume that projects won’t take as long to finish as they really will, which can lead to a false
sense of security when we believe that we still have plenty of time to complete these tasks.3One of the
biggest factors contributing to procrastination is the notion that we have to feel inspired or motivated to
work on a task at a particular moment.The reality is that if you wait until you’re in the right frame of mind
to do certain tasks (especially undesirable ones), you will probably find that the right time simply never
comes along and the task never gets completed.

The following are a few other factors that cause procrastination.

Academics

Researchers suggest that procrastination can be particularly pronounced among students. A 2007 meta
analysis published in the Psychological Bulletin found that a whopping 80% to 95% of college students
procrastinated on a regular basis, particularly when it came to completing assignments and coursework.4

According to researchers, there are some major cognitive distortions that lead to academic
procrastination.5 Students tend to:

• Overestimate how much time they have left to perform tasks

• Overestimate how motivated they will be in the future
• Underestimate how long certain activities will take to complete
• Mistakenly assume that they need to be in the right frame of mind to work on a project
Present Bias

The present bias is a phenomenon observed in human behavior that may result in procrastination. The
present bias means that we tend to be motivated more by immediate gratification or rewards than we
are by long-term rewards. This is why it feels good in the moment to procrastinate.3

For example, the immediate reward of staying in bed and watching TV is more appealing than the long-
term reward of publishing a blog post, which would take much longer to accomplish.

Depression

Procrastination can also be a result of depression. Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and a lack of
energy can make it difficult to start (and finish) the simplest task.6 Depression can also lead to self-doubt.
When you can’t figure out how to tackle a project or feel insecure about your abilities, you might find it
easier to put it off.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Procrastination is also pretty common in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder. One reason is that
OCD is often linked with maladaptive perfectionism, which causes fears about making new mistakes,
doubts about whether you are doing something correctly, and worry over others’ expectations of
you.People with OCD also often have a propensity toward indecision, causing them to procrastinate rather
than make a decision

ADHD

Many adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) struggle with procrastination.8 When
you’re so distracted by outside stimuli, as well as internal thoughts, it can be hard to get started on a task,
especially if that task is difficult or not interesting to you.

Why Do You Procrastinate?

We often come up with a number of excuses or rationalizations to justify our behavior. According to
researchers, there are 15 key reasons why people say they procrastinate:9
 • Not knowing what needs to be done
• Not knowing how to do something
• Not wanting to do something
• Not caring if it gets done or not
• Not caring when something gets done
• Not feeling in the mood to do it
• Being in the habit of waiting until the last minute
• Believing that you work better under pressure
• Thinking that you can finish it at the last minute
• Lacking the initiative to get started
• Forgetting
• Blaming sickness or poor health
• Waiting for the right moment
• Needing time to think about the task
• Delaying one task in favor of working on another

Chapter 7

The SQ3R Learning/Study System*

The SQ3R learning/study system is an organized approach to learning from textbooks, articles, and
reports. Students who use a study system tend to read with greater comprehension and remember more
over a period of time. What are the components of the SQ3R system? The essential rules are condensed
into the following five specific steps:

The first is to SURVEY. This process is to give you a quick overview of the material that will be covered by
the article or chapter. The survey should not take more than 3 or 4 minutes and involves reading the title
and abstract, the introductory and concluding paragraphs, and looking at the figures and captions so that
you get a general idea of what the article or chapter is about.

Step two is to QUESTION. Here you take all the major subheadings in the chapter and turn them into
questions. Write these questions down on a sheet of notebook paper, leaving 4 to 5 lines between the
questions. This is basically to help you organize your thoughts in advance and also helps you to keep your
mind on what you are doing.

Step three is to READ. Now you read the chapter or article in order to find the answers to your questions.
Write the answers in your notebook under your questions. As you do this, you are creating a study guide
for the chapter that will make later reviews easier. Make certain that you ask questions that are answered
in the reading. If a question you come up with is not answered, then change the question. As you become
more proficient at this, you may start to notice an interesting phenomenon. The questions that you make
up in your studying MAY be the same ones that your instructor asks you on exams. In effect, you are
predicting exam questions.

The fourth step is to RECITE. This is very important when studying. Just say to yourself or to a partner, out
loud, what it is you have just read. The more of your senses that you use while studying, the more likely
you are to remember the material. If you can find someone else who is interested, discuss both the
material and your questions.

Step five is REVIEW. Take the study guide that you have developed for the chapter and look it over
whenever possible. Don’t wait until the last minute. The review can be done in small chucks of time
between classes or while waiting for friends. Engaging in short periods of intensive concentration is a very
efficient study method.

The SQ3R System should greatly increase your learning efficiency. The key to this and other learning
systems is repetition and then monitoring comprehension. The method involves reviewing the material
several times and determining, through the use of your study guide, what you do and do not understand
prior to moving on. Hopefully, these processes will help you to understand and retain the material for
future applications.

CHAPTER 7 TOPIC 2 DEVISING YOUR STUDY SYSTEM IS AVAILABLE IN SEPARATE PDF IN STUDY SKILLS
FOLDER
Chapter 8

Memorization

Memorization is the process of committing something to memory. It is a mental process undertaken in

order to store in memory for later recall visual, auditory, or tactical information.The scientific study of
memory is part of cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and
neuroscience.Within the first three years of a child’s life, they begin to show signs of memory that is later
improved into their adolescent years. This includes short-term memory, long-term memory, working
memory, and autobiographical memory. Memory is a fundamental capacity that plays a special role in
social, emotional, and cognitive functioning. Problems with studying the development of memorization
include having to use verbal response and confirmation.

Improving

Although maintenance rehearsal (a method of learning through repetition, similar to rote learning) can
be useful for memorizing information for a short period of time, studies have shown that elaborative
rehearsal, which is a means of relating new material with old information in order to obtain a deeper
understanding of the content, is a more efficient means of improving memory.[6] This can be explained
by the levels-of-processing model of memory which states that the more in-depth encoding a person
undergoes while learning new material by associating it with memories already known to the person, the
more likely they are to remember the information later.

What are concept maps?

Concept maps are visual representations of information. They can take the form of charts, graphic
organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. Concept maps are especially useful
for students who learn better visually, although they can benefit any type of learner. They are a powerful
study strategy because they help you see the big picture: by starting with higher-level concepts, concept
maps help you chunk information based on meaningful connections. In other words, knowing the big
picture makes details more significant and easier to remember.

A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between
concepts.[1] Concept maps may be used by instructional designers, engineers, technical writers, and
others to organize and structure knowledge.
Concept maps work very well for classes or content that have visual elements or in times when it is
important to see and understand relationships between different things. They can also be used to analyze
information and compare and contrast.

Making and using concept maps

Making one is simple. There is no right or wrong way to make a concept map. The one key step is to focus
on the ways ideas are linked to each other. For a few ideas on how to get started, take out a sheet of
paper and try following the steps below:

• Identify a concept.
• From memory, try creating a graphic organizer related to this concept. Starting from memory is
an excellent way to assess what you already understand and what you need to review.
• Go through lecture notes, readings and any other resources you have to fill in any gaps.
• Focus on how concepts are related to each other.
• Your completed concept map is a great study tool. Try the following steps when studying:
• Elaborate (out loud or in writing) each part of the map.
• List related examples, where applicable, for sections of the map.
• Re-create your concept map without looking at the original, talking through each section as you
do

Comparison chart

Comparison diagram or comparative diagram is a general type of diagram, in which a comparison is made
between two or more objects, phenomena or groups of data.[1] A comparison diagram or can offer
qualitative and/or quantitative information. This type of diagram can also be called comparison chart or
comparison chart. The diagram itself is sometimes referred to as a cluster diagram.

A comparison diagram is a general type of diagram, meaning a class of specific diagrams and charts, in
which a comparison is made between two or more objects, phenomena or groups of data. They are a tool
for visual comparison.

When it comes to comparing data, five basic types of comparison can be determined.[2]
 • Comparison of components, for example the pieces of pie chart
• Item comparison, for example the bars in a bar chart
• Time-series comparison, for example the bars in a histogram or the curve of a line chart
• Frequency distribution comparison, for example the distribution in a histogram or line chart
• Correlation comparison, for example in a specific dot diagram

Comparison diagrams can be used in research projects, to give an overview of existing possibilities and to
validate models.[3] It can be used in decision making in presenting alternatives for further selection. And
it can be used in education to show the variety in a specific population.

There are different types of comparison diagrams called comparison diagram/chart in theory and practice,
such as

• Table, data visualized in a tabular form

• Matrix based models, for example the balanced scorecard
• Quantitative charts such as line chart, bar chart, pie chart, radar chart, bubble chart, scatter
diagram etc.
• Scale comparison diagram
• Comparison map or comparative map.

Timelines

A timeline is the presentation of a chronological sequence of events along a drawn line that enables a
viewer to understand temporal relationships quickly. The term is also sometimes extended to mean a
chronology that is tabular, year-by-year paragraphs or purely conceptual.

A timeline is the presentation of a chronological sequence of events along a drawn line that enables a
viewer to understand temporal relationships quickly. The term is also sometimes extended to mean a
chronology that is tabular, year-by-year paragraphs or purely conceptual. Increasingly, timelines are
illustrated in infographics combining text and graphic images for a better presentation.

Timelines are useful to document any type of development, providing an easy-to-understand history and
helping viewers to understand past and ongoing trends. The tools are also useful for management tasks.
In project management, for example, a timeline illustrates milestones, deadlines and other significant
dates and events over the lifecycle of the project, clearly tying goals to specific dates. Annotations to the
timeline can document actual progress.

Process diagram

A process flow diagram (PFD) is a diagram commonly used in chemical and process engineering to indicate
the general flow of plant processes and equipment. The PFD displays the relationship between major
equipment of a plant facility and does not show minor details such as piping details and designations.
Another commonly used term for a PFD is flowsheet.

Process flow diagram examples

The process flow diagram below depicts a single chemical engineering unit process known as an amine
treating plant:

Multiple process units within an industrial plant

The process flow diagram below is an example of a schematic or block flow diagram and depicts the
various unit processes within a typical oil refinery:

Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process will include the following:

• Process piping
• Major equipment items
• Connections with other systems
• Major bypass and recirculation (recycle) streams
• Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.), often by stream
references to a mass balance.
• Process stream names
• Process flow diagrams generally do not include:
• Pipe classes or piping line numbers
• Instrumentation details
• Minor bypass lines
• Instrumentation
• Controllers like Level Control or Flow Control
 • Isolation and shutoff valves
• Maintenance vents and drains
• Relief and safety valves
• Flanges

Process flow diagrams of multiple process units within a large industrial plant will usually contain less
detail and may be called block flow diagrams or schematic flow diagrams.

Informal outline

An informal outline is a series of notes—single words or phrases—jotted down to refresh your memory
as you write. An outline of this sort is useful when time is limited, as when you are writing examinations
or brief papers in class.

An informal outline is an outline created to help you retain information you have learned in class or to
help you get started on writing a paper. In the case of writing a paper, an informal outline can help you
prepare for a formal outline.

An informal outline’s structure tends to be simple and feature major ideas regarding your paper’s topic.
Here is an example of an informal outline:

Sylvia Plath’s Poetry:

• Discusses relationships with men, historical events, the state of Plath’s psyche, sometimes her
children
• Is part of confessional poetry
• Can be considered a form of therapy for Plath
• Features and discusses mythology from various cultures
• Discusses many aspects of women’s lives and womanhood
• Emotional and open

An informal outline can organize your thoughts for a paper or test or during class. It can also help you
remember important information about a subject that you have learned.
An informal outline outlines the parts of a paper without a specific structure. An author might use bullet
points, letters, numbers, or any combination of these things. On the other hand, a formal outline has a
very specific structure. Main points are listed using Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc).

An informal outline can be a simple list of main points. You can refine it by following each main point with
notes about the evidence or examples that support it. You are grouping your notes. A simple outline like
this is often all the organization you need. It is especially valuable for timed writings or essay exams.
Thinking through your approach before you begin—and jotting down your thoughts—will help you avoid
rambling and moving away from the assignment.

Branching diagram

• A branching tree diagram is a set of groups within groups, with the organisms at the bottom
having the fewest shared characteristics and the ones at the top having the most.
• A Cladogram is a branched diagram that can help you understand the relationship among
organisms. Compare your first and last names with a scientific name.
• A phylogenetic tree, also known as a phylogeny, is a diagram that depicts the lines of evolutionary
descent of different species, organisms, or genes from a common ancestor.
• The branch diagram method provides visual cues for which classes are recombinant, as well as a
structural guide to assist students with the mathematical analysis of recombination data.

Overall, a branching tree diagram shows how one taxonomic group of organisms is nested within another
taxonomic group. The linkage among these nested taxonomic groups is the set of traits they share. Each
point at which a new branch forms is called a node.

Chapter 9

Concentrations

The action or power of focusing all one’s attention.

“she was frowning in concentration”

What is concentration?

In Will Power & Self Discipline, Remez Sasson wrote that concentration is the ability to direct one’s
attention following one’s will. Concentration means control of attention. It is the ability to focus the mind
on one subject, object, or thought, and at the same time exclude from the mind every other unrelated
thought, ideas, feelings, and sensations.

That last part is the tricky part for most of us. To concentrate is to exclude, or not pay attention to, every
other unrelated thought, idea, feeling, or sensation. To not pay attention to the numbers, beeps, and
other indicators that we have a new message, a new update, a new “like,” a new follower!

Factors affecting concentration

Some days it seems like our concentration is under attack from all sides. In fact, concentration is affected
by both internal and external or environmental factors. If you want to learn how to improve focus and
memory, it helps to understand what’s getting in the way now.

Distraction.

We are bombarded by a constant flow of information, whether new or old, during the process of doing
something. Researchers have found that our brains are so primed for this distraction that just seeing our
smartphone impairs our ability to concentrate. We constantly assess whether the information is useful,
sufficient, or meaningless. The sheer quantity coming in muddles our assessment of whether we actually
need more information to make decisions.

Insufficient sleep.

Scientists have found that lack of sleep can lead to lower alertness, slower thought processes, and
reduced concentration. You will have more difficulty focusing your attention and may become confused.
As a result, your ability to perform tasks especially relating to reasoning or logic can be seriously affected.
Chronically poor sleep further affects your concentration and memory. Dr. Allison T. Siebern from the
Stanford University Sleep Medicine Centre notes that if you cannot concentrate on what is at hand, it is
unlikely to make it to either your short- or long-term memory.
Insufficient physical activity.

Have you ever noticed how vigorous exercise leaves you feeling more relaxed and energetic throughout
the day? When you don’t do physical activity, your muscles can become tense. You may feel tightness in
your neck, shoulder, and chest and such persistent, low-level discomfort can affect your concentration.

Eating habits.

What we eat contributes to how we feel, including our mental sharpness and clarity, throughout the day.
If we don’t fuel our brains with the proper nutrients, we start to experience symptoms like memory loss,
fatigue, and lack of concentration. Low-fat diets can ruin focus because the brain needs certain essential
fatty acids. Other restrictive diets may negatively affect concentration by not providing the nutrients the
brain needs or by creating hunger, cravings, or feeling of unwellness in the body that are themselves
distracting.

Environment.

Depending on what you are doing, the environment can affect your focus. Obviously, a noise level that is
too loud is a problem, but many people also have difficulty concentrating when it is too quiet. It isn’t just
the overall noise level but the type of noise that matters: the high-energy, anonymous hum of a coffee
shop might bring focus while the overheard conversation of two co-workers derails it. A favorite song
quickly has you singing along, happily distracted, while less distinct instrumentals might keep you attuned
to the task. Lighting that is too bright or too dim can affect your vision. A room that is too hot or too cold
creates discomfort.

All of these elements can affect your concentration. Happily, they are also all addressable.

15 Ways to improve your concentration

Now you know why you need help with concentration. What can help you to focus better? There’s no one
answer for how to improve focus, but the following tips can help.
1. Eliminate distractions. How do we focus better if we are always bombarded with information?
Make a practice to block time in your schedule to do a specific task or activity. During this time,
request that you be left alone or go to a place where others are unlikely to disturb you: a library,
a coffee shop, a private room.Close social media and other apps, silence notifications, and keep
your phone hidden from sight in a bag or backpack. As described in HBR, researchers found that
cognitive capacity was significantly better when the phone was out of sight, not just turned off.
Keep Your primary focus is to complete what you need to do. Shutting off both internal and
external disturbances can help you to concentrate.
2. Reduce multitasking. Attempting to perform multiple activities at the same time makes us feel
productive. It’s also a recipe for lower focus, poor concentration, and lower productivity. And
lower productivity can lead to burnout. Examples of multitasking include listening to a podcast
while responding to an email or talking to someone over the phone while writing your report.
Such multitasking not only hampers your ability to focus but compromises your work quality.
3. Practice mindfulness and meditation. Meditating or practicing mindfulness activities can
strengthen well-being and mental fitness and improve focus. During the meditation process, our
brain becomes calmer and our whole body becomes more relaxed. We focus on our breath during
the process so that we will not be distracted by our minds. With practice, we can learn to use our
breath to bring our attention back to a particular task so that it can be done well even if we get
interrupted.
4. Get more sleep. Many factors affect your sleep. One of the most common is reading from an
electronic device like a computer, phone, or tablet or watching your favorite movie or TV show
on an LED TV just before bedtime. Research has shown that such devices emit light towards the
blue end of the spectrum. Such light will stimulate your eye retina and prevent the secretion of
melatonin that promotes sleep anticipation in the brain. Use a filter or “blue light” glasses to
minimize such blue light or avoid all electronic devices before bed. Other ways to improve sleep
include avoiding exercise late in the day, staying hydrated throughout the day, using journaling or
breathing exercises to quiet the mind, and creating a predictable bedtime routine and schedule.
5. Choose to focus on the moment. It might feel counterintuitive when you feel unable to
concentrate, but remember that you choose where you focus. It’s tough to concentrate when
your mind is always in the past and worrying about the future. While it isn’t easy, make an effort
to let go of past events. Acknowledge the impact, what you felt, and what you learned from it,
then let it go. Similarly, acknowledge your concerns about the future, consider how you are
 experiencing that anxiety in your body, then choose to let it go. We want to train our mental
resources to focus on the details of what matters at the moment. Our minds go in the direction
we choose to focus.

6. Take a short break. This also might seem counterintuitive, but when you focus on something for
a long time, your focus may begin to die down. You may feel more and more difficulty devoting
your attention to the task. Researchers have found that our brains tend to ignore sources of
constant stimulation. Taking very small breaks by refocusing your attention elsewhere can
dramatically improve mental concentration after that. The next time you are working on a project,
take a break when you begin to feel stuck. Move around, talk to someone, or even switch to a
different type of task. You will come back with a more focused mind to keep your performance
high.
7. Connect with nature. Research has found that even having plants in office spaces can help
increase concentration and productivity, as well as workplace satisfaction and better air quality.
Finding time to take a walk in the park or appreciating the plants or flowers in your garden can
boost your concentration and help you feel refreshed.
8. Train your brain. Scientific research is starting to amass evidence on the ability of brain training
activities to enhance cognitive abilities, including concentration, in adults. Such brain training
games can also help you develop your working and short-term memory, as well as your processing
and problem-solving skills. Examples of such games include jigsaw puzzles, sudoku, chess, and
brain-stimulating video games.

9. Exercise. Start your day with simple exercise and get your body moving. According to the May
2013 issue of the Harvard Men’s Health Watch, regular exercise releases chemicals key for
memory, concentration, and mental sharpness. Other research found that exercise can boost the
brain’s dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels and all these will affect focus and
attention. Individuals who do some form of exercise or sports perform better on cognitive tasks
when compared with those who have poor physical health. Physical movement helps relax the
muscles and relieve tension in the body. Since the body and mind are so closely linked, when your
body feels better so, too, will your mind.
10. Listen to music Music has been shown to have therapeutic effects on our brains. Light music may
help you to concentrate better, but some music may distract you. Experts generally agree that
classical music and nature sounds, such as water flowing, are good choices for concentration while
music with lyrics and human voices may be distracting. Multiple apps and services offer
background music and soundscapes designed for different types of focus and work needs.
11. Eat well.Choose foods that moderate blood sugar, maintain energy, and fuel the brain. Fruits,
vegetables, and high-fiber foods can keep your blood sugar levels even. Reduce sugary foods and
drinks that cause spikes and dips in your sugar levels make you feel dizzy or drowsy.Your brain
needs lots of good fat to function properly. Nuts, berries, avocados, and coconut oil are all great
ways to get healthy fats into your diet and help your brain run more smoothly. The science on
Research has found that foods like blueberries can boost concentration and memory for up to 5
hours after consumption due to an enzyme that stimulates the flow of oxygen and blood to the
brain, helping with memory as well as our ability to focus and learn new information. Leafy green
vegetables such as spinach contain potassium which accelerates the connections between
neurons and can make our brain more responsive.
12. Set a daily priority. Write down what you want to accomplish each day, ideally the night before,
and identify a single priority that you commit to accomplishing. This will help focus your brain on
what matters, tackling the big jobs first and leaving the small stuff till later. Break large tasks into
smaller bytes so that you will not be overwhelmed. Identifying true priorities can help relieve
distracting anxiety, and achieving small daily goals can wire your brain to achieve success.
13. Create space for work. Create a calm, dedicated space for work, if possible. Not everyone can
have a well-appointed office, but desk organizers, noise-canceling headphones, an adjustable
monitor, and adjustable lighting can help. Clear clutter out of sight, make it as ergonomic and
comfortable as possible, and try to keep your space neat and ventilated.
14. Use a timer. Train your brain to hyper-focus on a task by using a timer or phone alarm. First,
decide what task you want to complete. Set your timer for 20 minutes (generally not more than
30 minutes) and concentrate on the task. When the alarm rings take a short break for 5 minutes.
You can either take a walk and do some stretching exercise, then reset the timer and start again.
This technique has shown to be effective to improve your concentration.
15. Switch tasks While we may want to concentrate on a particular task, sometimes we get stuck and
our brain needs something fresh to focus on. Try switching to other tasks or something you love
to do. Switching tasks can help you stay alert and productive for a longer period.
Learning how to improve concentration is not something you can achieve overnight. Professional athletes
like golfers, sprinters, gymnasts take plenty of time to practice (and usually have a coach) so that they can
concentrate and get the right move at the right moment to achieve excellence.The first step to strengthen
your concentration is to recognize how it is affecting your life. If you are struggling to meet commitments,
constantly sidetracked by the unimportant, or not moving toward your aspirations, it is time to get help
with concentration so that you can focus on what matters most to you.Learning how to concentrate at
work is essential for succeeding in your career and life. By improving your concentration, you will find that
you can accomplish more of what you value and feel better doing it. It’s not just about accomplishing tasks
but about making time for joy and happiness so that you can achieve a meaningful and satisfying life.

Chapter 10

Preparing for test

Test preparation (abbreviated test prep) or exam preparation is an educational course, tutoring service,
educational material, or a learning tool designed to increase students’ performance on standardized tests.
Examples of these tests include entrance examinations used for admissions to institutions of higher
education, such as college (e.g. the SAT and ACT), business school (the GMAT), law school (the LSAT or
LNAT), medical school (the MCAT), BMAT, UKCAT and GAMSAT and graduate school (the GRE) and
qualifying examinations for admission to gifted education programs.[

How to prepare for Tests

Test Preparation Tips

The following are proven strategies that have helped many students improve test scores and prepare
more effectively for exams.
Don’t Procrastinate. Don’t Cram.

It seems like some students thrive on last-minute ‘cramming’. But most experts will agree, cramming isn’t
effective. The biggest problem with cramming, according to UCLA professor of psychiatry Andrew Fuligni,
is that cramming causes students to sacrifice sleep time in order to study. While it’s not possible to
perform well on a test without the required knowledge, sleep is critical for academic success. Sacrificing
sleep for an additional 3 or 4 hours of study is often counterproductive.

One of the most important test preparation tips we can give you is to give yourself enough time to study.
Don’t procrastinate! It’s best to begin preparing long before the day of a test. Make it a habit to complete
reading assignments on time and frequently review lecture notes. If you’re preparing for midterm or final
exams, you’ll want to organize your time so you can dedicate more time to those exams that are more
important or are going to be more demanding.

Plan Your Study Time

Make time for studying. Setting aside regular time to study is critical for achieving high test performance.
We recommend preparing a term calendar, weekly schedule and daily schedule that includes regular study
sessions. It’s so easy for work and other activities to quickly take precedence over studying, so plan your
study time in advance. As you progress through the term it’s okay to amend your study schedule to meet
your needs, but make sure you plan study sessions in advance – and that you stick with them.

Watch for Clues

Almost every teacher has a methodology for preparing test questions – and they tend to use the same
methodology each time they prepare a test. Watch for clues your teacher might provide about possible
test questions and formats. It is also advisable to participate at test review sessions and ask questions
about unclear concepts. Never be ashamed to ask questions.

Ask Your Teacher for Direction

We’d even suggest asking your teacher directly the best way to study for the test. Many teachers are open
to sharing with students suggestions, even secrets, as to how best prepare for their exams. Don’t be scared
to ask your teacher about what subjects or topics you will be tested on during the exam – even what types
of questions to might see.
Arrive Early on Test Day

The more you can glean before a test the better off you’ll be. I still remember showing up for class early
on the day of my AP History exam in high school. My teacher, Mr. Farr, was answering a question asked
to him by another student seeking some clarification on test subject matter. Whether advertently or
inadvertently I’ll never know but he said to this student, “Don’t stress about that. Very little of the test
covers that material.” Knowing that allowed me to focus my remaining 30 minutes of study on subject
matter that was going to be more likely to be on the exam.

Review Early. Review With a Group.

Start a final review of all lecture notes, reading assignments, and other class materials that will help you
prepare, a couple days before the test. You can do this review by yourself or as part of a study group.
Working as part of a study group is an excellent way to review in preparation for an exam. Reviewing in
preparation for a test as part of a study group will allow you to improve your notes, fill in any gaps in your
understanding, more fully explore complex concepts, maximize your time, cover more material, gain
additional knowledge about what might be on the test, and provide you with a support system.

Prepare an Outline

Prepare an outline of the main topics and concepts that will be covered during an exam, then use this
sheet to study. This will help you memorize key facts and other information you will be tested on.

Use Visual Aids

Visual aids, including charts, diagrams and graphs are great study helps – especially if you’re a visual
learner. Organizing information into diagrams and charts helps to condense and simplify information and
improves recall at test time.

Stay Healthy

Getting plenty of rest and exercising regularly will enhance your ability to perform well on a test. Eat a
nutritious meal prior to taking a test to be alert and focused. Stay away from junk food. Eating junk food
or sugar prior to a test will cause your energy levels to deplete quickly and can impact your ability to focus.
Get Plenty of Sleep

It is unwise to stay up all night studying prior to test day. Get plenty of sleep the night before a test.
Although spending extra time preparing seems like it will improve your score, you never want to show up
to a test tired. Studies show that students who spend more time upfront studying and less time cramming
the night before typically perform better on tests.

Stay Hydrated and Use the Bathroom

Be sure to use the bathroom before the test begins. If you must visit the restroom during the test, it can
waste time, and in many cases, students are not permitted to leave a room once a test begins. It can also
be extremely uncomfortable and distract your concentration.However, it’s also important that you stay
hydrated. If possible, bring a bottle of water with you to the exam.

Test Taking routine

Before delving into test taking strategies outlined below, we recommend reading and familiarizing
yourself with proven test preparation tips and strategies for improving test performance, if you haven’t
already.Once you have a solid command of the subject matter and material that will be presented on your
test, it’s time to put in play some basic test taking strategies that have proven effective for thousands of
students. Remember, you must adapt test-taking strategies to the specific type of test you’re taking.

1. Be prepared

There is no substitute for preparation. If you haven’t studied throughout the semester. If you haven’t
reviewed prior to test day. If you don’t know the test material, all the test taking strategies in the world
won’t save you. Preparation is key.

• Spend as many hours as necessary to understand the material that will be covered on the test
well enough to achieve a high score.
• Since teachers often slightly modify information on tests to determine if students have a good
understanding of concepts, spend time on honing test-taking skills.
2. Always arrive early and take a moment to relax
• You’ll increase your confidence if you take time to relax.
• You’ll be able to narrow your focus for the upcoming test.
• Arriving early may allow you time to ask any last minute questions from the instructor or listen to
explanations being provided to other students. Some study resources suggest that it’s better to
arrive on time to avoid “brain pickers”, students who ask questions right before a test, but we
disagree. We believe there is more to be gained by arriving a little early.

3. Listen attentively to last minute instructions given by the instructor

• It is not uncommon for teachers to alter test details at the last minute.
• If you miss test instructions, test taking anxiety will increase.
• If you miss test instructions, don’t be scared to ask for instructions to be repeated.

4. Do a memory dump
• A memory dump can be a particularly useful strategy for improving performance on certain types
of tests
• As soon as you begin the test, write down information that you will likely need to know for the
test and you fear you may forget. (ie., formulas, equations, dates, lists, etc.)

5. Read the test directions very carefully and watch for details
• Test questions and directions often contain valuable information. Always read all directions
carefully to ensure you understand what is being asked.
• It is not uncommon to have two correct answers on a multiple choice question. Pay attention to
details.
• Frequently, test instructions will notify students that they only need to complete two questions,
but there will be 5 options
 6. Plan how you will use the allotted time
• Take a moment to estimate how much time you’ll have for each section of the test and each
question. Allow enough time for more difficult sections or sections that are weighted more heavily
in the final test grade.
• Pace yourself so you can complete the test in the allotted time frame.
• Complete the questions you know first then come back and tackle the problems you’re not sure
about after.

7. Look for cues

• If two answers are similar, they’re usually not the correct answer.
• Pay attention to grammatical matching between the question being asked and answers. If an
answer seems right but doesn’t match grammatically with the question, it probably isn’t the
correct answer.
• Look for cues from other questions.
8. Answer all the questions

Even if you’re running out of time and can answer all the questions fully, it’s important to answer all
questions. Many professors will give partial credit for partially completed questions or if you’re able to
show your work. (Note: There are some tests in college where you are docked points for guessing. This is
rare and usually will be announced by the professor prior to the test.)

9. Maintain a positive attitude

• Do not lose confidence or waste time if you encounter confusing or difficult questions. Answer
the questions you know first.
• If you have no clue about the correct answer, make an educated guess if it will not count against
your score.
• Disregard patterns. It is probably coincidence if a string of multiple choice answers that you know
are correct are “a.”
10. Rely on your first impressions
• The first answer that pops in your mind is usually the correct answer. Don’t change answers unless
you’re sure the answer you’ve chosen is wrong.
 • It may be counterproductive to review answers and make changes – especially if you’re struggling
to get through the test
11. Plan to finish early and have time for review
• Go back and answer difficult questions after answering easy ones.
• If you are required to complete an essay, review it for spelling and grammatical errors.
• Check to make sure you have completed the entire test. It is not uncommon for questions to be
listed on the opposite side of a page.
12. Consider every test a practice session – analyze your performance
• It takes time and practice to develop effective test taking skills.
• To determine whether your test taking strategies are working, take time to evaluate your
performance after each test.
• Be sure to take note of where you’re struggling. Are you struggling with essays or multiple choice
questions?
• Arrange to meet with teachers to discuss low test scores to determine what you can do to
improve. This is highly recommended if you struggle with essay questions.

Master objective test

Multiple-Choice Test Taking Tips and Strategies

College entrance exams, classroom tests, and most other examinations contain multiple-choice questions.
Since you will no doubt encounter these types of questions on tests if you are preparing to enter college,
learning some test taking strategies will be very beneficial.

Read the entire question.

Read a multi-choice question in its entirety before glancing over the answer options. Students often think
they know what a question is asking before reading it and jump straight to the most logical answer. This
is a big mistake and can cost you dearly on multiple-choice exams. Read each question thoroughly before
reviewing answer options.

Answer it in your mind first.

After reading a question, answer it in your mind before reviewing the answer options. This will help
prevent you from talking yourself out of the correct answer.
Eliminate wrong answers.

Eliminate answer options which you’re 100 percent sure are incorrect before selecting the answer you
believe is correct. Even when you believe you know the right answer, first eliminating those answers you
know are incorrect will ensure your answer choice is the correct choice.

Use the process of elimination.

Using the process of elimination, cross out all the answers you know are incorrect, then focus on the
remaining answers. Not only does this strategy save time, it greatly increases your likelihood of selecting
the correct answer.

Select the best answer.

It’s important to select the best answer to the question being asked, not just an answer that seems
correct. Often many answers will seem correct, but there is typically a best answer to the question that
your professors is looking for.

Read every answer option.

Read every answer option prior to choosing a final answer. This may seem like a no brainer to some, but
it is a common mistake students make. As we pointed out in the previous section, there is usually a best
answer to every multiple-choice question. If you quickly assume you know the correct answer, without
first reading every answer option, you may end up not selecting the best answer.

Answer the questions you know first.

If you’re having difficulty answering a question, move on and come back to tackle it once you’ve answered
all the questions you know. Sometimes answering easier questions first can offer you insight into
answering more challenging questions.

Make an educated guess.

If it will not count against your score, make an educated guess for any question you’re unsure about.
(Note: On some standardized tests incorrect answers are penalized. For example, a correct answer may
be worth 2 points, an unanswered question 0 points, and an incorrect answer -1 points. On these tests,
you can still make an educated guess, but only when you’re able to eliminate at least one or two incorrect
answers.)

All of the above” and “None of the above”

When you encounter “All of the above” and “None of the above” answer choices, do not select “All of the
above” if you are pretty sure any one of the answers provided is incorrect. The same applies for “None of
the above” if you are confident that at least one of the answer choices is true.

When there are seemingly two correct answers.

When two answers are correct in a multiple choice question with an “All of the above” option, then it’s
probably the correct choice.

Place your bet on the positive option.

In most cases, a positive option is probably true if there is also a negative one.

The more information... the better.

More often than not, the correct answer usually contains more information than the other options. This
is good to know if you must guess.

Know how to answer essay questions

Answer the question according to general rules of academic writing. Use indentations; begin each
paragraph with a topic sentence; support the topic sentence(s) with reasons and/or examples; use
transition words to show logical organization; write a conclusion. Use correct punctuation throughout.

To answer an essay question (EQ), students must assess

• The purpose of the essay question:

• Factual recall,
• Analysis (explanation of relationships)
• Synthesis (application/transfer of previously learned principles)
• Opinion
 • How much information to include, repeat, restate (intro needed? Details needed?).
• Read the questions very carefully at least 2 or 3 times.
• Circle the main verb (= action verb/imperative) in the question and decide on the necessary
rhetorical strategy for answering the question (cause-effect, comparison-contrast, definition,
classification, problem-solution).
• Make sure you understand what type of answer the main verb calls for (a diagram a summary,
details, an analysis, an evaluation).
• Circle all the keywords in the question.
• Decide if you need to write a 1-paragraph or a multi-paragraph answer.
• Write a brief outline of all the points you want to mention in your answer.
• Restate the question and answer it with a topic sentence (for a 1-paragraph answer) or a thesis
statement (for a
• Multi-paragraph answer).
• Read over your answer again and check if all the main ideas have been included.
• Check your answer for grammar and punctuation.

Chapter 11

Becoming an active reader

Active reading simply means reading something with a determination to understand and evaluate it for
its relevance to your needs. Simply reading and re-reading the material isn’t an effective way to
understand and learn. Actively and critically engaging with the content can save you time.

Reading actively

Active reading simply means reading something with a determination to understand and evaluate it for
its relevance to your needs.
Simply reading and re-reading the material isn’t an effective way to understand and learn. Actively and
critically engaging with the content can save you time. Most OU study books and websites include in-text
questions and self-assessed questions. Use these as built-in cues to make your study active.

Try these techniques to make your reading active

• Underline or highlight key words and phrases as you read. When you return to it later on, you can
easily see which points you identified as important. Be selective – too much highlighting won’t
help.
• Make annotations in the margin to summarise points, raise questions, challenge what you’ve
read, jot down examples and so on. You can do this in printed books or etexts. This takes more
thought than highlighting, so you’ll probably remember the content better. (Use sticky notes if
you don’t want to mark the text.)
• Read critically by asking questions of the text. Who wrote it? When? Who is the intended
audience? Does it link with other material you’ve studied in the module? Why do you think it was
written? Is it an excerpt from a longer piece of text?
• Test yourself by reading for half an hour, putting the text away and jotting down the key points
from memory. Go back to the text to fill in gaps.
• Look for ‘signposts’ that help you understand the text – phrases like ‘most importantly’, ‘in
contrast’, ‘on the other hand’.
• Explain what you’ve read to someone else.
• Record yourself reading the module material or your notes, and listen to the recording while
you’re travelling or doing household chores.

Find the Main Idea, details and implifications

Finding the main idea is critical to understanding what you are reading. It helps the details make sense
and have relevance, and provides a framework for remembering the content. Try these specific tips to
pinpoint the main idea of a passage.

1) Identify the Topic

Read the passage through completely, then try to identify the topic. Who or what is the paragraph about?
This part is just figuring out a topic like “cause of World War I” or “new hearing devices;” don’t worry yet
about deciding what argument the passage is making about this topic.

2) Summarize the Passage

After reading the passage thoroughly, summarize it in your own words in one sentence. Pretend you have
just ten to twelve words to tell someone what the passage is about—what would you say?

3) Look at the First and Last Sentences of the Passage

Authors often put the main idea in or near either the first or last sentence of the paragraph or article, so
isolate those sentences to see if they make sense as the overarching theme of the passage. Be careful:
sometimes the author will use words like but, however, in contrast, nevertheless, etc. That indicate that
the second sentence is actually the main idea. If you see one of these words that negate or qualify the
first sentence, that is a clue that the second sentence is the main idea.

4. Look for Repetition of Ideas

If you read through a paragraph and you have no idea how to summarize it because there is so much
information, start looking for repeated words, phrases, or related ideas. Read this example paragraph:

A new hearing device uses a magnet to hold the detachable sound-processing portion in place. Like other
aids, it converts sound into vibrations, but it is unique in that it can transmit the vibrations directly to the
magnet and then to the inner ear. This produces a clearer sound. The new device will not help all hearing-
impaired people—only those with a hearing loss caused by infection or some other problem in the middle
ear. It will probably help no more than 20 percent of all people with hearing problems. Those people who
have persistent ear infections, however, should find relief and restored hearing with the new device.
What does this paragraph consistently talk about? A new hearing device. What is it trying to convey? A
new hearing device is now available for some, but not all, hearing-impaired people. That’s the main idea!

Textbook Marking

Read to increase your focus and comprehend major points.

– A convenient way of making this happen is to Change headings into questions and then attempt to
answer the question while reading. This technique will help You become more realistic and even increase
your speed. Once you have found the main idea in a block of text You can usually move on and save time.
However, there are several good reasons for not moving on. First, and Most important, read on if you do
not understand the concept. Second, read on if you can see that there are Additional key ideas illustrated
by highlighted words, lists with numbers, or charts. Do not expect to memorize The content. Look for
relationships which apply to the core principles of the subject material.

Read first and highlight later. –

Before determining what you want to mark, read the complete paragraph or Section. When you have
determined the main ideas, highlight them or underline with the pen of your choice. Premature
underlining often leads to highlighting unimportant information.

Mark only essential ideas.

– Reading can become an arduous and tedious task if you are attempting to Remember or memorize every
detail. Since you cannot remember everything you read, it becomes important to Mark or underline only
essential information. Main ideas and major supporting points are most important to Highlight. Learn to
identify and discriminate between them. The extent to which you underline details depends On your
purpose and the demands of your instructor. Reading material that has been marked excessively slips in
Value. It is frustrating to review reading material that has been over-marked because it becomes difficult
to Quickly perceive the important points and give those points our focused attention. Most college
students have Gone to the bookstore to buy a used book and found that many of the books are ruined by
excessive marking.
Highlight key phrases, not complete sentences.

– It is generally best to refrain from highlighting complete Sentences. Concentrate instead on highlighting
important words or phrases within important sentences. Delay Your underlining until you recognize what
is important to remember. A page with occasional highlights,Bringing attention to fewer items, is easier
to review.

Use a marking system that shows the relationship between key points and supporting points. –

Underlining Or highlighting alone may not be sufficient to distinguish quickly between main ideas and
supporting points and To see clearly how they relate to each other. A marking system that uses symbols,
numbers, letters, or lines will Help you quickly identify relationships while you read and review. The
marking system you adopt is up to you. The goal is to develop a method that enhances your learning.
Students find many effective marking systems, for Example, double underline or star the most important
points, single underline supporting points. Some students Find it better to design a color coding system
(using different highlighting colors for main and sub-points).Drawing arrows is an effective way to draw
attention to connecting thoughts or to show cause and effect Relationships.

Review your marked textbook

. – The sooner you review, the better. Most scholars recommend that you review Material you have noted
or marked within 24 hours. If you wait longer you will find yourself relearning the Material. While
reviewing, try to test your ability to remember and restate the material in your own words. To Recite or
write the main ideas as you review will enhance your memory and understanding. No matter how Difficult
the task of summarizing might be for you, stick to it until you feel confident that you understand and
Comprehend the content. As you recite these important main points, go a step beyond memorization and
help Your memory by thinking how each idea relates to you, your community, or other concepts in the
subject Material.
Chapter 12

How to use a dictionary

A dictionary is one of the most valuable tools available for improving your English language skills. Here
are some ways to maximize a dictionary’s usefulness.

Step 1: Practice using alphabet Become adept at navigating through the alphabet. The words in the
dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order, so it will be easier to find them if you can quickly recognize
alphabetic order.

Step 2: Use guide words Note the guide words at the top of the page. These words identify the first and
last entries on the page.

Step 3: Learn abbreviations Consult the dictionary’s front matter for a list of abbreviations and their
explanations. Abbreviations may be used for academic fields, stylistic or geographic designations, and
etymologies.

Step 4: Recognize similar spellings Consult the front matter for a list of spellings that can produce a similar
sound if you know the pronunciation of a word, but not the spelling. Then check alternate spellings of the
word until you find it.

TIP: For example, the sound of k in the word “kick” is identical to the sound of c in “call”.

Step 5: Identify correct definition Make sure the definition for the word you are looking up matches the
context in which the word was used where you saw it. Words in the dictionary may have more than one
meaning, so you shouldn’t settle for the first one listed.

Step 6: Learn pronunciation symbols Consult the dictionary’s front matter for a list of pronunciation
symbols. Try saying the word after you look at the pronunciation key.
Dictionaries are organised alphabetically, so start with the first letter of the word that you are trying to
find.

There will be lots of entries for each letter of the alphabet, so use the guide word at the top of the page
to help you. The guide word tells you what the first or last word on that page of the dictionary is.

You will need to look at the second letter of the word, and then the third, and so on, in order to find it. It
takes a little practice to find words quickly.

You may need to scan several pages of the dictionary in order to find the word that you need. Scanning is
a way of reading quickly to find the information that you need. The more you practise, the better you will
get at finding words fast.

Steps

Choose the right dictionary.

• It’s also a good idea to upgrade your dictionary every now and then so that you have access to
the latest new words that are added to the dictionary every year.[1]
• Consider purchasing specialist dictionaries if they’d be useful in your study or career. Some
examples of specialist dictionaries include language dictionaries, technical dictionaries, rhymes,
crossword, subject dictionaries (for example, for math, chemistry, biology, horticulture, etc.),
illustrated dictionaries (excellent for learning another language or for technical knowledge), slang
and idioms, etc.
• Many universities have subscriptions to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) that provides in-
depth information on the history and origins of the word.
• Note that many countries have their own native dictionaries that might be more helpful than
sourcing a dictionary from just anywhere, such as the Macquarie dictionary in Australia, Oxford
dictionary in England, Webster’s dictionary in the United States, etc.
• Some schools, universities, and workplaces prefer the use of one particular dictionary. This is for
reasons of maintaining a consistent style and understanding among everyone using them; make
sure you use the right one for your assignments, editing, and reports. Check the syllabus or
employee handbook to find out.
Read the introduction.

• The best way to learn how to use your particular dictionary effectively is to read its introductory
section where you’ll find out how the entries are arranged. The introductory section of your
dictionary will explain important information such as the abbreviations and pronunciation
symbols used throughout the entries.
• Introductions to dictionaries explain things like how entries are arranged (they typically give the
word, and the variations of the word; what part of speech the word is; pronunciation of the word;
definition, etc.). Reading the introduction will give you a handle on how to find words and how to
use the information that you do find.
• There may also be information on the pronunciation of words with similar spellings; this can be
helpful if you have only heard a word and you’re not sure of its spelling. For example, if you hear
“not”, it might also be “knot” but the “k” is silent, and this list can help you with suggestions.

Learn the abbreviations

• . Dictionaries often have abbreviations in the definitions for a word. This can be confusing if you
don’t know what the abbreviations stand for. Typically a dictionary will have a list of abbreviations
near the front of the book; either in the introduction or after it.[2]
• For example “adj.” Stands for “adjective” and will tell you what kind of word the word you’re
looking up is. “Adv.” Or “advb.” Can stand for “adverb; adverbially.”
• Something like “n.” Can stand for at least three different things: the most obvious and common
is “noun,” but it can also stand for “neuter” or “north” depending on the context. So make sure
that you check the context of the word when you’re looking it up.

Learn the guide to pronunciation.

• If you immediately jump right into reading the dictionary without understanding the
pronunciation guide, it can be difficult to figure it out. Having an idea about the symbols of
pronunciation will make it a lot easier for you.[3]
• The pronunciation of a word will be placed between two reversed virgules (\ \) and will typically
be printed in italics.
• A single stress mark (‘) precedes the strongest syllable in a word. A double mark precedes the
syllable with a medium (or secondary stress) (“), and the third level of stress has no marker. For
example, penmanship would look like this \’pen-m&n-“ship\.
 • The symbol \&\ indicates an unstressed vowel. This symbol often intrudes between a stressed
vowel and a following \r\ or \l\, such as in sour \’sau(-&)r\.
• The symbol \ä\ symbolizes the type of “a” sound that appears in words like “caught,” or “fought.”
Compare this to the symbol \a\ which designates the sound “a” in “mat, map, snap,” and so on.
The word doesn’t necessarily have to have the letter “a” to have a type of “a” sound.

Learn the guide to pronunciation

• . If you immediately jump right into reading the dictionary without understanding the
pronunciation guide, it can be difficult to figure it out. Having an idea about the symbols of
pronunciation will make it a lot easier for you.[3]
• The pronunciation of a word will be placed between two reversed virgules (\ \) and will typically
be printed in italics.
• A single stress mark (‘) precedes the strongest syllable in a word. A double mark precedes the
syllable with a medium (or secondary stress) (“), and the third level of stress has no marker. For
example, penmanship would look like this \’pen-m&n-“ship\.
• The symbol \&\ indicates an unstressed vowel. This symbol often intrudes between a stressed
vowel and a following \r\ or \l\, such as in sour \’sau(-&)r\.
• The symbol \ä\ symbolizes the type of “a” sound that appears in words like “caught,” or “fought.”
Compare this to the symbol \a\ which designates the sound “a” in “mat, map, snap,” and so on.
The word doesn’t necessarily have to have the letter “a” to have a type of “a” sound.

Chapter 13

Building career skills

New skills for a new economy

The creative economy not only requires new and rapidly changing skills, it requires a completely new
approach to education in which collaborative learning and mutual respect between the traditional
disciplines of arts, science and technology will be crucial.
It’s often said that the world is changing so fast that schools and universities have to educate young people
for jobs that haven’t yet been invented. This is certainly true of the creative sector where growth and
development are especially rapid. It is not simply a reference to rapidly changing technologies but to the
fact that if young people are to look forward to good quality lifelong employment they will have to be
learning new skills and work practices throughout their working lives. Rather than learning a fixed body
of knowledge or a particular set of skills, they need to be able to “learn how to learn” so that they can go
on learning throughout their lives. Adaptability, flexibility, the ability to learn fast, to communicate
effectively, to work in changing ways with changing teams of colleagues are all likely to be necessary skills
for the future and yet few education systems are working with those priorities in mind .

The importance of creative education

A creative education that gives children the ability to express themselves and to appreciate the creativity
of others is not only a good preparation for work, it also helps children acquire confidence and tolerance,
to have a better appreciation of the world and their own and other peoples heritage. Most importantly,
it can encourage them to be more aware of and to express their own creativity and develop whatever
talent they have, for their own enjoyment and, potentially, for the benefit of the economy and society at
large. However, many governments are focusing their education systems more and more intensively on
science, technology and mathematics in the belief that these are the skills that are most needed for a hi-
tech ‘knowledge economy’. In an era of mass education and globalisation, these ‘hard’ skills are also much
easier to assess, to grade and compare with other countries and other education systems than the ‘soft’
skills that make for a more ‘rounded’ education system and a more balanced and mature adult. A highly
influential report commissioned by the UK’s Warwick University in 2015 stated “A quality, cultural and
creative education allows people to develop rich expressive lives, and it is essential to the flourishing of
the UK’s cultural and creative identity and the cultural and creative industries that this opportunity is not
limited to the socially advantaged and privately educated. This is a fairness, equity and economic
imperative.” The issue is not whether the arts and humanities are more important or less important than
science and technology; both are necessary for a full life, a harmonious society and, increasingly, a
successful creative economy.

It’s not ‘arts’ v ‘sciences’ – a diversity of perspective produces the best results

One powerful piece of evidence came from a project undertaken by the UK’s Arts and Humanities
Research Council (AHRC) in 2014. Their FUSE project examined more than 450 creative digital media
businesses in and around the city of Brighton in southern England and found that businesses in which
employees from an arts and humanities background worked as equals with employees from a science and
technology background were growing faster than companies in which either group was allowed to
dominate the other. The greater the degree of integration between the arts and science disciplines, the
greater the company’s growth. The report concluded “While Brighton’s creative, design and IT firms grew
faster than the local economy and ten times faster than the British economy as a whole, ‘fused’ businesses
grew at more than twice that speed and ‘superfused’ firms grew faster still.” Not only did this
demonstrate the value of maintaining a balance between different skills, it illustrated the truth that a
diversity of skills and perspectives is, of itself, an important element in building a successful successful
creative economy. Cities and neighbourhoods with a rich diversity of people and cultures are much more
likely to be centres of creativity than those that are monocultural or are lacking in a variety of social and
cultural amenities. The benefit to creative businesses of a diversity of perspectives, of different kinds of
skill and knowledge, is so great that in its report for the UK Government The Way Ahead (2007) the Work
Foundation argued that “diversity is more important than ability”.

The value of ‘cross-sector’ and ‘cross-disciplinary’ working

This, in turn, points to the fact that working across sectors that traditionally have been seen as separate
has been crucial in the evolution of the creative economy and its core industries. For example, in areas
such as health and education there is a growing recognition that the arts and the creative insights of
professionals working in software, videogames and other creative industries can provide valuable insights
that enhance the work of conventionally trained clinicians or educationalists.

The benefit of such ‘cross-overs’ is nowhere more obvious than in the field of design. Design as a discipline
has traditionally been thought of in terms of product design but, in urban societies and modern
economies, the design of systems and processes is also essential for good business management, traffic
management, city planning, food supply, civic engagement and many other areas. In 2016 the European
Commission offered a tender for design companies to help rethink the way in which policies are designed
and implemented in the European Commission and Parliament – a powerful illustration of the way in
which creative industry skills are spreading into every corner of the modern world. Indeed, research
suggests that the fastest growing area of activity for many creative industries is in ‘B2B’ (‘business to
business’) relationships, not ‘B2C’ (‘business to consumer’) relationships. In other words, the creative
industries are no longer just creating products and services for direct sale to individuals, music, films,
fashion, they are becoming vital links in the supply chains of other industries, for example through
advertising and design and in the work of the public sector.

This mix of disciplines that have traditionally been regarded as distinct from each other is a challenge to
the way in which much higher education is organised. Another research project by the UK’s Arts and
Humanities Research Council, looking at the relationship between universities and the growth of creative
businesses in their regions, led to what one university described as “a new kind of PhD”, post-doctoral
academics who had a deep understanding of the practicalities of the business world and the commercial
workshop as well as an advanced grounding in the traditional analytical methods of the academic world.

Practical ‘making’ is a crucial part of the creative economy

The 18th century Swiss philosopher and rationalist, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, famously wrote “If, instead of
making a child stick to his books I take him to a workshop, his hands work to the advantage of his intellect,
and he becomes a philosopher, while he thinks he is simply becoming an artisan”. This observation, from
the early days of the European Age of Enlightenment, speaks well to our present situation as we begin to
reconnect fields of study and expertise that have been allowed to become separated into specialised silos
over the last 200 years. It is exemplified by the rapid growth of the Maker Movement and is a reminder
that learning practical skills in a working situation such as a workshop or studio is an important
complement to formal learning in the classroom. It is also a reminder that the creative economy is not
solely predicated on digital technologies but on individual creativity and talent. In many creative industries
where new ideas, new ways of working and new technologies are in constant flux, the apprenticeship
model of learning may be the most effective, allowing the opportunity to learn practical and theoretical
skills at the same time. However, while the apprenticeship model is easy for large businesses that can
absorb the costs of relatively unproductive trainee workers, it is much more of a challenge for very small
and micro-businesses that make up such a large proportion of the creative sector and often operate on
very slim financial margins.

The key for any country aiming to build long-term success in the creative economy is what happens in
schools at primary and secondary level. The UK government’s Creative Industries Council in its fist strategy
outline for the UK economy, Create UK published in 2014 identified three basic issues that need to be
addressed in the UK, and almost certainly in many other countries, too, “Marginalisation of creative
subjects from the curriculum, insufficient specialist training for teachers and a lack of consistent careers
advice are discouraging young people from following a creative path”. THE END