4 The periodic table and periodicity ity. Periodicity is the recurrence of similar chemical and physical properties at regular intervals that is seen in the elements in the periodic table. The periodic table is a classification of all elements. Elements in the periodic table show period The historical development of the periodic table Scientists started attempting to classify elements early in the nineteenth century. = Johann Débereiner Between 1817 and 1829, Johann Dabereiner proposed the Law of Triads. He noticed that certain ‘groups of three elements, which he called triads, showed similar chemical and physical properties. If the elements in any triad wore arranged in increasing relative atomic mass, the relative atomic mass of the middle element was close to the average of the first and third elements. For example, lithium, sodium and potassium have relative atomic masses of 7, 23 and 39. * John Newlands In 1865, John Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves. He arranged the elements that had been discovered at the time in order of increasing relative atomic mass and found that each element exhibited similar chemical and physical properties to the element eight places ahead ot it in the list. For example, sodium was eight places ahead of lithium and the two exhibited similar properties. He then placed the similar elements into vertical columns called groups. * Dmitri Mendeleev In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev published his Periodic Classification of Elements in which he: + Arranged elements in increasing relative atomic mas. + Placed elements with similar chemical and physical properties together in vertical columns (groups). + Left gaps when it appeared that elements had not yet been discovered. + Occasionally ignored the order suggested by relative atomic mass and exchanged adjacent elements so they were better classified into chemical families. ‘Mendeleev is credited with creating the first version of the periodic table. = Henry Moseley In 1914, Henry Moseley placed the elements in increasing atomic number which resulted in all elements with similar properties falling in the same groups. The modern periodic table “The moder periodic table is composed of vertical columns of elements called groups, and horizontal rows of elements called periods. The elements are organised on the basis of * Increasing atomic number. + The electronic configuration of their atoms. + Their chemical properties. Metals are found on the left side of the table and non-metals are found on the right side of the table (see Figure 4.1)Groups Gruups are vertical columns of elements. There are 10 groups, eight of which are numbered using Roman numerals from Ito VII, and the last group is Group 0. » All elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons (electrons in their outermost electron shell). + For elements in Groups I to VII, the number of valence electrons is the same as the group number. * All elements in Group 0 have a full outer electron shell. * Moving down any group, each element has one more electron shell than the element directly above it. » allelements in the same group have similar chemical properties. = Moving down a group, the metallic nature of elements inereases and the non-metallic nature decreases. in elements or transition Between Groups Il and Ill there are ten groups of elements called the tran: metals, Transition metals usually have two valence electrons. Periods Periods are horizontal rows of elements. There are 7 periods, numbered using Arabic numerals from 1 to 7. F: * Allthe elements in the same period have the same number of occupied electron shells, therefore they have their valence electrons in the same shell. © Ihe number of occupied electron shells is the same as the period number. * Moving along any period from left to right, each element has one more valence electron than the element directly before it. » Moving along any period from left to right, the metallic nature of the elements decreases and the ronetalc nature nreases fuori — he most wun st Mow Vm 0 eaatie nell ature increases ature neresces nonmetal 4 Treble naire eveases franc “the most reactive meta [Hh Meas Nonmetals igure 4.1. The periodic table in outline The periodic table and the electronic configuration of atoms If the group number and period number of an atom are known, its electronic configuration can be determined. And it the electronic configuration of an atom is known, the group number and period number can be determined using the following: © The group number and the number of valence electrons are the same. © The period number and the number of occupied electron shells are the same. 4 The periodic table and periodicity (23 |Examples Potassium Potassium is in Group | and Period 4. A potassium atom has: 1 valence electron 4 occupied electron shells Therefore the electronic configuration of a potassium atom is 2,8,8,1 Silicon The electronic configuration of a silicon atom is 2,8,4 ‘on atom has: 4 valence electrons 3 occupied electron shells Therefore silicon is Group IV and Period 3 Trends in Group II - the alkaline earth metals Elements in Group Il all have similar chemical properties because their atoms all have two valence electrons. They react by losing these valence electrons to form positively charged ions called cations (see p. 32). When they lose these electrons they are said to ionise. The easier an element ionises, the more reactive it is. The ease of ionisation increases moving down Group Il, therefore the reactivity of the elements increases moving down the group. Table 4.1, Summary of the trends in Group II - the alkaline earth metals Cera cere E ner occupied Recut electron shells Drees Increases moving down. Increases, Mg moving increase, tne attractive ie : _ due pull of the positive Incroases moving nucleus on the valence | down due to the sr 5 nagber a electrons decreases, increase in the ‘ and the more easily ease of ionisation. Ba 6 spccarpled the atoms lose their electron valence electrons to Ra z shells. form cations. ———> Indicates that the property increases in the direction of the arrow Reactions of Group II elements Examples of reactions of calcium With oxygen: 2Cals) + Og) ——* 2Ca0(s) With water: Cals) + 2H,O() ——> Ca(OH),(aq) + H.(g) With hydro¢hloric acid: Cals) + 2HClfaq) ——* CaCl(aq) + H.(g) Ea 4 Concise Revision Course: CSEC* Chemistry.rr Trends in Group VII - the halogens Elements in Group VII exist as diatomic molecules, these being F,, Cl., Br, and |,. They all have similar chemical properties because their atoms all have seven valence electrons. They react by gaining one valence electron to form negatively charged ions called anions (see p. 32). When they gain this they are said to fonise, The ease of ionisation incieases moving up Group Vil, therefore Ue of the elements increases moving up the group. Table 4.2. Summary of the trends in Group Vil - the halogens ereried Corny Pers Sra rei Rae Reet Po Pesce eta es F Paleyellow 2 Sane | matee | gas up. As the up due eh atomic radii tothe moving | decrease, < increase 8 | theattractive inease of An element cl Yellow- 3 | down due Increases |} ae aaa tothe [Pullofthe | Pere | ionisation. is displaced a positive The more from its increase |nucteuson | UP44e | easilythe compounds 0 theetectron |]! || clement by i Be Redbrown gar ™P* | tobe gained | PEERS. Jionises, element tad cemes | eor |bommm. [rere teen — easily the ittakes tT \Gievtio | 8 , atoms gain electrons a this electron from to form another anions. reactant. ———> Indicates that the property increases in the direction of the arrow Displacement reactions and strength of oxidising power Ina displacement reaction an element in its free state takes the place of another element in a compound. A more reactive element will displace a less reactive element. Chlorine will displace bromine and iodine, and bromine will displace iodine from their compounds. eg. Cl.ig) + 2KBr(aq). ——> 2KCl(aq) + Br,(aq) Displacement reactions can be explained by looking at the ralative strength of oxidising power of the elements. This is determined by how easily one substance takes electrons from another substance. The strength of oxidising power of Group VII elements increases moving up the group because the ability to ionise and take electrons from another reactant increases moving upwards. Chlorine will take electrons from bromide (Br-) and iodide (I-) ions and bromine will take electrons from iodide (I-) ions: eg. Cl(g) + 2Br(aq) ——® 2Ci(aq) + Br,(aq) L 4 The periodic table and periodicityTrends in Period 3 Moving along Period 3 from left to right, the metallic nature of the elements decreases and the non-metallic nature increases. Silicon in Group IV is a semi-metal or metalloid. Each element has three occupied electron shells. + The ease of ionisation and reactivity of the metals sodium, magnesium and aluminium decreases moving along the period. + The ease of ionisation and reactivity of the non-metals phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine increases moving along the period. + Silicon does not usually ionise, it usually reacts by sharing electrons with other non-metal atoms. * Argon does not ionise and is chemically unreacti Table 4.3. Summary of the trends in Period 3 SS OR eens 28,1 2,82 28,3 2,84 28,5 2,86 28,7 28,8 Se Metal Metal Metal Semi Non- Non- Non- Non-metal Pee metal metal metal_—_metal Good conductors ee Non-conductors (insulators) conductor Sian Loses Loses Loses. Shares. © Gains. Gains. Gains lost, gained None papa Te 2e Be 4e 3e |e te errr MmOOC0C0C0) o Decreases moving from left to right due to the increase in number of positive protons causing the attractive pull of the positive nucleus on the valence electrons to get stronger eer —_—__— TE (a) Increases moving from right Increases moving from left toleit. Asthe atomic radii 4. ,9, tight. As the atomic radii increase and the number of O°"" 1°" decrease and the number of Does not positive protons decreases, °"-. positive protons increases, _ionise the more easily the atoms lose electrons to form the more easily the atoms gain electrons to torm positive cations. Cc <———— Increases moving trom right to left due to the increase in ‘ease of ionisation. negative anions. = Increases moving trom left to right due to the increase in ease of ionisation. Unreactive ———> Indicates that the property increases in the direction of the arrow ED 4 Concise R ion Course: CSEC® ChemistryKr Revision questions 4) Outline the contributions of EACH of the following scientists to the development of the periodic table: a Johann Débereiner b John Newlands © Dmitri Mendeleev 2) Whatare the features on which the arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table is based? 3) a Whatdoall the elements in the same group of the periodic table have in common? b What do all the elements in the same period of the periodic table have in common? 4) The electronic configuration of an atom of element X is 2,8,5. Give the group number and period number of element X. 5) Which element, magnesium or calcium, would you expect to react more vigorously with dilute hydrochloric acid? Explain your answer. > © How does the state of the elements in Group VII at room temperature change moving down the group? 7) Would you expect a reaction to occur if chlorine gas is bubbled into a potassium bromide solution? Explain your answer based on the relative strength of oxidising power of chlorine and bromine. 8) How does the metallic nature of elements change moving from left to right across Period 32 (9) Which element, sulfur or chlorine, would you expect to be more reactive? Explain your answer. 4 The periodic table and periodicity eeai