Author : ABHAY KUMAR SINGH

 Power Management:Support for power management

features to optimize energy consumption during idle
 Peripheral devices are external components connected to periods.
computers through interfaces like USB, HDMI and Ethernet.
 They serve various functions such as input, output, storage,
and communication.  Data Rate Matching:
 Common examples include:  The ability to match the data transfer rates between the
 Input Devices:Keyboards,Mice,Scanners,Digital cameras CPU and the peripheral device to avoid bottlenecks and
 Output Devices:Monitors,Printers,Projectors,Speakers ensure smooth communication.
 Storage Devices:Hard drives,Solid-state drives (SSDs),USB  Interrupt Handling:
flash drives,External hard drives  Support for interrupt handling mechanisms to inform the
 Communication Devices:Network cards,Modems,Wireless CPU when the peripheral device requires attention or
adapters when a data transfer is complete.
 Other Devices:External CD/DVD  Error Handling:
drives,Webcams,Microphones  Error detection and correction mechanisms to ensure data
integrity during the transfer process.
 Control and Status Registers:
 Dedicated registers for controlling the I/O operation and
storing the status of the I/O module, allowing the CPU to
monitor and manage the I/O process.
 Scalability:
 Scalability to accommodate a variety of different types
and numbers of peripheral devices.

 Communication pathway for CPU and peripheral devices.

 Facilitates CPU communication with external devices.
 Enables dedicated data transfer to/from peripherals.
 I/O interfaces facilitate communication between a  Specific connectors or slots on the motherboard.
computer system and peripheral devices for input and  Varying data transfer speeds and protocols.
output.  Examples: PCI ,USB , SATA
 They include physical connectors, communication protocols,
and software interfaces:
 Physical Connectors:  CPU instructions for data flow with peripherals.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)  Directs I/O bus for specific actions (read, write, control).
 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)  Coordinates timing and sequencing of data transfer.
 VGA (Video Graphics Array)  Types:
 Ethernet  Read: Data transfer from peripheral to CPU.
 Thunderbolt  Write: CPU instructs I/O for data transfer to peripheral.
 Communication Protocols:  Control: Manages overall peripheral operation.
 Serial communication (RS-232)  Execution:
 Parallel communication  Generated by CPU during program execution.
 SATA (Serial advanced tech. attachment) for storage  Executed through I/O instructions in the program.
devices
 PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) for
 Interrupts are signals sent to the CPU, temporarily halting
high-speed data transfer
its current execution to handle a specific event or request
 Software Interfaces:
from a peripheral or software.
 Device drivers for OS communication with specific
 Allows the CPU to respond promptly to events without
hardware
constant polling.
 APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) for software
 Enhances multitasking and responsiveness in computer
and peripheral interaction
systems.

 Compatibility:The I/O module must be compatible with the

 Vectored Interrupts:
computer system's architecture, addressing, data formats.
 Unique vector for each source.
 Addressability:The module should have a unique address
 Directly jumps to specific ISR.
that the CPU can use to identify and communicate with it.
 Non-Vectored Interrupts:
 Data Buffering:Adequate buffering capabilities to
 Common ISR entry point.
temporarily store data during the transfer between the CPU
 Requires additional identification.
and the peripheral device preventing data loss or overflows.
 Maskable Interrupts:
 Can be disabled by the CPU.
  Allows selective blocking. based on the priority level of the interrupting device in the
 Non-Maskable Interrupts: chain.
 Cannot be disabled.  Efficiently resolving interrupt sources with a prioritized
 Indicates critical events. chaining mechanism.
 Devices are arranged in a daisy chain, and the CPU
 Hardware Interrupts: identifies the interrupting device by its position in the
 External devices signaling. chain.
 Asynchronous requests.
 Software Interrupts:
 Generated by software.
 Requests OS services.
 Interrupt Detection: Continuous monitoring of interrupt
lines or flags for device or system requests.
 Interrupt Request (IRQ): Device signals CPU with an
interrupt request, indicating an occurrence.
 Save CPU State: CPU preserves its current state, including
 Iterative checking of status or interrupt request lines of program counter and register contents.
devices to identify pending interrupts.  Interrupt Acknowledgment: CPU confirms interrupt
 Systematically polling devices to detect interrupt requests. receipt, potentially sending a signal back to the device.
 CPU periodically checks each device for interrupt status,  Interrupt Vectoring: CPU uses interrupt vector to locate
determining if an interrupt is pending. the ISR's address for specific interrupt source.
 Jump to ISR: CPU jumps to ISR's address specified by
 Each interrupt source is assigned a unique vector stored in interrupt vector or fixed location for non-vectored
an interrupt vector table. interrupts.
 The interrupting device sends a signal with its specific  Execute ISR: ISR performs necessary operations, e.g., data
vector to the CPU. read/write, flag updates.
 CPU uses this vector to directly jump to the corresponding  Restore CPU State: CPU reinstates saved state, including
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). program counter and register contents.
 Fast and direct identification of interrupt sources.  Return from Interrupt: CPU executes return-from-
 Devices signal their interrupt through a unique vector, interrupt instruction, resuming control at the interrupted
enabling direct access to specific ISRs. point.
 Continue Execution: With interrupt handled and CPU
state restored, normal program or task execution
continues.

 Iterative checking of devices to determine the source of the

interrupt.  PIO involves CPU actively controlling data transfer
 CPU sequentially polls each device until the interrupting between peripheral and memory.
device is identified.  CPU issues commands to the I/O device and waits for
 Systematically resolving the interrupt source by checking operation completion.
each device in sequence.  Inefficiency arises as the CPU is occupied throughout I/O,
 Devices are polled in a predetermined order until the potentially causing performance bottlenecks.
interrupting device is found.  Advantages:
 Simplicity ,Controlled by the CPU
 Disadvantages:
 Devices are connected in a chain, each with a unique  High CPU Overhead ,Slower Performance
priority level.
 When an interrupt occurs, the CPU identifies the source
 IDIO, or interrupt-driven I/O, frees the CPU from actively
waiting for I/O completion.
 I/O device generates an interrupt when ready to transfer
data or on specific events.
 CPU, upon interrupt, transfers control to a dedicated ISR
for handling the I/O event.
 IDIO enables the CPU to multitask during I/O operations,
enhancing efficiency over programmed I/O.
 Advantages:
 Efficiency ,Asynchronous Operation ,Flexible and
Responsive
 Disadvantages:
 Complexity,Potential for Latency ,Resource Intensive
  I/O Processor is specialized in overseeing Input/Output
operations in a computer system.
 Its primary function is to transfer I/O tasks away from the
CPU, enhancing system efficiency and performance.
 Found in various computing environments, from personal
computers to large-scale servers.

 DMA is a technique that allows peripherals to transfer data

directly to and from the system's memory without the
intervention of the CPU.
 A DMA controller is used to manage the data transfer 1.Offload CPU 6. Interrupt Handling:
independently of the CPU. 2.Parallel Processing 7. Specialized Interfaces:
 This method is highly efficient as it offloads the data 3.Dedicated I/O 8. Control Buffering and Caching:
transfer task from the CPU, allowing the CPU to focus on 4. DMA Support 9. Communication Protocols
other processing tasks. 5.System Bus Connection:
 DMA is particularly useful for large data transfers and is
commonly employed in scenarios like disk I/O, network
data transfer, and graphics processing.  An I/O channel, or controller, oversees communication
 Advantages: between the CPU and peripherals, managing input and
 Increased Throughput: improved throughput and output operations.
overall system performance.  Responsible for coordinating data transfer between the
 Reduced CPU Overhead CPU and external devices.
 Efficient for Block Transfers  Manages tasks like data transfer timing, buffer utilization,
 Disadvantages: communication protocols, and interrupt handling.
 Complexity ,Limited Peripheral Support

 CPU initiates file transfer by sending a request to the I/O

Channel.
 I/O Channel, controlled by its controller, manages data
transfer, handling timing and protocol for communication
with the HDD.
 During read or write operations, I/O Channel may use a
buffer for temporary data storage.
 I/O Processor monitors the process, handling interrupts
from the I/O Channel and managing overall I/O flow.
 Leveraging DMA capabilities, I/O Processor efficiently
transfers data between HDD and system memory with
minimal CPU involvement.
After file transfer completion, I/O Processor signals CPU
through interrupts, indicating data readiness for further

 Serial communication uses one or two transmission lines

 DMA controller becomes bus master.
 CPU sends DMA select signal to controller. for sending and receiving data, transmitting one bit at a
 DMA requests bus by raising bus request signal. time.
 Controller acknowledges DMA request.
 Enables continuous, bit-by-bit data transmission.
 Merits include minimal signal wires, reducing wiring and
 CPU grants bus control to DMA by raising bus grant signal.
equipment costs.
 CPU provides transfer details to DMA.
 CPU resumes execution; DMA is now bus master.
 DMA interacts with memory and devices for data transfer.
 DMA disables bus request after completion.
 CPU disables bus grant, regaining bus control.
1.Simplex:
 Unidirectional communication.
 Data flows in one direction only, from sender to receiver.
 Example : tv , radio , keyboard
2.Half-Duplex:
 Communication in both directions, but not
simultaneously.
 Devices take turns transmitting and receiving.
 Example : walky-tolky
3.Full-Duplex:
 Simultaneous communication in both directions.
 Allows for data transmission and reception concurrently.
 Example :phone conversation

 Data is sent without a shared clock signal.

 Each character is framed by start and stop bits to
synchronize.
 No common time reference between sender and receiver.
 Start and stop bits mark the beginning and end of each
character.
 Widely used in serial communication.
 Example: email sending /receiving

 Data transmission is synchronized using a shared clock

signal.
 Sender and receiver use the same clock signal for timing.
 Requires a clock signal for synchronization.
 Data is sent in chunks or frames, aligned with the clock.
 More complex but allows higher data rates.
 Often used in parallel communication.
 Example: phone conversation