Notes

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy Riyaz Mohammed
DIGITAL NOTES
ON
NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
JNTUH|B.TECH.|OPEN ELECTIVE|R18
DISCLAIMER
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a
substitute for prescribed textbooks. The matter/information presented here
is prepared by the author by referring the various sources as well as freely
available material(s) from internet. The ownership of the information lies with
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(Riyaz Mohammed)
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SYLLABUS
UNIT – I
Principles of Solar Radiation: Role and potential of new and renewable

source, the solar energy option, Environmental impact of solar power -
Physics of the sun, the solar constant, extra-terrestrial and terrestrial solar
radiation, Solar radiation on titled surface, Instruments for measuring solar
radiation and sun shine, solar radiation data.
Solar Energy Collection: Flat plate and concentrating collectors,

classification of concentrating collectors, orientation and thermal analysis,
advanced collectors.
UNIT – II
Solar Energy Storage and Applications: Different methods, sensible, latent

heat and stratified storage, solar ponds. Solar applications - solar
heating/cooling techniques, solar distillation and drying, photovoltaic energy
conversion.
Wind Energy: Sources and potentials, horizontal and vertical axis windmills,
performance characteristics, Betz criteria.
UNIT – III
Bio-Mass: Principles of Bio-Conversion, Anaerobic/aerobic digestion, types of

Bio-gas digesters, gas yield, combustion characteristics of biogas, utilization
for cooking, I.C. Engine operation, and economic aspects.
UNIT – IV
Geothermal Energy: Resources, types of wells, methods of harnessing the

energy, potential in India.
Ocean Energy: OTEC, Principles, utilization, setting of OTEC plants,

thermodynamic cycles.
Tidal and Wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques, mini-hydel

power plants, their economics.
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UNIT – V
Direct Energy Conversion (DEC): Need for DEC, Carnot cycle, limitations,
Principles of DEC. Thermoelectric generators, Seebeck, Peltier and Joule
Thompson effects, figure of merit, materials, applications, MHD generators,
principles, dissociation and ionization, hall effect, magnetic flux, MHD
accelerator, MHD engine, power generation systems, electron gas dynamic
conversion, economic aspects. Fuel cells, principle, faraday’s laws,
thermodynamic aspects, selection of fuels and operating conditions.
*****
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UNIT – I
PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION
ROLE AND POTENTIAL OF NEW AND RENEWABLE SOURCE
Attention of scientists and engineers all over the world has been drawn to
develop alternative energy technologies, since the oil crisis in 1973. The
commonly referred oil crisis is more of a crisis of prices; in addition to, of
course:
1) Quick dwindling of fossil fuel reserves and

2) Increase in demand at an alarming rate. Realization of these two
aspects led scientists and engineers look for alternatives.
Many options have been found and examined. Prominent among the options
are as following:
1) Solar thermal.
2) Solar photovoltaic.
3) Wind energy.
4) Geothermal.
5) Tidal and wave energies.
Among these, solar energy is relatively more uniformly available. Also

according to one estimate, the energy that reaches the Earth from 20 days of
sunshine is equal to the energy stored in all of Earth’s reserves of fossil fuels
like, coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
In additions to the ‘fuels’ (commonly referred to as fossil fuels) referred above,

two prominent, existing and fairly widely used, energy sources are the hydro-
electric and the nuclear. though the potential of hydro-electric route is
enormous, may not be available at a chosen location in addition to the other
problems of huge land getting submerged and relocation of the people and
other life forms in the area. Similarly, nuclear energy (particularly the breeder
reactors) option holds a promise, though mired by safety issues and spread
of pollutants. In this course on solar thermal energy, we shall not devote our
attention to examining the merits and demerits of all possible future energy
sources. Before we examine the solar option in detail, it is worthwhile to
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examine if there is any intrinsic reason for dependence on external energy

resources to meet the needs of human beings, viz., food, shelter and clothing.
Of course, the provision to fulfill the needs of other live forms also has to be
made.
ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE, NON-CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY & THE

SOLAR ENERGY OPTION
The terminology commonly heard, alternate energy sources, renewable energy

sources, or non-conventional energy sources is somewhat misleading and
certainly confusing. Strictly speaking, what is conventional today might have
been non-conventional a hundred years back. Similarly, the alternate energy
source leads to the question, ‘alternate’, to what? Renewable energy source
gives the impression, that the source is perennial. Even, “solar energy” (and
hence its manifestations) lasts a finite time, no matter how long this finite
time is! Though we use these terms synonymously, we should understand the
implication and distinction which is, many times, missed by the readers,
speakers, as well as listeners. Commonly talked about alternate energy
sources are, solar energy, wind energy, bio-mass, wave and tidal energy, and
geothermal sources etc. Among these, solar energy appears to be the most
promising.
The justification comes from the following considerations:
1) Nearly perennial.
2) Well distributed over the world (we may say, there is no bias for
developed, developing or underdeveloped countries), predictable
(though one may not be able to predict the solar radiation, say, on
August 27th, 2012 at a location during 9.30 AM to 11.30 AM, one can
work with likely averages for design purposes). By these features, one
can guess the limitations of the other sources.
3) For example, wind energy, a manifestation of the solar, is about only
2% of the solar energy and is restricted to certain high wind velocity
zones for harnessing. Of course, we do note, wind energy is a high
grade energy source.
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4) Wave and tidal energy are restricted by location as well as low

efficiency.
5) Similarly, geothermal energy is not uniformly distributed and is limited
like fossil fuels. Given that a promising (with already some proven
success) option is the solar energy, we attempt to study the principles,
applications and methods to predict the performance of the solar
energy systems. We note at this stage that a solar energy system
performance though depends on the ‘solar collector performance, also
highly depends on the system configuration.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOLAR POWER
The sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable
electricity without toxic pollution or global warming emissions.
The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power - land use
and habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in
manufacturing can vary greatly depending on the technology, which includes
two broad categories: photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating solar
thermal plants (CSP). The scale of the system ranging from small, distributed
rooftop PV arrays to large utility-scale PV and CSP projects also plays a
significant role in the level of environmental impact.
Land Use: Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can
raise concerns about land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area
requirements vary depending on the technology, the topography of the site,
and the intensity of the solar resource. Estimates for utility-scale PV systems
range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt, while estimates for CSP facilities are
between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt.
Unlike wind facilities, there is less opportunity for solar projects to share land
with agricultural uses. However, land impacts from utility-scale solar systems
can be minimized by siting them at lower-quality locations such as brown
fields, abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and transmission
corridors. Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on homes or
commercial buildings, also have minimal land use impact.
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Water Use: Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However,
as in all manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar
PV components.
Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants,
require water for cooling. Water use depends on the plant design, plant
location, and the type of cooling system.
CSP plants that use wet-recirculating technology with cooling towers

withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of
electricity produced. CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have
higher levels of water withdrawal, but lower total water consumption (because
water is not lost as steam). Dry-cooling technology can reduce water use at
CSP plants by approximately 90 percent. However, the trade-offs to these
water savings are higher costs and lower efficiencies. In addition, dry-cooling
technology is significantly less effective at temperatures above 100 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Many of the regions in the United States that have the highest potential for
solar energy also tend to be those with the driest climates, so careful
consideration of these water trade-offs is essential.
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Hazardous Materials: The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number

of hazardous materials, most of which are used to clean and purify the
semiconductor surface. These chemicals, similar to those used in the general
semiconductor industry, include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid,
hydrogen fluoride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and acetone. The amount and type
of chemicals used depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is
needed, and the size of silicon wafer. Workers also face risks associated with
inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must follow U.S. laws to ensure
that workers are not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and that
manufacturing waste products are disposed of properly.
Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic materials than those used
in traditional silicon photovoltaic cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-
indium-gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride. If not handled and
disposed of properly, these materials could pose serious environmental or
public health threats. However, manufacturers have a strong financial
incentive to ensure that these highly valuable and often rare materials are
recycled rather than thrown away.
Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions: While there are no global warming

emissions associated with generating electricity from solar energy, there are
emissions associated with other stages of the solar life-cycle, including
manufacturing, materials transportation, installation, maintenance, and
decommissioning and dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle emissions
for photovoltaic systems are between 0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour.
Most estimates for concentrating solar power range from 0.08 to 0.2 pounds
of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In both cases, this is far less
than the lifecycle emission rates for natural gas (0.6-2 lbs of CO2E/kWh) and
coal (1.4-3.6 lbs of CO2E/kWh).
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PHYSICS/NATURE OF THE SUN [OR] PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION &

REACTIONS OF THE SUN
Sun is a medium sized yellow star that may be considered as a sphere of

intensely hot gaseous matter with an average diameter of 1.39 x 109 m at an
average distance of 1.495 x 1011 m (or 1 Astronomical unit) from the earth.
The sun coalesced from a cloud of gas and dust formed 4.5 billion years ago.
Earth goes round the sun in an elliptic orbit as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The earth is closest to the sun at 1.471x1011 m, the perihelion around

January 2 each year; it is farthest at 1.526 x1011 m around July 2 each year
Sun, in effect is a continuous fusion reactor and the constituent gases are a
containing vessel retained by gravitational forces. Most important fusion
reaction is hydrogen combining to form helium. Energy is produced in the
sun (and other stars also) by continuous fusion in which four nuclei of
hydrogen fuse in a series of reactions involving other particles that continually
appear and disappear in the course of the reactions, such as He3, nitrogen,
carbon and other nuclei, but culminating in one nucleus of helium and two
positrons. Resulting in a mass decrease.
This reaction results in a mass decrease of about 0.0276 amu, corresponding

to 25.7 MeV. The heat produced in these reactions maintains temperatures of
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the order of several million degrees in the core region of the sun and serves to
trigger and sustain succeeding reactions.
The Sun is made up of about 2 x 1030 kilograms of gas. It is composed of

about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. About 0.1% is metals made from
hydrogen via nuclear fusion. It has been estimated that the sun has used up
about half of its initial hydrogen available 4.5 billion years ago, i.e., the time
of formation. A simple schematic of the sun is shown in Fig. 2.2. With
reference to Fig. 2.2, 90 % of the energy is generated in the region 0 < r < 0.23
Rsun, where Rsun is the radius of the sun. The temperature at 0.7 Rsun is
the order of 130 x 103 K. From the region r > Rsun, convection process begins
and is referred to as the convective zone. The upper layer of the convective
zone is the photosphere, which is the source of most solar radiation. Other
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layers following the reversing layer (a layer of relatively cooler gases of several
hundred km deep), are, chromosphere (has a depth of 10, 000 km with
somewhat higher temperature and lower density) and lastly, the corona, of
very low density and at a temperature of 106 K. Solar radiation is the
composite result of several layers which absorb and emit at various wave
lengths. For, thermal purposes it is adequate to consider the sun to be a
blackbody at an effective temperature of 5762 K. This information is adequate
for many solar energy calculations.
The details of the sun’s temperature are depicted in Fig. 2.4. The Sun's core
can reach 5.5x106 oC to 12.5x106 oC. The estimates vary, the higher one going
up to 40x106 oC. The surface temperature is approximately 5,500°C. The outer
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atmosphere of the sun goes up, to 1.5x106 oC to 2x106 oC degrees. The effective
temperature of the sun is determined by measuring how much energy much
energy (both heat and light) it emits.
THE SOLAR CONSTANT
The solar constant, Gsc, is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received
on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radiation at the earth's mean distance from the sun, if the earth’s the
atmosphere is fully transparent. It may be viewed on any unit surface normal
to sun’s rays on a sphere of radius equal to the sun-earth mean distance,
thus alleviating the difficulty in imagining a fully transparent atmosphere
around the earth. The recently reported value of the solar constant is 1367
W/m2.
The physical idea can be obtained by considering the sun to be a sphere of

diameter 1.39 x 109 m, emitting as a black body at an effective temperature
of 5762 K. The amount of radiation emitted by the sun As T4 would be , is
the Stefan - Boltzman constant (= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 W.K4) and As is the
surface area of the sun. The same amount of radiation passes through any
sphere surrounding the sun as center. Thus, the surface of a sphere of radius
equal to the sun-earth mean distance will experience intensity (W/m2)
inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the sphere enclosing the
sun. This proportioning leads approximately to 1349 W/m2.
The variation in the total radiation emitted by sun is less than use energy in
large spectrum of the entire solar spectrum, and when the transmittance of
atmosphere is a major uncertainty, the emitted energy by the sun may be
considered as constant.
EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation on a surface normal to sun's rays kept at a distance of sun-

earth, (not the mean distance, but the actual distance as of, on that day, that
time) Gon, will essentially be the solar constant, modified to take into account
the varying distance between the sun and the earth. Gon is given by,
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Different Angles:
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TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION
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SOLAR RADIATION ON TITLED SURFACE
Expressing the Basic components The solar radiation received by a tilted

surface comprises of direct, diffuse and ground reflected components. A
horizontal surface receives the direct and diffuse components of radiation
while the tilted surface receives in addition, a ground reflected component if
the surface ‘sees’ the ground. Since the direct component has a definite
direction, first, the direct component will be estimated. The procedure
describes to evaluate a factor, referred to as the tilt factor for direct radiation,
which when multiplies the direct radiation available on a horizontal surface
(commonly available form of data) yields the direct radiation on the tilted
surface. Similarly the diffuse component shall be multiplied with a different
factor. The ground reflected radiation would be the product of solar radiation
on the horizontal surface, ground reflectivity and a view factor. On a day
(Thus, if G is the intensity of solar radiation at an instant (defined by the hour
angle) on a horizontal surface, it is conceivable that G comprises of, 
designated by the declination.
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Expression for Rb:
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INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION & SUN SHINE [OR]

SOLAR RADIATION & SUN SHINE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
There are two types of infrared detectors for solar radiation measurement. The
difference is in the detectors, thermal detectors and photon detectors. Heating
effect of incident radiation causing a change in some physical property of the
detector is the principle underlying the thermal detectors. The time constant
of the detectors should be small for responding to quick changes in the
incident radiation. However, a quick response requires a long time constant
and a low heat capacity. Fortunately, time constant of several seconds can be
accepted in solar radiation measurements, since the systems in general
massive and has long time constants. Photon detectors convert some of the
incident radiation directly into electricity, which is proportional to the incident
radiation. The detecting capability, in general, of photon detectors is one or
two orders of magnitude greater. However, the penalty associated with photon
detectors is that their spectral response is non-uniform.
Alternately, instruments to measure solar radiation broadly fall into three

categories. They are, 1) measure global radiation 2) diffuse radiation and 3)
direct radiation. It is easy to envisage that, it is best to measure normal
incident direct radiation and in order to-do this, the instrument sensor needs
to face the sun always. This calls for a tracking instrument with consequent
inconvenience and additional equipment to follow the sun. Most often, global
and diffuse components of radiation are measured and direct radiation
measurements be used in checking the other two measurements. The
instruments used to measure global radiation are referred to as,
Pyranometers, and those used to measure diffuse radiation are referred to as
pyranometers with shading ring which cuts off the direct radiation. The
instruments that measure direct radiation are called pyrheliometers.
Pyranometers: Eppley pyranometer designed by Kimball and Hobbs, of US

Weather Bureau has become the most widely used working Pyranometer’s.
The Eppley Pyranometer's detector or the working surface consists of two
concentric silver rings. The inner ring is coated with Parsons optical black
lacquer and the outer one is coated with white magnesium oxide. The
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temperature difference between the two is an indication of the incident solar

radiation and is measured by a thermopile. The sensor is placed inside a
hermetically sealed spherical lamp bulb filled with dry air.
The detector is best when used to measure horizontal radiation. A reduction

of 5% output is caused when the instrument is mounted vertically due to
convective currents in the glass enclosure. The new Eppley pyranometer
equipped with a thermister compensated electrical circuit reduced the
temperature dependence and improved the cosine response.
Sunshine Recorder: The sunshine recorders essentially static do not require

power supply and alleviate the difficulties faced by the recorders where
uninterrupted power supply is not available. They are essentially, spherical
lenses, which blacken a sensitive strip. The length of the charred portion of
the strip is related to the solar radiation with the help of measurements made
by alternate instruments. The empirical constants derived in the relations are
expected to be valid for the type of climate for which they are derived. Though
these recorders are only approximate, they are simple to use. Indeed,
significant numbers of studies have been made in deriving reliable constants
and examining their applicability for different climates.
Campbell-Stokes Recorder focuses solar radiation to burn a trace in a chart.

Jordan Recorder focuses sunlight on to photographic paper. Marvin Recorder
makes use of a thermoelectric switch to actuate a chronograph to trace the
sunshine hours. The daily global solar radiation on a horizontal radiation H
is related to the number of hours of bright sunshine (directly related to the
length of the blackened portion of strip).
SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION
Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident
radiations into thermal energy by absorbing them. This heat is extracted by
flowing fluid (air or water or mixture with antifreeze) in the tube of the collector
for further utilization in different applications.
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Types of Solar Collectors: The collectors are classified as:
1) Non concentrating collectors.

2) Concentrating (focusing) collectors.
1) Non concentrating collectors: In these type, the collector area is the same
as the absorber area. It is generally used for low & medium temperature
requirements.
2) Concentrating (focusing) collectors: It have a larger interceptor than

absorber. It is generally used for high temperature requirements.
FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
Flat plate collector is most important part of any solar thermal energy system.
It is simplest in design and both direct and diffuse radiations are absorbed by
collector and converted into useful heat. These collectors are suitable for
heating to temperature below 100C.
Flat plate collector absorbs both beam and diffuse components of radiant
energy. The absorber plate is a specially treated blackened metal surface. Sun
rays striking the absorber plate are absorbed causing rise of temperature of
transport fluid. Thermal insulation behind the absorber plate and transparent
cover sheets (glass or plastic) prevent loss of heat to surroundings.
The constructional details of flat plate collector is given below:
1) Insulated Box: The rectangular box is made of thin G.I sheet and is
insulated from sides and bottom using glass or mineral wool of
thickness 5 to 8 cm to reduce losses from conduction to back and side
wall. The box is tilted at due south and a tilt angle depends on the
latitude of location. The face area of the collector box is kept between
1 to 2 m2.
2) Transparent Cover: This allows solar energy to pass through and
reduces the convective heat losses from the absorber plate through air
space. The transparent tampered glass cover is placed on top of
rectangular box to trap the solar energy and sealed by rubber gaskets
to prevent the leakage of hot air. It is made of plastic/glass but glass
is most favorable because of its transmittance and low surface
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degradation. However with development of improved quality of plastics,

the degradation quality has been improved. The plastics are available
at low cost, light in weight and can be used to make tubes, plates and
cover but are suitable for low temperature application 70-120 C with
single cover plate or up to 150C using double cover plate. The
thickness of glass cover 3 to 4 mm is commonly used and 1 to 2 covers
with spacing 1.5 to 3 cm are generally used between plates. The
temperature of glass cover is lower than the absorber plate and is a
good absorber of thermal energy and reduces convective and radiative
losses of sky.
3) Absorber Plate: It intercepts and absorbs the solar energy. The
absorber plate is made of copper, aluminum or steel and is in the
thickness of 1 to 2 mm. It is the most important part of collector along
with the tubes products passing the liquid or air to be heated. The plate
absorbs the maximum solar radiation incident on it through glazing
(cover plate) and transfers the heat to the tubes in contact with
minimum heat losses to atmosphere. The plate is black painted and
provided with selective material coating to increase its absorption and
reduce the emission. The absorber plate has high absorption (80-95%)
and low transmission/reflection.
4) Tubes: The plate is attached to a series of parallel tubes or one
serpentine tube through which water or other liquid passes. The tubes
are made of copper, aluminum or steel in the diameter 1 to 1.5 cm and
are brazed, soldered on top/bottom of the absorber water equally in all
the tubes and collect it back from the other end. The header pipe is
made of same material as tube and of larger diameter. Now-a-days the
tubes are made of plastic but they have low thermal conductivity and
higher coefficient of expansion than metals.
Copper and aluminum are likely to get corroded with saline liquids and steel
tubes with inhibitors are used at such places. Removal of Heat: These systems
are best suited to applications that require low temperatures. Once the heat
is absorbed on the absorber plate it must be removed fast and delivered to the
place of storage for further use. As the liquid circulates through the tubes, it
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absorbs the heat from absorber plate of the collectors. The heated liquid
moves slowly and the losses from collector will increase because of rise of high
temperature of collector and will lower the efficiency. Flat-plate solar
collectors are less efficient in cold weather than in warm weather. Factors
affecting the Performance of Flat Plate Collector. The different factors affecting
the performance of system are:
1) Incident Solar Radiation: The efficiency of collector is directly related

with solar radiation falling on it and increases with rise in temperature.
2) Number of Cover Plate: The increase in number of cover plate reduces
the internal convective heat losses but also prevents the transmission
of radiation inside the collector. More than two cover plate should not
be used to optimize the system.
3) Spacing: The more space between the absorber and cover plate the
less internal heat losses. The collector efficiency will be increased.
However on the other hand, increase in space between them provides
the shading by side wall in the morning and evening and reduces the
absorbed solar flux by 2-3% of system. The spacing between absorber
and cover plate is kept 2-3 cm to balance the problem.
4) Collector Tilt: The flat plate collectors do not track the sun and should
be tilted at angle of latitude of the location for an average better
performance. However with changing declination angle with seasons
the optimum tilt angle is kept Φ ± 15o The collector is placed with south
facing at northern hemisphere to receive maximum radiation
throughout the day.
5) Selective Surface: Some materials like nickel black (α= 0.89, ε= 0.15)
and black chrome (α= 0.87, ε= 0.088), copper oxide (α= 0.89, ε= 0.17)
etc. are applied chemically on the surface of absorber in a thin layer of
thickness 0.1 μm. These chemicals have high degree of absorption (α)
to short wave radiation (<4 μm) and low emission (ε) of long wave
radiations (> 4 μm). The higher absorption of solar energy increase the
temperature of absorber plate and working fluid. The top losses reduce
and the efficiency of the collector increases. The selective surface
should be able to withstand high temperature of 300-400 oC, cost less,
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should not oxidize and be corrosive resistant. The property of material

should not change with time.
6) Inlet Temperature: With increase in inlet temperature of working fluid
the losses increase to ambient. The high temperature fluid absorbed
the less heat from absorber plate because of low temperature difference
and increases the top loss coefficient. Therefore the efficiency of
collector get reduced with rise in inlet temperature.
7) Dust on cover Plate: The efficiency of collector decreases with dust
particles on the cover plate because the transmission radiation
decreases by 1%. Frequent cleaning is required to get the maximum
efficiency of collector.
Advantages of flat plate collectors:
1) It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.
2) Requires less maintenance.
Disadvantages of flat plate collectors:
1) Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.

2) No tracking of sun.
3) Low water temperature is achieved.
Applications of flat plate collector:
1) Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.

2) Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.
3) Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
4) Drying applications.
5) Residence heating.
CONCENTRATING/FOCUSING COLLECTORS
Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity

of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors use optical
system in the form of reflectors or refractors. These collectors are used for
medium (100-300oC) and high-temperature (above 300oC) applications such
as steam production for the generation of electricity. The high temperature is
achieved at absorber because of reflecting arrangement provided for
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concentrating the radiation at required location using mirrors and lenses.

These collectors are best suited to places having more number of clear days
in a year. The area of the absorber is kept less than the aperture through
which the radiation passes, to concentrate the solar flux. These collectors
require tracking to follow the sun because of optical system. The tracking rate
depends on the degree of concentration ratio and needs frequent adjustment
for system having high concentration ratio. The efficiency of these collectors
lies between 50-70%. The collectors need more maintenance than FPC
because of its optical system. The concentrating collectors are classified on
the basis of reflector used; concentration ratio and tracking method adopted.
FPC with Reflectors The mirrors are placed as reflecting surface to concentrate
more radiations on FPC absorber. The fluid temperature is higher by 30oC
than achieved in FPC. These collections utilize direct and diffuse radiation.
Lens Focusing Type The fresnel lenses are used to concentrate the radiation
at its focus. The lower side of lenses is grooved so that radiation concentrates
on a focus line.
Schematic diagram of concentrating collector:
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
There are different types of concentrating (focusing) collectors. They are:
1) Point focus technology.

i. Fresnel reflector based dish (ARUN dish).
ii. Dual axis tracked paraboloid dish.
2) Line focus technology.
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i. Parabolic Troughs Collectors (PTC).

ii. Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR).
3) Non focusing technology.
i. Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC).
*****
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UNIT – II
SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE AND APPLICATIONS
SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE
Solar energy is available only during the sunshine hours. Consumer energy
demands follow their own time pattern & the solar energy does not fully match
the demand. As a result, energy storage is a must to meet the consumer
requirement.
DIFFERENT METHODS: SENSIBLE, LATENT HEAT AND STRATIFIED

STORAGE
1) Sensible heat storage.

2) Latent heat storage.
3) Stratified storage.
1) Sensible Heat Storage:
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2) Latent Heat Storage:
3) Stratified Storage:
SOLAR PONDS
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SOLAR DISTILLATION
SOLAR DRYING
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PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSION
Photoelectric effect:
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WIND ENERGY
The wind is a by-product of solar energy. Approximately 2% of the sun's

energy reaching the earth is converted into wind energy. The surface of the
earth heats and cools unevenly, creating atmospheric pressure zones that
make air flow from high- to low-pressure areas.
The wind has played an important role in the history of human civilization.
The first known use of wind dates back 5,000 years to Egypt, where boats
used sails to travel from shore to shore. The first true windmill, a machine
with vanes attached to an axis to produce circular motion, may have been
built as early as 2000 B.C. in ancient Babylon. By the 10th century A.D.,
windmills with wind-catching surfaces having 16 feet length and 30 feet
height were grinding grain in the areas in eastern Iran and Afghanistan.
The multi-vane "farm windmill" of the American Midwest and West was
invented in the United States during the latter half of the l9th century. In
1889 there were 77 windmill factories in the United States, and by the turn
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of the century, windmills had become a major American export. Until the
diesel engine came along, many transcontinental rail routes in the U.S.
depended on large multi-vane windmills to pump water for steam locomotives.
Farm windmills are still being produced and used, though in reduced
numbers. They are best suited for pumping ground water in small quantities
to livestock water tanks. In the 1930s and 1940s, hundreds of thousands of
electricity producing wind turbines were built in the U.S. They had two or
three thin blades which rotated at high speeds to drive electrical generators.
These wind turbines provided electricity to farms beyond the reach of power
lines and were typically used to charge storage batteries, operate radio
receivers and power a light bulb. By the early 1950s, however, the extension
of the central power grid to nearly every American household, via the Rural
Electrification Administration, eliminated the market for these machines.
Wind turbine development lay nearly dormant for the next 20 years.
A typical modern windmill looks as shown in the following figure. The wind-
mill contains three blades about a horizontal axis installed on a tower. A
turbine connected to a generator is fixed about the horizontal axis.
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Like the weather in general, the wind can be unpredictable. It varies from
place to place, and from moment to moment. Because it is invisible, it is not
easily measured without special instruments. Wind velocity is affected by the
trees, buildings, hills and valleys around us. Wind is a diffuse energy source
that cannot be contained or stored for use elsewhere or at another time.
CLASSIFICATION OF WIND-MILLS: HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL AXIS

WINDMILLS
Wind turbines are classified into two general types: Horizontal axis and
Vertical axis. A horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis
parallel to the ground. A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an
axis perpendicular to the ground. There are a number of available designs for
both and each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. However,
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compared with the horizontal axis type, very few vertical axis machines are
available commercially.
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There is one more type of wind-mill called Cyclo-gyro wind-mill with very high
efficiency of about 60%. However, it is not very stable and is very sensitive to
wind direction. It is also very complex to build.
PERFORMANCE/OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND MILLS
All wind machines share certain operating characteristics, such as cut-in,

rated and cut-out wind speeds.
1) Cut-in Speed: Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the
blades will turn and generate usable power. This wind speed is
typically between 10 and 16 kmph.
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2) Rated Speed: The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which
the wind turbine will generate its designated rated power. For example,
a "10 kilowatt" wind turbine may not generate 10 kilowatts until wind
speeds reach 40 kmph. Rated speed for most machines is in the range
of 40 to 55 kmph. At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power
output from a wind turbine increases as the wind increases. The
output of most machines levels off above the rated speed. Most
manufacturers provide graphs, called "power curves," showing how
their wind turbine output varies with wind speed.
3) Cut-out Speed: At very high wind speeds, typically between 72 and
128 kmph, most wind turbines cease power generation and shut down.
The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called the cut-out speed.
Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the wind
turbine from damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways. In
some machines an automatic brake is activated by a wind speed
sensor. Some machines twist or "pitch" the blades to spill the wind.
Still others use "spoilers," drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub
which are automatically activated by high rotor rpm's, or mechanically
activated by a spring loaded device which turns the machine sideways
to the wind stream. Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes
when the wind drops back to a safe level.
BETZ CRITERIA
Betz Limit: It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area
that makes a wind turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy by
slowing the wind down. The theoretical maximum amount of energy in the
wind that can be collected by a wind turbines rotor is approximately 59%.
This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100%
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Power extraction from Betz model:
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*****
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UNIT – III
BIO-MASS
INTRODUCTION
Biomass is an organic matter from plants, animals and micro organisms

grown on land and water and their derivatives. the energy obtained from
biomass is called biomass energy.
Energy from biomass: Energy from biomass can be obtained by using the
following methods:
1) Combustion.
2) Anaerobic digestion.
3) Pyrolysis.
4) Hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation.
5) Gasifier.
1) Combustion: ‘combustion’ is the process, now in commercial operation,

that uses biomass to produce energy. Direct combustion requires biomass
with a moisture content around 15 % or less, so it may require drying prior
to combustion for most of the crops.
2) Anaerobic digestion: The biogas plants using anaerobic digestion are

simple in construction with low capital outlay.
3) Pyrolysis: ‘pyrolysis’ is an irreversible change brought about by action of

heat in the absence of oxygen; the energy splits the chemical bonds and leaves
the energy stored in biomass. It may yield either soild, liquid or gaseous fuel.
4) Hydrolysis and Ethanol Fermentation: the process of hydrolysis converts

cellulose to alcohols through fermentation. Ethyl alcohol can be produced
from variety of sugar by fermentation with yeasts.
5) Gasifier: Pyrolysis-gasification is a promising conversion technology. It

appears to be economically competitive with natural gas, using biomass
wastes.
Photosynthesis: The preparation of food by the leaves of green plant and

micro- organisms in presence of sunlight, chlorophyll, water and “CO2” is
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called photosynthesis. In this process, the CO2 from the atmosphere combines
with water and light energy to produce carbohydrates (i.e.., sugars, starches
etc..) and oxygen.
Biomass does not add CO2 to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount
of carbon in growing the plants as it is released when consumed as fuel. It is
superior fuel as the energy produced by biomass is ‘ carbon cycle neutral’.
PRINCIPLES OF BIO-CONVERSION [OR] BIOMASS CONVERSION

PROCESS
The following process are used for the biomass conversion to energy or to
biofuels:
1) Densification.
2) Combustion and incineration.
3) Thermo-chemical conversion.
4) Biochemical conversion.
1) Densification: In this process bulky biomass is reduced to a better volume-

to weight ratio by compressing in a die at a high temperature and pressure.
The biomass pressed into briquettes or pellets (easier to transport and store)
can be used as clean fuel in domestic chulhas, bakeries and hotels.
2) Combustion and incineration:
Combustion: combustion is the process of burning in presence of oxygen to

produce heat (utilized for cooking, space heating, industrial purposes and for
electricity generation), light and by products. This method is very inefficient
with heat losses to 30 to 90 % of the original energy contained in the biomass.
Incineration: It is process of burning completely the solid masses to ‘ashes’

by high temperature oxidation. “Incineration” is a special process which is
used for incinerating municipal solid waste to reduce the volume of solid
refuse (90 percent) and to produce heat steam and electricity.
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3) Thermo- chemical conversion: It is process to decompose biomass with

various combinations of temperatures and pressures. Thermo- chemical
conversion takes the following two forms:
i. Gasification: It is the process of heating the biomass with limited

oxygen to produce ‘low heating value’ or by reacting it with steam and
oxygen at high pressure and temperature to produce ‘medium heating
value gas’. The output gas is known as “producer gas”, a mixture of H2
(15-20%), CO (10 to 20%), CH4(1 to 5%), CO2 (9 to 12%) and N2 (45 to
55%).
ii. Liquification: Biomass can be liquified fast or flash pyrolysis, called
“pyrolytic oil” which is dark brown liquid of low viscosity and a mixture
of hydrocarbons.
4) Biochemical Conversion: In biochemical conversion there are two

principal conversion process:
i. Anaerobic digestion: This process involves ‘microbial digestion’ of

biomass and is done in the ‘absence of oxygen’. This process and end
products depend upon the micro-organisms cultivated under culture
conditions. (An anaerobe is a micro-organisms that can live and grow
without external oxygen or air; it extracts oxygen by decomposing the
biomass at low temperatures up to 65c, in presence of moisture).
ii. Fermentation: Fermentation is the process of decomposition of organic
matter by micro-organisms especially bacteria and yeasts. It is a well
established and widely used technology for the conversion of grains and
sugar crops into ethanol (ethyl alcohol).
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ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic Digestion is a biochemical degradation process that converts

complex organic material, such as animal manure, into methane and other
by-products.
Anaerobic digester (commonly referred to as an AD) is a device that promotes

the decomposition of manure or “digestion” of the organics in manure to
simple organics and gaseous biogas products. Biogas is formed by the activity
of anaerobic bacteria. Microbial growth and biogas production are very slow
at ambient temperatures. These bacteria occur naturally in organic
environments where oxygen is limited. Biogas is comprised of about 60%
methane, 40% carbon dioxide, and 0.2 to 0.4% of hydrogen sulfide. Manure
is regularly put into the digester after which the microbes break down the
manure into biogas and a digested solid. The digested manure is then
deposited into a storage structure. The biogas can be used in an engine
generator or burned in a hot water heater. AD systems are simple biological
systems and must be kept at an operating temperature of 100 degrees F in
order to function properly. The first methane digester plant was built at a
leper colony in Bombay, India. Biogas is very corrosive to equipment and
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requires frequent oil changes in an engine generator set to prevent mechanical

failure. The heating value of biogas is about 60% of natural gas and about ¼
of propane. Because of the low energy content and its corrosive nature of
biogas, storage of biogas is not practical.
TYPES OF BIO-GAS DIGESTERS
There are two major types of biogas designs promoted in India:
1) Floating Drum.
2) Fixed Dome
The floating drum is an old design with a mild-steel, Ferro-cement or

fiberglass drum, which floats along a central guide frame and acts as a storage
reservoir for the biogas produced. The fixed dome design is of Chinese origin
and has dome structure made of cement and bricks. It is a low-cost alternative
to the floating drum, but requires high masonry skills and is prone to cracks
and gas leakages. Family biogas plants come in different size depending on
the availability of dung and the quantity of biogas required for cooking. The
average size of the family is 5-6 persons, and thus biogas plant of capacity 2-
4 m3 is adequate. The biomass requirement is estimated to be 1200 liters for
a family.
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*****
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UNIT – IV
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermo
(heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. We can use the
steam and hot water produced inside the earth to heat buildings or generate
electricity. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water
is replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the
earth.
Geothermal energy is generated in the earth's core, about 4,000 miles below
the surface. Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are continuously
produced inside the earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a process
that happens in all rocks. The earth has a number of Different layers: The
core itself has two layers: a solid iron core and an outer core made of very hot
melted rock, called magma. The mantle which surrounds the core and is
about 1,800 miles thick. It is made up of magma and rock.
The crusts the outermost layer of the earth, the land that forms the continents
and ocean floors. It can be three to five miles thick under the oceans and 15
to 35 miles thick on the continents. The earth's crust is broken into pieces
called plates. Magma comes close to the earth’s surface near the edges of
these plates. This is where volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts from
volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water absorb
the heat from this magma. The temperature of the rocks and water get hotter
and hotter as you go deeper underground. People around the world use
geothermal energy to heat their homes and to produce electricity by digging
deep wells and pumping the heated underground water or steam to the
surface. Or, we can make use of the stable temperatures near the surface of
the earth to heat and cool buildings.
Where is Geothermal Energy found?
Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues

showing aboveground. Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the
surface in the form of: volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases
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are released) hot spring sand geysers. The most active geothermal resources
are usually found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and
volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the world
occurs in an area called the Ring of Fire. This area rims the Pacific Ocean.
When magma comes close to the surface it heats ground water found trapped
in porous rock or water running along fractured rock surfaces and faults.
Such hydrothermal resources have two common ingredients: water (hydro)
and heat (thermal). Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources
are called geothermal reservoirs. Geologists use different methods to look for
geothermal reservoirs. Drilling a well and testing the temperature deep
underground is the only way to be sure a geothermal reservoir really exists.
Most of the geothermal reservoirs in the United States are located in the
western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. California is the state that generates the
most electricity from geothermal energy. The Geysers dry steam reservoir in
northern California is the largest known dry steam field in the world. The field
has been producing electricity since 1960.
Uses of Geothermal Energy: Some applications of geothermal energy use the

earth's temperatures near the surface, while others require drilling miles into
the earth. The three main uses of geothermal energy are:
1) Direct Use and District Heating Systems which use hot water from
springs or reservoirs near the surface.
2) Electricity generation in a power plant requires water or steam at very
high temperature (300 to 700 degrees Fahrenheit). Geothermal power
plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located
within a mile or two of the surfaces.
3) Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperatures near
the earth's surface to control building temperatures above ground.
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TYPES OF WELLS
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METHODS OF HARNESSING THE ENERGY
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OCEAN ENERGY
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)
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Benefits of OTEC:
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PRINCIPLES OF OTEC
UTILIZATION OF OTEC
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SETTING OF OTEC PLANTS
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
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TIDAL ENERGY
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*****
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UNIT – V
DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION (DEC)
INTRODUCTION
• Transformation of one type of energy (such as sunlight) to another

energy (such as electricity) without passing through an intermediate
stage (such as steam to spin generator turbines).
• The fuel cell, another electrochemical producer of electricity, was
developed by William Robert Grove.
• Thermoelectric generators are devices that covert heat directly into
electricity.
• In a solar cell, radiant energy drives electrons across a potential
difference at a semiconductor junction in which the concentrations of
impurities are different on the two sides of the junction.
Types of DEC:
1) Thermo electric power generation.

2) Thermo ionic power generation.
3) Magneto hydro dynamic systems.
4) Photovoltaic power systems.
5) Fuel cells.
6) Thermo nuclear fusion power generation.
These are explained in the below sections.
NEED FOR DEC
In direct energy conversion system energy source directly converted into

electricity without and working fluid or steam. Direct conversion systems have
no moving parts.
1) No conversion of energy into mechanical and to electricity.

2) Less loss in conversion process.
3) More efficient process.
4) Cost also reduced but technology required to improve in this way.
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CARNOT CYCLE
A Carnot gas cycle operating in a given temperature range is shown in the T-

s diagramming Fig. 4.1(a). One way to carry out the processes of this cycle is
through the use of steady-state, steady flow devices as shown in Fig. 4.1(b).
The isentropic expansion process 2-3 and the isentropic compression process
4-1 can be simulated quite well by a well-designed turbine and compressor
respectively, but the isothermal expansion process 1-2 and the isothermal
compression process 3-4 are most difficult to achieve. Because of these
difficulties, a steady-flow Carnot gas cycle is not practical. The Carnot gas
cycle could also be achieved in a cylinder-piston apparatus (reciprocating
engine) as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). The Carnot cycle on the p-v diagram is as
shown in Fig. 4.2(a), in which processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isothermal while
processes 2-3and 4-1 are isentropic. We know that the Carnot cycle efficiency
is given by the expression.
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LIMITATIONS OF CARNOT CYCLE
1) Isothermal process is possible if it is very slow and

2) Isentropic process is possible if it very fast.
3) This alternate combination of very fast, very slow, very fast and very
slow is not possible to achieve in actual practice and these are thus the
limitations of this cycle.
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS (TEG) [OR] SEE BECK GENERATOR
A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a See beck generator, is a solid

state device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into
electrical energy through a phenomenon called the See beck effect (a form of
thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric generators function like heat engines,
but are less bulky and have no moving parts. However, TEGs are typically
more expensive and less efficient.
Thermoelectric generators could be used in power plants in order to convert

waste heat into additional electrical power and in automobiles as automotive
thermoelectric generators (ATGs) to increase fuel efficiency. Another
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application is radioisotope thermoelectric generators which are used in space

probes, which has the same mechanism but use radioisotopes to generate the
required heat difference.
Thermoelectric power generators consist of three major components:

thermoelectric materials, thermoelectric modules and thermoelectric systems
that interface with the heat source.
Thermoelectric materials:
A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coefficient

(p-doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric
generator.
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Thermoelectric module: A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing

thermoelectric materials which generates electricity from heat directly. A
thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric materials
joined at their ends: an n-type (negatively charged); and a p-type (positively
charged) semiconductors. A direct electric current will flow in the circuit when
there is a temperature difference between the two materials. Generally, the
current magnitude is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
In application, thermoelectric modules in power generation work in very tough

mechanical and thermal conditions. Because they operate in very high
temperature gradient, the modules are subject to large thermally induced
stresses and strains for long periods of time. They also are subject to
mechanical fatigue caused by large number of thermal cycles.
Thus, the junctions and materials must be selected so that they survive these
tough mechanical and thermal conditions. Also, the module must be designed
such that the two thermoelectric materials are thermally in parallel, but
electrically in series. The efficiency of a thermoelectric module is greatly
affected by the geometry of its design.
Thermoelectric system: Using thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric

system generates power by taking in heat from a source such as a hot exhaust
flue. In order to do that, the system needs a large temperature gradient, which
is not easy in real-world applications. The cold side must be cooled by air or
water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the modules to supply this
heating and cooling.
There are many challenges in designing a reliable TEG system that operates
at high temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in the system requires
extensive engineering design in order to balance between the heat flow
through the modules and maximizing the temperature gradient across them.
To do this, designing heat exchanger technologies in the system is one of the
most important aspects of TEG engineering. In addition, the system requires
to minimize the thermal losses due to the interfaces between materials at
several places. Another challenging constraint is avoiding large pressure
drops between the heating and cooling sources.
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After the DC power from the TE modules passes through an inverter, the TEG
produces AC power, which in turn, requires an integrated power electronics
system to deliver it to the customer.
SEEBECK EFFECT
A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck

coefficients (p-doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a
thermoelectric generator. If the load resistor at the bottom is replaced with a
voltmeter, the circuit then functions as a temperature-sensing thermocouple.
The Seebeck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity at the
junction of different types of wire. It is named after the Baltic German
physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck, who in 1821 discovered that a compass
needle would be deflected by a closed loop formed by two different metals
joined in two places, with a temperature difference between the joints. This
was because the electron energy levels in each metal shifted differently and a
potential difference between the junctions created an electrical current and
therefore a magnetic field around the wires. Seebeck did not recognize that
there was an electric current involved, so he called the phenomenon
"thermomagnetic effect". Danish physicist Hans Christian Orsted rectified the
oversight and coined the term "thermoelectricity".
The Seebeck effect is a classic example of an electromotive force (emf) and

leads to measurable currents or voltages in the same way as any other emf.
Electromotive forces modify Ohm's law by generating currents even in the
absence of voltage differences (or vice versa); the local current density is given
by where is the local voltage, and is the local conductivity. In general, the See
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beck effect is described locally by the creation of an electromotive field. where

is the See beck coefficient (also known as thermo power), a property of the
local material, and is the temperature gradient The See beck coefficients
generally vary as function of temperature and depend strongly on the
composition of the conductor. For ordinary materials at room temperature,
the See beck coefficient may range in value from −100 μV/K to +1,000 μV/K
If the system reaches a steady state, where, then the voltage gradient is given
simply by the emf: This simple relationship, which does not depend on
conductivity, is used in the thermocouple to measure a temperature
difference; an absolute temperature may be found by performing the voltage
measurement at a known reference temperature. A metal of unknown
composition can be classified by its thermoelectric effect if a metallic probe of
known composition is kept at a constant temperature and held in contact with
the unknown sample that is locally heated to the probe temperature. It is used
commercially to identify metal alloys. Thermocouples in series form a
thermopile. Thermoelectric generators are used for creating power from heat
differentials.
PELTIER EFFECT
The Seebeck circuit configured as a cooler. The Peltier effect is the presence
of heating or cooling at an electrified junction of two different conductors and
is named after French physicist Jean Charles Athanase Peltier, who
discovered it in 1834. When a current is made to flow through a junction
between two conductors, A and B, heat may be generated or removed at the
junction. The Peltier heat generated at the junction per unit time is where and
are the Peltier coefficients of conductors A and B, and is the electric current
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(from A to B). The total heat generated is not determined by the Peltier effect
alone, as it may also be influenced by Joule heating and thermal-gradient
effects.
The Peltier coefficients represent how much heat is carried per unit charge.
Since charge current must be continuous across a junction, the associated
heat flow will develop a discontinuity if and are different. The Peltier effect can
be considered as the back-action counterpart to the Seebeck effect (analogous
to the back-emf in magnetic induction): if a simple thermoelectric circuit is
closed, then the Seebeck effect will drive a current, which in turn (by the
Peltier effect) will always transfer heat from the hot to the cold junction. The
close relationship between Peltier and Seebeck effects can be seen in the direct
connection between their coefficients:
A typical Peltier heat pump involves multiple junctions in series, through

which a current is driven. Some of the junctions lose heat due to the Peltier
effect, while others gain heat. Thermoelectric heat pumps exploit this
phenomenon, as do thermoelectric cooling devices found in refrigerators.
JOULE THOMPSON EFFECT
In different materials, the Seebeck coefficient is not constant in temperature,

and so a spatial gradient in temperature can result in a gradient in the
Seebeck coefficient. If a current is driven through this gradient, then a
continuous version of the Peltier effect will occur. This Thomson effect was
predicted and subsequently observed by Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) in
1851. It describes the heating or cooling of a current-carrying conductor with
a temperature gradient.
If a current density is passed through a homogeneous conductor, the

Thomson effect predicts a heat production rate per unit volume where is the
temperature gradient, and is the Thomson coefficient. The Thomson
coefficient is related to the Seebeck coefficient as (see below). This equation,
however, neglects Joule heating and ordinary thermal conductivity.
This relation expresses a subtle and fundamental connection between the

Peltier and Seebeck effects. It was not satisfactorily proven until the advent of
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the Onsager relations, and it is worth noting that this second Thomson
relation is only guaranteed for a time-reversal symmetric material; if the
material is placed in a magnetic field or is itself magnetically ordered
(ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, etc.), then the second Thomson relation
does not take the simple form shown here.
The Thomson coefficient is unique among the three main thermoelectric

coefficients because it is the only one directly measurable for individual
materials. The Peltier and Seebeck coefficients can only be easily determined
for pairs of materials; hence, it is difficult to find values of absolute Seebeck
or Peltier coefficients for an individual material.
If the Thomson coefficient of a material is measured over a wide temperature

range, it can be integrated using the Thomson relations to determine the
absolute values for the Peltier and Seebeck coefficients. This needs to be done
only for one material, since the other values can be determined by measuring
pairwise Seebeck coefficients in thermocouples containing the reference
material and then adding back the absolute Seebeck coefficient of the
reference material. For more details on absolute Seebeck coefficient
determination, see Seebeck coefficient.
FIGURE OF MERIT
The potential of a material for thermoelectric applications is determined in

large to a measure of the material’s dimensionless figure of merit
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MATERIALS SELECTION CRITERIA
The good thermoelectric materials should possess:
1) Large Seebeck coefficients.

2) High electrical conductivity.
3) Low thermal conductivity.
The examples for thermoelectric materials are:
1) Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3).

2) Lead Telluride (PbTe).
3) Silicon Germanium (SiGe).
4) Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb).
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC (MHD) GENERATORS
A magneto hydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) is a magneto

hydrodynamic device that transforms thermal energy and kinetic energy into
electricity. MHD generators are different from traditional electric generators
in that they operate at high temperatures without moving parts. MHD was
developed because the hot exhaust gas of an MHD generator can heat the
boilers of a steam power plant, increasing overall efficiency. MHD was
developed as a topping cycle to increase the efficiency of electric generation,
especially when burning coal or natural gas. MHD dynamos are the
complement of MHD propulsions, which have been applied to pump liquid
metals and in several experimental ship engines.
An MHD generator, like a conventional generator, relies on moving a

conductor through a magnetic field to generate electric current. The MHD
generator uses hot conductive plasma as the moving conductor. The
mechanical dynamo, in contrast, uses the motion of mechanical devices to
accomplish this. MHD generators are technically practical for fossil fuels, but
have been overtaken by other, less expensive technologies, such as combined
cycles in which a gas turbine's or molten carbonate fuel cell's exhaust heats
steam to power a steam turbine.
Natural MHD dynamos are an active area of research in plasma physics and
are of great interest to the geophysics and astrophysics communities, since
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the magnetic fields of the earth and sun are produced by these natural
dynamos.
Types of MHD:
1) Open Cycle (OC) MHD.

2) Closed Cycle (CC) MHD.
i. Seeded inert gas system.
ii. Liquid metal system.
Temperature of CC MHD plants is very less compared to OC MHD plants. It’s

about 1400oC.
1) Open cycle (OC) MHD:
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2) Closed Cycle MHD (Seeded Inert gas system):
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3) Closed Cycle MHD (Liquid metal system):
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PRINCIPLES
The Lorentz Force Law describes the effects of a charged particle moving in a
constant magnetic field. The simplest form of this law is given by the vector
equation.
Where, F is the force acting on the particle; Q is the charge of the particle; v
is the velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field.
The vector F is perpendicular to both v and B according to the right hand rule.
IONIZATION OF GAS
Various methods for ionizing the gas are available, all of which depend on
imparting sufficient energy to the gas. The ionization can be produced by
thermal or nuclear means. Materials such as potassium carbonate or cesium
are often added in small amounts, typically about 1% of the total mass flow
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to increase the ionization & improve the conductivity, particularity

combustion of gas plasma.
HALL EFFECT
Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an
electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to
an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by
Edwin Hall in 1879. For clarity, the original effect is sometimes called the
ordinary Hall effect to distinguish it from other "Hall effects" which have
different physical mechanisms.
The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the
product of the current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a
characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, since its
value depends on the type, number, and properties of the charge carriers that
constitute the current.
The hall voltage represented as VH is given by:
Here, I is the current flowing through the sensor; B is the magnetic Field
Strength; q is the charge; n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume;
d is the thickness of the sensor.
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Applications of Hall Effect: Hall effect principle is employed in the following

cases:
1) Magnetic field sensing equipment.

2) For the measurement of direct current, Hall effect Tong Tester is used.
3) It is used in phase angle measurement.
4) Proximity detectors.
5) Hall effect Sensors and Probes.
6) Linear or Angular displacement transducers.
7) For detecting wheel speed and accordingly assist the anti lock braking
system.
FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a
fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with
oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells are different from batteries in
requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain
the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from
chemicals already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity
continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells
came more than a century later in NASA space programs to generate power
for satellites and space capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in
many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power
for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or
inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including
forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode,
and an electrolyte that allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to
move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the
fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate protons (positively charged
hydrogen ions) and electrons. The protons flow from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are
Page 72 of 76
drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing
direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen
ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water.
Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference
in start up time ranging from 1 second for proton exchange membrane fuel
cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).
Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7
volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to
meet an application's requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells
produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts
of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is
generally between 40–60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a
cogeneration scheme, efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained. A related
technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by
recharging. The fuel cell market is growing, and in 2013 Pike Research
estimated that the stationary fuel cell market will reach 50 GW by 2020.
Construction:
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FARADAY’S LAWS
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how

a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF) a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It
is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many
types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids. The Maxwell–Faraday
equation is a generalization of Faraday's law, and is listed as one of Maxwell's
equations.
Page 75 of 76
Qualitative statement: The most widespread version of Faraday's law states:

The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative
of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit. This
version of Faraday's law strictly holds only when the closed circuit is a loop
of infinitely thin wire, and is invalid in other circumstances as discussed
below. A different version, the Maxwell–Faraday equation (discussed below),
is valid in all circumstances.
Page 76 of 76

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Non-Conventional Sources of Energy Riyaz Mohammed

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

Principles of Solar Radiation: Role and potential of new and renewable

Solar Energy Collection: Flat plate and concentrating collectors,

Solar Energy Storage and Applications: Different methods, sensible, latent

Bio-Mass: Principles of Bio-Conversion, Anaerobic/aerobic digestion, types of

Geothermal Energy: Resources, types of wells, methods of harnessing the

Ocean Energy: OTEC, Principles, utilization, setting of OTEC plants,

Tidal and Wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques, mini-hydel

PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION

ROLE AND POTENTIAL OF NEW AND RENEWABLE SOURCE

1) Quick dwindling of fossil fuel reserves and

Among these, solar energy is relatively more uniformly available. Also

In additions to the ‘fuels’ (commonly referred to as fossil fuels) referred above,

examine if there is any intrinsic reason for dependence on external energy

ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE, NON-CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY & THE

The terminology commonly heard, alternate energy sources, renewable energy

The justification comes from the following considerations:

4) Wave and tidal energy are restricted by location as well as low

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOLAR POWER

CSP plants that use wet-recirculating technology with cooling towers

Hazardous Materials: The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions: While there are no global warming

PHYSICS/NATURE OF THE SUN [OR] PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION &

Sun is a medium sized yellow star that may be considered as a sphere of

The earth is closest to the sun at 1.471x1011 m, the perihelion around

This reaction results in a mass decrease of about 0.0276 amu, corresponding

The Sun is made up of about 2 x 1030 kilograms of gas. It is composed of

THE SOLAR CONSTANT

The physical idea can be obtained by considering the sun to be a sphere of

EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation on a surface normal to sun's rays kept at a distance of sun-

TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

SOLAR RADIATION ON TITLED SURFACE

Expressing the Basic components The solar radiation received by a tilted

Expression for Rb:

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION & SUN SHINE [OR]

Alternately, instruments to measure solar radiation broadly fall into three

Pyranometers: Eppley pyranometer designed by Kimball and Hobbs, of US

temperature difference between the two is an indication of the incident solar

The detector is best when used to measure horizontal radiation. A reduction

Sunshine Recorder: The sunshine recorders essentially static do not require

Campbell-Stokes Recorder focuses solar radiation to burn a trace in a chart.

SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION

Types of Solar Collectors: The collectors are classified as:

1) Non concentrating collectors.

2) Concentrating (focusing) collectors: It have a larger interceptor than

FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

The constructional details of flat plate collector is given below:

degradation. However with development of improved quality of plastics,

1) Incident Solar Radiation: The efficiency of collector is directly related

should not oxidize and be corrosive resistant. The property of material

Advantages of flat plate collectors:

Disadvantages of flat plate collectors:

1) Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.

Applications of flat plate collector:

1) Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.

Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity

concentrating the radiation at required location using mirrors and lenses.

Schematic diagram of concentrating collector: