Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2.2
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.3
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.4
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.5
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.6
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.7
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.8
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.9
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.10
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.11
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.12
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.13
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.14
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.15
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.16
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.17
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.18
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.19
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.20
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.21
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.22
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.23
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.24
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.25
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.26
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.27
 OSI Model

◼ Application layer
◼ Service: responsible for the communication management according to the specific service
◼ Functions: everything is application specific
◼ Examples: VT (Virtual Terminal); FTAM (File Transfer, Access and Management); MOTIS (Message Oriented Text
Interchange Standard); ASE (Application Specific Service Elements); CASE (Common Application Service Elements);
etc
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: yes

◼ Presentation layer
◼ Service: provision of common operations on the data structures being exchanged (i.e., freedom from compatibility
problems)
◼ Functions: VT support; syntax conversion; cryptography; compression
◼ Examples: ISO presentation protocols; ASN1 (Abstract Syntax Notation 1; universal, for both OSI and TCP/IP)
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: no, it disappears; moved to the Operating System (OS)

◼ Session Layer
◼ Service: provision of proper control structure for the specific service, i.e., supports the dialog between cooperating
application programs
◼ Functions: session establishment, management and termination (moved to TCP at TCP/IP); synchronization
(moved to application at TCP/IP); recovery (moved to OS at TCP/IP)
◼ Examples: RPC (Remote Procedure Call); ISO session protocol
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: no

2.28 28
 OSI Model……….

◼ Transport layer
◼ Service: responsible for the provision of a reliable and transparent data transfer between end users
◼ Functions: connection establishment, management and termination; error control; flow control; message delivery;
multiplexing
◼ Examples: ISO TP0-TP4
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: yes

◼ Network layer
◼ Service: to make the upper layers independent of the topology, data transmission, routing and switching
considerations
◼ Functions: routing and switching functions needed to establish, maintain and terminate switched connections and
transfer data between hosts, i.e., routing, addressing, switching and congestion control
◼ Examples: X.25; CLNP (corresponds to IP)
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: yes

◼ Data link layer

◼ Service: responsible for the reliable transfer of data across the links
◼ Functions: synchronization/framing; error control; flow control
◼ Examples: HDLC; LAP-B; LAP-D
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: yes

2.29
 OSI Model……….

◼ Physical layer
◼ Service: responsible for the transmission of bits across the physical medium ensuring reliable delivery of 0`s and 1`s
◼ Functions: conversion of bits into electrical or optical signals; data transmission
◼ Examples: X.21; RS-232
◼ Presence at TCP/IP: yes

2.30
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.31
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.32
 TCP/IP Model

◼ Two models
◼ DoD model: four-layers model developed in the 1970s for the DARPA Internetwork project that grew into the Internet
◼ TCP/IP model: five-layers model that adhere to DoD, although OSI is sometimes preferred for new designs

◼ DoD (Department of Defense) model

◼ Process layer: protocols implementing user-level functions (corresponds to Application layer in TCP/IP)
◼ Host-to-host layer: handles connection rendezvous, flow control, error control and other generic data flow management
(corresponds to TCP in TCP/IP)
◼ Internet layer: responsible for data delivering to destination (routing protocols, corresponds to IP in TCP/IP)
◼ Network access layer: responsible for data delivering over a particular media (corresponds to DLL and PHY in TCP/IP)

◼ TCP/IP model
◼ Application layer: HTTP; FTP; Telnet; SMTP; DNS; BGP; DHCP; etc
◼ Transport layer: TCP; UDP
◼ Internet layer: IP
◼ Network Interface layer: CSMA/CD; HDLC; LAP-B; LAP-D;
◼ Media/Hardware layer: Ethernet (twisted pair; broadband coaxial; optical fiber); radio; infrared; etc

2.33 33
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.34
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.35
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.36
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.37
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

2.38
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.39
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.40
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

2.41
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.42
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.43
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.44
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.45
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
THANK YOU!

47