MSJ STEM Success AP Calc BC Chapter 7

CRAM Lecture Notes

Naren Jegan, Aditikrishna Mandula
February 2024

1 Introduction
Rogawski’s Calculus for AP® Chapter 7 consists of multiple integration tech-
niques and concepts necessary to succeed on the AP Calculus BC exam. These
include integration by parts (IBP), trigonometric integrals, trigonometric sub-
stitution and partial fraction decomposition (PFD), and evaluating improper
integrals. In this CRAM session, we will cover these concepts in extensive de-
tail and provide you with sample problems and a practice set for you to do at
home.

2 Integration by Parts (IBP)

IBP can be thought of as applying the chain rule of differentiation to integration.
The generalized formula to apply for IBP is as follows.
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu (1)

However, there is a shortcut known as the Table/DI method. (Note: This is the
same technique used by Blackpenredpen, a famous calculus YouTuber).
Let’s consider the following problem.
Z
x2 ln(x)dx (2)

To set up IBP through the table method, first write D and I, which stand for
differentiation and integration, respectively, followed by an alternating chain of
+ and – signs, as seen below.
Now, let’s pick one part of our expression to differentiate and integrate. In
this case, I will repeatedly differentiate the ln(x) integrate the x2 , and insert
my values into the table. When we use the DI method, we can actually get
our answer by multiplying the values in the table! Specifically, multiply the
quantity in the D column by the quantity in the I column of the row below and

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 Figure 1: DI Table Setup

Figure 2: How to multiply values in the DI table

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 Figure 3: Enter Caption

the coefficient (+ or -) indicated on the side of the table. When performing IBP,
we don’t want to integrate and differentiate repeatedly, so there are 3 patterns
you have to note in order to stop at the correct spot.
STOP WHEN YOU SEE THE FOLLOWING
1. A value in the D column reduces to 0
2. You can integrate a DI row
3. A row repeats
In the case of our problem from earlier, we can immediately integrate our 2nd
row so we can rewrite our expression and solve it, as seen below.
x3 ln(x)
Z 2
x3 ln(x) x3
Z
x
x2 ln(x)dx = − dx = + +C (3)
3 3 3 9
Here’s an example problem that you can try
Z
(4x3 − 9x2 + 7x + 3)e−x dx (4)

SOLUTION: Let D = 4x3 − 9x2 + 7x + 3 Let I = e−x Setting up our DI Table,

we can perform IBP through multiplying the indicated rows.

Z
(4x3 − 9x2 + 7x + 3)e−x dx = (5)

−(4x3 −9x2 +7x+3)e−x −(12x2 −18x+7)e−x −(24x−18)e−x −24e−x +C = (6)

−e−x (4x3 + 3x2 + 24x + 16) + C (7)

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3 Trigonometric Integrals
On the AP Calculus BC exam, there are 2 major cases of products of trigono-
metric functions you may encounter. These are:
Z
sinn (x) cosm (x)dx (8)

and Z
tann (x) secm (x)dx (9)

Let’s focus on the first product and strategies we can employ to solve these
types of problems.

STRATEGIES:

1. If n is odd.
Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using sin2 (x) =
1 − cos2 (x), then use the substitution u = cos(x).

2. If m is odd.
Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosines to sines using cos2 (x) =
1 − sin2 (x), then use the substitution u = sin(x).

3. If n and m are both odd.

Use either strategy 1 or 2.

4. If n and m are both even.

Use the double-angle formula for sine and/or half-angle formulas to reduce the
integral into a form that can be integrated.

As a reminder, here are the double-angle and half-angle identities for sine
and cosine. You MUST have these memorized for the exam!
DOUBLE ANGLE IDENTITIES

sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) (10)

cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x) (11)
HALF ANGLE IDENTITIES
r
x 1 − cos(x)
sin( ) = ± (12)
2 2
r
x 1 + cos(x)
cos( ) = ± (13)
2 2

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Now, let’s focus on strategies involving tangent and secant, as seen in the second
form.

STRATEGIES:

1. If n is odd.
Strip one tangent out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using tan2 (x) =
1 + sec2 (x), then use the substitution u = sec(x).

2. If m is even.
Strip two secants out and convert the remaining secants to tangents using
sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x), then use the substitutionu = tan(x)

3. If n is odd and m is even

Use either 1 or 2

4. If n is even and m is odd

Each integral will be dealt with differently

Let’s consider the following problem.

cos2 (x)
Z
dx (14)
1 + sin(x)

We can reduce cos2 (x) to 1 − sin2 (x) = (1 − sin(x))(1 + sin(x)) Therefore,

(1 − sin(x))(1 + sin(x))
Z Z
dx = 1 − sin(x)dx = x + cos(x) + C (15)
1 + sin(x)

Here’s an example problem that you can try

Z
(csc(3x) + cot(3x))2 dx (16)

SOLUTION:
Z
= [csc2 (3x) + 2 csc(3x) cot(3x) + csc2 (3x) − 1]dx (17)
Z
= 2 csc2 (3x) + 2 csc(3x) cot(3x) − 1dx (18)
Z
= 2 csc2 (3x) + 2 csc(3x) cot(3x)dx − x (19)
Z
= 2 csc2 (3x) + 2 csc(3x) cot(3x)dx − x (20)

Let u = 3x
du = 3dx

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 du
dx = 3
Z
2
= csc2 (u) + csc(u) cot(u)du − x (21)
3
Z Z
2 2
= csc (u)du + csc(u) cot(u)du − x (22)
3
2
= (− cot(u) + − csc(u) + C) − x (23)
3
2 2
= − cot(3x) − csc(3x) − x + C (24)
3 3

4 Trigonometric Substitution
We employ trigonometric substitution when our integral contains a specific
square-root sequence. We utilize the Pythagorean Identity (sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) =
1) along with its various manipulations to express the variable in terms of an
angle θ.
If the integral contains the following root, use the given substitu-
tion and formula
p a
a2 − b2 x2 −→ x = sin(θ) and cos2 (θ) = 1 − sin2 (θ) (25)
b
p a
b2 x2 − a2 −→ x = sec(θ) and tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ) − 1 (26)
b
p a
a2 + b2 x2 −→ x = tan(θ) and sec2 (θ) = 1 + tan2 (θ) (27)
b
Let’s consider the following problem.
Z √ 2
x + 16
dx (28)
x4
Let x = 4 tan(θ); dx = 4 sec2 (θ)dθ;
p q p
x2 + 16 = 16 tan2 (θ) + 16 = 4 sec2 (θ) = 4 sec(θ) (29)
Z
4 sec(θ)
4 sec2 (θ)dθ (30)
(4 tan(θ))4
sec3 (θ)
Z
dθ (31)
16 tan4 (θ)
Z
1 cos(θ)
dθ (32)
16 sin4 (θ)
du
Let u = sin(θ); du = cos(θ)dθ; dθ = cos(θ)
Z
1 1 1 1 1
du = − u−3 = − (sin(θ))−3 = − csc3 (θ) (33)
16 u4 48 48 48

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 Figure 4: Enter Caption

Constructing a right triangle so we can shift from θ to x, we can illustrate

the quantities associated in our transformation. This is a vital part of your
problem-solving process and must be included in any √
FRQ that you answer.
x2 +16
1
Knowing that csc(θ) = sin(θ) = hypotenuse
opposite , csc(θ) = x
Therefore, our integral becomes
√ 3
1 3 1 x2 + 16 3 (x2 + 16) 2
− csc (θ) = − ( ) =− +C (34)
48 48 x 48x3

5 Partial Fraction Decomposition

R 1 R 1
Ideally, we would like to integrate functions such as ax+b dx or x2 +a 2 dx since

they have elegant solutions, but we may not always have a rational function to
help us evaluate an integral. Partial fraction decomposition (PFD) is the tool
we will use in situations like these to help us attack these integrals.
The most important part of PFD is setting up the partial fractions. In this
lecture, we will primarily focus on these, because once you simplify the partial
fractions, you can easily evaluate the integral using basic integration techniques.
There are 4 cases in which we will discuss the setup and strategy behind them.

5.1 Case 1 Polynomial Long Division

If you have a function with a higher-degree numerator than the denominator,
then you should perform polynomial long division to simplify your expression
further.
For instance, consider the integral
9x7 + 7x5
Z
dx (35)
3x2 + 5
If I perform polynomial long division, this integral becomes
200x
8x3
Z
40x
3x5 − + − 29 dx (36)
3 9 3x + 5
Using polynomial long division, we were able to simplify the expression into
easier terms to ease the process of integration.

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5.2 Case 2 Distinct/Different Linear Factors
Consider the integral Z
1
dx (37)
x2 − 7x + 10
We can simplify this into
Z Z
1 1
2
dx = dx (38)
x − 7x + 10 (x − 2)(x − 5)

Now, when we are dealing with PFD, we want to split up the factorable portions
into separate fractions, so that we can evaluate them separately. However, we
don’t know what the original numerator of each subfraction would be. When
dealing with PFD, we use a placeholder variable/letter to represent the orig-
inal numerator. When operating on distinct linear factors, the degree of the
placeholder variable is always one lower than the degree of the numerator.
In the case of our integral from above, we can rewrite it as
Z Z Z
1 1 A B
dx = dx = + dx (39)
x2 − 7x + 10 (x − 2)(x − 5) x−2 x−5

Let’s focus specifically on our partial fractions.

1 A B
= + (40)
(x − 2)(x − 5) x−2 x−5

Now, let’s equalize our denominators on both sides.

1 A(x − 5) + B(x − 2)
= (41)
(x − 2)(x − 5) (x − 2)(x − 5)

1 = A(x − 5) + B(x − 2) (42)

From here, we can plug in the roots of x (5 and 2) to help us find the individual
values of A and B.
1
1 = A((5) − 5) + B((5) − 2) = 3BB = (43)
3
1
1 = A((2) − 5) + B((2) − 2) = −3AA = − (44)
3
Now that we know our values for A and B, we can plug this into our original
integral above to simplify the problem.
Z
A B 1 1
+ dx = − ln |x − 2| + ln |x − 5| + C (45)
x−2 x−5 3 3

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5.3 Case 3 Irreducible Quadratic Factors
Consider the function
4x2 − 9x + 2
(46)
(x + 3)(x2 + 4)
We have 2 distinct factors, x + 3, and x2 + 4. We don’t need to break down
the x + 3, because it is broken down as much as possible. However, we cannot
break down the x2 + 4 term further without using imaginary numbers. In order
to create the PFD for this function, we have to introduce a new change.

4x2 − 9x + 2 A Bx + C
= + 2 (47)
(x + 3)(x2 + 4) x+3 x +4
Above is the completed PFD of the function from earlier. The first part with
A
x+3 has a numerator A as a result of the fact that you have broken down x + 3
to its max. However, since we cannot break down the x2 + 4, it is said to
be an irreducible quadratic factor. In order to express this in the PFD, we
have to create placeholder terms with the highest degree of one lower than the
irreducible quadratic factor’s degree, in addition to constituent coefficients. For
instance, if I had an irreducible quadratic with the denominator x3 + z, where z
is an arbitrary value that causes the expression to become irreducible quadratic,
then the numerator that satisfies the PFD would be Ax2 + Bx + C.

5.4 Case 4 Repeating Factors

Consider the function
2x − 5 2x − 5
= 2 (48)
x3 + x2 x (x + 1)
If we do a PFD, we notice that we can split the x2 term further down into
constituent x’s. In order to do so in a PFD, we use a numerator with a constant
degree 1 lower than the degree of the term. Then, you will repeat this with
different placeholders representing different values until you build your way back
up to the original power expressed in the function.
If I broke the function down through a PFD, I would result in
A B C
+ 2+ (49)
x x x+1
If I were to use the method done so in case 2, I would end up in the same result
as seen below. In order to save you time, employ this technique of repeating
factors.
2x − 5 Ax + B C A B C
= + = + 2+ (50)
x2 (x + 1) x2 x+1 x x x+1

6 Improper Integrals
An improper integral is a type of integral that can range from having an infinite
interval or a discontinuous integrand. One prominent example of an improper

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integral is the Gaussian integral, seen below, which has an infinite interval rang-
ing from negative to positive infinity.
Z +∞
2 √
e−x dx = π (51)
−∞

When dealing with improper integrals, there are 3 main cases in which we need
to examine.
Rt
1. If a f (x)dx exists for every t > a, then
Z ∞ Z t
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx (52)
a t→∞ a
Rb
2. If t
f (x)dx exists for every t < b then,
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx (53)
−∞ t→−∞ t
Rc R∞
3. If −∞
f (x)dx and c f (x)dx both are convergent then,
Z ∞ Z c Z ∞
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx (54)
−∞ −∞ c

where c is any number. Note that this requires the convergence property of both
integrals in order for the composite integral to be convergent. This can also be
said for a divergent property.
One other improper integral you will encounter is in the form of
Z ∞
1
p
dx (55)
a x
If a > 0, then the integral above is convergent if p > 1, and divergent if p ≤ 1.
This function of x1p , when expressed in summation notation such as the one
below is a series called a p-series (Unit 10 of Calc BC)
∞
X 1
p
converges under the same conditions as above (56)
a
x

7 U-Sub Problems
Z
tan(x)dx (57)
Z
2
(2x + 2)ex +2x+3 dx (58)

x2 + 1
Z
dx (59)
x3 + 3x
Z
(2x + 5)(x2 + 5x)7 dx (60)
Z
(3 − x)10 dx (61)

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8 IBP Problems
Z
4x cos(2 − 3x)dx (62)
Z
(3t + t2 ) sin(2t)dt (63)
Z
t7 sin(2t4 )dt (64)
Z
y 6 cos(3y)dy (65)
Z
1
e2z cos( z)dz (66)
4

9 Trig Sub Problems

Z
1
p dx (67)
(9 − x2 )
x3
Z
√ dx (68)
4x2 − 9
Z
1
√ dx (69)
x2 x2 + 4
Z
1
√ dx (70)
x2 x2 − 9

10 Trig Integrals
Z
sin(x) + cos(x)
dx (71)
e−x + sin(x)
Z p
sec(x) sec(x) + tan(x)dx (72)
Z
sin(3x) cos(4x)dx (73)

11 Partial Fraction Decomposition

x2
Z
dx (74)
x2 − 1
x2 − 29x + 5
Z
dx (75)
(x − 4)2 (x2 + 3)
x2 + 4
Z
dx (76)
3x3 + 4x2 − 4x

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