UNIT - I ALGEBRA

Chapter 1.1 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Introduction:
Matrix and its applications are very important part of Mathematics. Also it is one of the
most powerful tools in Mathematics.
Matrix notation and operations are used in Electronic spread sheet programs on personal
computer which are used in like business, budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing
the results of an experiment etc. Also many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Also matrices are used in
Cryptography.
Matrix:
A Matrix is represented by a rectangular array of numbers (or) functions arranged in rows
and columns, put within a bracket.
The numbers (or) functions which are entries in the matrix are called as the element of the
matrix.
Examples of Matrices:
Raju has 10 notebooks and 15 pens. Mani has 5 notebooks and 2 pens. Malar has 9 note
books and 5 pens.
The above information may be represented in the form of matrix as follows.
Note Books Pens

Raju 10 15
Mani [ 5 2]
Malar 9 5

Consider the linear equations with 3 unknowns a, b, c.

a+b+c =3
2a – b + c = 2 and
3a + 2b – 2c =3
The above equations can be represented in the form of matrix A by writing the co-efficients
of a, b, c in the order which they occur and enclose them within a bracket.
Then we get

<1>
 1 1 1
A = [2 −1 1]
3 2 −2
Here A is Matrix
The horizontal lines of elements are called as Row of the matrix.
i.e. [ 1 1 1] I Row of the matrix A

The vertical lines of elements are called column of the matrix.

1
i.e. [2] I Column
3
Order of a matrix:
If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the order of the matrix is m x n (read as
m by n)
Example:
1 2
A = [3 4]
5 6
Here A has 3 rows and 2 columns. So the order of matrix A is 3 x 2.
Problems:
Find the order of the following matrix.
1 3 −1
(i) A = [5 0 2 ]
7 5 8
2 1
(ii) B = [ ]
3 4
(iii) C = [7 0 2]
1
(iv) D = [2]
-4
Types of Matrices:
1. Row Matrix: A matrix is said to be a row matrix, if it has only one row and any number of
columns.
e.g, A = [1 2 3] is a row matrix of order 1 x 3.
2. Column Matrix:
A matrix is said to be a column matrix, if it has only one column and any number of rows.
4
e.g., B = [3] is a column matrix of order 3 x 1.
9

<2>
3. Null (or) Zero Matrix:
If all the elements of a matrix are zero, then it is called a Null (or) Zero matrix. It is
denoted by O.
0 0
Eg. O =[ ] is zero matrix of order 2 x 2.
0 0
4. Square Matrix:
In a matrix, if the number of rows and the number of columns of a matrix are equal then
the matrix is called a square matrix.
1 2 3
A = [4 5 6]
7 8 9
Here, number of rows = number of columns = 3
A is a square matrix of order 3 x 3.
5. Triangular Matrix:
(a) Upper Triangular Matrix:
In a square matrix if all the elements below the leading diagonal are zero then it is called an
upper triangular matrix.
1 2 3

Eg. A = 0 5 6

[0 Leading diagonal
0 9]

(b) Lower Triangular Matrix:

In a square matrix if all the elements above the leading diagonal are zero, then it is called a
Lower Triangular Matrix.
1 0 0

Eg. B = 4 5 0

[7 Leading diagonal
8 9 ]
6. Transpose of Matrix
Let A be any matrix. The transpose of matrix A is obtained by interchanging either rows into
columns or columns into rows of A. It is denoted by 𝐴𝑇 or 𝐴′ .
2 0 3
Eg. If A = [1 5 6]
2 −1 9
2 1 2
Then AT = [0 5 −1]
3 6 9

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Note:
(i) If a matrix A is of order m x n then the order of AT is n x m.
(ii) (AT)T = A.
7. Symmetric Matrix:
The square matrix A is called a symmetric matrix if A = AT.
For Example:
a h g a h g
T
If A = [h b f] then A = [h b f]
g f c g f c
 A = AT
 A is symmetric.
8. Skew Symmetric Matrix:
The square matrix A is called a skew symmetric matrix if A = -AT.
For Example:
a h g a h g
T
If A = [−h b f ] then - A = [−h b f]
−g −f c −g −f c
Here A = - AT
 A is skew symmetric.
9. Diagonal Matrix:
In a square matrix, if all the elements other than the elements of the leading Diagonal (or) main
diagonal are zero then the matrix is called Diagonal matrix.
a 0 0

Eg. A = 0 b 0

[ 0 Leading diagonal
0 c]
10. Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix in which all the elements are equal to a scalar is called a scalar matrix.
a 0 0

Eg. A = 0 𝑎 0

[0 0 a]
11. Unit Matrix:
A square matrix in which all the elements of the leading diagonal are 1 and other elements are
zero, is called a Unit Matrix.
It is denoted by I.

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 1 0 0

Eg. I3 = 0 1 0 is a unit matrix of order 3.

[0 0 1]
1 0
I2 = [ ] is a unit matrix of order 2.
0 1
Operations on Matrices:
i) Addition and subtraction of matrices
ii) Multiplication of matrix by a scalar
iii) Multiplication of two matrices
i) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices:
Two Matrices can be added (or) subtracted provided both the matrices are of same order. We
can add (or) subtract the corresponding elements of two matrices of same order.
Example: 1
1 2 7 1 3 1
If A = [0 4 5], B = [2 4 0] then
3 1 6 1 7 5
Find A + B
Solution:
1 2 7 1 3 1
A+B = [0 4 5] + [2 4 0]
3 1 6 1 7 5
1+1 2+3 7+1 2 5 8
= [0 + 2 4+4 5 + 0 ] = [2 8 5]
3+1 1+7 6+5 4 8 11
Example: 2
1 3 5 7 3 4
If A = [2 0 7] and B = [1 −1 5] then
1 5 2 0 2 4
Find A - B
Solution:
1 3 5 7 3 4
A-B = [2 0 7] - [1 −1 5]
1 5 2 0 2 4
1−7 3−3 5−4
 [2 − 1 0 − (−1) 7 − 5]
1− 0 5−2 2−4
−6 0 1
A-B  [1 1 2]
1 3 −2
<5>
ii) Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:
We can multiply the matrix by any non-zero scalar K. To multiply the matrix by a scalar K,
multiply all the elements by the same scalar K.
i.e., If A = [aij ] then KA = [Kaij ]
m×n m×n

for all i = 1, 2, … . . m
j = 1, 2, … . . n
For Example:
4 3 2 −3 1 0
If A = [5 1 0] & B = [2 7 1]
7 2 8 4 3 5
Then find 2A and 7B
Solution:
4 3 2 −3 1 0
Given A = [5 1 0], B = [ 2 7 1]
7 2 8 4 3 5

4 3 2
2A = 2 [5 1 0]
7 2 8
2x4 2x3 2x2
 [2 x 5 2 x 1 2 x 0]
2x7 2x2 2x8
8 6 4
2A  [10 2 0]
14 4 16

−3 1 0
7B = 7 [2 7 1]
4 3 5
7x−3 7x1 7x0
 [ 7x2 7x7 7 x 1]
7x4 7x3 7x5
−21 7 0
7B = [ 14 49 7 ]
28 21 35
Example: 2
1 2 −5 7]
If A = [ ], B = [ then find 4A - 2B
3 5 0 4
Solution:
1 2 −5 7]
Given A = [ ], B = [
3 5 0 4

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 1 2
4A = 4 [ ]
3 5
4 8
4A [ ] ------- (1)
12 20
−5 7]
2B = 2 [
0 4
−10 14
2B =[ ] ------- (2)
0 8
4 8 −10 14
(1) - (2)  4A - 2B = [ ] - [ ]
12 20 0 8
14 −6
4A - 2B [ ]
12 12
iii) Multiplication of Matrices:
Let A and B be any two Matrices. Multiplication of two matrices possible only when the
number of columns of A must be equal to the number of rows of B.
Let A, B, C be any three matrices of same order.
a1 b1 p1 q1 x1 y1
i.e A = [ ], B = [p q2 ], C = [x y2 ]
a2 a2 2 2

a1 b1 p1 q1
then, i) AB =[ ][ ]
a2 b2 p2 q2
a1 p1 + b1 p2 a1 q1 + b1 q2
AB  [ ]
a2 p1 + b2 p2 a2 q1 + b2 q2
p1 q1 x1 y1
ii) BC =[ ][ ]
p2 q2 x2 y2
p1 x1 + q1 x2 p1 y1 + q1 y2
BC  [ ]
p2 x1 + q2 x2 p2 y1 + q2 y2
Example: 1
1 −1 3 4
If A = [ ], B = [ ] then find AB
1 2 5 0
Solution:
1 −1 3 4
AB = [ ][ ]
1 2 5 0
(1 x 3) + (−1 x 5) (1 x 4) + (−1 x 0)
[ ]
(1 x 3) + (2 x 5) (1 x 4) + (2 x 0)
3−5 4+0
[ ]
3 + 10 4+0
<7>
 −2 4
AB [ ]
13 4
Example: 2
2 1 2 0
If A = [ ], B = [ ] verify AB = BA
1 3 1 3
Solution:
2 1 2 0
AB = [ ][ ]
1 3 1 3
4+1 0+3
=[ ]
2+3 0+9
5 3]
AB = [
5 9
2 0 2 1
BA = [ ][ ]
1 3 1 3
4+0 2+0
[ ]
2+3 1+9
4 2
BA = [ ]
5 10
 AB  BA
Example: 3
1 2 3 8 3 −1 −4 2 0
If A = [0 5 4] , B = [2 −4 4 ]and C = [ 0 3 4]
7 2 4 5 3 1 5 1 1
then find A (B + C)
Solution:
8 3 −1 −4 2 0 4 5 −1
B + C = [2 −4 4 ] +[ 0 3 4] = [ 2 −1 8]
5 3 1 5 1 1 10 4 2
1 2 3 4 5 −1
A (B + C) = [0 5 4] [ 2 −1 8 ]
7 2 4 10 4 2
4 + 4 + 30 5 − 2 + 12 −1 + 16 + 6
 [0 + 10 + 40 0 − 5 + 16 0 + 40 + 8 ]
28 + 4 + 40 35 − 2 + 16 -7 + 16 + 8
38 15 21
A (B + C) = [50 11 48]
72 49 17

<8>
 Exercise

7 −2
4 3
(1) If A = [1 0 5], B = [ 3 4] & C = [ ]
−1 1
1 0
then verify (AB) C = A(BC)
1 0 2 6 −7 2
(2) If A = [ ], B = [ ], C = [ ]
0 1 0 3 4 −1
verify that A (B + C) = AB + BC
Properties of Matrices:
i) Commutative Property in Matrix Addition:
For any matrices A & B of same order,
a) Matrix Addition is commutative:
A+B = B+A,
b) Matrix Multiplication is not commutative in general.
 AB ≠ BA
ii) a) Associative Property in Matrix Addition:
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C), for any matrices A, B & C of same order.
b) Associative Property in Matrix Multiplication:
A(BC) = (AB)C , for any matrices A, B & C such that A(BC) and (AB)C are of same
order.
iii) a) Identity Property in Matrix Addition:
For any matrix A, there exist a matrix O of same order such that A + O = O + A = A
b) Identity Property in Matrix Multiplication:
For any matrix A, there exist an Identity matrix I such that AI = IA = A
Here, I is a Unit Matrix.
iv) Inverse Property:
For any matrix A, – A is the additive inverse of A such that A + (-A) = O = (-A) + A
v) Distributive Property:
a) Matrix multiplication is left distributive over addition
A (B + C) = AB + AC
b) Matrix multiplication is right distributive over addition
(A + B) C = AC + BC

<9>
 c) Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition
(a + b) A = aA + bA
a (A + B) = aA + aB
Here, a, b are any scalar
A, B are any matrices of same order.
Worked Examples
3 4 3 3
1) If A =[ ] and B = [ ]
8 −3 1 0
Then verify that i) A+B=B+A
ii) A + (- A = (-A) + A = O
Solution:
3 4 3 3
i) A = [ ], B = [ ]
8 −3 1 0
3 4 3 3
A + B =[ ] + [ ]
8 −3 1 0
6 7
[ ] ----- (1)
9 −3
3 3 3 4
B + A =[ ] + [ ]
1 0 8 −3
6 7
[ ] ----- (2)
9 −3
A+B=B+A

3 4 −3 −4
ii) A = [ ], -A = [ ]
8 −3 −8 3
3 4 −3 −4
A + (-A) =[ ] + [ ]
8 −3 −8 3
0 0
[ ] = 0 ----- (1)
0 0
−3 −4 3 4
-A + A =[ ] + [ ]
−8 3 8 −3
0 0
[ ] = 0 ----- (2)
0 0
 (1) = (2)
A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0

4 3 1 2 3 1 8 3 1
2) If A = [2 2 0], B = [−1 −1 2], C = [0 5 4]
1 3 5 4 1 5 1 2 3
Then verify that A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
< 10 >
 Solution:
Given,
4 3 1 2 3 1 8 3 1
A = [2 2 0 ], B = [ −1 −1 2 ], C = [ 0 5 4]
1 3 5 4 1 5 1 2 3
L.H.S.
2 3 1 8 3 1
B + C = [−1 −1 2 ]+ [ 0 5 4]
4 1 5 1 2 3
10 6 2
[
B + C = −1 4 6]
5 3 8
4 3 1 10 6 2
A + (B + C) = [2 2 0] + [−1 4 6]
1 3 5 5 3 8
14 9 3
A + (B + C)  1 6
[ 6] ----- (1)
6 6 13
R.H.S.
4 3 1 2 3 1
A + B = [2 2 0] + [−1 −1 2]
1 3 5 4 1 5
6 6 2
= [1 1 2]
5 4 10
6 6 2 8 3 1
(A + B) + C =[1 1 2 ] + [0 5 4]
5 4 10 1 2 3
14 9 3
(A + B) + C) =[ 1 6 6] ----- (2)
6 6 13
(1) = (2)

 A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

Hence proved.

< 11 >
 Exercise Problems
1) Verify the property A (B + C) = AB + AC for the following matrices A, B and C.
3 1 4 7
2 0 −3
A =[ ], B = [−1 0], C = [2 1]
1 4 5
4 2 1 −1
2) Check the Associative property of matrix multiplication to the following matrices
A, B, C.
5 0] 0 2
A =[ , B = [ ]
4 −2 5 3
3 4
3 7
3) If A = [2 3 -1] B = [1 0 ] and C = [ ]
0 −1
5 −1
Show that (AB) C = A (BC)
1 2 4 0 2 0
4) Let A = [ ] . B =[ ] . C = [ ]
1 3 1 5 1 2
Show that (A – B) C = AC – BC
1 2 1 −2
5) Show that the matrices A = [ ] B=[ ] Satisfy commutative property
3 1 −3 1
AB = BA.
Reducing a Matrix into Triangular and Row Echelon Form:
Using the row elementary operations, We can transform a given non zero matrix to a
simplified form called a Row-echelon Form.
In a Row – echelon form, we may have rows all of whose entries are zero, such rows are
called zero rows.
Simply said,
If a non zero matrix is in row-echelon form, then all the entries below the leading diagonal
[ie., a11, a22, a33 …………] are zeros.
As similar way to propose for the triangular form.
There is two type of triangular form.
i.e. Upper Triangular Form:
If a matrix is said to be a Upper Triangular Form which all the elements below the leading
diagonal are zero.
a h g

Eg. A = 0 b f

[0 0 c]

< 12 >
 Examples
4 6 2 0 1 −1
1. If A = [0 1 5 ] and B = [ 3 −1 4]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
Verify i) (AB)T = BTAT ii) (A+B)T = AT + BT
iii) (A-B)T = AT – BT iv) (3A)T = 3AT
Solution:
4 6 2 0 1 −1
i) AB = [0 1 5] [ 3 −1 4]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
16 2 22
= [−2 9 9]
7 1 14
16 −2 7
(AB)T = [ 2 9 1] ----- (1)
22 9 14
0 3 −1 4 0 0
BT = [ 1 −1 2 ] , A T = [6 1 3]
−1 4 1 2 5 2
0 3 −1 4 0 0
T T
B A = [ 1 −1 2 ] [6 1 3]
−1 4 1 2 5 2
16 −2 7
= [2 9 1] ----- (2)
22 9 14
From (1) and (2),
(AB)T = BTAT

4 6 2 0 1 −1 4 7 1
ii) A + B = [0 1 5] + [ 3 −1 4] = [3 0 9]
0 3 2 −1 2 1 −1 5 3
4 3 −1
T
(A + B ) = [7 0 5] ----- (3)
1 9 3
4 0 0 0 3 −1
AT + BT = [6 1 3] + [ 1 −1 2 ]
2 5 2 −1 4 1
4 3 −1
= [7 0 5] ----- (4)
1 9 3
From (3) and (4),
(A+B)T = AT + BT

< 16 >
 4 6 2 0 1 −1
iii) A - B = [0 1 5 ] - [ 3 −1 4 ]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
4 5 3
= [−3 2 1]
1 1 1
4 −3 1
(A-B)T = [5 2 1] ----- (5)
3 1 1
4 0 0 0 3 −1
T T
A -B [
= 6 1 3 - ] [ 1 −1 2 ]
2 5 2 −1 4 1
4 −3 1
= [5 2 1 ] ----- (6)
3 1 1
From (5) and (6), (A - B)T = AT - BT
12 18 6
iv) 3A = [ 0 3 15]
0 9 6
12 0 0 4 0 0
(3A)T = [18 3 9] = 3[6 1 3]
6 15 6 2 5 2
= 3(AT)
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
2. If A = [21 6 −6 ] and B = [ 2 0 3]
4 −33 19 17 15 4
Verify (i) (A+B)T =AT+BT (ii) (AB)T = B T AT
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
i) A + B = [21 6 −6] + [ 2 0 3]
4 −33 19 17 15 4
3 −32 0
= [23 6 −3]
21 −18 23
3 23 21
(A + B)T = [−32 6 −18]
0 −3 23
2 21 4 1 2 17
AT = [−3 6 −33 ] , BT
= [ −29 0 15]
8 −6 19 −8 3 4
2 21 4 1 2 17
AT + BT = [−3 6 −33] + [−29 0 15]
8 −6 19 −8 3 4
3 23 21
= [−32 6 −18]
0 −3 23
So we can observe that (A + B)T = AT + BT.
< 17 >
 ii)
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
AB = [21 6 −6 ] + [ 2 0 3]
4 −33 19 17 15 4
132 62 7
= [−69 −699 −174]
261 169 −55
132 −69 261
(AB)T = 62 −699 169 ]
[
7 −174 −55
1 2 17 2 21 4
BT AT = [−29 0 15] [−3 6 −33]
−8 3 4 8 −6 19
132 −69 261
= [ 62 −699 169 ]
7 −174 −55
(AB)T = BT AT.
9 8 4 2
3. If A = [ ] and B = [ ]
2 −3 1 0
Show that i) (AB)T = BTAT ii) (AB)T ≠ AT BT
Solution:
9 8 4 2
AB = [ ][ ]
2 −3 1 0
44 18
= [ ]
5 4
44 5]
(AB)T = [
18 4
9 2 4 1
AT =[ ], BT = [ ]
8 −3 2 0
4 1 9 2
i) BTAT = [ ][ ] = [44 5]
2 0 8 −3 18 4
BTAT = (AB)T
9 2 4 1 40 9
ii) AT BT = [ ][ ] = [ ]
8 −3 2 0 26 8
AT BT  (AB)T
We can clearly observe from here that (AB)T  ATBT

< 18 >
 Exercise
4 5 2 7
1. If A = [−1 0 ] and B = [ 9 −1]
2 3 1 −2
Verify the following
i) (A + B)T = AT + BT ii) (A - B)T = AT - BT
iii) (BT)T = B
2 8 9
2. If P = [ ] and K is a constant, then verify (KP)T = KPT
11 −15 −13
3. If A is a 3 x 4 matrix and B is a matrix such that both ATB and BAT are defined, what is the
order of the matrix B.
Determinants:
Introduction of Determinants
The method of solving simultaneous linear equations was instrumental to the origin of the
topic determinants. The theory of determinants began with Leibnitz who solved, the simultaneous
linear equation.
Definition of a Determinant:
The determinant is a scalar value that can be computed from the elements of a square matrix A.
It is denoted by det (A)
Also A = det (A) = | A |
First Order Determinant:
Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1 Then the determinant of A is defined as “a”.
Second Order Determinant:
If a Determinant consists of two rows and two columns then it is called a second order
determinant.
a b|=
Ex: |A| = | ad – bc
c d
Third Order Determinant:
If a Determinant consist of three rows and three columns then it is called a third order
determinant.
1 −1 2
Ex: |A| = |2 −1 0|= 1 (-3 + 0) + 1 (6 – 0) + 2 (-4 + 1)
1 −2 3
| A | = -3

< 19 >
Properties of Determinants:
Property: 1
The value of the determinant is unaltered by changing rows into columns and vice versa.
i.e. | A | = | AT |
Proof:
a1 b1 c1
|A| = |a 2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
 a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
a1 a2 a3
| A | = |b1
T b2 b3 |
c1 c2 c3
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – c1 b3) + a3 (b1 c2 – c1 b2)
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
| A | = | AT |
Proved.
Property: 2
If any two rows / columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant changes in sign but its absolute value remains unaltered.
a1 b1 c1
Let | A | = |a 2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
| A | = a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
R2 R3
a1 b1 c1
| A1| =|a3 b3 c3 |
a2 b2 c2
= a1 (b3 c2 – b2 c3) – b1 (a3 c2 – a2 c3) + c1 (a3 b2 – a2 b3)
= -a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) + b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) - c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
= - [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)]
| A1| = - | A |
Hence proved.
Note:
If there are n interchanges of rows (columns) of a matrix A then the resulting determinant is
n
(-1) | A |.

< 20 >
Property: 3
If any two rows (or) two columns of a matrix are identical, then the value of the
determinant is zero.
Proof:
2 5 1
Let | A | =|2 5 1|
0 2 4
Here R1, R2 are identical.
| A | = 2 (20 – 2) – 5 (8 – 0) + 1 (4 – 0)
= 2(18) – 5 (8) + 4
= 36 – 40 + 4
|A| = 0

Property: 4
If each element of a row (or column) is multiplied by any scalar K, then the value of the
determinant is also multiplied by the same scalar K.
a1 b1 c1
i.e. If | A | = |a 2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
ka1 kb1 kc1
then | A1 | = | a2 b2 c2 | Here R1 is multiplied K
a3 b3 c3
 | A1 | = k | A |
Consider
1 0 1
| A | = |−1 2 4|
3 9 4
 1 (8 – 36) – 0 (-4 – 12) + 1 (-9 -6)
= -28 – 15 = - 43
Multiply the Row 1 by 2
2 0 2
| A1 | = |−1 2 4|
3 9 4
 2 (8 – 36) – 0 (- 4 – 12) + 2 (- 9 – 6)
 2 (-28) – 0 + 2 (-15)
= -56 – 30
= - 86

< 21 >
Najiba H. Hamad Mathematics 23 /11/2021

Matrices and Determinants:

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