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One-Tailed Test
A basic concept in inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing

is run to determine whether a claim is true or not, given a population
parameter. A test that is conducted to show whether the mean of the sample is
significantly greater than and significantly less than the mean of a population is
considered a two-tailed test.
When the testing is set up to show that the sample mean would be higher or
lower than the population mean, it is referred to as a one-tailed test. The one-
tailed test gets its name from testing the area under one of the tails (sides) of a
normal distribution, although the test can be used in other non-normal
distributions.
A one-tailed test is a statistical test in which the critical area of a distribution is
one-sided so that it is either greater than or less than a certain value, but not
both. If the sample being tested falls into the one-sided critical area, the
alternative hypothesis will be accepted instead of the null hypothesis.
level of significance
Levels of significance are found using critical region statistics and critical
region statistical charts. Each type of statistical test has associated with it a
table of significance level and their critical region. For example, for a t-test the
critical score might be 1.96; any score over 1.96 would be considered
significant under p-value=0.05, but it may take a score of 2.25 or higher to
reach the significance level of p-value=0.01.
level of significance in research

The level of significance is the probability that the result reported happened by
chance. For example, a level of significance of 0.05 means that there is a 5%
chance that the result is insignificant, or that it just happened by chance alone.
What Is P-Value
In statistics, a p-value is a number that indicates how likely you are to obtain a
value that is at least equal to or more than the actual observation if the null
hypothesis is correct.
The p-value serves as an alternative to rejection points to provide the smallest
level of significance at which the null hypothesis would be rejected. A smaller
p-value means stronger evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
IN SUMMARY
A p-value is a statistical measurement used to validate a hypothesis against

observed data.
A p-value measures the probability of obtaining the observed results, assuming that
the null hypothesis is true.
The lower the p-value, the greater the statistical significance of the observed
difference.
A p-value of 0.05 or lower is generally considered statistically significant.
P-value can serve as an alternative to—or in addition to—preselected confidence
levels for hypothesis testing.
TEST OF ASSOCIATION
The test of ASSOCIATION in statistics is a process of trying to find out if two
variables are linked in some way. Depending on the context, one could be using a
diagram (like a scatter plot) to show an association between variables or using a
hypothesis test to demonstrate statistically that relationships exist between
variables.
Test Vs. Measure of Association
Measure of Association quantifies the relationship between two groups. A Test
takes this a step further and assigns statistical significance to the results.
Common Tests for Association

1) chi square test for association (also called the chi-square test for independence)
is used to find a relationship between two categorical variables.
2) The Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel (CMH) Test studies data from different sources,
or from stratified data from one source.
3) Fisher’s Exact Test is used as an alternative to chi-square when you have a small
sample size.
4) The gamma coefficient tells us how closely two pairs of data points “match”. As
well as testing for an association between points, it indicates how strong the
relationship is.
5) Goodman Kruska’s Gamma is a test for ranked variables.
Fixed effect
Fixed effects play a fundamental role in statistical analysis, providing a way to account for specific
variables or factors that remain constant across observations. These effects allow us to capture the
individual characteristics of entities under study and control for their impact on the outcome of interest.
To understand fixed effects, let’s consider a hypothetical research study. The study aims to examine the
impact of different teaching methods (lecture-based vs project-based) on student performance across five
schools (A, B, C, D, and E). Each school may have unique characteristics that could potentially affect
student performance, such as school size, funding levels, and teacher-student ratio. In this study, a
common aptitude exam is administered to all students from the five schools, and their test scores, ranging
from 0 to 100, are collected.
To analyze the data, a regression model is employed. The dependent variable is the test score, while the
independent variable is a binary variable indicating the teaching method (lecture-based coded as 0,
project-based coded as 1).
In this model, the ‘teaching method’ is a fixed effect because the researchers assume the effect of the
teaching method on the outcome variable is constant across all the observations (irrespective of school).
Random Effect
Unlike fixed effects, which capture specific characteristics that remain constant across observations,
random effects are used to account for variability and differences between different entities or subjects
within a larger group.
Going from the previous example, suppose the research says that the effect of teaching method is not
constant across schools, rather it varies by school due to school-level characteristics. In such cases, a
mixed effects model can be employed to meet the objectives.
What Is Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of collecting, modeling, and analyzing data using various statistical and
logical methods and techniques.
Data analysis is the process in which a researcher analyzes data. This process can be used in both
qualitative and quantiative methodology.
types of data analysis
There are three different types of data analysis:
1) Descriptive analysis refers to describing or summarizing data.
2) Predictive analysis refers to predicting the outcome of data.
3) Prescriptive analysis refers to determing appropriate course of action based on the data.

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One-Tailed Test

A basic concept in inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing

level of significance in research

A p-value is a statistical measurement used to validate a hypothesis against

Common Tests for Association

What Is Data Analysis

types of data analysis

There are three different types of data analysis:

1) Descriptive analysis refers to describing or summarizing data.

2) Predictive analysis refers to predicting the outcome of data.

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