Exothermic & Endothermic

 The changes in heat content can be determined and measured with a

thermometer
 Note that the overall amount of energy does not change as energy
is conserved in reactions
o This is known as the law of conservation of energy
 This means that it cannot be created or destroyed but it can be transferred
 So, if energy is transferred to the surroundings during a chemical reaction, then
the products formed must have less energy than the reactants by the same
amount as that transferred
In exothermic reactions, the temperature of the surroundings increases and the
heat content of the system falls
In endothermic reactions, the temperature of the surroundings falls and the heat
content of the system increases

 The following are some examples of heat changes in reactions

o Neutralisation reactions:
 These always give energy out
o Displacement reactions:
 These can either take energy in or give it out
o Combustion reactions:
 These always give energy out

Exam Tip

Physical processes can also involve heat exchange. Examples include freezing or
melting which involve a change in state.

Calorimetry
 Calorimetry is a technique used to measure changes in enthalpy of chemical
reactions
 There are two types of calorimetry experiments you need to know:
o Enthalpy changes of reactions in solution
o Enthalpy changes of combustion

Reactions in solution

 The principle of these calorimetry experiments is to carry out the reaction with an
excess of one reagent and measure the temperature change over the course of a
few minutes
 This technique is suitable for reaction such as dissolving, displacement and
neutralisation
 For the purposes of the calculations, some assumptions are made about the
experiment:
o That the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as pure water,
i.e. 4.18 J/g/°C
o That the density of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 1 g/cm3
o The specific heat capacity of the container is ignored
o The reaction is complete
o There are negligible heat losses
 A calorimeter can be made up of a polystyrene drinking cup, a vacuum
flask or metal can
 A polystyrene cup can act as a calorimeter to find enthalpy changes in a
chemical reaction

 A fixed volume of one reagent is added to the calorimeter and the initial
temperature taken with a thermometer
 An excess amount of the second reagent is added and the solution is stirred
continuously
 The maximum temperature is recorded and the temperature rise calculated

Enthalpy of combustion experiments

 The principle here is to use the heat released by a combustion reaction to

increase the heat content of water
 A typical simple calorimeter is used to measure the temperature changes to the
water
 A simple combustion calorimeter

 A fixed volume of water is measured and transferred to the copper can

 The spirit burner containing, for example, an alcohol, is weighed on a 2 d.p.
balance
 The initial temperature of the water is measured and recorded
 The alcohol is ignited and the water is stirred continuously
 When the temperature has risen by about 20 degrees the flame is extinguished
and the spirit burner is re-weighed
 The final temperature of the water is recorded

Sources of error

 Not all the heat produced by the combustion reaction is transferred to the water
o Some heat is lost to the surroundings
o Some heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
 To minimise the heat losses the copper calorimeter should not be placed too far
above the flame and a lid placed over the calorimeter
 Shielding can be used to reduce draughts
 In this experiment the main sources of error are
o Heat losses
o Incomplete combustion

Exam Tip
For both types of calorimetry experiment you should be able to give an outline of the
experiment and be able to process experimental data.

Calculate Heat Energy Change

 In order the calculate heat energy changes you need to know the mass of the substance
being heated, the temperature change and the specific heat capacity of the substance
 The specific heat capacity, c is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1 °C
 The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C
 The heat energy change, Q, can be calculated by:

 Where:

o Q = the heat energy change, J

o m = the mass of the substance being heated, g
o c = the specific heat capacity, J/g/°C
o ΔT = the temperature change, °C
 The temperature change in degrees Celsius is the same as the temperature change in
Kelvin

Worked example

Excess iron powder was added to 100.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulfate solution in a
calorimeter. The reaction equation was as follows.

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

The maximum temperature rise was 7.5 oC. Determine the heat energy change of the reaction, in
kJ.

Answer:

The solution is assumed to have the same density as water, so 100.0 cm3 has a mass of 100 g

Q = m x c x ΔT

Q = 100 g x 4.18 J/g/°C x 7.5 oC = – 3135 J = -3.13 kJ

Worked example
1.023 g of propan-1-ol (M = 60.11 g mol-1) was burned in a spirit burner and used to heat 200 g
of water in a copper calorimeter. The temperature of the water rose by 30 oC. Calculate the heat
energy change for the combustion of propan-1-ol using this data.

Answer:

Calculate Q

Q = m x c x ΔT

Q = 200 g x 4.18 J/g/°C x 30 °C = – 25 080 J = -25 kJ

Calculate Molar Enthalpy Change
 Molar enthalpy change is the heat energy change per mole of substance
 The symbol is ΔH and it has the unit kJ per mole
 If is found by first determining the heat energy change for the reaction, q, and then
dividing by the number of moles, n, of the substance

molar enthalpy change = heat energy change for the reaction ÷ number of moles

ΔH = Q ÷ n

Worked example

The energy from 0.01 mol of propan-1-ol was used to heat up 250 g of water. The temperature of
the water rose from 25 °C to 37 °C (the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g/°C. Calculate
the molar enthalpy of combustion.

Answer:

 Step 1: Q = m x c x ΔT

m (of water) = 250 g

c (of water) = 4.18 J/g/°C

ΔT (of water) = 37 – 25 °C

= 12 °C

 Step 2: Q = 250 x 4.18 x 12

= 12 540 J

 Step 3: This is the energy released by 0.01 mol of propan-1-ol

Total energy ΔH = Q ÷ n = 12 540 J ÷ 0.01 mol = 1 254 000 J/mol

Total energy = – 1254 kJ/mol

Energy Level Diagrams

Energy Level Diagrams

 Energy level diagrams are graphical representations of the relative energies of

the reactants and products in chemical reactions
 The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the
progress of the reaction is shown on the x-axis
 Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic
(downwards pointing) or endothermic (upwards pointing)
 The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products
represents the overall enthalpy change of a reaction

Energy level diagram of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

 Energy is given out in exothermic reactions

o The energy of the products will be lower than the energy of the reactants,
so the change in energy is negative
o This is represented on the energy level diagram with a downwards
arrow as the energy of the products is lower than the reactants
 Energy is taken in in endothermic reactions
 o The energy of the products will be higher than the energy of the
reactants, so the change in energy is positive
o This is represented on the energy level diagram with an upwards
arrow as the energy of the products is higher than the reactants

Exam Tip

You should be able to draw clear and fully labelled energy level diagrams for both types
of reactions and you should be able to identify a reaction from its energy level diagram.

Reaction profiles, covered in a later topic, are similar to energy level diagrams but also
show how the energy changes during the course of a reaction. These can be used to
indicate the activation energy and enthalpy change of the reaction.

Bond Energy
 Energy is needed to break bonds which is absorbed from the reaction surroundings, so
bond breaking is an endothermic process
 The opposite occurs for forming bonds as it releases energy back to the surroundings in
an exothermic process
 Both processes occur in the same chemical reaction, for example, in the production of
ammonia:

N2 + 3H2 ⟶ 2NH3

 The bonds in the N-N and H-H molecules must be broken which requires energy while
the bonds in the NH3 molecule are formed which releases energy
 Most reactions occur in a number of steps including steps that are exothermic and steps
that are endothermic
 Whether a reaction is overall endothermic or exothermic depends on
the difference between the sum of the exothermic steps and the sum of the endothermic
steps

Endothermic

 If more energy is absorbed than is released, this reaction is endothermic

 More energy is required to break the bonds than that gained from making the new bonds
 The change in energy is positive since the reactants have more energy than the products
 Therefore an endothermic reaction has a positive ΔH value
 Energy must be absorbed from the surroundings for bonds to be broken

Exothermic

 If more energy is released than is absorbed, then the reaction is exothermic

 More energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy required to break the
bonds in the reactants
 The change in energy is negative since the reactants have less energy than the products
 Therefore an exothermic reaction has a negative ΔH value
 Making new bonds gives off heat from the reaction to the surroundings

Exam Tip

Remember bond breaking is ENDothermic and results in the END of the bond.
Bond Energy Calculations
 Each chemical bond has a specific bond energy associated with it
 This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given
out when the bond is formed
 This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a
reaction
 To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products
 We can calculate the total change in enthalpy for a reaction if we know the bond energies
of all the species involved
 Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy
in’
 Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’
 Calculate the enthalpy change using the equation:

Enthalpy change (ΔH) = Energy taken in - Energy given out

Worked example
Example 1:

Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas:

H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl

The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction and
deduce whether it is exothermic or endothermic.

Answer:

Worked example

Example 2:

Hydrogen bromide decomposes to form hydrogen and bromine:

2HBr ⟶ H2 + Br2
The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction and
deduce whether it is exothermic or endothermic.

Answer:

Exam Tip

For bond energy questions, it is helpful to write down a displayed formula equation for the
reaction before identifying the type and number of bonds, to avoid making mistakes.

Practical: Investigating Temperature Changes

Aim:

To perform a calorimetry study of the reaction between HCl and NaOH

Materials:
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
 Dilute sodium hydroxide solution
 Styrofoam (polystyrene) calorimeter & lid
 25 cm3 measuring cylinder
 Thermometer & stirrer
 Diagram showing the apparatus for the calorimetry investigation for
displacement, dissolving and neutralisation

Method:

1. Using a measuring cylinder, place 25 cm3 of the NaOH solution into the
calorimeter
2. Measure and record the temperature of the solution
3. Add 5 cm3 of the dilute HCl and stir
4. Measure and record the highest temperature reached by the mixture
5. Repeat steps 1 – 4 increasing the amount of acid added by 5 cm3 each time

Results:
Record your results in a suitable table, eg:

Evaluation:

Plot a graph of the results and draw a line of best fit, using the graph to determine what
volume of acid causes the biggest change in temperature Conclusion:
The larger the difference in the temperature the more energy is absorbed or released

Measuring Rates
 You should be able to describe experiments to investigate the effect of surface area,
concentration, temperature and a catalyst on a rate of reaction

Effect of surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction

 Diagram showing the process of downwards displacement to investigate the effect of the
surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction

Method:

 Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the conical flask

 Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to an inverted measuring cylinder upside down
in a water trough
 Add calcium carbonate chips into the conical flask and close the bung
 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder
 Repeat with different sizes of calcium carbonate chips

Effect of concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction

 Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of concentration on the rate
of reaction

Method:

 Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask

 Measure 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a measuring cylinder
 Draw a cross on a piece of paper and put it underneath the flask
 Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch
 Look down at the cross from above and stop the stopwatch when the cross can no longer
be seen
 Repeat using different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate solution (mix different
volumes of sodium thiosulfate solution with water to dilute it)

Result:

 With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will increase
 This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume, allowing more
frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of
reaction

Method:

 Dilute hydrochloric acid is heated to a set temperature using a water bath

 Add the dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask
 Add a strip of magnesium and start the stopwatch
 Stop the time when the magnesium fully dissolves
 Repeat at different temperatures and compare results

Result:

 With an increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will increase

 This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than the required activation
energy, therefore more frequent and successful collisions will occur, increasing the rate
of reaction

Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction

 Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a catalyst on the rate of
reaction

Method:

 Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask

 Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down in water
trough
 Add the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide into the conical flask and close the bung
 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder
 Repeat experiment without the catalyst of manganese(IV) oxide and compare results

Factors Affecting Rates

 There are several factors that can affect the rate of a reaction. These are:
o Concentration of the reactants in solution
o Temperature at which the reaction is carried out
o Surface area of solid reactants
o The use of a catalyst
 Changes in these factors directly influence the rate of a reaction
 It is of economic interest to have a higher rate of reaction as this implies a higher rate of
production and hence a more efficient and sustainable process

The Effect of Increased Concentration

 Graph showing the effect of the concentration of a solution or gas pressure on the rate of
reaction

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction with a reactant at a low concentration, the graph line for the same
reaction but at a higher concentration/pressure has a steeper gradient at the start and
becomes horizontal sooner
 This shows that with increased concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will
increase

Effect of Increasing Temperature

 Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction at a low temperature, the graph line for the same reaction but at a
higher temperature has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
 This shows that with increased temperature, the rate of reaction will increase

Surface Area
 Graph showing the effect of increased surface area on a reaction rate

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction with lumps of reactant, the graph line for the same reaction but
with powdered reactant has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
 This shows that with increased surface area of the solid, the rate of reaction will
increase

Surface Area and Particle Size

 Diagram showing that surface area increase as particle size decreases. A 2 cm3 cube has a
surface area of 24 cm2 and the same cube cut up into 8 cubes has a surface area of 48 cm2

Effect of a Catalyst
 Graph showing the effect of using a catalyst on the activation energy of a reaction

Explanation:

 The diagram shows that when a catalyst is used, the activation energy is reduced as it
creates an alternative pathway requiring lower activation energy
 Lowering the activation energy means more particles will have enough energy to react
when they come together
 This shows that when a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will increase

Exam Tip

You should be able to recall how changing the concentration, pressure, temperature, surface area
and catalysts affect the rate of reactions
 Explaining Rates
 Increasing the number of successful collisions means that a greater proportion of
reactant particles collide to form product molecules.
 We have seen previously that the following factors influence the rate of reaction
o Increasing concentration
o Increasing temperature
o Increase the surface area of a solid reactant
o Use of a catalyst
 We can use collision theory to explain why these factors influence the reaction
rate:

Concentration of a Solution

The diagram shows a higher concentration of particles in (b) which means that
there are more particles present in the same volume than (a) so the number of
collisions between reacting particles is increased causing an increased rate of
reaction

Explanation:

 Increasing the concentration of a solution will increase the rate of reaction

 This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume, allowing
more frequent and successful collisions per second
 If you double the number of particles you will double the number of collisions per
second
 The number of collisions is proportional to the number of particles present

Temperature
 An increase in temperature causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the
particles. The number of successful collisions increases

Explanation:

 Increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will increase

 This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than the required
activation energy, therefore there will be more frequent and successful collisions
per second, increasing the rate of reaction
 The effect of temperature on collisions is not so straight forward as concentration
or surface area; a small increase in temperature causes a large increase in rate
 For aqueous and gaseous systems, a rough rule of thumb is that for every 10
degree (Kelvin) increase in temperature the rate of reaction approximately
doubles

Surface area of a solid

 An increase in surface area means more collisions per second

Explanation:

 With an increase in the surface area of a solid reactant, the rate of reaction
will increase
 This is because more surface area of the particles will be exposed to the other
reactant, producing a higher number of collisions per second
 If you double the surface area you will double the number of collisions per
second

Exam Tip

Temperature affects reaction rate by increasing the number of collisions and the energy
of the collisions. Of the two factors, the increase in energy is the more important one.

Catalysts & Rates

 Catalysts are substances which speed up the rate of a reaction without
themselves being altered or consumed in the reaction
 The mass of a catalyst at the beginning and end of a reaction is the same and
they do not form part of the equation
 An important industrial example is iron, which is used to catalyse
the Haber Process for the production of ammonia
 Iron beads are used to increase the surface area available for catalysis
 Normally only small amounts of catalysts are needed to have an effect on a
reaction
 Different processes require different types of catalysts but they all work on the
same principle of providing an alternate route for the reaction to occur
  They do this by lowering the activation energy required, hence providing a
reaction pathway requiring less energy
 Catalysis is a very important branch of chemistry in commercial terms as
catalysts increase the rate of reaction (hence the production rate) and they
reduce energy costs
 The transition metals are used widely as catalysts as they have variable
oxidation states allowing them to readily donate and accept different numbers of
electrons. This is key to their catalytic activity

Catalysts work by attracting reactant molecules on to the surface and so

providing an alternate reaction pathway of lower energy

Exam Tip
Although catalysts are not part of the overall reaction, you may see them written over
the arrow in reaction equations in the same way you can add reaction conditions above
or below the arrow.

Reaction Profiles
Reaction Profiles Showing ∆H and Ea

 Reaction profiles are similar to energy level diagrams seen in a previous topic,
but in addition to showing the relative energies of the reactants and products in
chemical reactions, they also show how the energy changes as the reaction
progresses
 The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products
represents the overall enthalpy change of a reaction

o For an exothermic reaction, the value of H is negative and the arrow

point downwards

o For an endothermic reaction, the value of H is positive and the

arrow point upwards
 The initial increase in energy, from the reactants to the peak of the curve,
represents the activation energy, Ea, required to start the reaction
 The greater the initial rise then the more energy that is required to get the
reaction going e.g., more heat needed
 Reaction profiles of exothermic and endothermic reactions, showing the

activation energy, Ea, and the enthalpy change, H

Catalysts and Reaction Profiles

 Catalysts provide the reactants with another pathway which has a lower
activation energy
 By lowering Ea, a greater proportion of molecules in the reaction mixture have
sufficient energy for an effective collision
 As a result of this, the rate of the catalysed reaction is increased compared to the
uncatalysed reaction

Diagram showing that a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an

alternative pathway which has a lower activation energy
Exam Tip

The activation energy is constant for a particular reaction. Reactions with a low
activation energy occur readily as little energy is needed to break the bonds and initiate
the reaction.

Practical: Effect of Surface Area on Rate of Reaction

Aim:

To investigate the effect of changing surface area on a reaction rate

Diagram:
 Investigating the effect of different size marble chips on the rate of reaction
between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid

Method:

 Add hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

 Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to an inverted measuring cylinder
 Add marble chips into the conical flask and close the bung
 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder
 Repeat with different sizes of marble chips / concentrations of hydrochloric acid

Result:

 Increase in the surface area of the marble chip, the rate of reaction will increase
 This is because more surface area particles of the marble chips will be exposed
to the dilute hydrochloric acid so there will be more frequent and successful
collisions, increasing the rate of reaction

Practical: Effect of Catalysts on Rate of Reaction

Aim:

To investigate the effect of different solids on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen

peroxide

Diagram:
Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a catalyst on
the rate of reaction

Method:

 Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask

 Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down in
water trough
 Add the chosen catalyst into the conical flask and close the bung
 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder
 Repeat experiment with different catalysts and compare results
 Catalysts to try could include: manganese(IV) oxide, lead(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide
and copper(II) oxide

Result:

 The data for different catalysts can be plotted on the same graph and the relative
rates compared

Reversible Reactions
 Some reactions go to completion, where the reactants are used up to form the
product molecules and the reaction stops when the reactants have been
exhausted
 In reversible reactions, the product molecules can themselves react with each
other or decompose and form the reactant molecules again
 It is said that the reaction can occur in both directions: the forward reaction
(which forms the products) and the reverse direction (which forms the reactants)
 When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions, two opposing arrows
are used to indicate the forward and reverse reactions occurring at the same time
 Each one is drawn with just half an arrowhead – the top one points to the right,
and the bottom one points to the left
 The direction a reversible reaction takes can be changed by changing the
reaction conditions

Thermal Decomposition of Ammonium Chloride

 Heating ammonium chloride produces ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases:

NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

 As the hot gases cool down they recombine to form solid ammonium chloride

NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)

 So, the reversible reaction is represented like this:

 NH4Cl (s) ⇌ NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

Dehydration of Hydrated Copper(II) Sulfate

 Reversible reactions can be seen in some hydrated salts

 These are salts that contain water of crystallisation which affects their shape
and colour
 Water of crystallisation is the water that is included in the structure of some salts
during the crystallisation process
 A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt
copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O
 Water of crystallisation is indicated with a dot written in between the salt and the
surrounding water molecules
 Anhydrous salts are those that have lost their water of crystallisation, usually by
heating, in which the salt becomes dehydrated
 When anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is added to water, it turns blue and heat is
given off so the reaction is exothermic
 When hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals are heated in a test tube, the blue
crystals turn into a white powder and a clear, colourless liquid (water) collects at
the top of the test tube
 The equation for the reaction is:

CuSO4.5H2O (s) ⇌ CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

The dehydration of hydrated salts is often a reversible reaction

Exam Tip

The reverse reaction may also be called the backwards reaction. A generic reversible
reaction is shown as

A+B⇌C+D

Dynamic Equilibrium
 We have already seen that a reversible reaction is one that occurs
in both directions
 When during the course of reaction, the rate of the forward reaction equals the
rate of the reverse reaction, then the overall reaction is said to be in a state
of equilibrium
 Equilibrium is dynamic i.e. the molecules on the left and right of the equation
are changing into each other by chemical reactions constantly and at the same
rate
 The concentration of reactants and products remains constant (given there is no
other change to the system such as temperature and pressure)
 It only occurs in a closed system so that none of the participating chemical
species are able to leave the reaction vessel
 Equilibrium can only be reached in a closed container

 An example of a dynamic equilibrium is the reaction between H2 and N2 in the

Haber process
 When only nitrogen and hydrogen are present at the beginning of the reaction,
the rate of the forward reaction is at its highest, since the concentrations of
hydrogen and nitrogen are at their highest
 As the reaction proceeds, the concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen gradually
decrease, so the rate of the forward reaction will decrease
 However, the concentration of ammonia is gradually increasing and so the rate of
the backward reaction will increase (ammonia will decompose to reform
hydrogen and nitrogen)
 Since the two reactions are interlinked and none of the gas can escape, the rate
of the forward reaction and the rate of the backward reaction will eventually
become equal and equilibrium is reached:
 Diagram showing when the rates of forward and backward reactions become
equal

Exam Tip

Remember equilibrium is only reached in a closed vessel.

Factors that Affect the Position of Equilibrium

 When a change is made to the conditions of a system at equilibrium, the system
automatically moves to oppose the change
o This is known Le Chatelier’s Principle, but you are not required to know the name
for the exam
 The principle is used to predict changes to the position of equilibrium when there are
changes in temperature or pressure

Effects of Temperature
Example: Iodine Monochloride reacts reversibly with Chlorine to form Iodine Trichloride

ICl + Cl2 ⇌ ICl3

Dark Brown Yellow

When the equilibrium mixture is heated, it becomes dark brown in colour. How do we know
whether the backward reaction is exothermic or endothermic?

 Equilibrium has shifted to the left as the colour dark brown means that more of ICI is
produced
 Increasing temperature moves the equilibrium in the endothermic direction
 So the backward reaction is endothermic

Effects of Pressure

Example: Nitrogen Dioxide can form Dinitrogen Tetroxide, a colourless gas

2NO2 ⇌ N2O4

Brown Gas Colourless Gas

What is the effect of an increase in pressure on the position of equilibrium?


o Number of molecules of gas on the left = 2
o Number of molecules of gas on the right = 1

 An increase in pressure will cause equilibrium to shift in the direction that produces the
smaller number of molecules of gas
 So equilibrium shifts to the right

Exam Tip

When the conditions at equilibrium are changed, the system always responds by doing
the opposite.
Catalysts & Dynamic Equilibrium
Effect of catalyst on equilibrium position

 The presence of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium but it does increase
the rate at which equilibrium is reached
 This is because the catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and backward reactions
by the same amount (by providing an alternative pathway requiring lower activation
energy)
 As a result, the concentration of reactants and products is nevertheless the same at
equilibrium as it would be without the catalyst
Diagram showing the effect of catalyst on equilibrium position