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Engineering Mechanics

ABSTRACT
These lectures are presented to the
1st year students at the University of
Basra for Oil and Gas /Chemical
Engineering Department

For 1st year students Prepared By


Dr Dolfocar Ali Usamah
Witwit
Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.1 Historical Background


Engineering mechanics is essentially a study of the effects of forces acting on
bodies. That portion of mechanics known as statics, which deals with equilibrium
of bodies subjected to force systems which produce no acceleration1.

The builders of the pyramids of Egypt used some of the principles of


mechanics. The writings of Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 B.C.) show that
he understood the necessary relationship between the forces acting on a lever to
produce equilibrium. Stevinus (1548-1620) was the first to state the principle of
the inclined plane and to employ the principle of the parallelogram of forces.

Modern mechanics was developed very rapidly after the time of Stevinus.
The experiments of Galileo (1564-1642) led to the development of the principles
of dynamics by exploding some of the false theories of the Greek philosophers.
He made investigations and obtained experimental proof of the laws of falling
bodies even though he was handicapped by lack of adequate clocks for measuring
small time intervals. Christian Huygens (1629-1695) continued the mechanical
investigations started by Galileo. He invented the pendulum clock, determined
the acceleration of gravity, and introduced the theorems respecting centrifugal
force. Newton (1642-1727) completed the basic principles of engineering
mechanics by his discovery of universal gravitation and by his statement of the
laws of motion.

1
For more historical information see Science of Mechanics, by Ernst Mach, The Open Court Publishing
Company, Chicago, 1893, or A Historical Appraisal of Mechanics, by Harvey F. Girvin, International Textbook
Company, Scran ton. Pa.,1948.

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.2 Introduction. Mechanics


Mechanics is that branch of physical science which considers the motion of
bodies, with rest as a special case of motion. Attention in engineering mechanics
is directed primarily to the external effects of a system of forces acting on a rigid
body.

Figure 1 Force System on a Body


The external effect of a force on a body is either to accelerate the body or to
develop resisting forces (reactions) on the body. When the force system acting
on a body is balanced, the system has no external effect on the body, the body is
in equilibrium, and the problem is one of statics. When the force system has a
resultant different from zero, the body will be accelerated and the problem is one
of dynamics. When the internal effects of a force system on a body are to be
considered or when the changes in shape of the body are important, the problem
becomes one of mechanics of materials. Only problems of statics are
considered in this text.

The external effects of a force system on a physical body are not ordinarily
altered appreciably by small distortions of the body. Many problems of statics
would be unnecessarily complicated by taking such changes of shape into
account. Thus, most of the bodies in this text will be considered as rigid bodies.

A body in which all of the particles remain at fixed distances from each other
is called a rigid body. No real body is absolutely rigid, but in many cases the
changes in shape of the body have a negligible effect upon the acceleration
produced by a force system or upon the reactions required to maintain
equilibrium.

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.3 Scalar and vector quantities.


Physical quantities such as force, mass, acceleration, volume, velocity, and
time used in engineering mechanics can be classified as either scalar or vector
quantities. A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude, whereas a vector
quantity has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities can be further
divided into free and localized vectors. A free vector is one with a specified slope
and sense but not acting through any particular point, whereas a localized vector
has a definite or specific line of action. Mass, volume, and time are examples of
scalar quantities. It is evident that a time interval of three minutes has no direction
and is therefore a scalar quantity. To say that the wind is blowing at a rate of 30
mph does not, however, tell a complete story. The direction of the wind is
frequently-just as important as the magnitude of its velocity. The velocity of the
wind is an example of a vector quantity.

1.4 Fundamental Concepts


Before we begin our study of engineering mechanics, it is important to
understand the meaning of certain fundamental concepts and principles.

1.4.1 Basic Quantities.


The following four quantities are used throughout mechanics. Length.

Length is used to locate the position of a point in space and thereby describe
the size of a physical system. Once a standard unit of length is defined, one can
then use it to define distances and geometric properties of a body as multiples of
this unit.

Time. Time is conceived as a succession of events. Although the principles


of statics are time independent, this quantity plays an important role in the study
of dynamics. Mass. Mass is a measure of a quantity of matter that is used to
compare the action of one body with that of another. This property manifests itself
as a gravitational attraction between two bodies and provides a measure of the
resistance of matter to a change in velocity.

Force. In general, force is considered as a “push” or “pull” exerted by one


body on another. This interaction can occur when there is direct contact between
the bodies, such as a person pushing on a wall, or it can occur through a distance
when the bodies are physically separated. Examples of the latter type include
gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces. In any case, a force is completely
characterized by its magnitude, direction, and point of application.

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.4.2 Idealizations.
Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order to simplify application
of the theory. Here we will consider three important idealizations.

Particle. A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example,
the size of the earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit, and therefore
the earth can be modelled as a particle when studying its orbital motion. When a
body is idealized as a particle, the principles of mechanics reduce to a rather
simplified form since the geometry of the body will not be involved in the analysis
of the problem.

Rigid Body. A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large


number of particles in which all the particles remain at a fixed distance from one
another, both before and after applying a load. This model is important because
the body’s shape does not change when a load is applied, and so we do not have
to consider the type of material from which the body is made. In most cases the
actual deformations occurring in structures, machines, mechanisms, and the like
are relatively small, and the rigid-body assumption is suitable for analysis.

Concentrated Force.

A concentrated force represents the


effect of a loading which is assumed to
act at a point on a body. We can
represent a load by a concentrated force,
provided the area over which the load is
applied is very small compared to the
overall size of the body. An example
would be the contact force between a Figure 2Steel is a common
wheel and the ground. engineering material that does not
deform very much under load.
Therefore, we can consider this railroad
wheel to be a rigid body acted upon by
the concentrated force of the rail.

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.5 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.


Engineering mechanics is formulated on the basis of Newton’s three laws of
motion, the validity of which is based on experimental observation. These laws
apply to the motion of a particle as measured from a nonaccelerating reference
frame. They may be briefly stated as follows.

First Law.

A particle originally at rest, or moving in a


straight line with constant velocity, tends to remain in
this state provided the particle is not subjected to an
unbalanced force, Fig. 3.

Figure 3

Second Law.

A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force


F experiences an acceleration a that has the same
direction as the force and a magnitude that is
directly proportional to the force, Fig 4 If F is
applied to a particle of mass m, this law may be Figure 4
expressed mathematically as

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Third Law.

The mutual forces of action and reaction


between two particles are equal, opposite, and
collinear, Fig. 5

Figure 5

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.6 Units of Measurement


The four basic quantities-length, time, mass, and force-are not all independent
from one another; in fact, they are related by Newton’s second law of motion, F
= ma. Because of this, the units used to measure these quantities cannot all be
selected arbitrarily. The equality F = ma is maintained only if three of the four
units, called base units, are defined and the fourth unit is then derived from the
equation.

SI Units. The International System of units, abbreviated SI after the French


“Système International d’Unités,” is a modern version of the metric system which
has received worldwide recognition. As shown in Table 1, the SI system defines
length in meters (m), time in seconds (s), and mass in kilograms (kg). The unit of
force, called a newton (N), is derived from F = ma.

Thus, 1 newton is equal to a force required to give 1 kilogram of mass an


acceleration of 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 (N = kg × m/𝑠 2 ). If the weight of a body located at the
“standard location” is to be determined in newtons, then 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 must be
applied. Here measurements give g = 9.806 65 m/𝑠 2 ; however, for calculations,
the value g = 9.81 m/𝑠 2 will be used. Thus,

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

Therefore, a body of mass 1 kg has a weight of 9.81 N, a 2-kg body weighs


19.62 N, and so on

U.S. Customary. In the U.S. Customary system of units (FPS) length is


measured in feet (ft), time in seconds (s), and force in pounds (lb),

1.6.1 Conversion of Units.


To convert the between the two unite system the following table can be used

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.7 General Procedure for Analysis


Attending a lecture, reading this book, and studying the example problems helps,
but the most effective way of learning the principles of engineering mechanics
is to solve problems. To be successful at this, it is important to always present
the work in a logical and orderly manner, as suggested by the following sequence
of steps:

 Read the problem carefully and try to correlate the


actual physical situation with the theory studied.
 Tabulate the problem data and draw to a large scale
any necessary diagrams.
 Apply the relevant principles, generally in
mathematical form. When writing any equations, be
sure they are dimensionally homogeneous.
 Solve the necessary equations, and report the answer When solving problems, do
the work as neatly as
with no more than three significant figures.
possible. Being neat will
 Study the answer with technical judgment and stimulate clear and orderly
common sense to determine whether or not it seems thinking, and vice versa.
reasonable.

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Historical Background and introduction to force analysis

1.8 Semester Topics


1- General Coplanar force system
a. Concept
b. Force Transmissibility
c. Resultant of a force system
d. Free body diagrams
e. Equilibrium and its equations
f. Applications
2- Friction
a. General concept
b. Applications
3- Centre of gravity, Centroid, and Moment of Inertia
a. Centroid calculation
b. Centroid by integration
c. 1st moment of area
d. Moment of inertia

1.9 References
1- Engineering Mechanics (A. Higdon)
2- Engineering Mechanics (R. C. HIBBELER)

Page 8
Force Analysis

2 Force Analysis
2.1 Composition and Resolution of Forces
The process of replacing a force
system by its resultant is called
composition. The resultant of a pair of
concurrent forces can be determined by
means of the parallelogram law or
principle, which states that the resultant
is proportional to the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose sides are
proportional to the two forces.
Figure 6
The parallelogram law is illustrated
in Fig 6 . The resultant of the forces P and Q is the single force, R, which passes
through O, the point of concurrence of P and Q. The resultant force can be
determined graphically by drawing the parallelogram to scale. Its magnitude can
also be determined algebraically by applying the cosine law for a general triangle,
thus:

𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 − 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃

The angle the resultant makes with either force can be determined by the law
of sines, for example:
sin 𝛼 sin 𝜃
=
𝑄 𝑅

Page 9
Force Analysis

Example 1

The screw eye in Fig. 2–11 a is


subjected to two forces, F1 and F2.
Determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.

SOLUTION

Parallelogram Law.
The parallelogram is formed by
drawing a line from the head of F1 that is
parallel to F2, and another line from the
head of F2 that is parallel to F1. The
resultant force FR extends to where these
lines intersect at point A, Fig. 2-11b. The
two unknowns are the magnitude of FR
and the angle u (theta).

Trigonometry. From the


parallelogram, the vector triangle is
constructed, Fig. 2-11c. Using the law of
cosines

𝐹𝑅 = √(100𝑁)2 + (150𝑁)2 − 2 ∗ (100𝑁)(150𝑁) ∗ cos 115𝑂 = 213𝑁

Applying the law of sines to determine 𝜃


150𝑁 212.6𝑁
= → 𝜃 = 39.8𝑂
sin 𝜃 sin 115𝑂
Thus the direction of the resultant measured from
the horizontal is

𝜙 = 39.8 + 15 = 54.8𝑂

NOTE: The results seem reasonable, since Fig. 2–11b shows FR to have a
magnitude larger than its components and a direction that is between them.

Page 10
Force Analysis

2.2 Resultant component


Let us consider a scenario contrasting the previous example, wherein the
resultant force is known, and there exists a necessity to determine the force's
individual components. Usually the force component required are perpendicular
to each other, in this case one can use the trigonometry to solve it.

For the 100N force it can be resolved into


horizontal and vertical components where

𝐹𝐻 = 100 cos 15 = 96.6𝑁


𝐹𝑉 = 100 ∗ sin 15 = 25.9𝑁

The same can be done for the 150N force

𝐹𝐻 = 150 ∗ sin 10 = 26.05𝑁


𝐹𝑉 = 150 ∗ cos 10 = 147.7𝑁

147.7N

150N

26.05N
10.00°
25.9N

100N
96.6N
15.00°
Now both forces have component in the same direction thus they can be added
to each other to create one component for the resultant as follows

𝐹𝐻𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 96.6 + 26.05 = 122.65𝑁


𝐹𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 25.9 + 147.7 = 173.6𝑁

Page 11
Force Analysis

The forces can be now represented as follows

Now let’s take the 1st approach to find 173.6N


the resultant in which the angle between the
two forces are 90𝑜 thus

𝑅 = √173.72 + 122.652 = 213𝑁


173.6 −1
𝜃 = tan ( ) = 54.8𝑜
122.65
Which are the same results calculated
before using the 1st approach
122.65N

Page 12
Force Analysis

Example 2

Resolve the horizontal 600-lb force in Fig. 2–12a into components acting
along the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of these components.

Figure 7
Solution

The parallelogram is constructed by extending a line from the head of the 600-lb
force parallel to the v axis until it intersects the u axis at point B, Fig. 2–12b. The
arrow from A to B represents Fu. Similarly, the line extended from the head of
the 600-lb force drawn parallel to the u axis intersects the v axis at point C, which
gives Fv. The vector addition using the triangle rule is shown in Fig. 7 c. The two
unknowns are the magnitudes of Fu and Fv.

Applying the law of sines,


𝐹𝑢 600𝑙𝑏
= → 𝐹𝑢 = 1039𝑙𝑏
sin 120𝑂 sin 30𝑂
𝐹𝑣 600𝑙𝑏
= → 𝐹𝑣 = 600𝑙𝑏
sin 30𝑂 sin 30𝑂
NOTE: The result for Fu shows that sometimes a component can have a greater
magnitude than the resultant.

Page 13
Force Analysis

H.W: Determine the magnitude of the component


force F in Fig. 2–13a and the magnitude of the
resultant force FR if FR is directed along the positive
y axis.

Hint the Force vectors are as


follows

Ans F=245lb

Fr=273lb

Page 14

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