CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents a summary of an in-depth discussion of related literature,

local and international, providing a foundation of knowledge on the issues concerning

the Teaching Performance of BEEd Pre-Service Teachers

Lesson Planning

There is a conventional assumption that beginning teachers should already know

how to design an effective curriculum. As the first stage of the teaching process, lesson

planning also determines the next stage of the teaching. To achieve predetermined

goals in a set timeline, it is necessary to organize the works to be performed, timetable

of activities and the resources to be used (Vural, 2006). In addition to that, preparing a

lesson plan is a duty for teachers in terms of professional responsibility and legislation.

“Directive on Planned Execution of Education and Training Studies” published in journal

of the Communique No. 2551 by Ministry of National Education underlines the

necessity, benefits and principles of preparing a lesson planning. Consequently,

preparing a lesson plan has officially become mandatory

A plenty of studies underline the importance of preparing a lesson plan and

planning for teacher’s classroom performance. Similarly, teaching program allows pre-

service teachers to improve their teaching skills since they will have the opportunity to

conduct actual or almost actual teaching practices as well as attending theoretical

courses (Beeth, 2006).

literature revealed that pre-service teachers find planning their lesson difficult. In

Johnson (2000) also indicated that pre-service teachers found the initial lesson planning

steps “cumbersome”. He pointed out that experienced teachers internalized the lesson

planning process and that. Therefore, pre-service teachers are different than the

experienced teacher’s plan.

Lesson plan help pre-service teachers to close the gap between theory and

practice. In lesson plan also, we can see how pre-service teachers transform learning

theory into practice. Furthermore, planning enables pre-service teachers to think

through what they teach, how they teach and how to evaluate their teaching (Kuys, Keer

& Aelterman; 2012).

Moreover, during their education, pre-service teachers are trained to plan their

lessons. The literature revealed that pre-service teachers find planning their lessons

difficult (Tashevska, 2008).

Teaching lesson planning or lesson design is a pivotal moment in teacher

education. It is at of this point when we are, in essence, teaching future educators how

to think about the relationship between educational theories, lesson planning,

instructional strategies, student and learning. It is at this point when theory intersects

with practices. This is the time to teach these pre-service teachers how to place

students at the center of the planning process. Pre-service teachers need to know how

to prepare for differences activities and experiences in each and every lesson and

differentiation needs to be central in planning, rather than after thought.

Teaching methods is the way of teachers deliver the subjects to students by

using certain methods corresponding to the characteristics of students that were

encountered. Each student has different characteristics from the very clever, moderate,

and there is also less able to receive lessons quickly. Therefore, a teacher must be able

to apply the learning method in accordance with the characteristics of students. Unless

the students whose middle- low ability will be left behind in the understanding of the

material that is presented. And it will cause the students mentioned are not interested

and lazy to learn because they have felt unable to do. Teaching method helps to

determine the success or failure of a learning and teaching activity and it is teaching

system. The more precise method that is used by teachers in teaching is expected to be

more effective the achievement of learning goal (Qudsyi, Herawaty, Saifullah, Khaliq, &

Setiawan, 2011).

But the factors that affect the teaching method are a proteges (learners), goal,

situation, facilities, and teachers. The terms of teaching methods should be able to bring

the atmosphere of teaching interaction becomes instructive or educative, putting

learners to take active learning, as well as foster and develop interest in learning and

increase learning spirit, it can improve the learning outcomes and live up teaching

process which is ongoing (Rohani, 2004).

According to Djamarah (2010) the method of teaching is a teaching strategy to

achieve the expected goals. By utilizing an accurate method, the teacher will achieve

the goal of teaching smoothly. When the goals are formulated in order that students

have certain skills, so that the methods that are used must be adapted to goals. Thus,
the teacher should use methods that can support teaching and learning activities, so it

can be used as an effective tool to achieve the goal of teaching.

Questions about the effectiveness of teaching methods on student learning have

consistently raised considerable interest in the thematic field of educational research

(Hightower et al., 2011). As Ayeni (2011) asserted that teaching is process that involves

bringing about desirable changes in learners so as to achieve specific outcomes. In

order for the method used for teaching to be effective, Adunola (2011) maintains that

teachers need to be conversant with numerous teaching strategies that take recognition

of the magnitude of complexity of the concepts to be covered. It is indicated also that in

order to bring desirable changes the students, teaching method used by educators

should be best for the subject matter. Furthermore, Bharadwaj & Pal (2011) sustained

that teaching methods work effectively mainly if they suit learners needs since every

learner interprets and responds to questions in a unique way (Chang, 2010). As such,

alignment of teaching methods with students needs and preferred learning influence

students’ academic attainments (Zeeb, 2004).

Findings by Wiggins (1987) who reported that interaction between the teachers

and students during the teaching and learning process encourages the students to

search for knowledge rather than the lecturer monopolizing the transmission of

information to the learners.

Thus, basically learning methods are learning methods that are used by teacher

to achieve the goals in teaching and learning activity. The better and the more

appropriate methods that are used in teaching and learning activities to the student, so

that the learning achievement will increase and can be optimized.

Classroom management is a central effective teaching (Kunter 2013; LePage,

2007; Seidal & Shavelson 2007). Although there are other important aspects of teaching

quality, such as supportive climate or instructional support (Baumert 2001). It has

additional been found that effective classroom management is directly related to student

motivation (Helmke, 2007; Kunter, 2007; Nie & Lau; 2009; Oliver 2011), autonomy and

responsibility (Elias & Schwab, 2006; Lewis 2012; P’sunder, 2005), learning

achievement (Freigberg 2009; Hattie, 2009; Seidal & Shavelson, 2007; Wang 1993) as

well as teacher wellbeing (Dickie, Elling 2015; Klusmann 2008) and their psychological

health (Friedman, 2006; Hastings & Bham, 2003).

Although classroom management plays a major role in central teaching

outcomes, studies show that especially pre-service and beginning teachers lack

knowledge on classroom management (Poznanski 2008). They also feel unprepared for

dealing with classroom disruptions and dealing with difficult with student behaviors

(Meister & Melnick, 2003; Parsad 2001).

The term classroom management is understood as “the management of

classroom for learning” (Tsui, 2003, p.136). it includes not only aspects of classroom

organization such as group-pair-and solo-work, maintaining as orderly and peaceful

environment, and doing the routine business but also making arrangement to motivate

and empower the learners. Similarly, Wright (2005) describes the core elements of

classroom management as managing the space, the time, engagement and

participation. Space and time set the boundaries of education. We can extend the time

and space boundaries of a lesson with the help of internet and homework assignments.
Engagement entails motivation, approaches to learning, attitudes, and previous

experience. Managing space, time, and engagement usually go hand in hand with other

people are within the interest domain of classroom management.

Scrivener (2005), who is the author of one of the most popular methodology

books in the ELT departments in Turkey, takes a similar stance in the classroom

management chapter of his book. According to it, classroom management is discussed

under the headings of “grouping and seating, activities, authority, critical moments such

as the beginning and the end of the lesson, tools and techniques, and working with

people” (p.79). the grouping and seating part involves the importance of physical

qualities in establishing a good learning environment. The activities’ part holds that the

potential of an activity can be hindered by poor application no matter how well it has

been planned beforehand. The teacher’s authority is reflected in teacher’s gathering

and holding attention, deciding who does what, and getting someone to do something.

In addition, how the teacher manages the critical moments such as the beginning and

the ending of the lessons are considered within the domain of the classroom

management. There is also a part devoted to the use of tools such as the board, book,

gestures and techniques such as using silence as a classroom management tool. The

working with people part reminds us that classroom management is not confined to

managing the physical classroom, the students’ behaviors, and the activities. It also

involves dealing with the students as persons Scrivener includes such sub-topics as

“spreading your attention evenly and appropriately, using intuition to gauge what

students are feeling, eliciting honest feedback, and really listening to students” in this

part.
 When we look at contemporary research on the issues on the classroom

management in terms of pre-service teachers’ experiences, we see that some focus on

the problems in classroom management. For example, identified the classroom

management problems of student’s teachers through their reflective journals. Using

Scrivener’s (2005) classification of classroom management, he found that the most

problematic area was managing critical moments, especially in terms of maintain the

silence and controlling the noise level. Merc and Subasi (2015) investigated the

problems of student teachers about classroom management and hoe they cope with

these problems. They found that problems generally come from students, the teaching

point and the materials, and cooperating teachers. To cope with the problems they face,

student teachers used their knowledge from methodology lessons, they consult to their

cooperating teacher and they think about their experience with their previous teachers.

A very similar one conducted in Columbia is Macias and Sanches’s (2015) a study.

They found that the challenges came from the physical characteristics of classrooms,

pre-ser-service teacher’s perception of the student behavior, and students’ disruptive

behaviors. They identified focus on maintaining control and focus in good student as

coping strategies. Elin (2014) investigated the perspectives of ELT students’ teachers

about the practicum experience in general.

Communication Skills

Teacher with low communication skills would have low professional

competence as well as personal competences (Yılmaz, 2011). In a classroom where

communication processes are good, it can be said that the teacher and students have

good relations with each other. In addition, Dunbar, Brooks and KubickaMiller
(2006) stated that the ability to communicate is of great importance and that

communication skills are taught not only by the communication department, but also in

various educational institutions. Communication plays a huge role in human life. In the

socialization process, these skills can help sociologist create social institution and, in

turn, influence culture and social structures (Knowles 2021). In order to convey

information, communication ability is an essential aspect that needs to be emphasized

(Chehab, Moulay and Rabbani, 2021).

In addition, effective communication also emphasizes the aspect of social

skills in order to help students respond to the environment and control themselves in

facing challenges and improve self-excellence. In going through daily life, language

skills are essential as an intermediary medium ( Leung & Jenkins, 2020).

Teachers with good communication ability in building an exciting and fun

teaching environment will influence students’ interest and behavior in learning. In

addition, communicating well can also help teachers apply positive values to improve

students social and emotional skills. Therefore, a teacher should have seriousness,

experience, and interest in the profession entrusted to him. Communication is a process

of giving meaning and can influence a person to believe and do something as defined

(Combs, 2002). It is because verbal or non-verbal communication involves transforming

knowledge, understanding or feelings shared through the message (Uleanya, Tawo &

Shobive, 2020).

In education, teachers who impart knowledge must have various skills,

including speaking skills, classroom management, teaching techniques, and practical

and orderly communication. It is because communication in the classroom not only

process achieve its goals. Communication occurs when a teacher conveys

his experience and knowledge to his students (Zwozdiak-Myers & Capel). It is

supported by the opinion that teachers with skills in building effective interactions are

among the characteristics of effective classroom leadership (Salamondra, 2021).

The teaching and learning process is not only limited to communication

between students in sharing knowledge or information but also relates to interaction and

social control in the classroom. The social development and teaching quality in an

organization are determined by the social relationship's mechanisms build into it, such

as effective use of language, interaction processes, open communication, verbal skills

(Meulenbroek, Ness, Lemoncello, Byoem, Mac Donald, O’Neil-Pirozzi & Moore

Sohlberge, 2019).

Classroom is a complex communication space. Communication processes

involve verbal, nonverbal and para verbal components and are designed to mediate

students' and teacher behavior. In order to develop communication skills in relation to

the teaching process we must identify the future need. Communication skills is

important or vital especially in educational field is based on the ability to express your

own ideas and views clearly, with confidence and concisely, permanently adapting your

content and style of the class. Interaction between teachers and students can contribute

to effective communication in the classroom or may be the source of problematic

situations (ERD, 2016).

The main reason for a person’s failure in his job is their failure to establish a

positive interaction with their environment (Petitta, Probst, Ghezzi & Barbaranelli, 2019).
In the teacher context, in addition to teaching a predetermined subject, this group is also

responsible for being indirectly involved in the formation and development of a good

personality, mental and physical for his students (Tray, Adruse, Lau, Ting & Sandhu,

2020).

In line with the role played as an agent of change to the self-development

and personality of students, teachers should prepare themselves with good mastery in

the context of communication before entering the field of teaching. It prepares teachers

to face the different styles and backgrounds of their students. Factors such as

background, attitude, level of education, experience, and exposures will create the

diversity of students and gaps among them in a class (Resch & Schritter, 2021).

Therefore, communicating is necessary to enable them to know each other and share

information well. Several studies have shown the dissatisfaction of schools where the

pre-service teachers were taken their teaching practice with the level of communication

ability and ultimately caused the unemployment rate to increase (Donitsa-Schmidt &

Ramot, 2020); Oztekin & Tekel, 2021).

Assessment

The Pre-Service Teachers are exposed to various methods of assessing

students’ learning, either formative or summative assessments. For them to become

more competent, their student learning assessment skills must be enhanced. Cheng et

al. (2015) mentioned that classroom assessment tasks and environment are central to

supporting student learning and following the higher order thinking skills for students to

utilize their metacognition ability.

determine student learning or performance. These include group activities,

individualized seatwork, paper and pencil tests, writing synopsis and reaction papers,

recitation, and other creative outputs like flipbook, and making comic book. They, too,

employ several techniques in giving feedback to students. They give feedback

directly. When their class misbehaves, they get students' attention through use of

silence. Talking to students nicely is also being practiced. Other positive practices

include praising students who give answers to their questions correctly and whenever

they accomplish something such as getting high score in an examination.

Student learning progress are measured through assessment of scores and records of

students. Through observations, results of students' written outputs and performances,

multi-level test, use of report cards and monitoring outputs also are being executed.

However, the PSTs practice limited authentic assessment methodologies.

Authentic assessment implies assessment of the experiences and learning processes

acquired by students. As posited by Villarroel et al. (2018), authenticity has been

identified as a key characteristic of assessment design which promotes learning. Time

constraint is considered a factor since they are given only 50 minutes to discuss

their lessons each time they meet their target classes. Some of the authentic

assessment measures that they use are creative outputs such as role-playing, making

flipbooks and comic books.

The lack of adequate training as regards use of rubrics in assessing and evaluating their

students’ works seems evident. Now that written works, performance tasks, and

products of learning are being taken with high consideration, there is a need to train
PSTs as regards various methods of assessments, which include use of rubrics. There

is a dire need to improve such skill especially now that outcome-based education (OBE)

is emerging. OBE has been adopted completely by HEIs governed by the Commission

on Higher Education (CHED) in the Philippines.

Additionally, the PSTs employ different kinds of tests to students. These include

problem-solving, true-or-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching type, multiple-choice,

identification, analogy. Tests are based from their lessons. However, these projects

show that the purpose of using authentic assessment and activities promoting high

order thinking skills is not fully employed. The use of summative and formative tests

cannot be underestimated but the need to improve use of authentic assessment

measures must be facilitated to be able to measure what has to be measured validly

and reliably. However, time element has been identified one factor in ensuring authentic

assessment measures.

Additionally, the PSTs employ different kinds of tests to students. These include

problem-solving, true-or-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching type, multiple-choice,

identification, analogy. Tests are based from their lessons. However, these projects

show that the purpose of using authentic assessment and activities promoting high

order thinking skills is not fully employed. The use of summative and formative tests

cannot be underestimated but the need to improve use of authentic assessment

measures must be facilitated to be able to measure what has to be measured validly

and reliably. However, time element has been identified one factor in ensuring authentic

assessment measures.
Teachers’ Personality

A teachers’ personality is one dimension of his identity (Pennington &

Richards, 2016). Teaching requires not only the ability to teach lesson, but also an

understanding of the rules and routines of the school culture, the ability to collaborate

with other educational professionals, and awareness of the communities in which one

teaches (Sikula, Buttery, & Guyton, 1996).

Moreover, personality traits of effective teachers have been an important area of

investigation. A personality trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes

individuals to behave in certain ways. Effective teachers, in the sense of being able to

produce a desired result, can be thought of as those who are able to engage students in

the learning process and maximize student academic achievement and other school

outcomes. Since 1920s, educational researchers worldwide have explored personality

traits that make a teacher effective in the classroom.

Tominez, B. & Dela Cruz, L. (2014) implies that those who were deployed in

schools that are far from the university garnered significantly higher level of teaching

effectiveness in terms of teacher personality and vice versa. Regardless of the distance,

the results may be due to how the school factors such as cooperating teachers,

principal and facilities motivate and influence them to be considerate, caring, prim and

proper so as to be good models to their learners. Supported by, Stronge & Hindman

(2003) concluded that effective teachers consistently display compassion and equality

in teaching. They reveal a positive outlook about life and teaching. They are reflective

thinkers who exhibit high expectations for themselves and their learners. Additionally,

Stronge (2002) presented necessary attitudes for pre-service teachers to become

respect for the learners, peers, parents and the general community; enthusiasm;

motivation; and dedication to teaching”. Furthermore, Darling-Hammond (1997) opined

that “while teachers need to understand cognitively individual differences (culture,

language and family structure), they also need an attitude of sensitivity toward

children’s experiences”.

In perhaps the most complete study conducted to date on preservice teacher

personality and teaching performance, (Ripski, 2011) showed a link between

conscientiousness and observed teaching performance. Further, Jamil, Downer and

Pianta (2012) demonstrated a link between personality and teaching self- efficacy they

showed that extraverted pre-service teachers were more likely to have high self-efficacy

in their teaching abilities. This does not necessarily show, however, that extraverted

pre-service teachers are more effective teachers.

To explicate the concept, (Thompson, 2008) posits that effective teachers

possess well-built teaching skills and pleasant personalities. He also states that building

rapport, choosing interesting activities and task, being able to teach, and coming up with

appropriate answers to learner’s unpredicted questions are some of the characteristics

of effective teachers.