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Lecture Process

The document discusses processes and interprocess communication. It defines a process as a program in execution that forms the basis of computation. Key aspects of processes include scheduling, creation/termination, and communication between processes. Interprocess communication allows cooperating processes to share data and resources. Common models of interprocess communication include shared memory and message passing. A producer-consumer problem is presented as a paradigm for cooperating processes that produce and consume information.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
16 views51 pages

Lecture Process

The document discusses processes and interprocess communication. It defines a process as a program in execution that forms the basis of computation. Key aspects of processes include scheduling, creation/termination, and communication between processes. Interprocess communication allows cooperating processes to share data and resources. Common models of interprocess communication include shared memory and message passing. A producer-consumer problem is presented as a paradigm for cooperating processes that produce and consume information.

Uploaded by

Mohamad Yassine
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Processes

Dr. Mageda Sharafeddin


Chapter 3: Processes
• Process Concept
• Process Scheduling
• Operations on Processes
• Interprocess Communication
• Examples of IPC Systems
• Communication in Client-Server Systems
Objectives

• To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in


execution, which forms the basis of all computation
• To describe the various features of processes,
including scheduling, creation and termination, and
communication
• To describe communication in client-server systems
Process Concept
• An operating system executes a variety of programs:
• Batch system – jobs
• Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
• Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
• Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
• A process includes:
• program counter
• stack
• data section
Process

• Most fundamental concept in OS


• Process: a program in execution
• one or more threads (units of work)
• associated system resources
• Program vs. process
• program: a passive entity
• process: an active entity
• For a program to execute, a process is created for that program
Process versus Program
• Process > program
• Program is just part of process state
• Example: many users can run the same program
• Each process has its own address space, i.e., even though program has single set of variable names, each
process will have different values

• Process < program


• A program can invoke more than one process
• Example: Fork off processes
Process in Memory

Operations on processes:
• fork (clone-style creation),
• wait (parent on child),
• exit (self-termination),
• signal,
• kill.
Process State
• As a process executes, it changes state
• new: The process is being created
• running: Instructions are being executed
• waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
• ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
processor
• terminated: The process has finished execution
Diagram of Process State
Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
• Process state
• Program counter
• CPU registers
• CPU scheduling information
• Memory-management information
• Accounting information
• I/O status information
Process Control Block (PCB)
CPU Switch From Process to Process
Process Scheduling Queues

• Job queue – set of all processes in the system


• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main
memory, ready and waiting to execute
• Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O
device
• Processes migrate among the various queues
Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
Representation of Process Scheduling
Schedulers

• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be


brought into the ready queue
• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be
executed next and allocates CPU
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
Schedulers (Cont)
• Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds)  (must be fast)
• Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may be slow)
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
• Processes can be described as either:
• I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts
• CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts
Context Switch

• When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the
old process and load the saved state for the new process via a context switch
• Context of a process represented in the PCB
• Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching
• Time dependent on hardware support
Process Creation
• Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes
• Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)
• Resource sharing
• Parent and children share all resources
• Children share subset of parent’s resources
• Parent and child share no resources
• Execution
• Parent and children execute concurrently
• Parent waits until children terminate
Process Creation (Cont)
• Address space
• Child duplicate of parent
• Child has a program loaded into it
• UNIX examples
• fork system call creates new process
• exec system call used after a fork to replace the process’ memory space with a new
program
How to Make Processes
- fork clones a process , exec overlays the current process
If ((pid = fork()) == 0) {
/* child process */
exec(“foo”); /* does not return */
else
/* parent */
wait(pid); /* wait for child to die */
Process Creation
int main() {
pid_t pid;
/* fork another process */
C Program Forking
pid = fork();
if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */
Separate Process
fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");
exit(-1); }
else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */
execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);
} else { /* parent process */
/* parent will wait for the child to complete */
wait (NULL);
printf ("Child Complete");
exit(0);
}
}
Child Discipline
• After a fork, the parent program (not process) has complete control over the
behavior of its child process.
• The child inherits its execution environment from the parent...but the parent program
can change it.
• sets bindings of file descriptors with open, close, dup
• pipe sets up data channels between processes
• Parent program may cause the child to execute a different program, by
calling exec* in the child context.
Exec, Execve, etc.

• Children should have lives of their own.


• Exec* “boots” the child with a different executable image.
• parent program makes exec* syscall (in forked child context) to run a program in a new child process
• exec* overlays child process with a new executable image
• restarts in user mode at predetermined entry point (e.g., crt0)
• no return to parent program (it’s gone)
• arguments and environment variables passed in memory
• file descriptors etc. are unchanged
Fork/Exec/Exit/Wait Example
Process Termination
• Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to delete it (exit)
• Output data from child to parent (via wait)
• Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
• Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)
• Child has exceeded allocated resources
• Task assigned to child is no longer required
• If parent is exiting
• Some operating systems do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates
• All children terminated - cascading termination
Join Scenarios
• Several cases must be considered for join (e.g., exit/wait).
• What if the child exits before the parent does the wait? • “Zombie” process object holds
child status and stats.
• What if the parent continues to run but never joins? • Danger of filling up memory
with zombie processes? • Parent might have specified it was not going to wait or that it
would ignore its child’s exit. Child status can be discarded.
• What if the parent exits before the child? • Orphans become children of init (process
1).
• What if the parent can’t afford to get “stuck” on a join? • Asynchronous notification
(later).
Interprocess Communication
• Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data
• Reasons for cooperating processes:
• Information sharing
• Computation speedup
• Modularity
• Convenience
• Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)
• Two models of IPC
• Shared memory
• Message passing
Communications Models
Cooperating Processes
• Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another
process
• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process
• Advantages of process cooperation
• Information sharing
• Computation speed-up
• Modularity
• Convenience
Producer-Consumer Problem

• Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is


consumed by a consumer process
• unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer
• bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution

• Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
...
} item;

item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
• Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements
Bounded-Buffer – Producer
while (true) {
/* Produce an item */
while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out)
; /* do nothing -- no free buffers */
buffer[in] = item;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
}
Bounded Buffer – Consumer
while (true) {
while (in == out)
; // do nothing -- nothing to consume

// remove an item from the buffer


item = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
return item;
}
Interprocess Communication – Message Passing

• Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions


• Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables
• IPC facility provides two operations:
• send(message) – message size fixed or variable
• receive(message)
• If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
• establish a communication link between them
• exchange messages via send/receive
• Implementation of communication link
• physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)
• logical (e.g., logical properties)
Implementation Questions
• How are links established?
• Can a link be associated with more than two processes?
• How many links can there be between every pair of communicating
processes?
• What is the capacity of a link?
• Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable?
• Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?
Direct Communication
• Processes must name each other explicitly:
• send (P, message) – send a message to process P
• receive(Q , message) – receive a message from process Q
• Properties of communication link
• Links are established automatically
• A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes
• Between each pair there exists exactly one link
• The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
Indirect Communication
• Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
• Each mailbox has a unique id
• Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox
• Properties of communication link
• Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
• A link may be associated with many processes
• Each pair of processes may share several communication links
• Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
Indirect Communication
• Operations
• create a new mailbox
• send and receive messages through mailbox
• destroy a mailbox
• Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
Indirect Communication
• Mailbox sharing
• P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
• P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
• Who gets the message?
• Solutions
• Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
• Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation
• Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.
Synchronization
• Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
• Blocking is considered synchronous
• Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received
• Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available
• Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
• Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and continue
• Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid message or null
Buffering
• Queue of messages attached to the link; implemented in one of three ways
1. Zero capacity – 0 messages
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits
Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX
• Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Shared Memory
• Process first creates shared memory segment
segment id = shmget(IPC PRIVATE, size, S IRUSR | S IWUSR);
• Process wanting access to that shared memory must attach to it
shared memory = (char *) shmat(id, NULL, 0);
• Now the process could write to the shared memory
sprintf(shared memory, "Writing to shared memory");
• When done a process can detach the shared memory from its address space
shmdt(shared memory);
POSIX defines the application programming interface (API), along with command line shells and utility
interfaces, for software compatibility with variants of Unix and other operating systems.
Examples of IPC Systems – Mach (part of the
Mac OS X)
• Mach communication is message based
• Even system calls are messages
• Each task gets two mailboxes at creation- Kernel and Notify
• Only three system calls needed for message transfer
• msg_send(), msg_receive(), msg_rpc(): remote procedure call
which sends a message and waits for exactly one return message from the sender
• Mailboxes needed for communication, created via
port_allocate()
Examples of IPC Systems – Windows XP

• Message-passing centric via local procedure call (LPC) facility


• Only works between processes on the same system
• Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels
• Communication works as follows:
• The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object
• The client sends a connection request
• The server creates two private communication ports and returns the handle to one of them to the
client
• The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or callbacks and to
listen for replies
Local Procedure Calls in Windows XP
Sockets

• A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication


• Concatenation of IP address and port
• The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8
• Communication consists between a pair of sockets

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