CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE

MATH 86.1 NOTES

LIMITS LIMIT RULES

The limits are defined as the value that the Where:

function approaches as it goes to an x value.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
Using this definition, it is possible to find the 𝑥→𝑐
value of the limits given a graph.
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐
In general, you can see that these limits are
equal to the value of the function. This is true if Sum Rule: The limit of the sum of two functions
the function is continuous. is the sum of their limits.

ONE-SIDED LIMITS lim (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

One-sided limits are differentiated as right- Difference Rule: The limit of the difference of
hand limits (when the limit approaches from two functions is the difference of their limits.
the right) and left-hand limits (when the limit
lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 − 𝑀
approaches from the left) whereas ordinary 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

limits are sometimes referred to as two-sided Product Rule: The limit of a product of two
limits. Right-hand limits approach the specified
functions is the product of their limits.
point from positive infinity. Lefthand limits
approach this point from negative infinity. lim (𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

The right-handed limit: Constant Multiple Rule: The limits of a constant

times a function is the constant times the limit
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎+ of the function.
The left-handed limit: lim (𝑘 ∗ 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑘 ∗ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 Quotient Rule: The limit of a quotient of two

𝑥→𝑎−
functions is the quotient of their limits, provided
From this information, a more formal definition the limit of the denominator is not zero.
can be found. Continuity, at a point a, is
𝐿
defined when the limit of the function from the lim (𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)/ lim 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑀
, 𝑀≠ 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
left equals the limit from the right and this value
is also equal to the value of the function. Using SOLVING LIMITS
notation, for all points a where, the function is
said to be continuous. Limits of Rational Functions:

- A general limit does not exist if the left- Substitution Method

and right-hand limits aren’t equal A rational function is a function that can be
(resulting in a discontinuity in the written as the ratio of two algebraic
function). expressions. If a function is considered rational
and the denominator is not zero, the limit can
- A general limit does not exist wherever be found by substitution.
a function increases or decreases
infinitely (“without bound”) as it Factoring Method:
approaches a given x-value.
Factoring method in solving limits involves
- A general limit does not exist in the
simplifying an expression by factoring out
cases of infinite oscillation when
common factors, allowing cancellation of terms
approaching a fixed point.
and simplification of the limit expression. This
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
technique is particularly useful when dealing Equation: f(x) = 1 for x < 0 and
with indeterminate forms like 0/0 or ∞/∞.
f(x) = 2 for x ≥ 0.
Conjugate Method:
Infinite Discontinuity: A function has an infinite
The conjugate of a binomial expression (i.e. an discontinuity at a point if the function
expression with two terms, you can tell this approaches positive or negative infinity as x
because of the Latin root bi- meaning two) is approaches that point.
the same expression with opposite middle
signs. You should use the conjugate method Equation: f(x) = 1/x at x = 0.
whenever you have a limit problem containing Oscillating Discontinuity: A function has an
radicals for which substitution does not work. oscillating discontinuity at a point if the function
oscillates infinitely or has a periodic behavior
SQUEEZE THEOREM
around that point.
The squeeze theorem states that if two
Equation: f(x) = sin(1/x) at x = 0.
functions, g(x) and h(x), sandwich another
function, f(x), between them and the limits of Essential Discontinuity: A function has an
g(x) and h(x) as x approaches a certain value essential discontinuity at a point if the function
both converge to the same limit, then f(x) also exhibits a non-removable, non-infinite
converges to that limit at that point. discontinuity at that point. Equation: f(x) = e^x
for x < 0 and f(x) = 1/x for x ≥ 0.
CONTINUITY
THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY
The continuity of a graph is loosely defined as
the ability to draw a graph without having to lift -A function f is continuous from the right at a
your pencil. A continuous process is one that number a if:
takes place gradually, without interruption or
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
abrupt change. 𝑥→𝑎+

A function f is continuous at a number a if: And continuous from the left at a if:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎−

Implicitly requires three things if f is continuous -A function f is continuous on an interval if it is

at a: continuous at every number in the interval.

1. f(a) is defined (that is, a is in the -If f and g are continuous at a and c is a
domain of f) constant, then the following functions are also
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist. continuous at a:
𝑥→𝑎
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) 1. f + g 2. fg
𝑥→𝑎
3 f–g 4. cf 5. f/g if g(a) ≠ 0
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY
-Any polynomial is continuous everywhere;
Removable Discontinuity (or Hole): A function that is, it is continuous on ℝ = (-∞,∞).
has a removable discontinuity at a point if it can
be defined or "filled in" at that point to make the -Any rational function is continuous wherever it
function continuous. is defined; that is, it is continuous in its domain.

Equation: f(x) = (x^2 - 1)/(x - 1) at x =1 -The following types of functions are

continuous:
Jump Discontinuity: A function has a jump
POLYNOMIAL,RATIONAL,ROOT,
discontinuity at a point if the left-hand limit and
TRIGONOMETRIC,INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC,
the right-hand limit exist but are not equal. EXPONENTIAL, LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS.
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
-If f is continuous at b and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 m = lim
lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑏) in other words; 𝑥→a 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
Provided that this limit exists.
lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 (lim 𝑔(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent
-If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at line to a curve at a point as the slope of the
g(a), then the composite function (f ∘ g) (x)= curve at the point.
f(g(x) is continuous at a. There is another expression for the slope of a
tangent line that is sometimes easier to use. If
LIMITS AT INFINITY; HORIZONTAL
h=x-a, then x=a + h and so the slope of the
ASYMPTOTES secant line PQ is
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
∞). Then m = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→∞ THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
Means that the values of f(x) can be made f at any number a, denoted by f’(a), is:
arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to be
sufficiently large. 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
f′(a) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
The line y=L is called a horizontal asymptote of
the curve y=f(x) if either An equivalent way of stating the definition of
the derivative, as we saw in finding tangent
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 lines, is:
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→∞
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
THEOREMS f′(a) = lim
𝑥→a 𝑥−𝑎
1
lim =0 A function f is differentiable at a if f’(a) exists. It
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 is differentiable on an open interval (a,b) [or (a,
1 ∞) or (-∞,a) or (-∞,∞)] if it is differentiable at
lim =0 every number in the interval.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥^𝑟

1 If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at

lim =0 a, then f is continuous at a.
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥^𝑟
TABLE OF DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS
DERIVATIVES AND RATES OF
CHANGE 𝑑 𝑑 𝑛
(𝑐) = 0 (𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If a curve C has equation y=f(x) and we want
to find the tangent line to C at the point (𝑐𝑓)′ = 𝑐𝑓 ′ (𝑓 + 𝑔)′ = f ′ + g′
P(a,f(a)), then we consider a nearby point
Q(x,f(x)), where x≠a, and compute the slope of (𝑓 − 𝑔)′ = f ′ − g ′ (𝑓𝑔)′ = 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑔𝑓′
the secant line PQ:
𝑓 𝑔𝑓 ′ − 𝑓𝑔′
( )=
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑔 𝑔2
mPQ =
𝑥−𝑎
𝑑 𝑥
The tangent line to the curve y=f(x) at the point (𝑒 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
P(a,f(a)) is the line through P with slope:
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′
𝑑
(csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥2
𝑑 𝑑
(cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
𝑑 𝑑 ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ) = − ∗ 𝑥′
(tan 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥′ 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

CHAIN RULE 𝑑 1
( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 𝑛 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 ) = − ∗ 𝑥′
𝑥√𝑥2 − 1
Alternatively,
𝑑 1
𝑑 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥2 − 1
(𝑔(𝑥)𝑛 ) = 𝑛[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛−1 ∗ 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
BASE IS A CONSTANT DERIVATIVE ( 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 ) = − ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
FORMULA:
DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC
𝑑 𝑥 FUNCTIONS
(𝑏 ) = 𝑏 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥′
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑏
-is a technique used to find the derivative of a
function that is defined implicitly, where the 𝑑 𝑥′
(ln 𝑥) =
dependent and independent variables are not 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
explicitly isolated. It involves differentiating
Steps in Logarithmic Differentiation
both sides of an equation and treating the
derivative as a separate entity, allowing us to 1. Take natural logarithms of both sides
find the derivative without explicitly solving for of an equation y=f(x) and use the
the dependent variable. laws of logarithms to simplify.
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with
x.
respect to the variable you are differentiating
3. Solve the resulting equation for y’
with respect to.

2. Apply the chain rule to the terms involving

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY
the variable. THE LAW OF NATURAL GROWTH OR DECAY

3. Treat any terms involving the variable and 𝑑𝑦

its derivative as separate entities. = 𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑥
4. Simplify the resulting equation by collecting
Where k is a constant. It is called a differential
like terms.
equation because in involves an unknown
5. Solve for the derivative by isolating the term function.
containing the derivative on one side of the
equation. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦(0)𝑒 𝑘𝑡
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING Area of a Circle: Calculates the area of a
circle.
𝑑𝑇 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
= 𝐾(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 ) where A is the area and r is the radius of the
𝑑𝑥
circle.
Where: Volume of a Sphere: Calculates the volume of
a sphere.
-dT/dt represents the rate of change of 4
temperature with respect to time (the 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
derivative of T with respect to t) where V is the volume and r is the radius of
-k is the cooling constant or coefficient of the sphere.
proportionality Volume of a Cone: Calculates the volume of a
-T is the temperature of the object being cone.
cooled 1
-TS is the temperature of the surroundings or 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
cooling medium. where V is the volume, r is the radius of the
RELATED RATES base, and h is the height of the cone.
Volume of a Cylinder: Calculates the volume
Problem Solving Strategy of a cylinder.
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
1. Read the problem carefully. where V is the volume, r is the radius of the
2. Draw a diagram if possible. base, and h is the height of the cylinder.
3. Introduce a notation. Assign symbols Surface Area of a Sphere: Calculates the
to all quantities that are functions of surface area of a sphere.
time. 𝑆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
where A is the surface area and r is the radius
4. Express the given information and the
of the sphere.
required rate in terms of derivatives.
Surface Area of a Cylinder: Calculates the
5. Write an equation that relates the surface area of a cylinder.
various quantities of the problem. If 𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋rh + 2𝜋𝑟 2
necessary, use the geometry of the where A is the surface area, r is the radius of
situation to eliminate one of the the base, and h is the height of the cylinder.
variables by substitution Area of a Triangle:
6. Use the chain rule to differentiate both 1
sides of the equation with respect to t. 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2
7. Substitute the given information into
the resulting equation and solve for the -A: Area of the triangle
unknown rate. -b: Length of the base of the triangle
-h: Perpendicular height of the triangle
IMPORTANT FORMULAS FOR Square
RELATED RATES Perimeter of a Square:

Chain Rule: The chain rule is used to 𝑃 = 4𝑠

differentiate composite functions.
-P: Perimeter of the square
𝑑 -s: Length of one side of the square
(𝑔(𝑥)𝑛 ) = 𝑛[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛−1 ∗ 𝑔′(𝑥) Rectangle
𝑑𝑥
Area of a Rectangle:
Pythagorean Theorem: Relates the sides of a 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤
right triangle.

𝑐 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 -A: Area of the rectangle

-l: Length of the rectangle
where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides -w: Width of the rectangle
of the triangle. Letter c is the hypotenuse. Parallelogram:
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
Area of a Parallelogram: LINEAR APPROXIMATION AND
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ DIFFERENTIALS
-A: Area of the parallelogram Linear Approximation:
-b: Length of the base of the parallelogram
-h: Perpendicular height of the parallelogram 𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
Area of a Trapezium:
1 Linear approximation, also known as tangent
𝐴 = (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠) ∗ ℎ line approximation, is used to approximate the
2
value of a function near a specific point. L(x)
-A: Area of the trapezium represents the linear approximation of the
-sum of parallel sides: Sum of the lengths of
function f(x) at the point a.
the parallel sides of the trapezium
-h: Perpendicular height of the trapezium Differentials:
Area of an Ellipse:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
-A: Area of the ellipse Differentials are used to approximate the
-a: Length of the semi-major axis (half of the change in a function. dy represents the
major axis) differential of the function y(x), and dx
-b: Length of the semi-minor axis (half of the represents a small change in the independent
minor axis) variable x. f'(x) is the derivative of the function
Surface Area of a Cube: f(x) with respect to x.
𝑆𝐴 = 6𝑎2
Variables:
-A: Surface area of the cube
-s: Length of one side of the cube ⎯ L(x): Linear approximation of the
Surface Area of a Cuboid: function f(x) at the point a.
⎯ f(x): The original function.
𝑆𝐴 = 2(𝑙𝑤 + 𝑤ℎ + ℎ𝑙) ⎯ a: The specific point near which the
-A = 2 * (length * width + width * height + function is being approximated.
height * length) ⎯ f(a): The value of the function at the
-A: Surface area of the cuboid point a.
-l: Length of the cuboid ⎯ f'(a): The derivative of the function
-w: Width of the cuboid evaluated at the point a.
-h: Height of the cuboid ⎯ x: The independent variable.
Surface Area of a Pyramid: ⎯ dx: A small change in the independent
𝑆𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) + variable x.
1
(𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) ∗ ⎯ y(x): The dependent variable.
2
(𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) ⎯ dy: The differential of the dependent
variable y(x).
-A: Surface area of the pyramid ⎯ dy/dx: The derivative of the dependent
-area of base: Area of the base of the pyramid variable y(x) with respect to x.
-perimeter of base: Perimeter of the base of
the pyramid DEFINITION OF THE HYPERBOLIC
-slant height: Slant height of the pyramid TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The law of sines
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1
= = sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 =
sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 2 sinh 𝑥
The law of cosines
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝛼 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 1
cosh 𝑥 = sech 𝑥 =
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝛽 2 cosh 𝑥
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝛾 sinh 𝑥 1
tanh x = coth 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES APPLICATION OF
sinh(−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 cosh(−𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 DIFFERENTIATION
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 Absolute Maximum:
Value of f on D if 𝑓 (𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in D.
sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦
Absolute Minimum:
cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 Value of f on D if 𝑓 (𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in D.
An absolute maximum or minimum is
DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC sometimes called the global maximum or
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS minimum. The maximum and minimum values
of f are called extreme values of f.
𝑑 Local Maximum:
(sinh 𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ Value of if 𝑓 (𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) when x is near c.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 Local Minimum:
(csch 𝑥) = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ Value of if 𝑓 (𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) when x is near c.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′
𝑑𝑥 EXTREME VALUE THEOREM:
𝑑
(sech 𝑥) = −sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 If a function f is continuous on a closed interval
𝑑 [a, b], then it must have both a global maximum
(tanh 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′
𝑑𝑥 and a global minimum on that interval.
𝑑
(coth 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥
FERMAT'S THEOREM:
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS IN TERMS If a function f has a local maximum or minimum
OF LOGARITHMS: at a point c, and f'(c) exists, then f'(c) = 0.

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ −1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ) 𝑥∈ℝ Critical number: a number c in a domain of a

function such that either 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
′ (𝑐)
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ −1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 ) 𝑥≥1 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.

1 1+𝑥 Test for Local Extrema: To find local extrema,

𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln( ) −1<𝑥 <1 check critical points (points where the
2 1−𝑥
derivative is zero or undefined) and endpoints
DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC of the interval.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Test for Global Extrema: In addition to critical
𝑑 1 points, also check the values of the function
( 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥2 at the endpoints of the interval or the entire
domain.
𝑑 1
( 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 √ 𝑥2 − 1 THE CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD: To find
the absolute maximum and minimum values of
𝑑 1 a continuous function f on a closed interval
( 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 [a,b]:
𝑑 1 1. Find the values of f at the critical
( 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = − ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥2 + 1 numbers of f in (a, b).
2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of
𝑑 1 the interval.
( 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = − ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
√ 3. The largest of the values from steps 1
and 2 is the absolute maximum value;
𝑑 1 the smallest is the absolute minimum
( 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 ) = ∗ 𝑥′
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 value.
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE
MEAN VALUE THEOREM: HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT
If a function f is continuous on the closed
THE SHAPE OF THE GRAPH
interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open Increasing and Decreasing Functions:
interval (a, b), then there exists at least one
point c in (a, b) such that If the derivative f'(x) is positive on an interval,
the function f(x) is increasing on that interval.
f'(c) = (f(b) - f(a))/(b - a).
If the derivative f'(x) is negative on an interval,
The Mean Value Theorem guarantees the the function f(x) is decreasing on that interval.
existence of a specific point c where the
instantaneous rate of change (given by f'(c)) is Critical Points:
equal to the average rate of change over the
Critical points are values of x where the
interval given by (f(b) - f(a))/(b - a)).
derivative f'(x) is zero or undefined.
Geometric Interpretation:
At critical points, the function may have local
The Mean Value Theorem can be understood extrema (maximum or minimum) or points of
geometrically as stating that if you trace the inflection.
graph of a function on a closed interval, there
First Derivative Test:
will be at least one tangent line parallel to the
secant line connecting the endpoints of the The First Derivative Test helps determine the
interval. behavior of a function around its critical points.
Conditions for the Mean Value Theorem: If the derivative changes sign from positive to
negative at a critical point, the function has a
⎯ The function must be continuous on
local maximum at that point.
the closed interval [a, b].
⎯ The function must be differentiable on If the derivative changes sign from negative to
the open interval (a, b). positive at a critical point, the function has a
local minimum at that point.
Consequences of the Mean Value Theorem:
Second Derivative Test:
⎯ If f'(x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f(x) is
constant on the interval [a, b]. The Second Derivative Test is used when the
⎯ If f'(x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f(x) is first derivative test is inconclusive or to analyze
increasing on the interval [a, b]. points of inflection.
⎯ If f'(x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f(x) is
If the second derivative f''(x) is positive at a
decreasing on the interval [a, b].
critical point, the function has a local minimum
Rolle's Theorem: Rolle's Theorem is a special at that point.
case of the Mean Value Theorem. It states that
If the second derivative f''(x) is negative at a
if a function is continuous on the closed interval
critical point, the function has a local maximum
[a, b], differentiable on the open interval (a, b),
at that point.
and f(a) = f(b), then there exists at least one
point c in (a, b) where f'(c) = 0. Points of Inflection:
The Mean Value Theorem is a fundamental Points of inflection are where the concavity of
result in calculus that connects the concepts of the graph changes.
continuity, differentiability, and rates of change.
It provides important insights into the behavior They occur at values of x where the second
of functions and has various applications in derivative f''(x) changes sign.
calculus, including the analysis of local
extrema and the evaluation of definite
integrals.
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE

INDETERMINATE FORMS ⎯ The rule is also valid for one sided

limits and for limits at infinity or
AND L’HOSPITAL’S RULE negative infinity.

We have a limit of the form: INDETERMINATE PRODUCTS

𝑓(𝑥) If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ±∞
lim 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)
And lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)]
Where both 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 and 𝑔(𝑥) → 0 as 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑥→𝑎
2 2 2
then this limit may or may not exit and is called Rewrite the product of fg as a quotient
0
an indeterminate for type .
0 𝑓 𝑔
𝑓𝑔 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑔 =
For rational function, there are methods that 1/𝑔 1/𝑓
can cancel common factors, but these
methods sometimes do not work for all limits. INDETERMINATE DIFFERENCES
So we introduce a systematic method, known
as L’Hospital’s Rule, for the evaluation of If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
indeterminate forms.
And lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]
L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 𝑥→𝑎

To find out, try to convert the difference into a

Suppose f and g are differentiable and quotient. For instance, by using a common
𝑔′(𝑥) ≠ 0 on an open interval I that contains a denominator, or rationalization, or factoring out
(except possible at a). Suppose that a comma factor so that we have an
0
indeterminate form of type or ∞/∞.
0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
INDETERMINATE POWERS
Or that
Several indeterminate forms arise from the
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ±∞ limit:
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
In other words, we have an indeterminate form
0 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
of type or ∞/∞. Then 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
0
- Type 00
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
lim = lim 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′(𝑥) - Type ∞0
If the limit on the right side exists (or is infinity
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
or approaching infinity) - Type 1∞
NOTES Each of these cases can be treated either by
taking the natural logarithm
⎯ L’Hospital’s Rule says that the limit of
a quotient is equal to the limit of the
quotient of their derivatives, provided 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) ,
that the given conditions are satisfied. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ln 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥)
⎯ IT IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT TO
VERIFY THE CONDITIONS regarding Or by writing the function as an exponential
the limits of f and g before using the
rule. [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥)
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE

CURVE SKETCHING CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF

INFLECTION:
DOMAIN AND RANGE:
⎯ Use the second derivative to
⎯ Determine the domain, which is the determine the concavity of the
set of all valid input values for the function.
function. ⎯ Locate points of inflection, where the
⎯ Analyze the behavior of the function to concavity changes, by finding x-values
determine its range, which is the set of where the second derivative is zero or
all possible output values. undefined.

SYMMETRY: SKETCHING THE CURVE:

⎯ Identify any symmetries the function ⎯ Combine the information gathered

may possess, such as even symmetry above to sketch the curve, ensuring
(symmetry about the y-axis) or odd that the curve matches the behavior
symmetry (symmetry about the origin). observed through the analysis.

INTERCEPTS: OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

⎯ Find the x-intercepts by solving the Steps in solving optimization problem
equation f(x) = 0.
⎯ Find the y-intercept by evaluating the 1. Understand the problem
function at x = 0, i.e., f(0). 2. Draw a diagram, in most problems
it is useful to draw a diagram and
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL identify the given and required
ASYMPTOTES: quantities on the diagram.
⎯ Determine any vertical asymptotes by 3. Introduce Notation: Assign a
finding values of x that make the symbol to the quantity that is to be
denominator of a rational function maximize or minimize (Let’s call it
equal to zero, while the numerator Q for now). Also select symbols for
does not equal zero. other unknown quantities and label
⎯ Identify horizontal asymptotes by the diagram with these symbols. It
examining the behavior of the function may help to use initials as
as x approaches positive or negative suggestive symbols.
infinity. 4. Express Q in terms of some of the
DERIVATIVES AND CRITICAL other symbols from step 3.
POINTS: 5. If Q has been expressed as a
function of more than one variable
⎯ Analyze the first and second in step 4, use the variables. Then
derivatives of the function to identify use these equations to eliminate
critical points, where the derivative is all but one of the variables in the
zero or undefined. expression for Q. Thus, Q will be
⎯ Use the First and Second Derivative expressed as a function of one
Tests to determine increasing and
variable x, say, Q= f(x). Write the
decreasing intervals and locate local
extrema.
domain of this function in the given
context.
6. Use the methods to find the
absolute maximum or minimum
value of f.
 CAJA-JUNJI-BSCE

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS UNIT CIRCLE

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS: The unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1
centered at the origin (0, 0) in the coordinate
⎯ Parametric equations describe the plane. It plays a fundamental role in
coordinates of a point on a curve in trigonometry and is widely used to understand
terms of one or more parameters. the relationships between angles and the
⎯ The x-coordinate is typically given by coordinates of points on the circle.
x = f(t), and the y-coordinate is given
by y = g(t), where t is the parameter.

Parameterization of Curves:

Parametric equations allow for the

parameterization of curves, which can
represent a wide range of shapes and
motions.

Eliminating the Parameter:

To obtain an equation for the curve without

the parameter, solve the given parametric
equations to express x and y solely in terms
of each other.

Domain of the Parameter:

⎯ Determine the domain of the

parameter that corresponds to the
desired portion of the curve.
⎯ Consider any restrictions or Polar Coordinates:
limitations given in the problem or Polar coordinates represent points in a plane
inherent in the curve. using a distance from the origin (r) and an
Tangent Lines: angle (θ) measured from a reference
direction, usually the positive x-axis.
⎯ The slope of the tangent line to a
parametric curve at a point P is given Conversion Formulas:
by dy/dx = (dy/dt) / (dx/dt). The conversion formulas between polar
⎯ The tangent line's equation at a coordinates (r, θ) and Cartesian coordinates
specific point can be determined (x, y) are:
using the point-slope form: y - y₀ =
m(x - x₀), where m is the slope and x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ)
(x₀, y₀) is the point on the curve.
r = √(x² + y²), θ = arctan(y/x)
POLAR COORDINATES: Positive and Negative Angles:
⎯ Parametric equations are often used Positive angles are measured
to represent curves in polar counterclockwise from the reference
coordinates. direction, while negative angles are measured
⎯ The conversion equations between clockwise.
Cartesian (x, y) and polar (r, θ)
coordinates are: Angles can be expressed in degrees or
⎯ x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ) radians, depending on the context.
⎯ r = √(x² + y²), θ = arctan(y/x)
 Graphs of Polar Equations
In the last section, we learned how to graph a point with polar coordinates (r, θ). We will now
look at graphing polar equations. Just as a quick review, the polar coordinate system is very
similar to that of the rectangular coordinate system. In a polar coordinate grid, as shown below,
there will be a series of circles extending out from the pole (or origin in a rectangular coordinate
grid) and five different lines passing through the pole to represent the angles at which the exact
values are known for the trigonometric functions.

Graphing a polar equation is accomplished in pretty much the same manner as rectangular
equations are graphed. They can be graphed by point-plotting, using the trigonometric functions
period, and using the equation’s symmetry (if any). When graphing rectangular equations by
point-plotting you would pick values for x and then evaluate the equation to determine its
corresponding y value. For a polar equation, you would pick angle measurements for θ and then
evaluate the equation to determine its corresponding r value.
Symmetry tests for polar coordinates

1. Replace θ with -θ. If an equivalent equation results, the graph is symmetric with respect
to the polar axis.
2. Replace θ with -θ and r with -r. If an equivalent equation results, the graph is symmetric
π
with respect to θ = .
2
3. Replace r with -r. If an equivalent equation results, the graph is symmetric with respect
to the pole.

Note: It is possible for a polar equation to fail a test and still exhibit that type of symmetry when
you finish graphing the function over a full period.

When you started to graph functions (in rectangular form) you stared by learning the basic
shapes of certain functions such as lines, parabolas, circles, square roots, and absolute value
functions just to name a few. Polar equations also have some general types of equations.
Learning to recognize the formulas of these equations will help in sketching the graphs.

Circles in Polar Form

1. r = a cos θ is a circle where “a” is the diameter of the circle that has its left-most edge at
the pole.

2. r = a sin θ is a circle where “a” is the diameter of the circle that has its bottom-most edge
at the pole.
Limaçons (Snails)

1. r = a ± b sin θ, where a > 0 and b > 0

2. r = a ± b cos θ, where a > 0 and b > 0

The limaçons containing sine will be above the horizontal axis if the sign between a and b is
plus or below the horizontal axis if the sign if minus. If the limaçon contains the function
cosine then the graph will be either to the right of the vertical axis if the sign is plus or to the
left if the sign is minus.
a
The ratio of will determine the exact shape of the limaçon
b

a a a a
<1 =1 1< <2 ≥2
b b b b

r = a + b sin θ

r = a – b sin θ

The graphs of limaçons with cosine would have similar shapes but along the horizontal axis.
Rose Curves

A rose curve is a graph that is produced from a polar equation in the form of:

r = a sin nθ or r = a cos nθ, where a ≠ 0 and n is an integer > 1

They are called rose curves because the loops that are formed resemble petals. The number of
petals that are present will depend on the value of n. The value of a will determine the length of
the petals.

If n is an even integer, then the rose will have 2n petals.

r = a sin 2θ r = a cos 4θ

If n is an odd integer, then the rose will have n petals.

r = a sin 5θ r = a cos 3θ

Lemniscates

The last type of polar equation that we will cover here is the lemniscates, which has the shape of
a figure-8 or a propeller. Lemniscates have the general polar equation of:

r2 = a2 sin 2θ or r2 = a2 cos 2θ, where a ≠ 0

A lemniscate containing the sine function will be symmetric to the pole while the lemniscate
π
containing the cosine function will be symmetric to the polar axis, to θ = , and the pole.
2
 r2 = a2 sin 2θ r2 = a2 cos 2θ

Example 1: Graph the polar equation r = 1 – 2 cos θ.

Solution:

Identify the type of polar equation

The polar equation is in the form of a limaçon, r = a – b cos θ.

a
Find the ratio of to determine the equation’s general shape
b

a 1
=
b 2

Since the ratio is less than 1, it will have both an inner and outer loop. The loops will
be along the polar axis since the function is cosine and will loop to the left since the
sign between a and b is minus.
Example 1 (Continued):

Test for symmetry

π
Polar axis θ= Pole
2
r = 1 – 2 cos θ r = 1 – 2 cos θ r = 1 – 2 cos θ
r = 1 – 2 cos (-θ) -r = 1 – 2 cos (-θ) -r = 1 – 2 cos θ
r = 1 – 2 cos θ -r = 1 – 2 cos θ r = –1 + 2 cos θ
r = –1 + 2 cos θ

Passes symmetry test Fails symmetry test Fails symmetry test

Evaluate r at different values of θ

Since the equation passes the test for symmetry to the polar axis, we only need to
evaluate the equation over the interval [0, π] and then reflect the graph about the polar
axis.

θ r = 1 – 2 cos θ (r, θ)
0 1 – 2 cos 0 = (0, -1)
1 – 2 * 1=
1 – 2 = -1
π π π
1 – 2 cos = ( , -0.73)
6 6 6
3
1–2* =
2
1 – 3 ≈ -0.73
π π π
1 – 2 cos = ( , -0.41)
4 4 4
2
1–2* =
2
1 – 2 ≈ -0.41
π π π
1 – 2 cos = ( , 0)
3 3 3
1
1–2* =
2
1–1=0
π π π
1 – 2 cos = ( , 1)
2 2 2
1–2*0=
1–0=1
Example 1 (Continued):

θ r = 1 – 2 cos θ (r, θ)
2π 2π 2π
1 – 2 cos = ( , 2)
3 3 3
1
1–2* − =
2
1+1=2
3π 3π 3π
1 – 2 cos = ( , 2.41)
4 4 4
2
1–2* − =
2
1 + 2 ≈ 2.41
5π 5π 5π
1 – 2 cos = ( , 2.73)
6 6 6
3
1–2* − =
2
1 + 3 ≈ 2.73
π 1 – 2 cos π = (π, 3)
1 – 2 * -1 =
1+2=3

Plot the points

Example 1 (Continued):

Use the symmetry to complete the graph

Example 2: Graph the polar equation r = 3 cos 2θ.

Solution:

Identify the type of polar equation

The polar equation is in the form of a rose curve, r = a cos nθ. Since n is an even
integer, the rose will have 2n petals.

2n = 2(2) = 4 petals

Test for symmetry

π
Polar axis θ= Pole
2
r = 3 cos 2θ r = 3 cos 2θ r = 3 cos 2θ
r = 3 cos 2(-θ) -r = 3 cos 2(-θ) -r = 3 cos 2θ
r = 3 cos (-2θ) r = -3 cos (-2θ) r = –3 cos 2θ
r = 3 cos 2θ r = –3 cos 2θ

Passes symmetry test Fails symmetry test Fails symmetry test

Example 2 (Continued):

Evaluate r at different values of θ

θ r = 3 cos 2θ (r, θ)
0 3 cos 2(0) = (0, 3)
3 * 1= 3
π π π 3
3 cos 2( )= ( , )
6 6 6 2
π
3 cos =
3
1 3
3* =
2 2
π π π
3 cos 2( )= ( , 0)
4 4 4
π
3 cos =
2
3*0=0
π π π 3
3 cos 2( )= ( ,− )
3 3 3 2
2π
3 cos =
3
1 3
3* − = −
2 2
π π π
3 cos 2( )= ( , -3)
2 2 2
3 cos π =
3 * -1 = -3
2π 2π 2π 3
3 cos 2( )= ( ,− )
3 3 3 2
4π
3 cos =
3
1 3
3* − = −
2 2
3π 3π 3π
3 cos 2( )= ( , 0)
4 4 4
3π
3 cos =
2
3*0=0
Example 2 (Continued):

5π 5π 5π 3
3 cos 2( )= ( , )
6 6 6 2
5π
3 cos =
3
1 3
3* =
2 2
π 3 cos 2(π) = (π, 3)
3 *1=3

These points will provide us with enough points to complete the rest of the graph
using the symmetry of the rose curve.

Plot the points

Example 2 (Continued):

Use the symmetry to complete the graph

 Algebraic Formula Sheet
Arithmetic Operations Properties of Inequalities
!
ac + bc = c(a + b) b ab If a < b then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c
a =
c c
a b
If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc and <
!
a a ac c c
!=
b a b a b
= b If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc and >
c bc c c c

a c ad + bc a c ad − bc Properties of Absolute Value

+ = − =
b d bd c d bd (
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
a−b b−a a+b a b −x if x < 0
= = +
c−d d−c c c c
|x| ≥ 0 | − x| = |x|
!
a
ab + ac b ad
= b + c, a 6= 0 !=
a c bc |xy| = |x||y| x |x|
=
d y |y|

Properties of Exponents
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| Triangle Inequality
n m n+m 0
x x =x x = 1, x 6= 0
|x − y| ≥ |x| − |y| Reverse Triangle Inequality
!n
(xn )m = xnm x xn
= Distance Formula
y yn
Given two points, PA = (x1 , y1 ) and PB = (x2 , y2 ),
(xy)n = xn y n 1 the distance between the two can be found by:
= xn
x−n p
d(PA , PB ) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
n
 1
n   m1
xm = xm = xn xn
m
= xn−m
x Number Classifications
!−n !n Natural Numbers : N={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
x y yn 1
= = x−n =
y x xn xn Whole Numbers : {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}

Properties of Radicals Integers : Z={... ,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .. .}

√ 1 r √
n
x = xn x n
x
= √
n

Rationals : Q= All numbers that can be writ-
y n y
ten as a fraction with an integer numerator and a
√ √ √ a
n
xy = n x n y √ nonzero integer denominator,
n
xn = x, if n is odd b
Irrationals : {All numbers that cannot be ex-
√ √ √
q
m n pressed
√ √ as the ratio of two integers, for example
x = mn x n
xn = |x|, if n is even 5, 27, and π}

Real Numbers : R={All numbers that are either a

rational or an irrational number}

1
 Logarithms and Log Properties

Definition Logarithm Properties

y = logb x is equivalent to x = by logb b = 1 logb 1 = 0

Example logb bx = x blogb x = x

log2 16 = 4 because 24 = 16 ln ex = x eln x = x

Special Logarithms
logb (xk ) = k logb x
ln x = loge x natural log
where e=2.718281828... logb (xy) = logb x + logb y
log x = log10 x common log
!
x
logb = logb x − logb y
y

Factoring

x3 + y 3 = (x + y) x2 − xy + y 2


xa + xb = x(a + b)

x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y) x3 − y 3 = (x − y) x2 + xy + y 2

x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)2 x2n − y 2n = (xn − y n ) (xn + y n )

x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)2 If n is odd then,

x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 = (x + y)3 xn − y n = (x − y) xn−1 + xn−2 y + ... + y n−1

x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3 = (x − y)3 xn + y n = (x + y) xn−1 − xn−2 y + xn−3 y 2 ... − y n−1

Linear Functions and Formulas

Examples of Linear Functions

y y

y=x
y=1
x x

linear f unction constant f unction

2
Constant Function Linear Function/Slope-intercept form

This graph is a horizontal line passing This graph is a line with slope m
through the points (x, c) with slope m = 0 : and y − intercept(0, b) :

y = c or f (x) = c y = mx + b or f (x) = mx + b

Slope (a.k.a Rate of Change) Point-Slope form

The slope m of the line passing through The equation of the line passing through
the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is : the point (x1 , y1 ) with slope m is :
∆y y2 − y1 rise y = m(x − x1 ) + y1
m= = =
∆x x 2 − x1 run

Quadratic Functions and Formulas

Examples of Quadratic Functions
y y

y = x2

y = −x2
x x

parabola opening up parabola opening down

Forms of Quadratic Functions

Standard Form Vertex Form

y = ax2 + bx + c y = a(x − h)2 + k

or or
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k

This graph is a parabola that This graph is a parabola that

opens up if a > 0 or down if opens up if a > 0 or down if
a < 0 and has a vertex at a < 0 and has a vertex at (h, k).
  
b b
− ,f − .
2a 2a

3
 Quadratics and Solving for x

Quadratic Formula Square Root Property

To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0,
use : √ Let k be a nonnegative number. Then the
−b ± b2 − 4ac solutions to the equation
x= .
2a
The Discriminant x2 = k
The discriminant is the part of the quadratic √
equation under the radical, b2 − 4ac. We use are given by x = ± k.
the discriminant to determine the number of
real solutions of ax2 + bx + c = 0 as such :

1. If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two real solutions.

2. If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is one real solution.
3. If b2 − 4ac < 0, there are no real solutions.

Other Useful Formulas

Compound Interest
Hyperbola
 r nt
A=P 1+
n (x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
where: a2 b2
P= principal of P dollars This graph is a hyperbola that opens
r= Interest rate (expressed in decimal form) left and right, has center (h, k), vertices
n= number of times compounded per year (h ± a, k); foci (h ± c, k), where
t= time c comes from c2 = a2 + b2 and
asymptotes that pass through the center
Continuously Compounded Interest b
y = ± (x − h) + k.
a
A = P ert
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
where: − =1
a2 b2
P= principal of P dollars
r= Interest rate (expressed in decimal form) This graph is a hyperbola that opens
t= time up and down, has center (h, k), vertices
(h, k ± a); foci (h, k ± c), where
Circle c comes from c2 = a2 + b2 and
asymptotes that pass through the center
a
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 y = ± (x − h) + k.
b
This graph is a circle with radius r Pythagorean Theorem
and center (h, k).
A triangle with legs a and b and
Ellipse hypotenuse c is a right triangle
if and only if
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2 a2 + b 2 = c 2
This graph is an ellipse with center
(h, k) with vertices a units right/left
from the center and vertices b units
up/down from the center.

4
 Formulas and Theorems for Reference
I. Tbigonometric Formulas

l. sin2d+c,cis2d:1

sec2d

l*cot20:<:sc:20

I
+. sin(-d) : -sitt0

t,rs(-//) = t r1sl/

: -tallH

7. s i n ( A* B ) : s i t r A c o s B * s i l B c o s A

8. : siri A cos B - siu B <:os,;l

9. cos(A + B) - cos,4cosB - siu A siriB

10. cos(A - B) : cosA cosB + silrA sirrB

11. 2 sirrd t:osd

12. < ' o s 2 0- c o S 2( i - s i u 2 0 : 2 < ' o so2 - I - 1 - 2 s i n 2 0

I
13. tan d :
< . r f0t

(:ost/ I
14. <:ol0 :
sirr d tattH

1
15. (:OS I/

1
1 6 . c s cd -
ri" 6i

-el
/ F

I tl
r(. cos[ ^ : sitt d
\l

18. -01 : COSA

215
216 Formulas and Theorems

II. Differentiation Formulas

!Q,:I'
(r") - trr:"-1

]tra-fg'+gf'

* (i) -- g J ' - , f g '

,l'

,I
- ( t t ( .)r) 9 ' ( . , ' )
,i;.[tyt.rt) l''

d, \
(sttt rrJ .* ('oqI'
.7,

tJ, \ .
./ stll lr
dr. l('os J

:r) - "11'2.,'
{ 1a,,,t,
o.t

1(<,ot .r')- (,.(,2

.r'
Q:T

rl , : sPl'.r tall 11
(sc'c:.r'J
,7,

d,
.r,; -
- (<:s<t (ls(].]'(rot;.r

,t
-.''
fr("')
,1
-
fr(u") o,'ltrc

,l ,, 1
' tlll ri -
(l.t' .f

d,^ --: I
-iAl'CSllLl'l
t!.r' J1 - rz

1(Arcsi' r) :
oT Il12
 Formulas and Theorems 2I7

III. Integration Formulas

1.
,f"or:artC
2. [\0,-trrlrl *('
.t "r

3. [ , ' , t . ,: r ^ x| ( '
,I

4. In' a,,: lL
111Q
, ,'
.l

5. I n . , a . r : . rh r . r ' . r r ( '
,l
f
6. sirr.rd.r' - ( o s . r '- t C
./

7. / . , , . r ' d r : s i t r . i '| ( '

.t

8. t l : r: h r s e c , r+l C o r ln Jccrs+
rl C
,f'r^rr
f
9. cot .r tlt l r r s i r r . ,l * C
.l

10. [,nr'., ,1., l r r1 s c r ' . *i I a r r . r f C

.J

1i. cotr] +C
.[r,rr,rdr:]nlcscr

12. ,"r' r d,r - tan r: * C

|

13. / * " . r t a r r . rd' r - s r ' < ' . |r ( '

.l

14. n " " 'r d r : - c o t r : * C l

l

15. /.'r.''t.ot r r/l' : ,'sr'.r r C

.t

1 6 . [ , u r r 'r c l .-r l a r r. r - . r + ( '

J

tT. [ ---!! -:lArctan({)+c

.l o'1t" a \a/

f )-
18
Jffi:Arcsin(i)-.
2t8 Formulas and Theorems

IV. Formulas and Theorems

1. Lirnits ancl Clontinuitv

A f u r r c t i o ryr : . f ( r ) i s c ' o n t i n u o uas, t . r - c i f :

i) l'(a) is clefirrecl(exists)

ii) e x i s t s .a n d
Jitl,/(.r')

i i i ) h r u . l ( . r) : . / ( r r )

at .r'- rr.
Othelrvise..f is <lisr:ontinrrorrs

Tire liniit lirrr l(r ) exisls if anclorrh'il iroth corresporrciirrg linrits exist a,ncla,r'e
one-si<le<l
etlrtrl tlrtrt is.

lrgr,,l'(.r): L .:..= .l'(.r) - I' - ./(.r)

,lirn, ,lirl

2. Intemrccliatc- \rahre Theroettt

A func'tion lt , .l (r) that is r'orrtinrrt.rrrs

r-rrra t:krserlinten'a,l fo. b] takes on every value
bct'uveerr
./(rr) arrd ./(6).

Notc: If ,f is corrtiriuorlsorr lrr.lr] an<1.l'(a) ancl .l'(1r)difler in sigrr. then the ecluatiou
.l'(.,)- 0 has at leu,stotte soirttiotritr the opetr itrterval (4.b).

3. Lirrritsof Ilatiorial Frui<'tiorrs

as .r + +:r;

/('] -o
lirrr if the <legreeof ./(.r') < thc clcglee of rt(r')
. r '+ i \ l/\.t J

', . 2 ') , ', . -

l ' . x ; r t r r 1 , l ,l' i:t , r ,. {l
.r'+r. .1"' ] .)

'2. '/ ,/ , \
lirrr i l t l r e , l e g l e eo l . / { . r ' )' t l r e r l e g l e eo f 1 7r()
: is irrlirrite
. ,- t r 9\.1/

, ,. .rr + 2ll'
r.xiulll)l(': nlil L )c
.r'++x. J'' - ai

/ ' / ,)
3. litl # it fiuite if the rlegteeof ./(.r:)- the degreeof .q(.r)
.r'+f - r/(.uJ

Notc: The limit u,ill be the rtrtio of the leaclingc'ciefficient

of .f(r;) to.q(r).

' 2 . r 2- i J . r - 2 2
r-xallrl)lc: llllr : -
t ( ) , r-' 5 r 2 5
 Formulas and Theorems 2I9

4. Horizontal ancl \rt'rtir:al As)'rnptotes

1. AIineg-bisnlurrizontalasvniptott'<-rfthegraphof q : . / ( . r ' ) i f e i t h e r l i r r r l ( . r ' ;= l ;

,,r (r) : b
.Itlt_ .f

2. A lirie .t - e is a vcrti<'alas)'rrrptotc of tlie graph of tt - .f(.r) if eitirel

. l ( . , , )= * r c ur. . / ( . r ' )- + x .
.,.hr, ,\)

5. A v c r a g c t r r r r lI r r s t a r r t i l l l ( - o l l sI l a t < ' o f ( ' l r a r r g t '

1 . A v t ' r a g t ' R a t c o f ( ' l r a t r g c : I f ( . r ' 9 . y r ra) t t r i ( . r ' l . q l ) i r l e l r o i t r t so r r t h e g l a i r l t < f t q - . l ' ( t ) .

t l t e r t t l t e a , v e l i r g ( r) i t t e o f c ' h a r r g eo f i l u - i t h r e r s p e c tt o . r ' o v c l t l r c i t r t c l r - a l l r ' 1 1 . .t r; i s

l!_r1'_l!,,) lr !1, ly '

.l'1 .l'9 .r'l ,r'() l.r

2. I t t s t a t r t n r i t ' o r rRsa t c o 1 ( 1 - l ' , l t r g ,I' 1

, ( , r ' 1 y . . r /i 9
s )a l r o i r r t o r r t h e g r a l r l r o I r l , - , . l ' ( . r ) .t i u r r r
t h e i t r s t a u t A r r e o L rl sa t e o f c h i r r i g t , o f i 7 n ' i t h r t , s p t , r ' t o . r ' a t , r ' 1i1s . f ' ' ( . r ' 1 ; ) .

6. Dcfirritiorr of t,lrc l)r.rir-ativt'

.f'(.,)-lll lEP,r' !y)--ll:'J

t'(,,) 11,1,
T l r t ' l a , t t < ' rc l c f i r r i t i o t ro l t l r t ' < k ' t i r ' ; r t i v t .i s t l r t ' i r r s t a r r t i r l r ( ' ( ) u rsi r t t , o f c h a r r g t ' o f ' . l ( . r ) u - i t l r
resltec:t to .t at .r -. (t.

G e o r r l e t r i t ' a l i r ' .t h t r < l e r i r ' : r t i v e o 1a f i t t l t ' t i 9 l t a t a l r , i l t t i s t l r t ' s l ' 1 r e , f t1e'tatrg<'tttlitrt' t,

tho graph of the firnc'tion at tltat lioirrt.

'fhc
7. N r r r r r l r c r( ' : l s a l i r r r i t

1. li'r (r + 1)" -(
n++a \ fl /

2 . l i n i ( 1 + r r) ; (
n -\)

8. Roller'sTheorerrr

on ln.0] arrrl ciiff'elentiablt'on(a.b) srrt'hthat.l'(rr).., l'(1,).tht'n thcle'

If .l'is c't-rntituu.rtts
is at leirst otte ttutttberc itr the opetr intelval (o.b) srrc'hthat.l/(r') - 0.

9. Nlcan Valuc Thcorcrrr

I f / i s c o t r t i t n r o r t so t t l n . l i l a u c l c l i f f e l e n t i a b l e o n ( o . f ) . t h e n t h e r e i s a t 1 t : a s to u t ' n u r r i l r e r
l / 1 . \ - J )I lt !^lr-
'/
l iti (n.b; .tttlr tlt;tt "'t - -
f'1, I
tt tI
220 Formulas and Theorems

1i) Extreme - Vaiue Tlieorem

If / is contirmouson a closeclinterval lo.l.,].then./(.r) has both a tnaxinrum aurl a

m i n i r n u mo n l a . b ] .

11. To firid the rnaximrrrnand nrirrinuru valuesof a furrc'ti<)\tt =,/(.r'). loc'ate

1. the point(s) r,r'hclc .f'(.r) c'harrges sign. To firrri the c'atrcliclatesfirst fincl lvhcre
'(.r:) -
,f 0 or is infinite rlr cltterstrot t:xist.

2. thc t:trrlpoittts. if :rtn'. ort tltt' rlotttaitr <lf ,/(.r').

Corrrpalc' thc frurctiorr va,lues at trll of thcsc points lir firrrl the tnaxiruuuls an(l ntirtitttttttts. l

12 L e t . / l i c ' c l i f f c l c n t i a l r i t ' f i r r r r < . 1 ' < 1 . t, t t t < lt o r t t i n t r o t r s f o r r r { . r < . l t .

l. I f , f ' ' ( . r )> 0 f o r ( ' v ( ' l ' \ ' . r ' i r r( r r . L ) . t h e r r . f i s i t r c t ' t ' a s i n go r r f r r . 1 l ] .

2. I f . / ' ( . r ' ){ 0 f o r e v e l v . r ' i r r ( o . L ) . t h t ' t t . f i s c l t ' t ' r t ' a s r t rogr r [ 4 . 1 l ] .

l')
_t,). th:rt .f'"(;r) t'xists ort tlte itrtelva,l(rr.lr).
Srippr-,se

1 . I f , f " ( t ' ) ) 0 i r r ( a . b ) . t l r c n . f i s < ' o r r c r , vuep u , r r r ' i<r lr ( a . / r ) .

'). If (lo$:lrwfrlcl
irr (rr./r).
.f"(.r) { 0 irr (rr.L).tlrerr.f is corrc'tr,ve

tfi tt -.1'(.r').firxl the proitrtsr'vhere.l'"(r') - () or u'ltt'r't:.f"(.r')

To lot'trtethe points of irrfkrc'tir.rrt
'Ilten
lyllere .f (.r')rnar.hal't'a poirrt of irillectitxt.
fails to cxist. l'irest,'arethe orrh'r'uclirl'r1,'t;
test tlresepoints to urirkcsure tha,t ,l'"(.,).- 0 on ont'sitlt'arrtl ,f"(.r) > 0 <.rtt tlu'other'.

1.1 Diffcrerrtialrrlitv irnplies r'ontiuuitt': If a frrnr:tiorris cliflereltialrlt' a,t a poirrt .r'- rr. it is
'I'he
t'<.irrtinuous
at that 1.loirrt. convcrst'is falst'. i.e. c'ontintritvrkrcs not iurpll'cliffert'ntiabilitr..

1 5 L o r r t r lL i r r < ' a r i t r -a r r < 1L i t r c a l A p p r o x i t t r a t i o r r

'l'iie
l i r i e a r t r p p r o x i t n z r t i o tot f . / ( . r ' )r r e a r . t ' - . t 0 i s g i v e r rl x ' 4 : . / ( . , ' e ) *.1'(.l'1)(.r' .re).

Tir estiuratc the slope of a gralrh at a poirrt rha,n a trrngerrt lirx-'to tltc graph at tliat point.
Arrother rva\. is (lx' using u grtrphit s cak'nla,tor') to "zoonr in" aroLtn<l the point itt cluestiorr
urrtil the glaph "kroks'' straight.'fhis rrretliocl alnrost ahva'"s \il)r'ks. If u'c' "zot.rtttin" att<l ther
glaph Lr,rks stlaiglrt at a point. sa)'.r': o. then the funr:tiorris loca,ll)'lincar at that point.

flre graph of u : ].r:l has a sharp (:olner' .rt :f :0. This col'll€rr c'arlllot lre stlrot-rtheclout lte
"zc.ronringin" r'epeatecllv.Consecluetrtll'. the clerivative of l.r' cioes not exist at .r' : 0. henc'e. is
not locallr' Iinear at .r' : 0.
 Formulas and Theorems 221

1Li. CourlraringRatcs of C'hatrgc

T l r t ' t ' x p o t r e t r t i : r l f u n c ' t i r ) u! : c ' g t ' < l u ' sv e r v l a p i r l h . A S . r ' - + t c u , h . i l et h e f t t g a r i t h m i c , f u l r . t i o n

l/ .. lrr.r' glo\\'s vt'r'r' skx.r,i-u' a.s .r' -) )c.

E r p o t r e r t t i a l f r r u c ' t i o r r sl i k e u - . 2 ' r t r ! / : r , , ' l l r . ( ) \ \ - n t o l . er : r p i c l l y a s . r + : r tharr an), positive

'1.'ht'fitttt'tiott
l)()\\'('1<if .r. i/ - hr.r' gr'o\\'s sl<lu'eras .t -+ x tltiil a1\r lotx,orrstarrt lt1;lvrr<1niai.

\ \ i ' s a r ' . t h a t a s . r '- + ) c :

l(r\ - \ lt|')
l. I t . tt g l ' ) \ \ ' : l ; r - 1 , 1l .l r i r r r, / i , rI i l l i r r r ,r'il lirrr {t.
r .r z/{,r') .r .\.l(.r')
f i . l ( r ' ) g l t x l s f h s t e r t h a t r a ( . r ' ) a s . r ' - + ) c . t h e r r q ( , r ' ) g r ' o w ss l o l r , t r t l u . r n . l ' ( . r . )A S . r . + r c .

2. '19
. / ( . r ) a r r < lr 7 ( . r ' )g r o u , a t t h e s a r n t ' r a t t , a s . r ' + r if lir,r L l0 (tr is firrite ancl
,. ,\ q(.r,)
rrouzt'r'o).

Fol t'xanrlllt'.

1 . r ' g t r x l s l ; r s t c r t l r a r r . r . : i l s . r , + r c s i r r r . r ,l i r r r -. :r,
{. t '

'2.
. r ' l g r ' , , 1 ' sl i r s t c l t l r a r r h r . r ' : r s . r . : r c s i r r < . e1 i , , , - x
,'1

3. . r ' : + 2 . r 'g l ( ) \ \ ' si r t t l l , s i r l r r t 'r ' r r t r ,' r s . , , 1a s . r . ) 'r2 l2

>c sirr<.r' I
,]11 ,i{
T i r f i r l < ls o t t t t ' o f t h e ' s t ' l i t r r i t si r s , r ' , \ . \ ' ( ) l l n r i r v l r s ( ' t h e g r a p h i n g t a l r . r r l a t . , r '\ .I a k e s u . c , t l a t
a l r a l ) l ) l ( ) l ) l i a t c r . i t ' u - i r r gr . l - i t r r l o riis- r r s c r l .

1 7. I r r r - t ' r ' sF
c r r r u ' ti o r r s

i. I f . / l r r r l 1 7i r l t ' t u , o f r r r r < . t i o u ss r r < . ht h a t . l ' ( q ( . r . ) )- . r f o r e - , \ ( ) 1..1\ .,i n t i u , r l o r r r a i r ro l q .

a r r t L .q ( . 1 ' ( . r ' ) ) . r ' . l i r r i r r t h c ' r l o l r a i r r o f . f . t h e r r . . f ' a r r d 1 7a r e i r r v e l s t ' f i u r r . t i o n s
til eirchotlrcr.

'2.
A f t l r r r ' 1 i o r r. f h t l s r t t t i t r v t ' r s r ' l i r t t t t i o u i f a r r r l o n h . i f r i o l r o r i z o r r t a l l i u e i r r t c r s e r r , t ist s
g r a l r l r u r o l t ' t l r i r r ro r r < ' ( r .

3. If .l is t'itlrt't ittt t'eilsilg or' <it'treasirrg in arr intt:r'val. tfien

f' |as a1 i1.,r'r.sefilrc:ti,'
or.t't thrrt irrtt'r't'al.

l. h I i s t l i l f i ' r t ' r r t i a ] r l t ' a t t ' v t ' t ' r - l r o i r r t o r i a r r i r r t e r v a l I . a r r c l , f ' ( . , t )I 0 orr I. t1e1

' - r(., is tlifTt'r<'utitrlrlt'
!l l I at everr'lroint of the interior of the interval l'(I) arrrl
l
,t'll l.rI) ' '
| .ttr
222 Formulas and Theorems

Ix P
' _ r
- l r r rr -l ' t- _t i l s r,1 r ''

.1''
1' I'htr t'xllorlt'utial futtctit.rti !/ - t'' is the irlverse function of t7:111

2. I ' l r t ' c l o r n a i t t i s t h c s e t r l f a l l r t ' a l r l t l r l l l ) e l ' s .- ) c <.lr < DC.

'l'lu'ritngt'is
3. tlrt'set of all llositive nttntllels.! > 0.

,l
-1. -l(, ') , ' .
(Lt'

5. ll .,r' i s < ' o n t i r t l r o r r si .n c ' r ' e r r s i r r ga.t t d ( o n ( ' i r v e r t l t f b l a l l . r : .

tt. iit]'_,' ., i x a t r t l l 1 t l t _r ' - ' 0 .

, ,.

r . r . .f i r r '. r .- > 0 l l r r ( r ' ) - . r ' f i r r a l l . r ' .

T. ,ltt

1 9 . P r o l r t ' r 'itt ' s o [ ] t t . r '

'l'lrc
1. r k r r r r i r i uo 1 r 7 l r r , r ' i s t h t : s e t to f a l l l t o s i t i v c t r u t t t l i e r s , . r ' > 0 .

'2. '['lrt'rirrrgt'of i7 . hr.r' is tlie sct of all rt'al lrtrttt]rers. x < l/ < :r'

urrrl corrcavtr clou,tt cverYrvltertl r-rttits tlclrltrin.

:1. r7 . lrr.r' is <.orrlirrrrorts.itr<'r'e'asirrg.

1 . l r r ( r r | )- l t r r r I l t r 1 i .

1. l t r l , ft l , I ltr,r l r r/ ,

(;. 1 1 1 1 l , . . 1 ' 1 11v 1

7. i7 hr.r '- 0 iI 0 .: .r'.- I arrrllrr.r'> 0 if .r > 1.

E. ltr.r'- *:r trrtrl ltt.r'- -)c'

,lllt. ,.lt]li

1).l.g,,.r'il;

20. 1 - tl p c z o i t l i r l I l r r l t '

If ir f\urt.tiorr.fis c'outiuuorrs orr tlrt't'krseclinte't'val[4.b] where fo.b] has ]reenpartitioned

i r r t r r l s t t l r i r t t t , r ' r ' tIr. lrs' 1 . . r ' rl j, .r . i 2 ] . . . . . [ . r : , , r . . t : , , ] .e n t : l t o f l e n g t h ( b - a ) l n . t h e n
rlt r
.
I f t , ) r / . r=' - ; ; [ . / ( , 0 ) + ' 2 . (f . r r )+ 2 / ( . r z )+ . . . + 2 J ( . r ' ,r,) + . / ( . r " ) ]
.t ,,

Tlrt. T'ralrezoiclal Rrrlt' is tlre avelage of the left-hancl and riglrt-hancl R,iemann sulns.
 Formulas and Theorems 223

21. Propcrties of tlic Dcfinitc Ilttcgral

Let ,/(.r) and r7(,r) be c,cintirruuousorr

la. ll].

fb rt,
1. ( r ) r l , t ' : c , l , , . r r r ,r 1 . rr.' i s a u o r . z c rco, o n s t a n t .
J,,,,'.f

ft
2' f ('') rl'rr- 0
.1,,

:l
I'tt
- |t'
lt,t,t,
.1,,,,')'ltr .f,,
[t' r' lt'
+. r , r . h e r,.ft ' i s c o n t i n r r o uosn a r r i r r t e r . v a l
.1,,,r,),lr- f,,.1t.,)n.,*,1,.f'(.r)rl.r..
r'orttailrittgtlte trutnltet'srr. 1r.arrrlr'. r'egarrllt'ss
ol tlrt'or'<lt'r.a.|. arrclr,.

5 . I f l ( . r ' ) i s t r n o t l r l f i u r r . t i o nt.h , ' , r / . l ( r ' ) r l . t . - ( l

.l ,,

",,.1'(.t.)
tj. If ./(.r) is arr even fiul.tion. tlruu tlr I .l{.,) ,t,,.
.f ,f,,'

7 I I . l ( . r )] 0 o n l r r 1
. r ]r. h e r rl ' " , , ( , , ,r / . r>, 0
.t,,

8 . I f . q ( . rZ' ). f ( r ) , n l o . b l .r l * , u 7 ,t.,
[ , , " , , { . r ) , 1 , r, [ , , " . 1 { . , . 1

22. Dcfiriti.' . f D < ' f i r r i t t 'h r t < ' g r : r lt r s t l i . L i ' r i t , f u S r r r r r

S t t l l l r t l s t ' t h a t a f i r t t t r t i o t t . l ' ( . r ' ) i s < o n t i r u r o r r s o r r t h e r . k r s t ' < li r r t e l v a l

l r r . l i ]. D i v i r l e t 1 e
iritt'rval irrto rr cclrral sulrirrtcrvals.ol length A.r. l :
" (,h,,,,st,(,ll(, nl1lnl)er.irr caclr
s t t b i t r t t ' l v a l i . t ' . . r ' 1i n t l u ' f i l s t . . r ' 2i r r t l r t , s t , r ' o r r r l. . . . . r ' A . ' i 1t l , , ' A . t h . . . . . ^ r r r l . r . , ,
i, tlr. rrt5.
'
rl,
'Ilicu,,lirrr
r , r ' 1) J r ' - { . , ), t . ,
I f, , . f

'flrlollrrr
2:1. Funrlarncntal ,1 ('ak.uhrs

7b

I tt.,) ,l.t l:iltt 1 - ' t rt i. n " l u , r .Ft ,, ( . r ) : , f( . . r ' )

.t ,,

o,+..f',,' j,
,,,,,,, ri, ,',',r rtt:,f(q(t.))g,(.r).
f ,"''',,rr,
 Formulas and Theorems

24. Y"t".lty, Sp..a,

"t
1. The vclocity of an object tells how fast it is going and in which direction. Velocity is
an instantaneous rate of change.

2. The spceclof an obiect is the absolute value of the velocity, lr(t)I. It tells how fast
it is going disregarding its direction.

The speeclof a particle irrcrcascs(speedsup) when the velocity and acceleration have
thersarrresigns. The speed clecreascs(slows down) when the velocity and acceleration
have opposite signs.

3. The acr:cier:rtionis thc irrstantarreousrate of change of velocity it is the derivative

c-rfthe veloc:ity that is. o(l) : r"(t). Negative acceleration(deceleration)means that
Tlie acceleration gives the rate at which the velocity is
t[e vgloc:ity is dec:r'easirrg.
crharrging.

Therefore, if .r is the displacernentof a rnoving objec:tand I is time, then:

i) veloc:itY: u(r) : tr (t\ :

#

n : ."' ( t) : r ' /( /)- #. : #

i i ) a c'cre l e ra:ti o (t)

iii)i'(/) [n(t1,tt

i v) .r(t)- [ ,,3 1a ,

Notc: T[e av('ragc velclcity of a partir:le over the tirne interval frorn ts to another time f. is

vel;c'itv: T#*frH#:
Average "(r] -;'itol. wheres(t) is the p.sitionof
the partic:leat tinre t.

25. The avetage value of /(r) on [a. ir] is

+,,,,
1,,'
f (r) d:r.

26 Arca BctwtxrriCtrrvt,s

If ./ ancl g are continuousfuncrtionssuch that /(:r) 2 s@) on [a,b], then the area between
,.b
I

I l r e c r r r v e si s / l / ( " ,I - q ( r l ) d r .
Ja
 Formulas and Theorems 225

2 7 . Volume of Soiids of R.evolution

Let / be nonnegative and continuous on [a,.b]. and let R be the region bounded above
b y g : / ( r " ) . b e l o w b y t h e r - a x i s , a n d o n t h e s i d e sb y t h e l i n e s r : : n a n d r : b .

When this region .R is revolved about tire .r'-axis.it gerreratesa solid (having circular
fo
crrosssec'tions)u'hosevolume V - | {j'(.,'l)2 ,1.,.
/tt

28 Volunrcsof Soli<lswith Knowrr Cross Scctions

l. Fol cross sectionsof area A(:r:). taken pt'r'lierrcli<'ulartcl the r-zrxis.

',llttttt' : ^rr, dr.

.[rr"

z. Fbr <'rossse<rtions
of area A(37)taken perpt'rrriicrrlar
to the 37-axis,

v.ltrttc' - ^r,, rh.

.[,"

29. SolvirrgDifferential Equations: Graphically ancl Nurnerrir.all.l'

Skrpc Fieicls

Af ever'1'poirrt (.r.r7) a differetrtial ecluatiorrof the folrrr # - f t, .i/) gives the slope of tht'
nernber of the farnily of solutit.rnsthat c:onta,insthat poirrt. A slope fielcl is a, gra,lrhictrl
represent:rtiotrof this family of curves. At eac:hpt-rirrtirr the plarre. a short s()gnlentis rlrau'n
slope is eclualto the value of the clerivativerat that poirrt. I'hese scgnrerrtsare taugcnt
"vhose
to the sohrtion's graph at the poirrt.

The slope fielcl allows you to sketc:hthe graph of ther solution cul've even though you rlo rrot
have its ec|ration. This is clc-rne
by starting at arry point (usuallv the point given bv the initial
c'ondititin).and moving fron one poirrt to the next in the direc'tionirrdicntedby the segrncnts
of the slope fielcl.

Somc t'trlc'ulatorshavtt built in operations fbr drawing slope fields; fcir calculatorsrvithorrt tiris
feature tlrere are l)rograms available fbr drawing thern.

30. Soiving Diffelential Equations b)' Separatirrgthe Variables

There are lnAny technicluesfor solving differential equations. Any differential equatir_rnvou
may be asked to solve ott the AB Calculus Exam can be solved by separating the variables.
R,ewrite the equatioll as an erluivalent equation with all the r and dr terrns on otle side arxl
all the q and d37terrns ou the c-rther.Antidifferentiate both sides to obtain an e(luation
without dr or du, but with orte c'onstantof inteqration. Use the initial condition to evahrate
this constant.