ED 302 Comparative Education Guide Notes

EDU 314
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Course Team Dr B. O. Lawal (Course Developer) -

UNIBADAN
Dr B. O. Lawal (Course Writter) - UNIBADAN
Louis Okon Akpan, Ph.D (Course Reviewer) –
NOUN
Year Reviewed: 2022
Louis Okon Akpan, Ph.D (Course Reviewed
coordinator) – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

EDU 314 COURSE GUIDE
2022 by NOUN Press

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Printed 2022
ISBN: 978-978-058-132-9
ii
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………………………………………….. iv
The Course Guide……………………………………. iv
Course Aims………………………………………….. iv
Intended Learning Outcomes………………………… iv
Study Modules…………………………………………. v
Assessment……………………………………………… v
Tutor - Marked Assignment…………………………….. v
End Of Course Examination……………………………. v
Summary………………………………………………… vii
iii
INTRODUCTION
THE COURSE GUIDE
This course consists of fifteen (15) units divided into two modules
which provide basic knowledge for the learners about Comparative
Education. The course spreads through topics such as:
conceptualisation of comparative education, scope of comparative
education, historical development of comparative education, approaches
to the study of comparative education, determinants of national
education system, the future of comparative education, South African
education system, Japanese education, the system of education in
brazil, education in England, education in France, the system of
education in Jamaica, Teacher education in Nigeria and Tanzania and
education in Afghanistan.
THE COURSE GUIDE
This course Guide is out to teach you about things you should
expect from reading this material. Taking the learners through the
concept of education will enhance their knowledge about education.
Exposing the students to the scope of Comparative Education will afford
the students the opportunity to understand that the subject is an
interdisciplinary subject. In the same vein, the knowledge of
historical development of Comparative Education will assist the
students to have a better understanding of the subject. Exposing the
learners to approaches to the study of Comparative Education will afford
them the opportunity to know the various methods which can be used to
study the discipline. Taking the learners through the determinants of
National Education System will help the learners to identify the factors
that can help in the formulation of education policy. The knowledge of
the future of Comparative Education will give the learners broader
knowledge about the subject. Also, exposing the students to foreign
education systems such as South African education, Japanese education,
the system of education in Brazil, education in England, education
in America education in France, the System of education in Jamaica,
Nigerian education and Tanzania and education in Afghanistan will
afford the students the opportunity to understand what is going on in the
context of education globally. This will also help them to be in the
position to compare and contrast the practices of education in Nigeria
and other countries of the world.
iv
COURSE AIMS
This course intends to provide an opportunity for the learners to

understand better the practices of education not only in their country but
also other countries of the world.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
Specifically, this course sets to achieve the objectives below:
(a) Explain the meaning of education

(b) Identify the other subjects from where comparative education
draws its ideas.
(c) Discuss the historical development of comparative education.
(d) Mention the approaches to the study of Comparative Education.
€ Highlight and discuss the factors that determine the National
education system.
(f) Discuss the future of Comparative Education, explain the foreign
education systems in: such as: South Africa, Japan , Brazil ,
England, France, America, Jamaica ,Nigeria, Tanzania and
Afghanistan.
WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE This course expects you to

spend a lot of time to read it. You need to spend more time to study the
contents of the material so as to be able to justify the effort that has been
put into its development in order to make it readable. You are hereby
advised to attend the tutorial sessions where you will meet with your
mates for the purpose of comparing knowledge gained from the
material.
STUDY MODULES
Each unit of each of the modules has introduction, objectives,

content, conclusion, summary, tutor marked assignment, recommended
textbooks and answer kit to the tutor marked assignment.
TEXTBOOKS
Adeyinka, A.A. (1994): Popular Topics in Comparative Education for

Nigerian Tertiary Education Students, Ilorin, Success Education
Services.
Aaibi, I.O. et al (1998) Comparative Education. A handbook for

Teachers: Oyo, Odumat Press and Publishers.
Awolola, A. (1986). Readings in Comparative Education. Ibadan.
Stevelola Educational Publishers.
v
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education, Osogbo, Swift Publishers

Nig. Ltd.
Fafunwa, A.B. (1982) Education in Africa. A Comparative Survey,

London: George Allen and Unwin.
Sodhi, T.S (2011). Textbook on Comparative Education. Vikas
Publishing
Manzon, M. (2011). Comparative Education: The Construction of a

Field. Hong Kong: Springer and the Comparative Education Research
Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
ASSESSMENT
This course has two components of assessment: the tutor-marked

assignment (TMA) as well as the end of course examination.
TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT
The tutor marked assignment is the continuous assessment component

of your course.
It carries 30 percent of the total score.

Each unit has a Tutor Marked
Assignment.
You are going to be given some Tutor-Marked Assignments to attempt.

Three out of these must be attempted before you will be allowed to sit
for the end of course examination.
The Tutor – Marked
Assignment will be given to you by your facilitator and they must be
returned after you have attempted them.
END OF COURSE EXAMINATION
Examination concludes the assessment for the course, it accounts for

about 60 percent of the whole course, you will be told about the time for
the examination.
SUMMARY
This course provides you information about Comparative Education as a

discipline. In addition, the following topics were also discussed in
the course. Education, the scope of Comparative Education,
Historical Development of Comparative Education, Approaches to
the study of Comparative Education, Determinants of National
vi
Education System, the Future of Comparative Education, Japanese

Education System, the System of Education in Brazil, Education in
England, Education in America, Education in France, the System of
Education in Jamaica, Teacher Education in Nigeria and Tanzania and
finally, Education in Afghanistan.
vii
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1…………………………………………………... 1
Unit 1 Meaning of Education…………………… 1

Unit 2 Scope Of Comparative Education………….. 8
Unit 3 Historical Development Of Comparative
Education…………………………………… 15
Unit 4 Methodological Approaches To The Study Of
Comparative Education……………………… 20
Unit 5: Determinants Of National Education System 30
Unit 6 Factors That Can Sustain The Teaching
Learning Of Comparative Education……… 34
Module 2…………………………………………………... 40
Unit 1 South African Education System…………… 40

Unit 2 Japanese Education System…………………. 44
Unit 3 The System Of Education In Brazil………….. 49
Unit 3 Education In England………………………… 55
Unit 4 Education In The United States Of America…. 58
Unit 5 Education In France………………………….. 63
Unit 6 The System Of Education In Jamaica………… 70
Unit 7 Education In Nigeria And Tanzania………….. 74
Unit 8 Education In Afghanistan……………………… 81
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Meaning of Education

Unit 2 Scope Of Comparative Education
Unit 3 Historical Development Of Comparative Education
Unit 4 Methodological Approaches To The Study Of
Comparative Education
Unit 5: Determinants Of National Education System
Unit 6 Factors That Can Sustain The Teaching Learning Of
UNIT 1 MEANING OF EDUCATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Intended LEARNING OUTCOMES

3.0 The Content
3.1.1 Education
3.1.2 The Meaning of Comparative Education
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Education and comparative education as concepts can be given

different interpretation. The reason is that different people from
different angles will see them from different perspectives. In other
words, there can be as many definitions to the concepts of Education
and Comparative Education.
2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to provide an

acceptable definition to Education.
3.0 THE CONTENT
3.1.1 Education
Education is very difficult to pin to a particular definition, because the

concept may be perceived from different angles. The concept has been
traced to two Latin words. The Latin words are (a) educere and (b)
educare. While educere can be interpreted as "to draw out" or "to lead
out", Educare on the other hand means "to nourish" "to bring up or "to
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EDU 314 COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
raise". The interpretations of two Latin words no doubt, are more than
what can be offered by the school alone. Adesina (1985) noted that
education is always related to variable such as purpose of the learner, the
aim of the teacher as well as the technological problems of the society.
He, therefore, defines education as: “The tool for the integration of the
individual effectively into a society so that the individual can
achieve self-realisation, develop national consciousness, promote
unity and strive for social, economic, political, scientific cultural and
technological process.”
While relating education to culture, Nduka (1982) sees the concept as

the process of cultural transmission of the people at least part of
suchculture from one generation to the next. Education, according to
Lester Smith cited by Osokoya (1987), is the culture which each
generation purposely gives to those who are to be its successors in order
to qualify them for at least keeping, and if possible for raising the level
of improvement which has been attained. Horton, cited by Akinpelu
(1984) sees education as an enabling agency by which the Africans
could restore their self-confidence, and make those who doubted the
humanity of Africans begin to revise their views and learn to respect
Africans. Education according to Nyerere (1982) is the transmission of
accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society from one generation
to the next and also to prepare the young people for their future
membership of the society in which they find themselves. In a similar
vein, Parankimalil (2012) look at Education as a systematic process
through which a child or an adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill
and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured
and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the
only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society
gives importance to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is
the key to solve the various problems of life. At this juncture, we can
define education as a process through which an individual becomes
integrated into his society, becomes a promoter of his societal culture,
contributor to the development of his society and becomes an adult who
will be able to stand on his own.
3.1.2 The Meaning of Comparative Education
Naturally, human beings are in the habit of making comparison of the

things that are around them particularly when such things exist in
different places. This may be done as a result of man's desire to know
the relationship existing between, or among the things being compared.
Man may also involve himself in this kind of a business when he wants
to choose between two things before him. The idea of comparison is not
peculiar to the people in the business of education alone. The children at
home or anywhere do make comparison between their parents because
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
one of them may be more loving than the other. The school pupils also
make a comparison of their teachers particularly when the teachers are
not with them. The parents themselves can make a comparison of their
children morally and academically. Comparison can take place wherever
we have two or more things at the same time either for the purpose of
having a better understanding of the relationship existing between them
or for the purpose of having a better choice.
Like other concepts, comparative education is a concept that attracts

varied interpretations or definitions. In other words, there are as many
definitions as there are many Educational Comparative experts. To get
a clear definition and meaning of Comparative Education, we must
firstly understand the purpose of education. In a most simple expression,
education ought to reflect a people’s way of life. This is in the sense that
every culture tries to perpetuate itself through deliberate transmission of
that which is considered most worthwhile knowledge, beliefs, skills and
attitudes. In other words, education is a process of socialization. It is a
learning experience that affords the learner opportunity to equip himself,
so as to play his role as a contributing member of his society. In non –
literate societies, education takes place informally while in literate,
complex society, much of cultural transmission takes place within the
confines of specially arranged environs. This process of cultural
transmission of socialisation may be called schooling. Specially, the aim
and purpose of education is a form of enculturation. It is important at
this point to also emphasise that education cannot be separated from a
people’s guiding principle or world view. Thus, in making a comparison
of education across cultures, cognisance must be taken of this fact. In
other words, every society organises its education within the confines of
her values, thoughts and beliefs. The implication to note here is that
there is no one universally accepted definition of Comparative
education. Why? There is no one single aim of education. Every society
defines education in its unique way. It is also in this context that
education is described as a social force. This is in the sense that an
educational system must reflect closely, the code of values by which a
group or society lives. Still on the purpose of education, one can also say
it is an instrument for conserving, transmitting and renewing culture.
Culture in this context, is the capability that makes man a contributory
and conforming member of society. Education also helps to nurture the
individual’s personal growth. In essence, education plays a dual role of
developing the individual in his personal growth, as well as making him
an active member of a dully constituted society. So, through education,
every society tries to foster a common identity by developing in its
populace, a common identity of ideas, desires and ambitions. The goal
here is towards achieving a national identity. We can therefore say that
education as a social force promotes national unity and cultural growth.
This actually acts as the stabilising force in a nation. The emphasis on
3
the purpose simply says that every nation, even the most primitive must
have a system of education peculiar to it. Therefore in studying and
analysing educational systems, there is every tendency that each
society’s ideals judging from their cultural milieu would also be
revealed in their educational policies and practices. As previously
highlighted one cannot discuss a nation’s education outside its social-
cultural context. It is also in this vein that comparative education is a
field of study whose major concern is one of a systematic approach to
examining educational theories and practices across cultures (Sodhi,
2006). The idea in such a comparative analysis is to elicit similarities
and differences and where possible suggest reforms. Below are various
definitions of Comparative Education as given by seasoned scholars.
1) Elementary, B. E. H. (2012)-Comparative education is the field

of education that analyses the education system of a country by
using data and systems from other countries, and designs policies
to improve education.
2) Peter Mugo and CC Wolhuter (2011)- Comparative education is
a fully established academic field of study that examines
education in one country (or group of countries) by using data
and insights drawn from the practices and situation in another
country, or countries.
3) Getao (1996) defined Comparative Education as a discipline, the
study of educational systems in which one seeks to understand
the similarities and differences among educational systems.
4) A.A Adeyinka (1994)- Comparative Education is the study of the
school systems of two or more countries, and of the
administrative machineries set up to implement or to control the
implementation of government policies at various levels of
education systems.
5) V. Mallinson (1975) - A Comparative Education is a systematic
examination of other cultures and other systems of education
deriving from those cultures, in order to discover resemblance
and differences. Also, variant solutions that have been attempted
to problems common to all.
6) W. Brickman, (1969) – The careful analysis of educational
systems, issues and problems in two or more countries within the
context of historical, social – economic, political, cultural,
religious and other influential factors is a serious study in
Comparative Education. It enables one to see a problem in
regional or global perspective, as well as comprehend the school
system and issues in his/her own country in broad perspective.
7) G.Z.F. Bereday, (1964) - Comparative Education seeks to make
sense out of the similarities and differences among educational
systems. It catalogues educational methods across national
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
frontiers. In this catalogues, each country appears as one variant

of the total score of mankind’s educational experience.
8) A. Anderson, (1961) – It is a cross-cultural comparison of the
structure, operation, aims, methods and achievements of various
educational systems, and the societal correlates of these
educational systems and their elements.
9) I.L. Kandel, (1933) – A Comparative Education approach means
a comparison of variant philosophies of education based not on
theories, but on the actual practice which prevails.
Generally, what seem central to all of the above definitions are issues
pertaining to differences and similarities of education across cultures
and nations. In essence, one would say that Comparative Education has
move away from a mere comparing educational philosophies,
ideologies, and practices for purposes of insight (verstehen) and possible
policy reform to an adoption of social science approaches, methods and
norms to study and compare educational systems, or their elements
(Benavot, 2012). All of these are viewed against the historical
background, economy, politics, geographical conditions, religion and
societal forces of the particular country or countries being investigated.
In other words, comparative educators begin by analysing specific issues
cross – culturally, and then relating them to the educational systems
from the historical, political, economic, geographical, cultural and
religious perspectives. It is also against this background that Bereday,
(1964) has described Comparative Education “as a political geography
of schools, whose tasks, with the aid of methods of other fields of study,
is to search for lessons that can be deduced from the variations in
educational practices in different societies”.
4.5 Conclusion
The unit above discussed different definitions of comparative

education as propounded by some renowned scholars.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about: the Meaning of Education and
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Adeyinka, A. A. (1994). Popular topics in comparative education for

Nigerian tertiary education students. Lagos: Raytel
Communication Ltd.
5
Benavot, A. (2012).Strengthening the Comparative Dimension in

Comparative Education (Research). CICE Seminar, Hiroshima
University.
Bereday, G. Z. F. (1968) Some Methods of Teaching Comparative

Education. CER vol. 11, No 3 pp 4-9
Elementary, B. E. H. (2012). Comparative Education. Windows on

Practice Guide.
Hans, N. (1958) Comparative Education. London: Routledge and Kegan

Paul
Holmes, B. (2018). Comparative education: Some considerations of

method. Routledge.
King, E. J. (1973) Others Schools and Ours. London: Routledge and

Kegan Paul
King, E. J. (1962) World Perspectives in Education. London: Routledge

and Kegan Paul
Lawal, B. O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo: Swift Publishers
Nigeria Ltd.
Mallinson, V. (1974) An Introduction to the Study of Comparative

Education. London:
Heinemann Educational Books.
Harold J. Noah & Max A. Eckstein. (1993) Doing Comparative

Education: Three Decades of Collaboration (Hong Kong: The
University of Hong Kong Press, 1998).
Larsen, M.; Majhanovich, S. and Maseman, V.L. (2008). Comparative

Education in Canadian Universities. In: Wolhuter, C.C.; Popov,
N.; Manzon, M. and Leutwyler, B. (eds). Comparative Education
at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: World Council of Comparative
Education Societies and Bureau for Educational Services: 145-
156.
Mugo, R. & Wolhuter, C., (2011). “The international impact of

Education research done and published in South Africa.” South
African Journal of Education 31, 603–616.
Sodhi, T.S. (2006) Text Book of Comparative Education, (6th Ed.)Delhi:

Vikas publishing house
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
Questions
1. Comparative Education was initially …

2. Bereday (1958) identified stages in the area study approach all
except….
3. Educational comparativists in the first phase include all except…
4. ...contributed to the development of Comparative education in
Russia
Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises.
1. History of education
2. Historical stage
3. Friedrich Schneider
4. Sergius Hessen
7
UNIT 2 SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 The Content
3.2.1 The Scope Of Comparative Education
3.2.2 The Purpose Of Comparative Education
3.2.3 Rationale For Studying Comparative Education
3.0 Conclusion
4.0 Summary
5.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
10 INTRODUCTION
Exposing students to the scope of comparative education will afford

the students the opportunity to have an idea of other disciplines from
where comparative education draws ideas or context from.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:
 Explain the scope of comparative education.

 Discuss the purpose of comparative education
 Explain the reasons for studying comparative education.
3.0 CONTENT
3.2.1 The Scope of Comparative Education
The term "scope" according to Longman dictionary of contemporary

English could mean: (a) The area within the limit of a question, subject,
action etc. (b) Space or chance for actions or thought. From the above,
scope of comparative education means the area or areas covered by the
discipline. The scope of the subject also connotes the various subjects or
disciplines from where Comparative education draws its information
directly or indirectly. A critical look at the various definitions of the
discipline no doubt reveals that Comparative Education is an
interdisciplinary subject since it relies on other subjects to be able to
accomplish its objectives. As an interdisciplinary subject, its scope
covers the historical development of education right from the Roman as
well as the Greek civilization. It also includes the historical development
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
of non-formal education in any country of study. The discipline has its

scope extended to the purpose or purposes of education systems of the
countries being studied, an investigation into the similarities as well as
differences existing in the educational practices of the countries under
investigation. However, it is worthy to mention that there are 11
disciplines in which Comparative Education draws its contents from.
These disciplines are as follows:
(a) History of Education
History of Education is the study of the trend or historical development

of education in a country. Comparative education experts draw
enormous contents from the discipline in order to ensure that the
historical dynamics that aided two countries’ educational development
were the same.
(b) Philosophy of Education
Experts in comparative education pick a greater chunk of its contents

from philosophy of education. In fact, the policies, theoretical concepts,
functionality of a particular education, among others are some of the
contents in which comparative education scholars often adopted.
(c) Sociology of Education
Sociology of Education is an important discipline which comparative

educationists draw majority of its contents. Sociology of education
depicts analysis of the sociological processes involved in the educational
institution, therefore, it is pertinent for scholars in the field of
comparative education to draw the contents from this discipline to look
at ways in which society and education relates in two or more countries.
(d) Economics
Economics is one of the disciplines in which experts in comparative

education significantly draw its contents. For instance, some countries
spend a lion-share of their budgets in education, while other countries
especially developing countries spend very little. Therefore, comparative
education experts used the expenditures in education and other related
economic issues as its contents.
(e) Geography
Geography is the study of man and its environment. The location of a

particular country is important in comparative education. It is not
possible to study any country’s education system without knowing the
9
location of that country. Therefore, comparative education scholars

usually draw its contents from geography in order to create awareness
on the geographical location of the country to be studied.
(f) Educational Psychology
Educational Psychology is one of the disciplines in education. It focuses

ways in which learners and teachers optimally benefit in teaching-
learning tasks. In light of the above, experts in comparative education
draw its contents from the discipline in order to understand students’
academic performance.
(g) Research statistics
In comparative education, experts used different research statistics to

conduct their studies. It is pertinent to submit that while some
comparative education researchers use either qualitative analysis or
quantitative analysis, others adopt mixed methods to carry out their
studies. Therefore, this singular adoption of various research
methodologies in the study of comparative education made experts in
the field to build its contents around the discipline.
(h) Literature
When we take about literature, we are not referring to English literature

in which person like Wole Soyinka, Ola Rotimi, Chinua Achebe, among
others hold sway. Rather, we are focusing on the review of related
literature in which comparative education scholars used in reviewing
his/her paper, thesis, dissertation or article.
(I) Political science
It is truism to say that the political dynamics of particular country

significantly determines the education system of that country. For
instance, countries such as Russia, Japan, China and Norway whose
political system is stable and function, this reflects in its education
system. It is on this light that comparative education is attracted to
political science contents in building up its own contents.
(j) The International and diplomatic relations
International and diplomatic relations is very important to comparative

education hence it adoption of its contents. Since comparative education
is the study of two or more education system, for a scholar in the field to
conduct a study in any foreign country he/she should understand that
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
country’s diplomatic relation with his/her country. Otherwise, the visit

to the country will be hampered by Visa denial hence the study stalled.
(k) Science and Technology
Science and technology is another discipline in which comparative

education draw its contents from. Most developed countries have made a
mark in science and technology therefore, comparative education
experts incorporate these innovations into the discipline in order for the
developing countries either borrow or steal these scientific and
technological innovations from the developed ones. From the
disciplines listed above, it is clearly shown that comparative education
is not independent discipline, rather it is a discipline that relates to
other subjects for the accomplishment of its aims and objectives. It may
be reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of the subject
has contributed to the wideness of the discipline.
3.2.2 The Purpose of Comparative Education
What then is the purpose of comparative education? Bereday (1964) has

said that knowledge of comparative education should first of all be seen
as everyday equipment for every teacher. It prepares teachers and
educators generally, to cope with the growing International
responsibilities of education. In other words, our knowledge of
comparative education gives clarity to our understanding of our own
education and culture, in relation to that of other nations. Noah and
Eckstein (1993), Joubish (2009,) Holmes, B. (2018) advanced five
purposes of Comparative Education as follows:
 To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.

 To assist in the development of educational institutions and practi
ces.
 To highlight the relationships between education and society.
 To establish generalised statements about education those are vali
d in more than one country.
 To help the current generation, understand the now a days
education systems, with reference to the past.
3.2.3 Rationale for Studying Comparative Education
From all indications, there are various reasons in which students and
teachers alike should study comparative education. Lawrent (2012)
listed the rationales for the study of comparative education to include:
a) It helps students to improve the education in their home country.
11
b) Comparative education helps students to acquire better

understanding of education system of other countries and borrow
some aspects for better improvement of education at home.
c) Paige (2005) emphasizes that, comparative education contributes
to the internalization of school curriculum and student learning
experience, develop students’ broader world views, cross–
cultural and comparative analytical skills.
d) Similarly, the study of comparative education helps students to
make connection between the local and global, and the
relationship between education, development and society.
e) Furthermore, comparative education help students to understand
how educational systems are shaped by wealth, ideology, social
cultural features of the country and impacts of globalization on
education policy and practice in different regions and countries
(Padavil, 2009). Narodowski and Nores (2001) maintain that, the
last decades were largely characterized by the amount of content
of the education policies developed worldwide due to the
downfall of the USSR. Therefore educational policies in Latin
America and other continents were dramatically altered to reflect
changed economic policies. The Tanzania Education system is
shaped by the ideology of socialism and self-reliance, thus all
educational polices reflect the philosophy of education for self-
reliance. Carnoy and Rhoten (2002) claim that, globalization is a
force reorganizing the world’s economy and the main resources
for that economy are increasing knowledge and information. The
global economy in turn shapes the nature of educational
opportunities and institutions, thus, studying comparative
education is very essential since it helps students in Tanzania and
the world as whole to understand how economic, social cultural
and ideological factors affect the education system in a particular
nation/country.
f) To serve as an academic discipline in which students should
specialize on.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Comparative education is an interdisciplinary course as it borrows ideas

from other subjects. As a course of study, it has reasons for being taught
by teachers and being learnt by the students.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the scope of comparative education,
the purpose of comparative education and the rationale for studying
comparative education.
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EDU 314 MODULE 1
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Lawal B.O. (2004). Comparative Education, Osogbo, Swift Publishers

Nigeria Ltd.
Lawrent, G. (2012), The Rationale of Studying Comparative Education

to Students in Tanzanian Educational Institutions, Munich, GRIN
Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/191430.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.
Malison V. (1975). An Introduction to the Study of Comparative

Education. London, Heinemann Publishers.
Questions
1. ….is not one of the scope of comparative education.

2. This is one of the purposes of comparative education.
3. The rationale for the study of comparative education is….
4. …is the theorist that advanced the five purposes of Comparative
Education.
Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Information communication system

2. To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes
3. It helps students to improve the education in their home country.
4. B. Holmes
13
UNIT 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 The Content
3.3.1 Historical Background
3.3.2 Factors Responsible For Increased Interest In The Study
Of Comparative Education
3.3.3 Phases In The Development Of Comparative Education
3.3.5 Third Phase
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The historical development of comparative education can be divided

into three stages. They are: descriptive stage, predictive stage and
scientific stage.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain the historical
development of comparative education.
3.0 The Content
3.3.1 Historical Background
In the beginning, Comparative Education was not really

Comparative but descriptive as the people were mostly concerned with
the description of educational systems of each country without
necessarily comparing one educational systems with another. However,
the 19th Century witnessed an increased interest in the study of
Comparative Education as education started to be studied in a
Comparative form. As a matter of fact, what can be regarded as serious
studies in the field of Comparative Education could be traced to the
early 19th century after the Napoleonic wars. Since there was no war
among the Europeans, there was peace among them and they needed
something that could enhance their interaction with one another.
Therefore, a consideration was given to the study of comparative
education as a strong channel through which the youths of various
14
EDU 314 MODULE 1
European countries could be more unified. To this end, John Griscom

travelled to Europe and on his return, he published his findings on
educational institutions in the countries visited such as Great Britain,
France, Switzerland, Italy as well as Holland between 1818 and 1819. In
the same vein, Victor Cousin, a representative of the French Minister of
education visited Prussia in 1931 and also on return home, published his
findings on the Prussian educational institutions and practices, His
findings were later translated to English and enhanced the educational
development in France, England as well as in America. Another pioneer
in the field of Comparative Education was Horace Mann of America
who after a six-month visit to Europe also published his findings in 1843
on educational institutions and practices in England, Scotland, Ireland,
France, Germany as well as Holland. His report was purely on the
comparison of the school organization and methods of instruction.
Matthew Arnold of England visited both France and Germany in 1859
and 1865. On his return home, he made some remarks particularly on
the educational institutions and practices in both France and
Germany. Like others, he advised that some useful aspects of the
educational system of France and Germany should be integrated into the
systems of education in England. What can be viewed as second
generation in the study of Comparative Education could be traced to
Sir Michael Sadler who in one of his publications: how far can we learn
anything of practical value from the study of Foreign Systems of
Education which was published in 1900, went further than other
pioneers before him who were more utilitarian and straight forward in
the description of the foreign educational systems studied by them.
While contributing to the development of Comparative Education study,
Kandel cited by Hans (1958) observed that: The chief value of a
Comparative approach to educational problems lies in an analysis of the
causes which have produced them, in a comparison of the differences
between the various systems and the reasons underlying them and
finally, in a study of the solutions attempted. In other words, the
comparative approach demands first and appreciation of the
intangible, impalpable spiritual and cultural forces which underlie an
educational system, the factors and forces outside the school matter
even more than what goes inside it. In the same vein, Friedrich
Schneider, a German speaking and Director of the Institute of
Comparative Education, Salzburg started the editing of the international
Review of Education in four languages in1930.
In his 1947 publication, he gave the following as the factors that can
influence the educational theory and practice of any country:
(a) National character

(b) Geographical space
(c) Culture
15
(d) Sciences
(e) Philosophy
(f) Economic life and politics
(g) Religion
(h) History
(i) Foreign influences
(j) The development of pedagogies
Like others, he applied historical approach to the problems of education

of all the countries visited by him. In his own contribution to the
development of Comparative Education, Sergius Hessen, a Russian
Philosopher looked at Comparative Education from a Philosophical
Education point of view. In his book published in 1928, he selected
four problems as an educational policy focus. The problems are (a)
compulsory education (b) The school and the State (c) The school and
the church and (d) The school and economic life.
Hessen was perhaps the first education philosopher to apply

philosophical approach. Also, the Comparative Education Society,
introduced by Brickman, came into being at a conference in New York
in 1956. This society assists in the publication of journal called "The
Comparative Education Review". In addition, it holds national as well as
regional conferences and seminars. In 1961, a similar society was
established in Europe after launching the new society in London. The
membership of the Society was extended to the experts in the field of
Comparative or International Education in the tertiary Institutions or the
International organizations. Like others, it holds its conferences every
two years and publishes the proceedings of its conferences. Meanwhile,
similar societies have been established in Canada, Korea as well as
Japan. Perhaps World-Wide today, the discipline is one of the subjects
being offered in all the Universities and Colleges of Education. The
Society for Comparative Education was founded in Nigeria in 1983
while the World congress on the discipline came into being in the year
1982 for Cooperation among the people involved in the study of the
subject as well as the general development of Comparative Education.
3.3.2 Factors responsible for increased interest in the study of

Osokoya (1992) gives the following as the factors responsible for

increased interest in the study of Comparative Education.
(a) The emergency of newly independent states and developing

countries who wanted a good educational system as soon as
possible. For instance, the newly introduced educational system
in Nigeria 6-3-3-4 which was borrowed from America took the
16
EDU 314 MODULE 1
Nigerian delegation to schools and companies manufacturing the

educational equipment in Sweden.
(b) The greater frequency of travel to attend conferences, seminars as
well as workshops abroad create awareness for adequate funding
of one’s education system.
(c) The improvement in the modern means of transport as well as
communication.
(d) The awareness of scientific and technological achievements in
the advanced countries such as Russia and Sputnik.
(e) The socio-economic and political problems facing other
countries.
(f) The need for educational reform. Most developing countries such
as Ghana, Mali etc. whose education system is at deplorable state
need reforms in line with what are obtainable in most developed
countries such as Japan, Russia, Finland to mention but a few.
3.3.3 Phases in the Development of Comparative Education
The phases in the historical development of Comparative Education

can be divided into three namely:
(a) Descriptive and borrowing stage

(b) Predictive stage
(c) Scientific stage.
First phase
During the first phase of the development of Comparative Education, the

educational comparativists involved in this stage include: Marc-Anthony
Jullien de Paris, 1817, Mathew Arnold of England, Victor cousin of
France, Leo Tolstoy and K.D. Aushinsky of Russia, Domingo Sermiento
of Argentina, Horace Mann and Henry Barbard of America. At the
borrowing stage, the education data collected would be compared so as
to make use of it for the best educational practice of the country studied
for the purpose of transplanting it to other countries.
3.3.4 Second Phase
The second phase in the study of comparative education took place in

the first half of the 20th century. The stage could be regarded as a stage
of Prediction because at this stage, the study of comparative education
has gone beyond the borrowing stage. At this stage, the educational
comparativists studying the educational institutions and practices of
another country will be in the position to predict what is likely to be the
success or failure of adopting the educational practices of the country
studied by his own country. It should be remembered by both the
17
students and the teachers of comparative education that the students and
the teachers of comparative education that the basis on which a country's
educational practice is based may not necessary be the same thing with
that of education comparatives studying the education system of other
countries. The educational comparativists involved in this stage
included: Friedrich Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany, Isaac
Kandel as well as Robert Ulich of America., Nicholas Hans as well as
Joseph Lanwerys of England including Pedro Rosselo of Switzerland.
They tried to find out the reasons behind the educational practices of the
country visited by them and they became more careful in transplanting
the educational practices of another country to their own.
3.3.5 Third Phase
The third stage can be regarded as the scientific period or analytical

period. This stage took place in the second half of the 20th century. The
period witnessed rigorous analysis as well as objectivity in the study of
educational practices of other countries. At this stage, before
transplanting the educational practices of another country to one's
country, such educational practices have to be subjected to a critical
analysis unlike the first stage when the educational practices of
the country visited can be borrowed or the second stage when the
implication of transplanting the educational practices of another country
can be easily predicted. The comparativists involved in this stage
included: Schneider, Kandel as well as Uich.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The treatment of the historical development of comparative education

will enhance the students' understanding of the discipline.
1.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the historical development of

comparative education as well as the phases involved in it.
2.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Highlight the three major phases involved in the development of

comparative education. Discuss only one of the three phases.
7.0 REFERENCES
Hans 1958 cited by Lawal B.O. (2004). Comparative Education.

Osogbo, Swift Publishers Nig Ltd.
18
EDU 314 MODULE 1
Osokoya, I.O. (1992). Comparative Education. Ibadan, University of

Ibadan.
19
Questions
1. Who was the person that travelled to Europe for the study of
comparative education?
2. ….. was the person who visited France and Germany in 1859 and
1865 to study comparative education.
3. Another name for second phase in the study of comparative
education is called…
4. The educational comparativists that involved in the predictive
stage is one of the following…
1. John Griscom
2. Matthew Arnold
3. Predictive phase
4. Isaac Kandel
20
EDU 314 MODULE 1
UNIT 4 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE

STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Content
3.4.1 Methodological Approaches To The Study Of Comparative
Education
3.4.2 Thematic Or Problem Approach
3.4.3 Case Study Approach
3.4.5 Historical Approach
3.4.7 International Approach
3.4.8 Gastronomic Approach
3.4.9 The Field Study Approach
3.4.10 The Scientific Approach:
3.4.11 The Integrated Approach
3.4.12 The Philosophical Approach
3.4.13 The Comparative Approach
3.0 Conclusion
4.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are many methodological approaches that can be used to study

comparative education. Approaches to the study of comparative
education to include: (a) Problem approach (b) Case study approach (c)
Area study approach (d) Historical approach (e) Descriptive approach (f)
Philosophical approach (g) International approach (h) Gastronomic
approach.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to mention and discuss some
of the approaches to the study of comparative education.
21
3.0 CONTENT
3.4.1 Methodological Approaches to the Study of Comparative

Education
There are a number of methodological approaches in the study of

comparative education. Experts in Comparative Education could not
reached consensus on the number of methodological approaches.
Awolola (1986) opine that there are eight approaches in the study
discipline, however, Khakpour (2012) submitted that six methods in
which comparative education can be studied.
Awolola (1986) identified eight approaches to the study of

Comparative Education. They are: (a) Problem Approach or Thematic
approach (b) Case study approach (c) Area study approach (d) Historical
approach (e) Descriptive approach (f) Philosophical approach (g)
International approach and (h) Castronomic approach. The six
approaches propounded by Khakpour (2012) are historical, social,
methodological, philosophical and scientific (Classic) approaches and
scientific (new) approach. We are not going to bother ourselves
explaining Khakpour’s position because it is submerged by Awolola’s
narrative.
3.4.2 Thematic or Problem Approach
Here, the investigator will first of all identify a particular educational

problem in his own country. Then, he will begin to look for another
country hat has the same problem. The researcher will also study the
education problem of another country in relation to their culture. The
researcher will not only study the education problem of another country
but he will also examine the solution applied to such problem by the
affected country. From this, he will think of how he will be able to solve
their own educational problem as well. It should be noted that Culture,
economic, Socio Political factors vary from one country to another
as a result of which educational problems and solutions may not
necessarily be the same.
3.4.3 Case Study Approach
In this approach, an education Comparativist from Nigeria can go to Iraq

to study the primary education Level of the country. His report (is
believed) will be very comprehensive for his readers to understand. If it
is possible for the researcher, he can take all the educational systems of
the country and compare such educational system with his own
educational system. The problem with this approach is that as a human
being, the investigator may not be totally objective in his report.
22
EDU 314 MODULE 1
3.4.4 Area Study Approach
The world area here could refer to a village, a town or country

depending on the educational comparativist who wants to carry out the
study. Under this approach, the educational comparativist will engage
himself in the educational practices of only one country, if it is a country
that he has chosen. The investigator is going to involve himself in
several activities as a result of which he is going to arrive at a body of
generalizations on the educational system he is studying. The study
under this approach is always based on geographical, linguistic or racial
boundaries. However, Bereday (1958) is of the opinion that "one of the
oldest and clearest ways of introducing the subject (Comparative
Education) is to study one geographical area at a time"
He therefore identified the following stages in the area study approach:

(a) Descriptive Stage - At this stage, an Educational Comparativist can
make a description of his own educational system as well as practices.
The researcher has to start by reading extensively. He will start by
reviewing the available literature on the educational system of the
country being studied. To enable the investigator have on the spot
assessment, he can personally visit the country whose educational
system is studying. (b) Interpretation Stage - At this stage of the
study, the investigator will now collate and analyse the data gathered
from various sources to enable him do justice to the educational
system of the area being studied. (c) Juxtaposition Stage - At this stage
of the study, the investigator will put side by side the result obtained
from the interpretation stage with the educational system of his own
country. (d) Comparative Stage - At this stage of the investigation,
the researcher will objectively compare and contrast the
educational practices of the country being studied with that of his
own. It is at this stage of the study that whatever hypotheses that might
have been formulated by the researcher that will be rejected or
accepted.
3.4.5 Historical Approach
Under this approach, an investigator will only take a village, town or

country for the examination of its educational historical development
right from the first day when education was introduced into the place
and the time of study. This approach will enable the researcher to
identify the factors that are responsible for the current educational
system of the country being studied. However, the problem with this
approach is that greater emphasis is always placed on the past.
23
3.4.6 Descriptive Approach
Here, the investigator will have to describe everything he finds on

ground. Such things to be described could include: Number of schools,
student enrolment, number of teachers, number of the school buildings
including classrooms as well as the number of subjects being offered.
However, the approach is not very popular among the modern
educational Comparativists.
3.4.7 International Approach
This is an approach whereby all the variations existing from one area to
another within the same country are taken into consideration while
comparing the system of education of a foreign country with one's
educational system.
3.4.8 Gastronomic Approach
This is a method whereby both the diet as well as the eating habit of the
people in a particular country are related to the practices of their
education, the approach is not very popular among the modern
educational comparativists.
3.4.9 The Field Study Approach
This approach is not new in the area of the subject. On this

approach, Brickman (1966) cited by Alabi and Oyelade (1998) observed
that: Visitation of foreign countries whether for the purpose of
commerce, conversation curiosity or conflict, goes back to ancient
history, travelers in all historical periods must have brought back facts
and impression concerning the cultures of the other countries they
had visited, included in their reports must have been comments relating
to the young and their upbringing. They may also have made some
remarks regarding the similarities and differences in the ways of
educating children. Some, indeed, may have arrived at conclusions
involving the expression of value judgments.
In using this approach for studying comparative education Halls (1965)

cited by Alabi and Oyelade (1998) identifies three stages in the field
study of approach.
They are:
1. Preparatory stage
2. Investigatory and analytical stage as well as
3. Evaluatory and Comparative stage.
24
EDU 314 MODULE 1
Preparatory Stage: This is the stage in which the investigator will have
to prepare himself very well before traveling to his country of interest.
He has to be familiar with the country he wants to visit by reading very
extensively about the country.
Investigatory and Analytical Stage: At this stage, the researcher will

have to formulate some hypotheses on the educational practices of
the country he wants to study. The formulation of these hypotheses
will give him a focus on what to look for.
Evaluatory Comparative Stage: At this stage, the investigator after

coming back from his travel to the foreign country, will now examine
the practices of education of the country he has visited in relation to the
educational practices of his own country with a view to establishing the
similarities as well as the differences existing in the educational
practices of the two countries it is also at this stage that the hypotheses
earlier on formulated will either be rejected or accepted. The field study
approach unlike area study approach, concerns itself with the study of
the educational systems of many countries at the same time. It also
involves visiting the foreign countries of interest to enable the
investigator make an objective comparison between the foreign
educational practices and that of his country.
3.4.10 The Scientific Approach:
This is an approach in which the study of comparative education is

carried out empirically by formulating hypotheses, defining the
important concepts, setting out the variables as well as the conditions for
establishing the validity of the hypotheses formulated. Since in any
scientific research, data collection its interpretation with the help of
statistics of analysis are very important,. These must not also be lacking
in the study of Comparative Education to enhance the quality and
credibility of whatever may be the result of the investigation (Rubinson
& Charles, 2007)
3.4.11 The Integrated Approach
This is an approach in which other disciplines such as history,

philosophy, geography; economics, anthropology and statistics are
integrated in to the study of Comparative Education because of their
usefulness. As it has already been stated, it is not possible for
Comparative Education as a discipline to stand on its own as it has to
draw from other subjects which include the disciplines mentioned
above.
25
3.4.12 The Philosophical Approach
As the name implies the philosophical approach to philosophical

problems, especially the epistemological aspect is education. This
approach attaches great importance to childhood. I believe that this
period in human development is essential for full human and animals on
the additional support needs of adults (Bray etal, 2006). A Russian
Philosopher by name Serguis Hessen was the first man to apply
philosophical approach to the study of Comparative Education when he
published his book in 1928 which he tittled "Kritische Vergleichung
des Schulwesens der Anderen Kuturstaaten". In the book, he chose four
main philosophical problems. The problems chosen by him are: (a)
Compulsory education (b) The School and the State (c) The school and
the Church and (d) The School and Economic life.
He analysed the underlying principles and later followed it by giving

a critical account of modern legislation in many countries. Kosemani
(1995) believes that philosophical approach is a step forward to solve
the problems in the national character approach. According to him, there
are two major problems involved in the application of philosophical
approach to the study of comparative education. The problems are: (a)
Difference in emphasis as a result of which it may be difficult to use the
same criterion (national ideology) for the comparison. (b) There are
many countries without clear cut national ideologies. (c) From the
above, it could be deduced that with philosophical approach, hypotheses
could be formulated, be tested and could also be empirically validated
for better explanation of educational practices of various countries.
3.4.13 The Comparative Approach
In this approach, the reader must not be made to do the comparison

of various educational practices by himself, rather, the comparison and
conclusion have to be done by the investigator himself. Data on the
educational practices to be compared must have been gathered and
reviewed. In addition, hypotheses should have also been formulated to
assist in the gathering of data. Then, the educational practices of the
country under study will be put side by side with the educational
practices of another country slated for comparison. The next stage
after Juxtaposition is the comparison of the educational practices of
the countries that have been put side by side. It is at stage of comparison
that the hypotheses that had been formulated earlier on will be rejected
or accepted.
26
EDU 314 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
The knowledge of different approaches to the study of comparative

education will help the learners in better understanding the discipline.
6.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about different approaches to the

study of comparative education.
7.0 REFERENCES
Awolola, A. (1986) Readings in Comparative Education, Ibadan,

Stevelola, Education Publishers.
Bereday, G.F. (1958). Some Methods of Teaching Comparative

Education, Comparative Education Review.
Bray, M., Adamson, B., and Mason, M.(eds)(2006). Comparative

Education Research: Approaches and Methods. Hong Kong:
Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong
Kong, and Dordrecht: Springer.
Brickman 1966 cited by Alabi, I.O. et al (1998). Comparative

Education. A Handbook for Teachers, Oyo, Odumat Press
and Publishers.
Crossley, M & Watson., K., (2003). Comparative and international

Research in Education, London and Newyork, Rout ledge
Falmer.
Halls (1965) cited by Alabi I.O. et al (1998). Comparative Education.

A Handbook for Teachers, Oyo, Odumat Press and
Publishers.
Khakpour, A. (2012). Methodology of comparative studies in education.

Contemporary Educational Researches Journal., 1 (1), 12-25.
Kosemani, J.M. (1995): Comparative Education, Emergent National

System Port-Harcourt, Abe Publishers.
27
Rubinson, C., and Charles C. R., (2007). New Methods for Comparative
Research?, Comparative Social Research, 373–389.Oxford:
Elsevier
28
EDU 314 MODULE 1
Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Halls (1965) identifies… stages in the field study of comparative

education.
2. A situation where Comparativist from Nigeria go to Iraq to study
the primary education Level of the country is called…
3. An approach that enable the researcher to identify the factors
that are responsible for the current educational system of the
country being studied is called…
1. Three
2. Case study
3. Historical approach
29
UNIT 5 DETERMINANTS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Content
3.5.1 Language Factor
3.5.2 The Geographical Factor
3.5.3 The Economic Factor
3.5.4 The Historical Factor
3.5.5 The Religious Factor
3.5.8 The Ethnic or Racial Factor
3.5.9 The Academic or Professional Associations
3.5.10 Colonialism, Racism and foreign domination
4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every system of education is determined by some factors. Such factors

include; language, geography, economy, history, religion, politics,
social, racial and trade unions among others.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify and discuss the
factors that determine the education system of a country.
3.0 CONTENT
According to Mugo, Wolhuter and Steyn (2012), the national education

has no incidental structure, but the structure is shaped by societal
factors. One of the purposes of comparative education is to develop
general statements about the forces and factors that influences
development of education systems (Mugo, Wolhuter & Steyn, 2012).
The specific societal dynamics that determine and shape system of
education to the way they are include
3.5.1 Language Factor
Language is one of the things that can make man to be different from the
lower animals. There is no tribe in the world that does not have its own
30
EDU 314 MODULE 1
original language which may be different from other tribes.

Naturally, children learn better and faster when their local language is
used to teach them. At the national level, each country also has national
language or languages. By implication, citizens of such a country will be
expected to learn their national languages not only for official purpose
but also for effective communication. In Nigeria for instance, three
Nigerian languages have been formally recognized. They are: Yoruba,
Igbo and Hausa languages. At the secondary school level, a child is
expected to take another language in addition to his own local language.
At the primary school level, teachers are allowed to use the local
language of the pupils to teach them.
3.5.2 The Geographical Factor
One may begin to wonder as to how or why geography is relevant in the

development of a country's educational system. Apart from the fact that
the climate of a country affects the school buildings as well as the
equipment, what can be easily done in one climatic area may not be so
in another place. Perhaps, this is one of the reasons why open air schools
are rarely possible in the Northern part of Nigeria. There is no doubt
about it, the constant change in the Nigerian school calendar year can be
attributed to climatic reason. It should be remembered that the school
calendar was changed from January - December, and later, changed to
September - July. The reason for these changes in the school academic
year could be that there is always heavy rain in Nigeria between
July and August, and to avoid disaster, the pupils are sent on long
holidays so that they can stay at home with their parents. In
addition, the months of July and August are the periods for the
preparation of the hamattan farming and since the pupils will be with
their parents this time, they will be in the position to assist them on their
farms. The weather may also influence the school dressings, the school
food, as well as the school time table.
3.5.3 The Economic Factor
The state of country's economy determines the national education

system of that country. At the beginning of every year, a budget is
always prepared and presented by the federal government as it happens
in Nigeria. In the budget, certain percentage of the total budget is
always allocated to each of the social amenities to be provided by the
government. It should be noted that when the economy of a country is in
a good shape, a better percentage of the budget will go to education. But
when the economy is poor, this may affect the percentage of the budget
that will go to education. Also, all formulated educational policies
need substantial amount of money for their implementation. This can
only be possible when the country's economy is Cooperative. This
31
means that when the country's economy is not good, the formulated
educational policies may not be fully implemented, if it is implemented
at all. In addition if the economy of the country is heavily concentrated
in a particular location of such a country, there is possibility that people
may begin to migrate from their place where economy is not
concentrated to an economically concentrated area. This is one of the
reasons responsible for the migration of Nigerians from rural areas to the
urban centres as a result of which schools in the urban areas are not only
greater in number than the rural areas, but such schools in the urban
centers are always over populated and enjoy more qualified teachers
than the rural schools.
3.5.4 The Historical Factor
As a matter of fact, history, which is the record of past events, has a lot
to do with the educational development of a country or nation. Apart
from the traditional system of education which is as old as its locality or
society, western formal education which is the focus of our study here is
always borrowed from one place or the other. Education in most if not
all the African countries can have its origin traced to the Colonial
Master of each of these African countries. For instance, it is often said
that the southerners in Nigeria are much more advanced educationally
than the Northerners. The reason for this can be traced to the historical
development of formal education in the Northern Nigeria.
By the time Western Education was brought to Nigeria, the Northerners
were already used to Islamic Education and they found it difficult to
change. On the other hand, the Southerners who were not seriously
used to Islamic education easily embraced the Western Education that
was brought to Nigeria. However, a critical look at the system of
education in Nigeria before and after independence shows an
adaptation of British educational system. Because of the failure of the
inherited educational system from the Nigerian colonial masters to
meet the Nigerian aspirations and needs, a new system of education was
put in place. The historical development of education in Nigeria goes for
other countries not only in Africa but in many countries of the world.
For instance, the socialist character of education in the old Russia as
well as China was as a result of their history. Also, the secularization of
education in China and Russia was due to the oppressive feudal regimes
(Law relating to the systems by which people held land, and protection
in return for giving work or military help). After the Persian war,
Athens had to change its cosmopolitan society (consisting of people
from many different parts of the world). Finally, it is obvious that the
centralized system in France is as a result of their historical background.
32
EDU 314 MODULE 1
3.5.5 The Religious Factor
The importance of religion in the development of a country's educational

system or policies cannot be overemphasized. For instance, the earliest
schools in Nigeria were founded, administered and financed by the
Christian missions. Later, Moslems established schools for their children
and the children of the converts. Such schools include: Baptist Schools,
Islamic Schools, Hammadiya School, C.A.C. Schools, Methodist
Schools, Catholic Schools among others. In the same vein, the
northerners who were already used to Islamic education, reluctantly
embraced western Education when it was introduced into Nigeria. Up
till today, perhaps, Western Formal Education is not as popular as
Islamic education as a result of which there is an education gap between
the North and the South. The contribution of religion to the development
of Nigerian educational system was well acknowledged by the Federal
Government not only at the Primary and Secondary Education levels
but also at tertiary education level. In fact, the two prominent religions
are being offered in most of the public schools in Nigeria and teachers
are always recruited by the government for the teaching of the two
religions regardless of whether such schools belong to the Moslems
or Christians. The two religions are always put into consideration
whenever political appointment is to be given e.g. President, Vice
President, Ministers, Governors, Deputy-Governors, Commissioners etc.
3.5.6 The Political Factor
The type of leadership, his interest, his agenda for the citizens of the
country, the type of administration he wants to run, the programmes of
his party through which he becomes the leader among other things to a
great extent determine the national system of a country's education. It is
not an over - statement to say that the educational system of any society
is a reflection of its political ideology. For instance, the socialism
ideology in the U.S.S.R. contributed to the introduction of free and
compulsory education in the country. Tanzania which is an African
country had its national education system influenced by her political
ideology socialism. It was this political ideology that gave way for
introduction of the new, education ideology popularly known as
education for self-reliance. Since a greater percentage of the Tanzanians
are farmers and live in the rural areas and for every Tanzanian to be self
reliant in line with the new educational policy, everybody is being
exposed not only to farming but also to the life in the rural areas. This
makes the new educational system in the country to truly represent the
social, economic, cultural as the political reality of the country. Till
2006, Nigeria as a country has been able to produce only three civilian
presidents since 1960 when it got her independence. They are Nnamdi
Azikiwe (ceremonial) the first Civilian President till 1966, Alhaji
33
Sheu Shagari, 1979 - 1983 and Chief Olusegun Obasanjo who became
the third Civilian President on May 29,1999 and May 2003. Scince 1960
Nigeria was most of the years under the military rule. This means that
the country has been under the military rule with Decrees more
than the constitution. The implication of this is that instability in the
political system is bound to bring about educational instability as well.
For instance in Nigeria, there was a time when the payment of Primary
School Teachers' salaries was being done by the Federal Government
and later it was transferred to the local governments. As a result of
delay in payment, primary school teachers in some local government
areas went on strike for several months. There was a time in Nigeria
again when all Private Secondary Schools were taken over by the
government. Later, another government gave approval for the
establishment of private secondary schools. Even some schools were
also returned to their owners. The school calendar is always changed
from time to time in Nigeria. The new system of education popularly
known as 6-3-3-4 education system was initiated by the Gowon regime
but the launching of the new system of secondary education was done
by Alhaji Sheu Shagari in 1982 in Lagos. Up till 2006 the system has
not been fully implemented. All these educational problems are the
manifestation of political instability.
3.5.7 The Social Factor
In every society, there is social stratification. This means that naturally,

people in any society do not belong to only one group or class. In most
cases, grouping is always dependent on race, economy, level of
education, one's profession or the profession of one's parents, the
location of one's residence, one's family background among others. It is
not uncommon to see people of the same grouping or class or their
children moving together and doing things together. Such children are
likely to enjoy better and have rapid education than the children whose
parents are not educated or whose parents are farmers or traders who
have little or no means for the education of their children. Because of
the inability of the children from a poor background to learn at the same
rate with the children from a better schools for the children who are
better educationally to enable them to go at their own pace while an
opportunity will also be given to the slow learners. Also, in Nigeria
today, because the Northerners are mostly nomads by profession, it
became compulsory for the government not only to introduce Nomadic
Education but also to establish nomadic schools for the children of these
cattle rearrers. In terms of employment, profession, education, the
children of the rich and elite are better placed. In most cases, because of
the social stratification, the schools being attended by the children
of the rich, elites are far better than the schools being attended by the
children of the poor.
34
EDU 314 MODULE 1
3.5.8 The Ethnic or Racial Factor
This simply means a group of people from the same geographical

location see themselves as one and begin to discriminate against others
who are not from their geographical location. This is very common in
Nigeria. There are many schools in Nigeria where such schools are
being dominated by the people within the schools location. In order to
overcome this problem of ethnicity or racial, the federal government
introduced National youth Service Corps Scheme, Federal Government
Colleges, Unity Schools, Quota System for anything Federal so that
every State of the Federation will be taken care of. In the South Africa,
the Africans who were the sons of the land were heavily discriminated
against by the whites. The schools being attended by the children of the
whites were superior to the schools being attended by the children of the
blacks. Also, the Negroes in the United States of America despite the
fact that they are Americans culturally, religiously, linguistically yet, the
Americans discriminated against them because they are regarded as
people who are inferior in every respect. Because of this view about the
Negroes, separate schools were designed for the Americans as well as
the Negroes and this was constitutionally supported by the government.
In everything, they are discriminated against and they receive things that
are inferior when compared with the Americans. In the same vein, the
French policy even in Africa was aimed at transforming the Africans
into Black Frenchmen. The reason behind this was that the African
culture was seen as being inferior to that of the French people.
3.5.9 The Academic or Professional Associations
There are academic associations which directly influence the

development of national educational systems such academic
associations include: (a) Association of the University Lecturers (b)
Association of the Polytechnic Lecturers (c) Association of Lecturers in
the Colleges of Education (d) Association of both Primary and
Secondary School Teachers. In Nigeria for instance, we have (a)
Academic Staff Union of Universities (b) Academic Staff Union of
Polytechnics (c) Academic Staff Union of Colleges of Education as
well as (d) Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT). We also have the
association of principals of Secondary Schools, the Association of
Graduate Teachers, the association of National Certificate of Education
(N.C.E.) teachers and the association of Grade II teachers all within the
Nigeria Union of Teachers. In addition, some subjects have an
association each, such associations include: (a) Science Teachers
Association (STAN) (b) Mathematics Teachers Association of Nigeria
(c) Social Studies Teachers Association of Nigeria. (d) Nigerian
Association for Comparative Education among others They assist in
the writing of textbooks on their subjects. They also assist in the
35
improvement, seminars, workshops as well as conferences for the

teachers of their subjects.
3.5.10 Colonialism, Racism and foreign domination
From all indications, this has led to the existence of foreign education
systems, philosophy and institutional management policy. The education
systems are modelled alongside the foreign countries or colonialist
education systems. For instance, British colonized countries like
Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya. Therefore, after independent these countries
modelled their education system along British education system
(Anglophone). This was also applicable to Francophone countries such
as Cameroun, Senegal etc. Colonialism and foreign domination have led
to the dependence of the colonized countries. In this case, the ex-
colonies depends on the former colonial masters for donations geared to
education development. This has greatly affected the culture of the
dominated countries (Mugo, Wolhuter & Steyn, 2012).
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses some of the factors that can determine the
education system of any country.
5.0 SUMMARY
In the last unit, you have learnt about the following factors: (a)
Language (b) Geographical (c) Economic (d) Historical (e) Religious (f)
Politics (g) Social (h) Ethnic or racial and (i) trade unions,
professional associations, Colonialism, Racism and foreign domination.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Lawal B.O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo, Swift

Publishers Nig Ltd
Mugo, P. Wolhuter, CC & Steyn, H.J. (2012). The Structure and

Shaping Factors Of Education Systems. Pretoria: Van Publishers.
36
EDU 314 MODULE 1
1. In comparative education, …. is one of the factors that is

responsible for growth of the discipline.
2. In comparative education, this is not the dynamic that promote
education.
3. In Nigeria, … promote adequate funding to comparative
education.
1. Langauge
2. Racism
3. Good economy
37
UNIT 6 FACTORS THAT CAN SUSTAIN THE

TEACHING AND LEARNING OF
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Content
3.6.1 The Future Of Comparative Education
3.6.2 The Qualities Of A Good Educational Comparativist
3.6.3 Objectivity
3.6.4 Visiting Other Countries
3.6.5 Having Interest
3.6.6 Having Good Qualification
3.0 Conclusion
5.0 Tutor Marked
4.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are certain factors that can sustain the teaching and learning of
comparative education as a discipline. Also, there are certain qualities to
be possessed by anybody who is teaching comparative education.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify and discuss factors
that can sustain the teaching and learning of comparative education as
well as the qualities to be possessed by the teachers of Comparative
Education.
3.0 CONTENT
3.6.1 The Future of Comparative Education
For comparative education to have its status enhanced, the following

suggestions have to be taken into consideration.
(a) It should be possible to establish through Comparative

Education, educational theories that will give predictive power.
(b) The research techniques being used by the Sociologist,
Economics, Psychologists and Philosophers among others
should be integrated into the approaches to the study of
comparative education even though their data may not
38
EDU 314 MODULE 1
necessarily be the same thing for the purpose of building up a

theory.
(c) Highly qualified and experienced people from different
geographical areas should be involved in the study of
Comparative Education.
(d) Education Comparativists should extend their cooperation to
the philosophers, sociologists, historians, economics, natural
scientists, statisticians, linguistics as well as political scientists
even though they work in different fields, their contributions
differently when integrated together build up the body of
Comparative Education information.
(e) Efforts should be made to classify educational courses at
various levels as well as define the important terminologies in
Comparative Education.
(f) A comparative education research should be carried out before
conclusion and recommendations on educational policies.
(g) Efforts should be made to encourage applied research in the study
of Comparative Education. (h) In comparative education
research, philanthropists, national governments as well as
international agencies should assist financially and finally:
(i) The people involved in the formulation of educational policies
should work hand in hand with the educational comparativists for
a better and workable educational formulation.
3.6.2 The Qualities of a Good Educational Comparativist
As in any other discipline, there are certain qualities expected of

anybody that wants to venture into the study of foreign educational
theories and practice. Such qualities include the following: (a)
Objectivity
(b) Readiness to visit foreign places

(c) Interest in reading education books widely and fastly
(d) Good qualification in the subject.
3.6.3 Objectivity
The first quality of a good education comparativist is objectivity. This

means that the person researching into other people's education theories
and practices will not be biased against them regardless of their
population, race, size, and complexion. It is what is found on the ground
about their education theories and practices that will be reported and
nothing more.
39
3.6.4 Visiting other Countries
Anybody willing to engage in the study of foreign educational

theories and practices should not always stay at home relying on
information gathered from books alone. He should go beyond this by
visiting the place whose educational theories and practices he is
studying. If this is done, the objective report of the study will be
enhanced as he will be in the position to know which of the information
already gathered is correct about the educational theories and practices
of the place being studied. He must not be an arm-chair researcher.
3.6.5 Having Interest
Also, a very good education comparativist should have special interest

in reading books on forcing education systems. This is not only within
his society, but outside his country. He must not limit his reading to only
the books on his country's educational systems.
3.6.6 Having Good Qualification
Good qualification in Comparative Education or related subject is very

important for anybody who wants to engage in the teaching of
Comparative Education. Having a good qualification will not only
enhance the quality of such a teacher but will also enhance his
personality.
3.0
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the unit above, you have learnt the following: (a) The future of
Comparative Education (b) Qualities expected of a good education
comparativist.
5.0 Summary
The unit six discusses the factors that can sustain the teaching and
learning of comparative education, as well as the qualities which any
teacher of comparative education is expected to possess.
5.0 TUTOR MARKED
6.0 REFERENCES
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo: Swift

Publishers Nig. Ltd.
40
EDU 314 MODULE 1
1. This is not among qualities of good comparative education

2. A good comparative education should be ready to….
3. A comparative educationist should be Interested in reading
education books widely and fastly, True or False
1. Responsible
2. Objectivity
3. True
41
MODULE 2
Unit 1 South African Education System

Unit 2 Japanese Education System
Unit 3 The System Of Education In Brazil
Unit 3 Education In England
Unit 4 Education In The United States Of America
Unit 5 Education In France
Unit 6 The System Of Education In Jamaica
Unit 7 Education In Nigeria And Tanzania
Unit 8 Education In Afghanistan
UNIT 1 SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Contents
3.1 Geography of South Africa
3.2 South African Education System
3.3 Administration And Funding
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This exposes students to South African education philosophy, policies,

theories, and practices.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the education
policies and practices of South Africa.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1 Geography of South Africa
South Africa is the southernmost country on the African continent. It

has a total landmass of about 470,691 square miles (1,219,090 square
kilometers). The country’s coastline stretch more than 2,850 kilometres
(1,770 miles) from the desert border with Namibia on
42
EDU 314 MODULE 2
the Atlantic (western) coast southwards around the tip of Africa and then
northeast to the border with Mozambique on the Indian Ocean.
According to Statistics of South Africa (2018), the population of South
Africa is approximately 57.7 million people. From the official
government document, there are 11official languages in South Africa.
These are as follows: isiZulu, isiXhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, Setswana,
English, Sesotho, Xitsonga, siSwati, Tshivenda and isiNdebele.
3.2 South African education system
It is pertinent say that under apartheid government of South Africa, there

were eight education departments that adopted different curricula and
offered different standards of learning quality. This included nationwide
departments for coloured people, for Indians and for black people, a
department for independent schools, and provincial departments for
white people in each of the former four provinces. However, with the
enthronement of poplar democracy in 1994 which was led by Nelson
Mandela, the government restructured these departments as well as
tertiary education departments, splitting responsibilities between nine
newly formed provincial education departments and a single national
education department. The government also set about reforming the
educational system by first removing all racially offensive and outdated
content and then introducing continuous assessment into schools
(Brahm, 2018). At this juncture, the South African Schools Act,
1996 was enacted to provide for a uniform system for the organisation,
governance and funding of schools. Soon after, the government
launched its new education system which was known as Curriculum
2005. This new curriculum was based on "outcomes based education"
(OBE). In 2006, it was clear that OBE as a social experiment had failed,
and it was quickly replaced by Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statement (CAPS). CAPS is a single, comprehensive and concise policy
document, which replaces the Subject and Learning Area Statements,
Learning Programme Guidelines and Subject Assessment Guidelines for
all the subjects listed in the National Curriculum Statement (NCS)
grades R to 12.
South African education system is divided as follows:
8. PhD
7. Master degree
6. Honours degree
5. Bachelor degree
4. National Senior Certificate: secondary education: further training
and education phase, grade 10-12
3. Senior Phase: secondary education, general education and
training phase, grade 7-9
43
2. Intermediate Phase: Primary Education, grade 4-6
1. Foundation Phase: grade R-grade 3
Foundation Phase: There are few kindergartens in South Africa. The

majority of kindergartens are in the private sector. All kindergartens
must be registered with the local authorities. Children may attend
kindergarten from the age of 3. The foundation phase starts in grade R
(reception year, or grade 0) and lasts 4 years (up to and including grade
3). Education in this phase focuses on basic skills such as reading,
writing and arithmetic, and the development of language skills. In this
phase, children also start learning a second language.
The intermediate phase starts in grade 4 and lasts 3 years (up to and
including grade 6). The focus in this phase is more on reading and
speaking skills in the home language as well as in the second language.
The pupils also study mathematics, history, geography, general sciences
and handicrafts. No certificate is awarded upon completion.
Secondary education consists of 2 phases: • the senior phase (grades 7

up to and including 9); • the further education and training phase (grades
10 up to and including 12). The senior phase concludes the so-called
General Education and Training Phase, that comprises the foundation,
intermediate and senior phase. After completing this phase, a pupil is no
longer required to attend school. No certificate is awarded upon
completion of the General Education and Training Phase. The further
education and training phase comprises the senior-secondary phase of
secondary education. Vocationally-oriented programmes within
secondary education also fall under this phase. Pupils take examinations
for the National Senior Certificate (NSC) after completing grade 12.
South Africa has various higher institutions. The minimum duration for
any degree programme is four years. However, students spend more
than four years in programmes such as Laws, Medicine, Engineering,
among others. Higher education in South Africa makes a distinction
between undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. At the
undergraduate level, programmes lead to a bachelor’s degree, a diploma
or a higher certificate. At the postgraduate level, programmes lead to an
honours bachelor's degree, a postgraduate diploma, a master's degree or
a doctoral degree.
3.3 Administration and Funding
In South Africa, education is highly decentralized. The national

government is responsible for the funding of higher education, while
provincial government is saddled with the responsibility of funding and
administering secondary and primary education. Additionally, there are
44
EDU 314 MODULE 2
many privately owned secondary, primary and nursey schools in South

Africa.
In 2019, education and culture received the largest share of the budget,
with a R262.4bn allocation. The country's education system receives
funding which is about 20% of the national budget and 6% of GDP,
exceeding that of many sub-Saharan African countries - but they achieve
far better educational outcomes than South Africa does. South Africa's
poorest learners depend on dysfunctional public schooling and achieve
poor outcomes, and while enrolment at the secondary level has been
expanding, completion rates are low. About 400,000 students who
started grade one 12 years ago, did not reach grade 12 in 2018. In the
higher education sector, universities can accommodate only 18% of
South African matriculants and 47% will drop out.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the unit above, you have learnt the understand education policies and
practices of South Africa.
5.0 SUMMARY
In module 1, unit1, you have learnt South African system of education

from grade R to higher education.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Education system South Africa (2019).
Fleisch, Brahm (2018). The Education Triple Cocktail: System-wide

Instructional Reform in South Africa. University Of Cape Town
Press.
45
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. The South African Schools Act, 1996 was enacted to provide for
a uniform system for the organisation, governance and funding of
schools, True or False.
2. In South Africa, education is highly decentralized, True or False
3. In 2006, South Africans discovered that OBE as a social
experiment had failed, and it was quickly replaced by ….

1. True
2. True
3. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).
46
EDU 314 MODULE 2
UNIT 2 JAPANESE EDUCATION SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended LEARNING OUTCOMES
3.0 Content
3.1.1 Geography of Japan
3.1.2 Japanese education system
3.1.3 Pre-School Education in Japan (3-5 Years)
3.1.5 Secondary Education in Japan
3.1.6 Upper Secondary Schools
3.1.7 Teacher Education in Japan
3.1.8 Adult Education Adult education in Japan is regarded as
social education.
3.1.9 Special Education Right from the year 1973, an official
3.1.10 Tertiary Education In Japan, there are three categories of
tertiary institution.
3.1.11 Financing Education All public schools in Japan
are highly centralized.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Exposing the students to education theory and practices of other

countries will enhance their knowledge about education practices of
such countries.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the education
practices of Japan.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of Japan
Japan is made of many islands of which Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and

Shikoku are the largest. Japan has a total land area of 378, 000 square
kilometers. Japan's northernmost islands are located on similar
geographical latitude as Milan or Portland, while her southernmost
islands are on similar latitude as the Bahamas. Japan is located in a
region where several continental plates meet. Japan is politically
47
structured into eight regions and 47 prefectures. As a result of this, the

country often experienced severe earthquakes. The political capital is
located at Tokyo. In 2018, Japan population stood at 125 million.
3.1.2 Japanese education system
At all levels of education, Japanese language is used as an official

language, however, it is also adopted as the medium of instruction in all
schools (Reinders, Nakamura & Ryan, 2019). Due to globalization,
English language has been introduced in some of the Japanese schools.
The modern education in Japan can be traced to 1872. Before this time,
Japanese education was concerned with religion as well as ethics
(traditional education). Initially, the Japanese education followed the
American education system. What can be regarded as the primary
objectives of Japanese education are stated below:
(a) The development of broad mindedness, a health body and

creativity in individuals,
(b) The rearing of the spirit of freedom, self -reliance and public
awareness, and
(c) Educating the Japanese individual to live in the global
human society.
As a democratic state, educational opportunities are made available

to all citizens of Japan.. However, the Japanese education system
generally include: (a) the formal school system (b) the less formal
system of education for the purpose of administration, schools at all
levels are divided into (a) State (b) Local (c) Public and (d) Private.
Japan operate 6-3-3-4 system of education. There is no difference in
all the categories of schools in Japan except in the areas of
administration and finance. The first nine years of Japanese education is
free and compulsory.
3.1.3 Pre-School Education in Japan (3-5 Years)
Elementary education in Japan normally takes place in the

kindergarten schools. The primary objective of pre-school education in
Japan is to give all round development to the Japanese children. The
curriculum for this level of education include: Health, Social Studies,
Nature study, Language, Music, Art, Arithmetic, Writing, Reading,
Songs, Tales and Physical Education.
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
3.1.4 Japanese Elementary Education (6 Years)
Elementary Education in Japan was organized on four years duration

initially. In the year 1886, this level of education was made free and
compulsory. Also in 1908, the compulsory elementary education was
raised to six years from the original four years. According to the 1972
Education Reform, education in Japan aims at the following:
(a) To help people to acquire the abilities for building a satisfactory

and spontaneous life.
(b) To adapt to social reality and the creative solution of difficulties.
From the above general aims, the following specific objectives are
derived:
(a) The development of basic abilities in the young people side by

side with a set of specified vocational skills,
(b) The preparation of students to cope flexibly with rapid
progress in science and technology,
(c) The preparation of the students for social life.
The Japanese elementary schools are designed for children aged 6- 12

years. About 97% of the Japanese children attend public elementary
schools while only about 3% go to private elementary schools. The
curriculum for this level of education include, Japanese language, social
studies, Arithmetic, Science, Music, Art and Craft, home Education,
Physical Education, Moral Education, (in public schools) Religious
Education (in Private Schools) (Nemoto,1999).
3.1.5 Secondary Education in Japan
This level of education is divided into two cycles, namely: (a) Lower or
Junior Secondary: This cycle of Secondary Education is free and
compulsory like elementary education. It lasts for 3 years and designed
for children ages 12 to 15 years. About 97% of Japanese secondary
schools age attends public lower school while about 3% go to the private
Junior Secondary School. The primary objective of this level of
education is to give all round development to the Japanese children and
to give continuity to the Japanese elementary education. The curriculum
for this level of education include: Japanese Language, Social Studies,
Mathematics, General Science, Vocational and home Education, Foreign
Language, Vocational Subjects, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and
Fisheries.
49
3.1.6 Upper Secondary Schools
It should be noted that Upper Secondary School as well as preschool

education are not free and compulsory for the Japanese children. The
primary objective of this cycle of secondary education is to give general
and specialized education to the students. The students wishing to enter
an upper secondary school will have to write an entrance examination.
In addition to paying school fees, students also have to buy textbooks
recommended by the Ministry of Education. Basically, there are two
types of upper secondary school in Japan. They are: (a) 3 years full time
upper secondary schools and (b) 4 years part-time and correspondence
upper school. This cycle of secondary education is terminal as its
graduates can decide to work with it or seek an admission with it into
a tertiary institution. Upper secondary education curriculum include:
Japanese Language, Social Studies, Ethics, Civics, Political Science,
Economics, Mathematics, Physical Education, Fine Arts, Music,
Handicrafts and geography and Finally, Home Education for girls.
3.1.7 Teacher Education in Japan
Teachers for kindergarten schools are always trained in the teacher

training Institutions while the secondary school teachers are also trained
in the Universities. In the same vein, teachers for the Japanese higher
institutions are equally trained in the Universities (Chilton, 2018). It
should be noted that before a person can be appointed to teach in any
public tertiary institution, such a person is expected to have a minimum
of Master’s degree in the area where he wants to teach.
3.1.8 Adult Education Adult education in Japan is regarded as

social education.
This kind of education is always organized by the Ministry of Education

for the Japanese citizens who are not in the formal school. Towards this
education, the Ministry of Education always provides correspondence
courses. Such correspondence courses are in vocational, technical,
agricultural, fishery as well as forestry subjects. The ministry efforts are
always complemented with radio and television programmes
particularly in the area of general education. Nongovernmental bodies
also assist in Japanese adult education.
3.1.9 Special Education Right from the year 1973, an official

recognition was accorded the education of special children in Japan.
Like other levels of education, special education has its own objectives.
Its objectives include the following: (a) To identify and give appropriate
educational programmes to the affected children, (b) To establish
national centres for research and training, (c) For the integration,
50
EDU 314 MODULE 2
whenever possible of the handicapped with normal children and (d) To

render other possible assistance to the handicapped children.
3.1.10 Tertiary Education In Japan, there are three

categories of tertiary institution.
They are: (a) University (b) Junior College and (c) College of
technology. In the University, degrees are awarded and students spend
between 4-6 years depending on their course of study. At the Junior
College, degrees are not awarded unlike in the Universities. As
stated above, colleges of technology are another form of tertiary
institution in Japan. In this institution, educational technology and
engineering education are provided. This kind of education is primarily
designed for the graduates of junior or lower secondary education. It has
duration of five years.
3.1.11 Financing Education All public schools in Japan

are highly centralized.
Generally, schools are administered in the following order: (a) The

Ministry of Education at the top (b) The Prefectural Education Boards
(c) The Municipal Education Boards at the grassroots level or local
level. At the national level, the Ministry of Education, Science and
Culture always assists in the preparation of education budget,
formulation of educational laws, and maintenance of educational
standard. The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is also saddled
with the responsibility of giving an approval for the establishment of
higher institutions and also to supervise various tertiary institutions in
the whole of Japan.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses the Japanese education
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about different levels of Japanese

education, financing and administration of Japanese education.
7.0 REFERENCES
Beauchamp, E. R., & Rubinger, R. (2017). Education in Japan: A

source book. Routledge.
51
Chilton, M. (2018). The Shadow Of America On Japanese Higher

Education. Western Higher Education in Global Contexts, 37.
Lawal, B.O. in Lawal B.O. Salami W.O. and Farayola, J.A. (2001)
Comparative Education. Ibadan, Olu-Akin Publishers.
Marshall, B. (2018). Learning to be modern: Japanese political

discourse on education. Routledge.
Nemoto, Y. (1999). The Japanese education system. Universal-

Publishers.
Reinders, H., Nakamura, S., & Ryan, S. (2019). The Scope of

Innovation in Japanese Language Education. In Innovation in
Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 1-8). Palgrave Macmillan,
Cham.
52
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. The modern education in Japan can be traced to …..

2. The education system adopted by Japan is ….
3. The main language of instruction in Japan is …
4. …… is also saddled with the responsibility of giving an approval
for the establishment of higher institutions and also to supervise
various tertiary institutions in the whole of Japan.

1. 1872
2. 6-3-3-4
3. Japanese language
4. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
53
UNIT 3 THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.1.1 Geography Of Republic Of Brazil
3.1.2 Brazilian Education System
3.2.3 Primary School In Brazil
3.2.4 Lower Secondary School In Brazil
3.1.5 Upper Secondary Education
3.1.6 Special Education
3.2.7 Higher Education
3.2.8 Teacher Education
3.2.9 Educational Administration
3.2.10 inance Of Education
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
 discuss the education practices of Brazil.

 discussing the system of education in Brazil will enhance the
students' understanding of education and practices of foreign
countries.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of Republic of Brazil
Brazil is the largest country in South America. Brazil covers a total area
of 8,514,215 km² which includes 8,456,510 km² of land and 55,455 km²
of water. The country has a total surface area of 8 514 877 square
kilometres of which 8 459 417 square kilometres is land and 55 460
square kilometres is water. Apparently, Brazil is the fifth largest country
in the world (both in terms of area and population) and occupies almost
half of the entire South American continent. According to official
government statistics of 2019, the total population of Brazil is estimated
at almost 210 million inhabitants. It should be noted that more than 80%
54
EDU 314 MODULE 2
of the Brazilian population are Catholics and this to some extent

prevents the blacks from being discriminated against.
The education system in Brazil is divided between five stages of

education such as pre-primary, primary education, lower
secondary education, upper secondary education and tertiary or
higher education. Of these five levels, only primary education and lower
secondary education are compulsory.
The educational journey in Brazil can start incredibly early on in a

child’s life;
Preschool education in Brazil, known locally as Educação Infantil, is

entirely optional. This school is available for children up to three years
old, and includes kindergarten for children four to six. From there, all
students must attend primary and lower secondary school (ensino
fundamental). Brazilian pre-school is divided into two sub-groups
namely: Maternal and Jardim. The different between the two is the area
of funding and age. Maternal is specifically state-funded and take
children between the ages two to five. On the other hand, Jardim is
sometimes private, and take pupils who are between three and six years
old.
3.2.3 Primary School in Brazil
Primary school, or ensino fundamental, is mandatory for children

between six to fifteen years of age. It’s possible for five year olds to
enter primary school, as long as they’re due to turn six before the close
of the first term. Children specifically take all of their classes with the
same teacher. Subjects taught in the school include: Portuguese, history,
geography, math, science and physical education. Older primary school
children may also have additional teacher for foreign languages classes,
the most common of which are English and Spanish.
3.2.4 Lower Secondary school in Brazil
Lower secondary school in Brazil is made up of students ages 15-18. At

this stage, philosophy and sociology are added onto curriculum on top of
the existing core subjects. Students at the secondary school level are
trained to be prepared for entry to a public university, and those courses
are sometimes supplemented by specific college preparatory classes
(Little, Leung & Van Avermaet, 2013). Students attending secondary
school are graded on the same scale as those attending primary school.
55
Secondary school is not compulsory, and it’s not uncommon for

children to discontinue their education after age 14.
Upper secondary education in Brazil, known locally as Intermediate

School or Ensino Medio spans four years in duration and is designed for
students between the ages of 15 and 18. Attendance in this optional
level of education varies by region and socioeconomic status, with the
largest cities having the highest rate of attendance, particularly among
children of affluent families. The core curriculum during Intermediate
School is also designed by the Educational Council. This consist of
mathematics, Portuguese, foreign languages, history/government,
geography, science, technology, arts, music, physical education,
philosophy and sociology.
Special education in Brazil is offered from preschool through the upper

secondary level. Support for special education programs is provided by
the Ministry of Education, by the state, by some municipal secretariats,
and by non-governmental organizations (usually churches and other
non-profit organizations). Depending on the type of program, a school
or institution might include rehabilitation centers, clinics, hospitals and
more.
Higher education in Brazil was in the past a way through which the
educated and rich Brazilians used to integrate their children into their
parents highly stratified society. In the Brazil, political activities have
been a permanent feature of university life. In Brazil, there are both
private and public universities. In most cases, best Brazilians in
academics and perhaps in character have access to public universities
while on the other hand, poor academically students, if not admitted by
the public universities, may go to the private universities. In the
Brazilian universities, both academic as well as professional subjects are
being offered. The 1931 university legislation empowered the
Brazilians approved universities to teach and also to award degree to
qualified students. However, there was another legislation in 1968. The
number of university graduates produced rose from almost zero in 1960s
to about 40,000 in 1986. In the same vein, the percentage of university
teachers with doctoral degree rose from 6.6% in 1974 to 12.7% in 1987
while teachers with master's degree rose from 9.7% to 21.2% within the
same period. Today Brazil plays hosts to scores of world-class
universities, two of which were included in the 2010 Academic World
56
EDU 314 MODULE 2
Ranking of Universities (University of Sao Paulo and University of

Campinas).
Primary school teachers in Brazil are expected to be professionally

trained before they could be allowed to teach. It should be noted that in a
few cases, untrained teachers might be allowed to teach particularly
where there are inadequate qualified primary school teachers. Secondary
school teachers must not only be trained but also, they are expected to
receive their professional training in the university. However, like in
some other places, secondary school teachers could also receive their
professional training in the Teachers' Colleges. University teachers in
addition to having a second university degree in most cases should
also develop interest in research work. They are encouraged to develop
themselves while still on the job.
In 1988, a new constitution was put in place by the Brazilian

government. With this constitution, all public schools are to be tuition
free. Generally, many educational decrees or educational laws were put
in place by the government in order to enhance the educational
administration in Brazil. The formulation of the country's educational
policy is the responsibility of the Federal Council of Education in
collaboration with Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education is
also expected to supervise schools, to provide necessary assistance to
federal universities.
3.2.10 Finance of Education
The government funds the public schools at all levels while the private
schools at all levels are also funded by their owners. Basically, bulk of
the money spent on education in the country comes from various taxes
including the compulsory private contributions. Higher institutions in
Brazil at times receive aids from foreign individuals and organizations.
Higher institutions are also encouraged by the government to generate
fund internally to complement the money they receive from the
government.
4.0 SUMMARY
Unit above discusses the education theory and practice of Brazil.
57
5.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses the education theory and practice of

Brazil. In the last unit, you have been exposed to the different levels of
education in Brazil as well as her education administration and
financing of education.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Grossi, P. K., & dos Santos, A. M. (2012). Bullying in Brazilian Schools

and Restorative Practices. Canadian Journal of Education, 35(1),
120-136.
Little, D., Leung, C., & Van Avermaet, P. (Eds.). (2013). Managing
diversity in education: Languages, policies, pedagogies (33).
Multilingual matters.
Lawal, B.O., Salami, W.O. and Farayola, J.A. (2001). Comparative

Education. Ibadan: Olu-Akin Publishers.
58
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. The education system in Brazil is divided into … stages of

education
2. Upper secondary education in Brazil is known locally as….
3. Lower secondary school in Brazil is made up of students ages 10-
15, true or false.
1. Five
2. Intermediate School or Ensino Medio
3. False
59
UNIT 3 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Contents
3.1.1 Geography Of Republic Of Brazil
3.2.3 Primary School In Brazil
3.2.4 Lower Secondary School In Brazil
3.2.10 Finance Of Education
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 REFERENCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Exposing the learners to education theory and practice in England will

afford them the opportunity of comparing the practices of education in
Nigeria with that of England.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to compare and contrast the
practices of Education in Nigeria with that of England.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of England
England has a total land area of 132,938 square km. The country consists
of central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, in
addition to a number of small islands of which the largest is the Isle of
Wight. England is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west
by Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of
mainland Britain. According to UK population (2019), England has an
estimated population of 66,435,600. It is the largest of the four countries
that comprise of the United Kingdom.
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
3.1.2 Formal Education in England
Formal education at the initial stage was provided by voluntary agencies

including the churches. However, such schools founded by the voluntary
agencies were financially aided by the government. With the rapid
growth in population as well as the expansion in the Industrial
Sector and the enactment of education Act of 1870, schools' boards were
established to assist the Voluntary Schools, later, the parliamentary Acts
Elementary Education made elementary education compulsory and free.
The beginning of a national education system in Britain can be traced to
the HADOW REPORT of 1926. It was this report that brought about the
reorganization of the elementary education. In the same vein, the
SPENS report of 1938 also assisted the reorganization of the elementary
education and the recommendation of technical secondary education. In
the development of education in Great Britain, the Catholic played
significant roles as quite a number of the Voluntary Schools were
founded by them. However, the education Act of 1902 gave the
following three levels of education. The country education system is 6-
5-2-3, where 6-elementary school, 5-secondary education, 2-advance
high education and 3-higher education.
3.3.2 The Elementary School
This school is designed for the children aged 5-14 years, in order to
ensure that majority of the children attend elementary school,
elementary education in England was not only tuition free but it is also
compulsory for all the children who are within the age of 5 and 14 years.
3.3.3 Secondary School
This school was designed for children who have already completed
the elementary education. It is designed for children whose parents are
rich enough to pay the school fees. Unlike elementary education, it is
not compulsory at all. Secondary education after graduation offers the
products clerical jobs among others.
3.3.4 Preparatory and Public Schools
These schools were very expensive and were meant for children of the
upper class (the Aristocrats). These preparatory and public schools gave
birth to the establishment of both the University of Oxford and the
Cambridge University.
Types of Schools in England
61
The following types of schools are in existence in England.
3.3.5 (a) Nursery Education
A nursery school is school designed for children aged 3-5 years. Nursery
school also serves as a temporary home for the children whose parents
are working. Nursery education can be dated back to 1850, through the
efforts of Friedrich Frobel as well as Maria Montessori. It should be
noted that day-nurseries where the children of working parents are
kept are not the same thing as nursery school. The reason is that, real
nursery education is for the children aged 3-5 years and it is also part of
the school system. It is tuition free. The Hadow Report of 1933 and
Plowden report of 1967 greatly enhanced the development and
improvement of nursery education in England.
3.3.6 Primary Education
The Balfour-Morant Act of 1904 gave the following as the

objectives of primary education in England.] (a) Recognising the child
from 7-11 is a total being whose character, intelligence as well as
physical abilities are moulded and trained. (b) Arousing in the pupils
a lively interest in man's ideals, achievements, literature, history as
well as language. (c) Developing an awareness in the pupils limitation;
and (d) Demonstrating to the pupils how to acquire knowledge as
well as learning for themselves. Primary school in England could be
divided into: (a) Elementary and (b) Higher elementary schools. (c)
According to statistics, about 93 percent of the children within the age of
twelve years were in the elementary school. The Fisher education, Act
of 1918 made primary education compulsory for children up to the
age of fourteen years and it also recommended the re-organization of
primary education. Simply, primary education in England can be
described as the education of young children below the age of eleven
years. For the purpose of administration, all the public primary schools
were being administered by the local education Authorities. It was also
the responsibility of the Local Education Authorities to control all forms
of secular education in the privately owned (Voluntary) primary
schools. Also in England, there are some primary schools called
Direct Grant School. Parents pay school fees in these schools. Primary
school head is always given contract appointment. Inspectors only visit
schools on request. Primary school subjects include: History,
Geography, Nature study, Crafts, Arts and Physical Education, French,
Religious Education. Also, the extra school activities include:
Gynamastic, Swimming, music among others. The 1944 Act increased
the compulsory education in England to 15 years. It also recommended
that the number of pupils in each class should be reduced to make it
62
EDU 314 MODULE 2
more manageable. The plowing report of 1967 had recommended a

change in the age at which school pupils may transfer from eleven to
twelve's years. It was also recommended that the junior schools were
recommended for pupils aged 8-12 years or 9-13 years to enable the
Local Authorities have a better reorganization of the secondary schools.
3.3.7 Secondary Education
Secondary school in England maybe day or boarding school which

offers to each of its scholars, up to and beyond the age of 16, a general,
education, physical, mental and moral, given through a complete
graded course of instruction of wider scope and more advanced degree
than that in elementary schools. About four types of secondary
education can be identified in England. They are: (a) Secondary
Modern Schools (b) Secondary Grammar Schools (c) Technical High
School and (d) Comprehensive School
(a) Secondary Modern
Schools are designed for students who are not academically inclined
after their Primary Education. Secondary Modern Schools cater for
secondary education for academically weak students up to the age of
fifteen (15) years.
(a) Secondary Grammar
Schools are designed for the students who are academically inclined
after their primary education. These schools in addition to giving sound
formal education to the students, also serve as the Custodian of English
Tradition.
(c) Technical High
Schools are provided for students who have an intension of working

in the industry later in life. In other words, these schools are established
to cater for the needs of commerce and industry. The products of this
school are admitted into the faculties of engineering for engineering
courses in the British Universities.
(d) Comprehensive Schools
These schools are established to cater for children aged 11-18 years.
The students in these schools offer the same subjects up to their
second year. At the end of their third year, the students will be expected
to choose three subjects apart from English language and Mathematics
which they will like to study in their last two years. In the school, the
63
students will have opportunity of learning one vocation or the other.

As from the third year, the students will be exposed to one vocation
or the other which he may want to do later in life. To assist the students,
career officers are always provided by the school for the purpose of
counseling the students on their future vocation.
3.3.8 Technical or Further Education in England
These are the institutions provided for young persons for the purpose of
assisting them to develop their various aptitudes and also to train them
to become responsible adults in life. Such schools among others include
physical, practical as well as vocational training. An increased interest
in the development of British Industry after the World war II for the
training of skilled manpower in the area of technology greatly
contributed to the development of further or technical education in
England. At the end of the course, the students could be presented for
the examination of the city and guilds of London Institute or any other
related professional examinations. For children under the age of sixteen
years, tuition is free while those who are above the age of 16 years and
are working have to pay fees. Technical colleges or further education
are run on both part time and full time basis.
3.3.9 Teacher Education in England
Teacher education is the professional training designed for teachers

of all categories starting from the nursery school to the university.
Perhaps, the first teachers' College for the training of secondary school
teachers was the college of preceptors which was founded in the year
1846. With effect from 1904, the local education authorities were
allowed to establish their Teachers Colleges. As from 1921, the
British Universities include Teacher education programme in their
curricula. For the degree in education, students would spend three years
and the fourth year would be for their teaching practice after which a
university diploma or certificate in education would be awarded. In
1943, the Board of education recommended that more Teacher's
colleges should be founded so as to be able to solve the problem of
inadequate qualified teachers. The Me Nair report of 1944 among
others, recommended that universities as well as Teacher Training
Colleges should work hand in hand for the general improvement of
teacher education. However, before the education Act of 1944, the
primary school teachers were of four categories: (a) Certificated (b)
Uncertificated (c) Supplementary and (d) Specialist teachers. In case
of secondary schools, the teachers are expected to specialize in a
particular subject. While the teachers for the old elementary schools
were trained in the two-year colleges after their secondary education,
the secondary school teachers were trained in a one-year teachers'
64
EDU 314 MODULE 2
diploma course at the university departments after graduating either

from the faculty of Arts or Science. On the other hand, the teachers of
independent public schools were degree holders.
3.3.10 Adult Education in England
Adult education in England can be described as education designed

for people who have left school, adequate facilities for leisure- time
occupation in organized cultural training and recreative activities for
persons who are above compulsory school age and can benefit from
such educational programmes. The beginning of Adult education in
both England and Wales could be traced to the activities of British
Philanthropists who initiated the idea by first of all establishing Sunday
schools for the Literacy Education of both the children as well as the
adults. Many children and adults profited from this kind of education.
The success recorded from this kind of education led to the
establishment of London Mechanics Institution for the training of
Mechanics in 1823. Within a very short time, similar institutions were
cited in both England and Wales. The formation of the workers'
educational Association which was affiliated to the Oxford University
also contributed to the development of Adult Education in England. The
association used to organize tutorial classes for its members in England.
With effect from 1907, the Board of Education in England started to
assist the university tutorial classes for general enhancement of Adult
education. Also, for the promotion of Adult education, an Adult
education Committee was set up in 1921. Primarily, the committee was
to assist in the co-ordination of all the Adult education Voluntary
Agencies. To crown it all, an open University was founded between
1960 and 1970 to provide better education for both the Adults as
well as the workers. With the open University education, workers
in particular, were able to improve their working condition even though
such Open University education was not tuition free.
3.3.11 University Education in England
Higher institutions in both England and Wales include: the Universities,

colleges of education as well as the polytechnics. The most popular
universities are the Oxford University founded in 1185 and
Cambridge University in 1230. The two oldest universities were
founded by the Church of England. In order to break the monopoly of
both the Oxford University and the University of Cambridge, London
University was established in 1828. School fees are being charged by
the universities with which the universities are being financed in
addition to financial aid from the public. Each university is
autonomous in respect of admission, examination and award of
degrees among others.
65
3.3.12 Administration of Education in England
The Education Minister is always appointed by the prime Minister.

The Minister has Permanent Secretaries to help him in carrying out
his official duties. The Minister is the controller as well as the Director
of Education Board. He has the power to organize the schools at
any time. The Local Education Authorities are elected bodies for the
purpose of controlling schools under them. They also have voluntary
schools under them. They employed teachers and pay their salaries as
well. Each school has the power to select the textbooks for the use of its
pupils. However, unlike primary and secondary schools, higher
institutions are not under control of the Ministry of Education.
3.3.13 Financing of Education Money is always voted for the Ministry

of Education from the national revenue by the parliament. The Minister
of Education will also disburse part of the money inform of grants
to local Education Authorities.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses the education theory and practice of

England.
5.0 Summary
In the last unit, you have been exposed to different types of education in
England as well as her education administration and financing.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo Swift Publishers

Nig. Ltd.
UK population (2019). England Population.
66
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. The beginning of a national education system in Britain can be

traced to …
2. The Education Minister is always appointed by ….
3. The most popular universities are the Oxford University
founded in …
4. In Britain, education is centralized, true or false
1. HADOW REPORT of 1926.

2. Prime Minister
3. 1185
4. False
67
UNIT 4 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 The Content
3.1.1 Geography of United States of America
3.1.2 USA Education System
3.1.3 Nursery Education
3.1.4 The Primary Education
3.1.5 Secondary Schools in America
3.1.6 Teacher Education in the United States of America
3.1.7 University Education in America
3.1.8 Adult Education in America
3.1.9Technical Education
4.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Discussing education in America will give the students the opportunity

to compare and contrast the system of education in America and
Nigeria.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain the system of
education in United States of America.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of United States of America
United States Of America (USA) is a country of 50 states covering a

vast swath of North America. USA has a total landmass of 7,663,941
square km. The country is located in the Northern Hemisphere, boarded
on the west by the Pacific Ocean, the east by the Atlantic Ocean, the
south by Mexico, and the north by Canada. It is home to the third-largest
population in the world. In fact, it is the third largest country behind
China and India. The political capital of USA is at Washington DC.
68
EDU 314 MODULE 2
According to Worldometers (2019), the current population of the United

States of America is 329,917,144
3.1.2 USA Education System
Educationally, each State in America has the power to establish its own
system of education (Goel, 2016). The local districts under the States
also have the power to establish schools boards and to establish schools
as well. The power of the States to set up schools does not in anyway,
prevent the church from establishing schools in any of the states. Formal
Education in America is divided into a number of distinctive educational
stages such as (a) Nursery Education (b) Elementary or Primary
Education (c) Secondary Education (d) Teacher Education and (e)
University and Adult Education.
3.1.3 Nursery Education
At the beginning, nursery education was part of primary school between

1868 and 1873. By 1888, nursery education had spread to many places
in America. The Lanham education Act of 1940 also enhanced the
development of nursery education in America by giving subventions
from the federal government to nursery education. Later, individuals
who had interest in the education of children started to part-take in the
running of nursery schools. Also, the churches were participating in the
running of nursery school.
3.1.4 The Primary Education
Primary Education in America is the education given to the

children which has the duration of six years. The purpose of American
primary education includes: (a) turning out well-adjusted citizens (b)
helping the children to be active participants in the building of their own
lives and also to assist them in understanding the roles expected of them
in establishing a better American society. The primary school subjects
include: Mathematics, Science, Geography, History, Social Studies,
English language, English literature, French, German and Spanish.
However, religious subjects are not included in the school curriculum as
Americans have freedom of worship. In the primary schools, the
promotion of the pupils is always based on continuous assessment and
not on any promotion examination. It is the duty of the Local Schools
Board to provide some of the school materials. A public primary school
is headed by the principal who is the administrative head of the school.
While the primary school teachers are expected to have a university
degree, the principals are in addition expected to have master’s degree
of educational administration and supervision. The failure of the
Federal Government to include Religious Instructions in the school
69
curriculum was one of the reasons that forced the Catholic to establish
their own schools where religious instruction was included in the school
curriculum. By implication, there are both private and public primary
schools in America.
3.1.5 Secondary Schools in America
Secondary education in America is the type of education given to the

adolescents on the basis of three years in the Junior Secondary School
and three years in the Senior Secondary School. This can be referred to
as 3 - 3 secondary education system. The aims and objectives of
American Secondary Education include: (a) Creating a strong egalitarian
society where everybody will have equal opportunity. (b) Preparing
students for survival in the future (c) Preparing the students for their
colleges and universities. Some States in America provide free
secondary education and free textbooks for their citizens particularly up
to the age of sixteen years. The products of primary schools are always
admitted into the secondary schools. There are both public as well as
private secondary schools in America. The Ordinance Act 1785 which
made it mandatory for each township to set its sixteenth section for the
use of education as well as the North West Ordinance of 1887 greatly
enhanced the development of education in America. However, the
problem of sub-standardized secondary schools and willingness to
provide secondary education for many American children led to the
introduction of Junior High School. In the Junior High School, the
students are expected to spend three years after their primary education
that is between the age of 12-15 years. After successfully completing
the Junior Secondary Education, the students will start their Senior
High School Education which is meant for the students, who are
academically inclined. The public senior high schools are tuition
free. Provision of learning materials for schools and the general
financing of schools are responsibilities of the local schools district. In
America, private high schools or secondary schools are also allowed
by the constitution. However, unlike the public high schools, tuition is
not free and the teaching of religious education is allowed. It is on
record that America has started operating 6-3-3-4 education system, yet,
the old system of 8-4 years is still in operation (eight years of primary
education and four years of secondary education).
3.1.6 Teacher Education in the United States of America
Teacher education in America like in other places refers to the

professional training being given to the would-be teachers. The aims and
objectives of American Teacher Education include: (a) Preparing
teachers for the needs and aspirations of American as a democratic
nation. (b) Preparing teachers who will later assist in the training
70
EDU 314 MODULE 2
of American children for the purpose of promoting their culture. The

establishment of Jefferson College in Washington among others in
the 1800s marks the beginning of teacher education in America.
The preparation of primary school teachers is always done by the normal
schools. These normal schools are recognized by the State Boards
of Education for the training of primary school teachers. The subjects
being offered in thee training institutions include: Administration,
psychology, philosophy, History of education. On the other hand, the
secondary school teachers are expected to be university degree holders
after a period of four years either in a college or in the university. In
most cases, teachers' appointment is always on contract basis and it is
renewable yearly, provided the concerned teacher is still interested in
working in his school. At the same time, the school district board of
education has the constitutional power to terminate the contract
appointment of any of its teachers.
3.1.7 University Education in America
In America, higher education is provided in the colleges of education,

higher technical institutes and universities. In 1862, the American
Government passed the Morrill Act which made it compulsory for
the Americans to make land available to the American Federal
Government for the development of Universities and higher
institutions of learning. There are two major categories of higher
education in America, they are: (a) The state universities and colleges
which are maintained by the state and (b) Independent universities and
colleges which are run by various churches and private individuals. In
these private colleges and universities, high school fees are changed. A
degree programme lasts for four years.
3.1.8 Adult Education in America
The beginning of Adult education can be traced to the

establishment of Lyceum in Massachusetts in 1826. Also, the
Smith Lever Act of 1914 as well as the Adult education Association of
the United States in 1951 greatly contributed to the development of
Adult Education in America. Adult education in American is run by
private individuals such as lawyers, physicians, architects, teachers
and musicians for the purpose of self culture, community instruction as
well as the mutual discussion of common public interest. In 1906, the
university extension was started and this has been extended to most of
the universities in America.
71
3.1.9Technical Education
There have been some technical institutions as early as the middle of

19th century. However, there was no serious attempt to promote
technical education, until when the Mosco technical school was able to
perform creditably well at the international exhibition in the 1970s.
Thereafter, more technical institutions began to spring up in America.
Furthermore, the Morill Act of 1862 assisted in the development
of technical education, private individuals started founding both
commercial as well as business colleges. The Smith-Hughes Act among
other things recommended that a Federal Board of vocational education
should be set up. It was on the basis of this that the Federal Board of
vocational education was established in which a substantial amount of
money was set aside by the federal government for the general
promotion of vocational and technical education throughout America.
3.1.10 Administration of Education in America Education in America is
decentralized. In other words, each state in America administer, control
and fund education. Therefore, it is the responsibility of each estate as
well as the private individuals to take care of their schools. In 1867, the
National Officer of Education was set up and it is being headed by the
Education Commissioner who is an appointee of the president of
America. The federal government always assists the state governments
in the funding of technical and vocational education. The state
universities are financially aided by the Federal Government. At the
State level, there is a state department of education under the headship
of Education Director who is elected by the people within the state for a
period of two to four years. Locally, each local government has a
local board of education, usually headed by a Superintendent of
schools in the district. His duties include: appointing teachers and other
personnel who will be working with him. He also works on the finance
of schools founded by the local government.
3.1.11 Finance of Education in America
In the whole of America, less than 60 per cent of the total cost of both
public primary and secondary schools comes from the taxes levied by
the local schools boards. Also, the state government always sets aside
about 40 per cent of its annual budget for the running of the public
schools. The bulk of this money is generated from the state taxes as well
as the taxes paid by the state workers. In the private schools, starting
from the primary school up to the university, the students pay school
fees in addition to the taxes being paid by the parents. Also, rich
individuals in America always assist the private schools financially.
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses the practices of education in America. The

discussion also touches the education administration and finance.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to different types of education in

America as well as the financing and administration of education in
America.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
3.0 REFERENCES
Goel, D. (2016). Education System in India and USA: A Comparative

Study. Voice of Intellectual Man-An International Journal, 6(1),
97-106.
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo, Swift

Publishers Nig Ltd.
Taylor, R., Rockhill, K., & Fieldhouse, R. (2018). University adult

education in England and the USA: A reappraisal of the liberal
tradition. Routledge.
73
1. USA operate … system of education.

2. In USA, education is highly decentralized, true or false
3. In USA, …assisted in the development of technical education,
private individuals started founding both commercial as well as
business colleges.
1. 6-3-3-4
2. True
3. Morill Act of 1862
74
EDU 314 MODULE 2
UNIT 5 EDUCATION IN FRANCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 The Content
3.1.1 Geography of France
3.1.2 France education system
3.1.3 Education Administration
3.1.4 Financing of Education
3.1.5 Types of Education
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The treatment of education in France will afford the learners the

opportunity to compare and contrast the practices of education in both
Nigeria and France.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the system of
education in France.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of France
Geographically, France is the second largest country in Europe. It is

approximately hexagonal in shape, with an extreme length from north to
south of about 965 km and a maximum width of about 935 km. The total
land area approximately 547,030 square km. It political and
administrative capital is in Paris. In 2018, the population of France
stands at 67,364,357 million.
3.1.2 France education system
Since 17th Century, French education was under the control of the
church (Lewis, 2018). This made it possible for the church not only to
integrate Christianity into the school curriculum but also to
75
indoctrinate the school children. Napoleon could be regarded as an

educational revolutionist in France. His contributions to the
development of education in France cannot be overemphasized. For
instance, in 1802, schools of Arts and Trades were founded by him.
Apart from the fact that he contributed to the development of the two
schools of Engineering as well as the Mining founded before 1802, he
was also, the founder of the University of France. In France, there are
two types of education, they are: (a) The state schools as well as (b)
Private or independent schools founded by the private individuals or
groups or religious bodies. The two types of education are not only
centralized but are also similar in both methods and structure. However,
the secularization laws (laws preventing the church or religious bodies
from controlling the schools) of 1882 and that of 1904 assisted the
public or state schools to be independent of the church. The same laws
also made the catholic schools not only to be voluntary but also
independent of the state. While the Catholic schools were established
by individual teachers as well as groups of parents under the control of
the church on the other hand, the state schools belong to the government
and such schools are being attended by well over 70% of the
compulsory age groups in France. Tuition was free in the state schools,
whereas it is not free at all in the private or Catholic schools. The
education law of 1850 allowed the private individuals to open secondary
schools. The education law of 1875 allowed for the establishment of
private higher institutions, that of 1886 gave legal backing for the
founding of private primary schools and the education law of 1919 gave
legal backing for the establishment of private technical institutions. The
compulsory education designed for children aged 6 and 13 years by the
education law of 1882 was extended to 14 years by the education law of
1936. This was increased to 16 years by the education decree of 1959.
3.1.3 Education Administration
Education administration in France is centrally done. France as a whole

is divided into regions and each region is blessed with some
departments known as academic. A Rector is the head of each academic
who is always appointed by the president. The Rector is responsible to
the Education Minister and he has powers over institutions under his
control including the supervision of private schools. Rector is supported
by the inspectors of academy. In addition, each district has a primary
Inspector who is responsible to the Inspector of Academy. For pre-
school institutions, there are special sub-inspectors majority of whom
are women. Also, for general supervision of teaching, there are special
inspectors of national education who are not only specialists in different
subjects but also supervise their different subjects in the whole country.
Each level of Education such as primary, secondary, technical and
higher institutions is being controlled by a directorate of such a Level of
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
education particularly in the areas of supervision of teaching, staff

among others.
In the area of educational finance as it affects secondary, technical as

well as higher education, the state is responsible for the lion share of the
expenditure while the remaining comes from school fees paid by the
students and private sources. Also, members of the Universities
academic staff who are also civil servants receive their salaries from the
budget of the Ministry of National Education. For primary education,
about 30 per cent of its expenses is catered for by the local authorities.
The teachers' salaries are paid by the state and they are all regarded as
civil servants. Also, both the communes as well as the municipalities are
jointly responsible for the school buildings, electricity, teacher’s
accommodation, the teaching equipment among others. The private
schools on the other hand, charge school fees which they use for the
maintenance of their schools. The Rectors of universities appointed by
the Education Ministers still remain the rectors of the academics. The
professors of the university are always appointed by the Education
Minister and such appointment is based on the recommendation of the
faculties.
3.1.5 Types of Education
However, the new education plan in France divides higher education

into three (3) different stages. The stages are: (a) The first education
cycle (18 - 20) which is designed for learned professions and of
technical, normal schools training teachers as well as technicians of
intermediate grades. (b) The second education cycle (aged 20 - 22) is for
the purpose of preparing students for the first degrees.(c) The third or
the last education cycle includes the Grandes Ecoles d' Application. This
category of education cycle prepares the students not only for
aggregation but also for the research work.
In the area of teacher training, the primary school teachers received their
professional training in Ecoles Normales after passing the examination
for the Brevet Elementaire at the age of 16 years. In this training
Institution, they will spend three (3) years after which they will be
awarded the Brevet Superieure. With this award, the trainees will be
given a temporary teaching appointment as primary school teachers.
After the probationary period, if the temporary appointees are found to
be appointable, their temporary appointment will be confirmed and they
will subsequently become permanent. On the other hand, the secondary
77
school teachers are expected to pass the Baccalaureate and are also
expected to have professional training from the universities (the
teaching licence). This will give them the opportunity to be given a
temporary appointment to teach their subject of specialization. For any
temporary appointee who wants his appointment to be confirmed or to
become a permanent one, needs to have an additional qualification of
aggregation among other things. It should be noted that this aggregation
is made highly competitive by the state so that the number of the
successful candidates will tally with the available vacancies in the
secondary schools. Also, the two categories of teachers have different
conditions of service as well as different professional training.
Since they have different conditions of service and different licence, it
is not possible for them to interchange. By implication, teachers
serving in a private school cannot transfer their service to a state school.
This is not good enough for teaching profession.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit discusses the background, levels of education, education

administration as well as financing of education in France.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the system of education in France.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Akgönül, S. (2018). National Education in France. The Wiley

International Handbook of Educational Foundations, 107.
Lewis, H. D. (2018). The French education system. London: Routledge.
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education, Osogbo: Swift

Publishers, Nig. Ltd.
78
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. In France, …allowed for the establishment of private higher

institutions.
2. Education administration in France is not centrally done, true or
false.
3. In France, the Rectors of universities appointed by…

1. Education law of 1875
2. False
3. Education Minister
79
UNIT 6 THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN JAMAICA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Content
3.6.1 Stages of Education
3.6.2 Administration of Education in Jamaica
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Exposing students to the theory and practices of education in Jamaica

will enhance their knowledge about comparative education.
At the end of the unit, you should be able to discuss the system of
education in Jamaica.
3.0 CONTENT
Geography of Jamaica
Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean,

after Cuba and Hispaniola. It's mostly mountainous, with a narrow,
discontinuous coastal plain. This country lies along Latitude: 18º 15´
North of the Equator and Longitude of Jamaica: 77º 30. This island is
made up of three landform regions namely: coastal lowlands, which
include a limestone plateau, central valleys and the Blue and John Crow
mountains, which is a group of volcanic hills on the east side of the
country. The total land area is approximately 10,991 square kilometers.
The capital of Jamaica is located at Kingston. In 2018, the total
population of Jamaica is 2,812,090 million. Like other British colonies,
English is its official language. It, however, got her independent in 1962.
Jamaica education system
The earliest schools in Jamaica were mostly controlled by trustees who

were elected by the voters of a parish or by Anglican Clergymen.
However, the establishment of Negro Education Grant brought the
education administration under the various Christian Missions through
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
the committee that were set up by their missionary headquarters in

England. It is the responsibility of each religious society to supervise its
schools, to provide textbooks and also to recommend appropriate
teaching methods. The negro Education Grant was stopped in 1845 as a
result of which the colonial legislatures were saddled with the
responsibility of providing education for the people in the country. This
change in the provision of education led the legislatures to give
preference to industrial education. By 1850, perhaps the first
Government Normal School of Industry was founded. The office of
superintendent of schools as well as education department was set up
after Jamaica had become a Crown colony in 1866. It was this
department that saw to the efficiency of education through supervision
and collection of school fees. Based on the recommendation made
by the Royal Commission of 1885, an education board was set up in
1892 with the representatives of the religious organizations as members
of the board as well as Education Superintendent as the Ex-officio
chairman. Managers were the local administrators of school since
majority of such managers were the proprietors of schools. In order to
involve the Jamaica's local people in the educational administration,
fourteen parish school boards were founded in the year 1914. The
members’ appointment was done by the governor on the basis of the
recommendations made by the schools' managers as well as another
local government body. Also, twenty-one district school boards were
appointed based on the recommendation made by the parish school
boards. However, after the reorganization of the school board as a result
of the recommendations made by the legislative committee of 1926, the
following were to see to the improvement of education department. (a)
Director of Education (b) Deputy Director of Education (c) 3 Chief
Inspectors of Education (d) Inspectors of Education and (e) Assistant
Inspectors of Education
3.6.1 Stages of Education
The system of education in Jamaica was a resemblance of the traditional

British education system. The education curriculum was made to be
relevant to the needs and aspirations of the Jamaicans particularly at the
primary education level. After independence, the British external
examinations were replaced with the Jamaican regional external
examinations.
Structurally, the Jamaican education Levels include
(1) Early Childhood (Preschool) Education
Early Childhood education, also known as Preschool, is a non-

compulsory level of education offered at both public and private
81
institutions to children between the ages of 3-5. In terms of public

schooling, Early Childhood education is provided in Infant Schools and
in Infant departments of some of the country’s primary-level schools
(Kinkead-Clark, 2017). Nursery and Kindergarten departments of
Independent Preparatory (private primary) schools also accept students
at age 3.
(2) Primary Education
Primary education in Jamaica spans six years—grades one through six—

and serves children from 6 to 11 years of age. Primary education is
offered in Grades 1-6 of Primary Schools, Primary and Junior High
(combination) Schools, and All-Age schools. It is also offered in Grades
1-6 of Preparatory schools. In Jamaica, as in most countries, students are
admitted to into the primary level of education at age 6. Primary
schools are therefore designated feeder schools for all secondary schools
in the country.
(3) Secondary Education
The Secondary or High school system consists of two cycles (Brock &
Clarkson, 2018). The first cycle commences in Grades 7-9 of All Age,
Primary and Junior High schools, and High schools, including Technical
High and Independent/Private High schools. The second cycle is
provided in Grades 10 and 11 of these schools (with the exception of All
Age and Primary and Junior High schools) and in the Agricultural,
Technical and Vocational schools. At the end of Grade 11, students sit
for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC), with
subjects administered by the Caribbean Examinations Councils (CXC).
(4) Tertiary education
Postsecondary or tertiary education in Jamaica are offered by a wide

variety of institutions, including teacher training colleges, community
colleges, vocational training centers and institutes, the Vocational
Training Development Institute, schools of midwifery and nursing
(offering three-year program leading to a diploma), the University of the
West Indies (a regional institution), and the University of Technology
(Brock & Clarkson, 2018). Each of these differs somewhat in history,
mission, philosophy, and to a lesser extent, in the programs they offer
and structure.
3.6.2 Administration of Education in Jamaica
No wonder then why secondary schools were under the supervision

of the Jamaican schools commission while both the primary education
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
as will as teacher training were put under the Supervision of the Board
of Education and the department of education. However, based on
the Kansel commission in 1943, a central education authority was set up
in the year 1950 to perform the duties assigned to the school
commission as well as the Board of Education. Also, in 1956, the central
Education Authority was dissolved and a statutory body of education
advisory council was set up. The council was primarily to advise the
Education Minister on Education issues. With effect from 1965, the
management as well as the supervision of education had been put under
the control of the Education Ministry. Secondary education in Jamaica
generally consists of two cycles. The first cycle designed for children
aged 12-14 years comprised of grades 7 -9 while the second cycle
lasts for only two years with grades 10 - 11. In a few cases, some
secondary schools have grade 13 which can be regarded as the sixth
form.
To be able to adequately finance education in Jamaica, the

government allocates a substantial part of its annual budget to
education. Also, the little money realized from the tuition fee assists in
the funding of education. It should be noted that primary education
which is designed for the children aged 6-15 years is free particularly in
all the public primary schools.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above discusses the system of education in Jamaica. This

includes: background, levels of education, financing of education as well
as education administration.
5.0 SUMMARY
In the unit above, you have been exposed to the theory and
practices of education in Jamaica.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
8.0 REFERENCES
Brock, C., & Clarkson, D. (2018). Education in Central America and

the Caribbean. Routledge.
Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education. Osogbo: Swift

Publishers Nig. Ltd.
83
Kinkead-Clark, Z. (2017).Early childhood care and education in

Jamaica. Stakeholders’ perceptions of global influences on a local
space. Early Child Development and Care, 187(10), 1484-1495.
84
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. Education was brought to Jamaica by …

2. Jamaica run … system of education
3. From 1965, the management as well as the supervision of
education in Jamaica had been put under the control of…
1. Religious body
2. 6-3-3-4
3. Education Ministry
85
UNIT 7 EDUCATION IN NIGERIA AND TANZANIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 The Content
3.1.1 Geography of Nigeria
3.1.2 Teacher Education at the Primary School Level
3.1.3 Education Curriculum
3.1.4 Introduction of UPE
3.1.5 Teacher Education at the Secondary school Level
3.1.6 Teacher Education for Teachers in the Higher Institutions
3.1.7Teacher Education in Nigeria
3.1.8 Geography of Tanzania
3.1.9 Education system in Tanzania
3.1.12 Teacher Education in Tanzania
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The treatment of education in Nigeria and Tanzania will put the students
in a good position to compare and contrast the teacher education in the
two countries.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to compare and contrast the
Education in Nigeria with that of Tanzania.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1 Geography of Nigeria
Nigeria is a country in West Africa. Nigeria shares land borders with the
Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and
Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it
borders Lake Chad to the northeast. The country has total land area of
about 923,763 square km. According to United Nation report (2019),
Nigeria population is estimated at 200,963,599 people.
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
3.1.2 Teacher Education at the Primary School Level
The history of teacher training institutions in Nigeria can be dated back

to 1859 when the first teacher training college was founded in Abeokuta
by the Church Missionary Society (Fafunwa, 1974). The college
was moved to Lagos in 1867 and later transferred to Oyo in 1896 where
it became St. Andrews College, Oyo. Other Christian missions such as
the Baptist, the Wesleyan Methodist and the Presbyterian Church of
Scotland among others. The students for the early teacher training
institutions were taken from standard VI for a two year professional
programme. Such pupils were expected to have been pupil teachers for
about two years, they must have passed the pupil teacher examination
and they must have also acted as assistant teachers. The elementary
training institutions for the lower primary school teachers lasted for a
period of two years, leading to the award of Grade III teachers certificate
while the higher elementary training institutions which also lasted for a
duration of two years leading to the award of Grade II Teachers'
certificate. However, both the Teacher Grade III and Grade II colleges
have been phased out in many states of Nigeria as the Nigeria certificate
in education has become the minimum teaching qualification in all
primary schools. In other words, only the colleges of education
produce the lowest cadre of teachers for the Nigerian primary schools.
Tanganyika which became independent on 9th December, 1960
within the British common wealth of nations became a Republic in 1961
with a former school teacher, Julius Nyerere as the first Executive
president of the country. However, in 1964, Zanzibar as well as
Tanganyika became one under a new name, Tanzania. In Tanzania, by
the year 1945, there were about one thousand and one hundred teacher
trainees. These teacher trainees were for only the primary schools.
3.1.3 Education Curriculum
The curriculum of primary school teachers' institution include among

others, national service with an emphasis on military training and nation
building, Ujama political education, school organization, educational
psychology, adult education, youth leadership, academic subjects as well
as teaching methodology.
3.1.4 Introduction of UPE
In the country, the introduction of Universal primary education policy

led to an increase in the pupils’ enrolment in the primary schools. The
increase in the enrolment made Tanzania government to reduce the
training period by one year. In addition, the government organized
workshops and seminars for her teachers in the primary schools in order
to improve the Tanzanian primary education standard. All teacher
87
training institutes in Tanzania contribute to their own up keep. Each

College has a farm which provides the food eaten by the school
community. To some extent, the welfare of the teacher trainees depends
on the farm output.
3.1.5 Teacher Education at the Secondary school Level
In Nigeria, the Christian Missions did not pay much attention to the
training of secondary school teachers. They were mostly concerned with
the training of primary school teachers. Any other education apart from
primary was superfluous as they only needed interpreters and a few
Nigerians who could serve them. However, the establishment of the
Yaba Higher College in 1932 brought about the introduction of the
diploma in education programme which took care of secondary school
teachers.
Also, the university college, Ibadan, which was founded in 1948,

introduced the diploma programme in education in 1957/58 academic
year. The University in addition to its efforts on teacher training started
a one year associationship course for Nigerian Grade II Teachers in
1961 immediately after dependence. The University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, also in September, 1961, introduced a degree programme in
education with about fifty students. The first set of education students at
Nsukka, however, graduated in June, 1964. The University of Ibadan
introduced degree in education in 1963, Ahmadu Bello University in
1967. Currently, Nigeria has 43 Federal Universities, 48
State Universities, and 79 Private Universities; making it a total of
170 universities in Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 2019).
Perhaps out of all these universities, it is only in the Universities of
Agriculture and Technology that degrees in education are not being
offered. Holders of SSCE or its equivalent spend four years while
holders of GCE ‘A' Level or Nigerian Certificate in education (NCE) or
its equivalent spend three years for the first degree. Also, Masters degree
in education and Doctorate degree in education are now available
in almost all the conventional universities. After independence,
Advanced Teachers Colleges were founded initially by the Federal
Government but later, state started establishing their own Grade I
colleges. Such colleges are now (a) Federal government colleges of
Education and (b) State colleges of Education. A few ones are also
owned by private individuals. Duration in these Colleges ranges
between three to four years depending on the qualification with
which a candidate is admitted. The candidate with five GCE or
equivalent passes spends only three years. The programme leads to the
award of the Nigerian Certificate in Education.
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
3.1.6 Teacher Education for Teachers in the Higher

Institutions
Higher Education according to the National Policy on Education (1981)

covers the post-secondary section of the National Education System
which is given in Universities, polytechnics and Colleges of Technology
including such courses as are given by the Colleges of Education, the
Advanced Teacher Training Colleges, Distance learning and such
institution as may be allied to them.
3.1.7Teacher Education in Nigeria
In Nigeria, teacher education for higher education teachers to some

extent depends largely on the Universities. However, the highest
qualification of the Nigerian Higher Education teachers depends on the
type of higher education in which one is working. The teachers working
in the Nigerian Universities are being trained in the Nigerian
Universities or elsewhere. Before a teacher can be employed to teach in
the university, he must have at least a Masters degree in the relevant
discipline. Also, teachers for polytechnics, colleges of Technology are
being trained in the Universities or Polytechnics. A first degree holder or
its equivalent could be appointed. However, like universities, masters
and doctorate degree holders are preferred in the colleges of education.
Moreover, a professional certificate in education is a must for all
lecturers in the colleges of education particularly for the few ones
among them who did not study education.
3.1.8 Geography of Tanzania
Tanzania is the largest country in East Africa which covers 940,000

square kilometres. Tanzania lies south of the Equator and borders eight
countries such as Kenya and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi,
Zaire, and Zambia to the west; and Malawi and Mozambique to the
south. The country’s population has trebled from 7.7 million in 1948 to
58.01 million in 2019 (UN, 2019).
3.1.9 Education system in Tanzania
The education system is based around a 2-7-4-2-3 structure. In other

words: 2 years of pre-primary school, 7 years of primary school, 4 years
of ordinary secondary school (ordinary level), 2 years of advanced
secondary school (advanced level) and at least 3 years of higher
education.
In Tanzania, education in the first 7 years is Compulsory education,

compared to the United States which is 12 years. Primary education
89
spans between grades 1 and 7. Primary school is 7 years and there is a

national exam at the end of primary school that the student needs to pass
to move onto secondary school (White, 2017).
Secondary education comprises both an ordinary level and an advanced

level. The ordinary level comprises forms 1 through 4, while the
advanced level comprises forms 5 and 6. By the end of these levels,
pupils take examinations for the Certificate of Secondary Education and
Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education, respectively. Pupils to
have achieved a satisfactory result for the Certificate of Secondary
Education may then attempt to obtain an Advanced Certificate of
Secondary Education (Languille, 2019). Secondary schools specialise in
agriculture, commerce, home economics and technology. Pupils in
forms 1-4 (ordinary level) study civics, English, Kiswahili, history,
geography, physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics. Pupils in
forms 5 and 6 (advanced level) specialise in commerce, arts and social
sciences or natural sciences. They also take general studies. Pupils to
have obtained an Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education are
eligible for admission to a higher education institution.
Higher education is offered at 28 universities, 19 university colleges and

various training colleges and institutes. The higher education system is
divided into non-university level and university level studies. The
number of non-university level institutions (technical, vocational and
professional schools) has increased significantly over the past few years.
These institutions are overseen by the responsible ministries. They are
authorised to issue various qualifications, ranging from certificates,
diplomas and advanced diplomas to postgraduate diplomas. These
qualifications offer access to bachelor's and master's programmes,
depending on their level.
In Tanzania, teacher education for secondary school teachers could be

divided into three groups: (a) The university of Dare Salaam which was
established in 1970 and the University of Agriculture, Sokoine
which is also a degree awarding institution offer programmes that can
lead to the award of undergraduate degree, master's degrees, doctoral
degree as well as certificates and diplomas. (b) The non-degree-offering
institutions: Such institutions offer diplomas and advanced diplomas.
Courses being offered include teacher education. (c) The institutions
which specialize in other areas at the certificate level.
It should be noted that the University of Dares Salaam has a department

of education particularly for the training of secondary school
teachers. Also, the Diploma teachers who spend six years in the
secondary school and one year in the teachers college teach academic
and technical subjects in Tanzanian secondary schools. The teacher
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EDU 314 MODULE 2
trainees in the Tanzanian teacher training institutions have a farm each

which provides the food eaten by the teacher trainee themselves. This is
to make the students to have interest and love for anything farming.
3.1.12 Teacher Education in Tanzania
In Tanzania, higher institutions include: the university of Dares Salaam,

Sokoine University of Agriculture, Diplomas and Advanced Diploma
awarding institutions, three technical institutes, Teachers education
infilites and colleges of science Teacher education for each tertiary
institution largely depends on the certificate being awarded by such
institutions. The teachers for the non-degree programmes are always
trained in the two universities. First degree holders can teach in any of
the non degree awarding institutions. Master degree holders can also
teach in such institutions. However, the degree obtained by such
teachers must be related to their field. For the university teachers in
Tanzanian degree awarding institutions, the would-be-lecturers are
always recruited after the first class and in a few cases upper class
degrees. The lecturers in this category who are recruited by the
university are always given scholarships to study overseas for their
master’s degree as well as their doctoral degree programme. With
master’s degree, such lecturers will be appointed Assistant lecturers and
they will be upgraded to lecturers after they must have obtained their
Ph.D. Before University Lecturer can move to the next rank, such
a lecturer must have served for a minimum of three years. He must also
certify the promotion conditions which include: acceptable level of
teaching as well as publication. Members of both academic and non -
academic staff have their different professional bodies which cater for
their welfare.
The Tanzanian government also encourages special education by

sending the teachers who are interested in that kind of education abroad
for training. It should be noted that an education Board has been set up
by the Tanzanian government particularly to find a way through which
the money being spent on higher education by the government will be
reduced.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above exposes the learners to Teacher Education in both

Nigeria and Tanzania.
91
5.0 SUMMARY
In the unit, you have learnt about: (a) Teacher education at the primary
school level. (b) Teacher education at the secondary school level. (c)
Teacher education at the tertiary level.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Lawal, B.O. (2004) Comparative Education. Osogbo, Swift

Publishers Nig Ltd.
Languille, S. (2019). The politics of the education budget: Financing

mass secondary education in Tanzania (2004–
2012). International Journal of Educational Development, 66,
96-104.
White, J. (2017). The Historical Background To National Education In

Tanzania. Routledge Revivals: Language in Tanzania (1980),
261.
92
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. UPE was introduced in … region in Nigeria

2. In Nigeria, … system of education is
3. The education system is based around a 2-7-4-2-3 structure, true
or false
1. Western
2. 9-3-4
3. True
93
UNIT 8 EDUCATION IN AFGHANISTAN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 The Content
3.1.1Geography of Afghanistan
3.1.2 Educational Structure of Afghanistan
3.1.4 Vocational Education in Afghanistan
3.1.7 Adult Education
3.1.8 Funding Education in Afghanistan
3.1.9 Administrative Organization
4.0 CONCLUSION
4.0 Summary
5.0 Tutor Marked
7.0 References
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The treatment of education in Iraq will enhance the learners'

understanding of education in the foreign nations.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the theory and
practices of education in Afghanistan.
3.0 CONTENT
3.1.1Geography of Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a mountainous land-locked country located in South-

Central Asia. Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces. The largest city
and capital is Kabul. The country is bounded on the North by the
U.S.S.R (Western Turkistan), on the extreme North East by China
(Eastern Turkistan) on the East and South by Pakistan and on the West
by Iran. It has an estimated areas 652,090 sq.km. There are also 18 other
dialects spoken by various groups and Urdu is also spoken and
understood in the bazaars of Kabul and Kandhar. Two main historical
periods are the pre-Islamic and the Islamic which have influenced
the development of Afghanistan's educational system and deep
influence on Afghan thinking, as well as their cultural patterns. The pre-
Islamic period lasted from ancient times up to the seventh century A.D.
94
EDU 314 MODULE 2
During this period, education curriculum was centered on Vedas, (an

Aryan religious book) the earliest Hindu sacred writings and later on
Buddha teaching. The primary aim of education during this period was
to provide moral enlightenment for citizen. Grammar and astronomy
were also given some attention. Education was for boys and men only
and took place at the courts of the royal palaces. During the Islamic
period, the Arabs reached Afghanistan and Islam became the
predominant religion. The mosque became the center for education and
the mullas (religious leaders) were the teachers. Instruction centered on
Muhammad's teachings, as found in the Koran and included Islamic
history and literature as well as grammar, logic and philosophy. Islamic
education reached its peak in Afghanistan during the eleventh
century. At this time, geography and mathematics were included in the
curriculum. In 1904, the first modern school was established in Kabul
over the objections of the Islamic clerics (mullas) and it was named after
his founder, Habibulah Khan who ruled the country between 1901 and
1919, Habibiyyah School. Habibiyyah School was at first patterned after
the Aligarh Muslim University, India and it offered both religious and
secular subjects. Habibullah also founded Teacher Training Colleges,
Military Academy and School for Army Officers. The first vocational
schools and a girl school were opened and a number of primary schools
for boys were started in rural and urban areas. During this time,
Habibiyyah School became a high school patterned after the French
Lycee School. Three more schools were established in 1923. This event
laid the groundwork for co-education, which was just beginning to Troot
in the 1960's. The French educational pattern was introduced to
Afghanistan in 1920's through contact with Turkey. Students were sent
abroad to study in Franco, Germany, Italy and Turkey. The Afghan
graduates from these foreign universities were recruited to staff Afghan
High Schools. After 1929, students were sent to study in the United
States and Japan, and after World War II, teachers from England and
America were recruited to teach in Afghanistan. The United States is
predominant sources of foreign educational assistance to Afghanistan.
In 1954, Teachers College of Columbia University accepted as
contract from the U.S. Agency for International Development to assist
the government of Afghanistan in improving education through
assistance to teacher education.
Islamic Education in Afghanistan
Islam reached Afghanistan during the seventh century and gradually

replaced the existing religions, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and
Hinduism. Islam spread rapidly all over the country with exception of
the eastern part, Nuristan, where the inhabitants converted only in the
end of the 19th century. Today, 99 per cent of all Afghans are Muslims.
Islamic education has a long tradition in Afghanistan. It began with the
95
arrival of Islam. Various individuals, that is, men considered to possess

religious knowledge and experience have been teaching in the mosques
for hundreds of years. Today, some children attend madrasas (only for
boys) where they receive religious education and some children attend
ordinary primary school, which also have several hours per week of
Islamic education. Practically, all children, boys and girls, attend a
Koran or a Mosque School when they are in of pre-school age. The
Mosque school provides the elementary level of Islamic education. It
provides a basic Islamic learning for all children in its neighbourhood
(Karlsson & Mansory, 2017).
3.1.2 Educational Structure of Afghanistan
Education in Afghanistan has been distorted. With the fall of

Afghanistan in 2021, girls and women was stopped by the new
government. The education system in Afghanistan is divided into four
general sections: primary, secondary, vocational and post-secondary.
Secondary schools exist in Kabul and in provincial capital. Technical
commercial and medical schools also exist for higher education.
Primary education is compulsory and it is for a period of 6 years in

mother language, which is Pershian and Pushto. Pershain in the first
three session (1 – 3) and Pushto in the second three session (Classes 4 –
6). The pupils are also taught Arabic in order to read Quran since 99%
population are Muslims and the main religion is Islam. Schools are not
co-educational, separate schools for girls were established. Primary
education takes place either in village schools or in primary schools. The
village school (grade I through 3) usually has only one teacher for its
three grades. This teacher is always the village religious leader and the
village mosque serves as the school. In the primary school (Grades I
through 6) there is one teacher for each of first three grades. In grades
4,5, and 6, there is a special teacher for each subject. Primary teachers in
the major cities are usually graduates of the teacher training colleges
(Grade 12). Outside the major cities, primary school teachers are most
often graduates of the middle schools or the emergency teacher training
colleges and a small percentage of primary school. The age of
primary school pupils ranges from seven to 19 years. By 1966, there
were 1,000 primary schools with 450,000 pupils in Afghan primary
schools. The curriculum of primary schools in grades 1,2, and 3
includes: the Koran, theology reading of the mother tongue (either
96ushto or Dari), hand writing, arithmetic, natural science and hygiene,
drawing and handicraft and physical education. The curriculum in
grades 4, 5 and 6 also includes a second language (Dari or Persia)
history and geography in addition to the subjects taught in the first three
96
EDU 314 MODULE 2
grades. Teaching in primary schools is based on memorization as well as

rote learning. 3.8.4 Secondary Education Under secondary education,
there is a unit called the middle school and another one called the Lycee.
The middle school (grades 7, 8 & 9) prepares students for admission to
the Lycee or for vocational 97ushto97gg. The students who successfully
pass primary school examination are qualified for admission into
secondary schools which are either: vocational schools in Kabul which
train youth or can also gain admission into Technical school. The
middle school teachers should have been trained in the Higher Teacher
College at Kabul (grades 13 and 14). The Lycee is the equivalent of an
American High School with grades 10,11 and 12. Its main purpose
among others is to prepare students for the university education. By
1966, there are 150,000 in a few hundred secondary schools in
Afghanistan. The curriculum for middle schools includes: The Koran,
theology, Pushto, Dari, Arabic, Foreign language German, French,
Algebra, geometry, chemistry, physics, biology, history, geography,
economics, drawing and physical education. The main emphasis is on
mathematics, science, history, geography and languages. Also, the
curriculum for Lycee includes: the Koran, theology, 97ushto, Dari,
foreign language, algebra, trigonometry, calculus, geometry,
geography and logic. The main emphasis is on mathematics, natural
sciences, social science and languages. Like in primary schools,
teaching method is memorization and rote leaning.
3.1.5 Vocational Education in Afghanistan
After completing education in the middle school, students who are

interested and qualified may go to the vocational schools in Kabul which
train youths in agriculture, commerce, theology, teaching,
secretariat studies, Arts and Crafts. In the agricultural Lycee, students
are specially trained to develop agricultural production for the country.
Vocational training is also provided in mechanical and crafts schools,
which begin after primary education and continues through grade
10. These schools train students for mechanical, technical and craft
occupations. In the Islamic school, grade 10 through 12, students
concentrate on Islamic religion. They are prepared to help in the
interpretation of the law in the judicial department of the government,
teach religion in the schools, serve as officials in the mosques or go on
to further religious study at the University. In the same vein, the special
schools for training teachers (grades 10 to 12) offer a three-year
programme (two years of general studies and one year of professional
studies). Due to the increasing demand for primary teachers, and
emergency teacher training colleges are paid small monthly allowance
and provided free tuition, room, board, clothing and books. The
technical school "the Afghan Institute of Technology" (grades 10
through 13) is designed to train technicians. The technical school
97
involves the mechanics and mathematics. By 2014, increase the

enrolment and training of Technical Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) students from 19,500 in 2009 to 150, 000 in March 2014
(Samady, 2013).
3.1.6 Post-secondary Education in Afghanistan
There is the institute of industrial management to further commercial

training, which provides a 3 year programme for students after the
completion of grade 12 of the commercial Lycee. The institute trains
students for managerial positions in industry, banks and public
administration. Kabul university was established in 1946 while its first
faculty, was that of medicine. The university is composed of the
following faculties: Islamic Law/ Letters, Law and Political Sciences,
Economics, Sciences, Medicine, Pharmacy, Education (closely
associated with the Institute of Education), Agriculture and Engineering.
The Polytechnic Institute is also part of the University. There is co-
education in all the faculties except engineering and Islamic law. In
1963, a college of Medicine was formally established in Jalalabab. A
six-year course beyond grade 12 is required for the M.D. degree
M.B.B.S). Another post-secondary institution, the academy of Teacher
Training was also established in 1964, the colleges serves as a
demonstration school for teacher education trainees who are university
graduates with one year teaching and guiding the DMA students. These
teacher education students learn how to direct and supervise the DMA
students preparing to become teachers.
3.1.7 Adult Education
This is established by the Ministry of Education and it is designed for

workers, so it takes place after daily's work. It is pertinent to say that
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has
provided adult education as a means to help people find alternatives to
growing opium poppies.
3.1.8 Funding Education in Afghanistan
The funding of education in Afghanistan is centralized. Government

records show that between 2011 and 2015, Afghanistan spent in total
approximately AFS251.9 billion on its education sector through the
ministry of Education (MOE) and Ministry of Higher Education (MHE)
(Ministry of Education , 2015). It has reported by MOE (2015) that this
spending on education accounts for, on average, 4.4 percent of its GDP,
and 16 percent of all public sources spent during those years. Data
compiled from the Ministry of Finance (2016) on the overall budget and
from the MOE and MHE on sector budgets show that the share of
98
EDU 314 MODULE 2
education in the budget has been declining. Warren, et. al.(2015) submit
that in 2010 education spending in Afghanistan stands at AFS31.2
billion which is 25 percent of the total government spending. In 2015,
public education spending stands at AFS 55 billion which represent only
13 percent of total government spending.
3.1.9 Administrative Organization
Under Article 34 of the Afghan constitution adopted in 1964, it is

government's responsibility to prepare and implement a universal
programme. All matters dealing with education are under the
jurisdiction of Royal Afghan Ministry of Education. The Minister of
Education who is also a member of the Prime Minister's cabinet, is the
chief administrative officer, and he is blessed with two deputy ministers.
In addition, the presidents of the various departments are under the
deputy ministers. Afghanistan is divided politically into provinces and
each province has an educational director who is equally responsible to
the central ministry and who happens to be the chief administrative
officer for all provincial education matters. The president of University
of Kabul is directly responsible to the Education Minister.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit above has exposed the learners to the system of education in
Afghanistan.
6.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the following: (a) Geography of Afghanistan
(b) The structure of education in Afghanistan (c) Administration of
education in Afghanistan. (d) Vocational Education in Afghanistan.
7.0 TUTOR MARKED
7.0 REFERENCES
Altai. Education Sub-National Assessment, Draft Report for

Afghanistan Ministry of Education. (2015).
Lawal, B.O. (2004) Comparative Education. Osogbo, Swift Publishers

Nig Ltd.
Karlsson, P., & Mansory, A. (2017). Islamic Education in

Afghanistan. Handbook of Islamic Education, 1-13.
99
Ministry of Education. Afghanistan National EFAReview Report, 2015.

1-105 (2015
Samady, S. R. (2013). Changing profile of education in Afghanistan. :.
Strand, A. (2015). Financing education in Afghanistan: Opportunities

for action.
Warren, Z. et. al. (2015). Afghanistan in 2015: A survey of the Afghan

People. Asia foundation.
http://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/AfghanSurvey2015Infog
raphic-Sheet.pdf. (Accessed: 30th November, 2019).
100
EDU 314 MODULE 2
1. Islam reached Afghanistan during the period…

2. In the fall of Afghanistan in 2021, girls was banned from
accessing education, true or false.
3. In Afghanistan. Female lecturers are allowed to teach both male
and female students, true or false.
1. Seventh century
2. True
3. False
101

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EDU 314

Course Team Dr B. O. Lawal (Course Developer) -

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

2022 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

THE COURSE GUIDE

THE COURSE GUIDE

This course intends to provide an opportunity for the learners to

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

Specifically, this course sets to achieve the objectives below:

(a) Explain the meaning of education

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE This course expects you to

Each unit of each of the modules has introduction, objectives,

Adeyinka, A.A. (1994): Popular Topics in Comparative Education for

Aaibi, I.O. et al (1998) Comparative Education. A handbook for

Lawal, B.O. (2004). Comparative Education, Osogbo, Swift Publishers

Fafunwa, A.B. (1982) Education in Africa. A Comparative Survey,

Manzon, M. (2011). Comparative Education: The Construction of a

This course has two components of assessment: the tutor-marked

TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT

The tutor marked assignment is the continuous assessment component

It carries 30 percent of the total score.

You are going to be given some Tutor-Marked Assignments to attempt.

END OF COURSE EXAMINATION

Examination concludes the assessment for the course, it accounts for

This course provides you information about Comparative Education as a

Education System, the Future of Comparative Education, Japanese

Unit 1 Meaning of Education…………………… 1

Unit 1 South African Education System…………… 40

Unit 1 Meaning of Education

UNIT 1 MEANING OF EDUCATION

1.0 Intended LEARNING OUTCOMES

Education and comparative education as concepts can be given

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this unit, students should be able to provide an

3.0 THE CONTENT

Education is very difficult to pin to a particular definition, because the

While relating education to culture, Nduka (1982) sees the concept as

3.1.2 The Meaning of Comparative Education

Naturally, human beings are in the habit of making comparison of the

Like other concepts, comparative education is a concept that attracts

1) Elementary, B. E. H. (2012)-Comparative education is the field

frontiers. In this catalogues, each country appears as one variant

The unit above discussed different definitions of comparative

6.0 TUTOR MARKED

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adeyinka, A. A. (1994). Popular topics in comparative education for

Benavot, A. (2012).Strengthening the Comparative Dimension in

Bereday, G. Z. F. (1968) Some Methods of Teaching Comparative

Elementary, B. E. H. (2012). Comparative Education. Windows on

Hans, N. (1958) Comparative Education. London: Routledge and Kegan

Holmes, B. (2018). Comparative education: Some considerations of

King, E. J. (1973) Others Schools and Ours. London: Routledge and

King, E. J. (1962) World Perspectives in Education. London: Routledge

Mallinson, V. (1974) An Introduction to the Study of Comparative

Heinemann Educational Books.

Harold J. Noah & Max A. Eckstein. (1993) Doing Comparative

Larsen, M.; Majhanovich, S. and Maseman, V.L. (2008). Comparative

Mugo, R. & Wolhuter, C., (2011). “The international impact of

Sodhi, T.S. (2006) Text Book of Comparative Education, (6th Ed.)Delhi: