Here are 100+ MySQL interview questions with their answers, ranging from

basic to more intermediate topics:

• How do you create a new database in MySQL?
– Answer: “‘sql CREATE DATABASE database_name;
- **How do you create a new table in MySQL?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype1,
column2 datatype2,
...
);
• How do you insert values into a table?
– Answer: “‘sql INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, …)
VALUES (value1, value2, …);
- **How do you retrieve all the columns from a table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT * FROM table_name;
• How can you retrieve specific columns from a table?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;
- **What is the use of the WHERE clause?**
- **Answer:** To filter records based on specific conditions.
- **How would you fetch data from a table where the age is greater than 25?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE age > 25;
• What are the different types of SQL JOINs?
– Answer: INNER JOIN, LEFT (or LEFT OUTER) JOIN, RIGHT
(or RIGHT OUTER) JOIN, and FULL (or FULL OUTER) JOIN.
• Write a SQL query to join two tables: students and courses,
assuming each student is enrolled in a course and they share a
common column course_id.
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT * FROM students INNER JOIN courses
ON students.course_id = courses.course_id;
- **What is the difference between the `HAVING` clause and the `WHERE` clause?**
- **Answer:** `WHERE` filters records before aggregating in `GROUP BY`, whereas `HAVING`
- **How would you list the number of students enrolled in each course, but only display cour
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT course_id, COUNT(student_id) as number_of_students
FROM enrollments

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GROUP BY course_id
HAVING number_of_students > 5;
• What is the LIKE operator used for?
– Answer: To search for a specified pattern in a column.
• Write a SQL query to find all students whose names start with
‘A’.
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT * FROM students WHERE name LIKE
‘A%’;
- **How would you update a record in a table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE some_column = some_value;
• How can you delete records from a table?
– Answer: “‘sql DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
- **How do you drop a table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
DROP TABLE table_name;
• What is the purpose of the ALTER table command?
– Answer: To modify an existing table structure, such as adding,
deleting, or modifying columns.
• How would you add a new column email to the students table?
– Answer: “‘sql ALTER TABLE students ADD COLUMN email
VARCHAR(255);
- **What does the `DISTINCT` keyword do in a SQL query?**
- **Answer:** It removes duplicate rows from the result set.
- **Write a query to find the total number of distinct courses from the `enrollments` table.
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT course_id) FROM enrollments;
• What does the EXISTS operator do?
– Answer: It tests for the existence of any record in a subquery.
• Write a SQL query to find students who have enrolled in a
course.
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT student_id FROM students WHERE EX-
ISTS (SELECT 1 FROM enrollments WHERE students.student_id
= enrollments.student_id);
- **How can you concatenate columns in MySQL?**
- **Answer:** Using the `CONCAT()` function.
- **Write a query to get the full name of a student, given `first_name` and `last_name` colu

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 - **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) as full_name FROM students;
• How do you find the total number of rows in a table?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;
- **How can you fetch the first 5 records from a table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT * FROM table_name LIMIT 5;
• What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR data types?
– Answer: CHAR is fixed-length while VARCHAR is variable-length.
• How can you change the data type of a column?
– Answer: “‘sql ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY col-
umn_name NEW_DATA_TYPE;
- **Write a SQL query to find the 3rd highest salary from a `salaries` table.**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT DISTINCT salary
FROM salaries
ORDER BY salary DESC
LIMIT 1 OFFSET 2;
• How do you create a primary key in a table?
– Answer: “‘sql ALTER TABLE table_name ADD PRIMARY KEY
(column_name);

- **What is a foreign key constraint, and why is it used?**

- **Answer:** A foreign key constraint establishes a link between two tables and ensures
- **How can you add a foreign key constraint to an existing table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY (column_name) REFERENCES other_table(other_column);
• How can you retrieve the unique values from a column?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT DISTINCT column_name FROM
table_name;
- **What is the difference between an `INNER JOIN` and a `LEFT JOIN`?**
- **Answer:** An `INNER JOIN` returns rows when there is a match in both tables, while a
- **What is normalization, and why is it important?**
- **Answer:** Normalization is the process of organizing a database to reduce redundancy
- **Describe 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF in database normalization.**
- **Answer:**

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 - **1NF (First Normal Form):** Each table has a primary key, and all attributes are at
- **2NF (Second Normal Form):** All non-key attributes are fully functionally dependen
- **3NF (Third Normal Form):** All attributes are functionally dependent only on the p
- **What is a subquery, and how is it different from a JOIN?**
- **Answer:** A subquery is a query nested inside another query. A subquery can return da
- **Write a query to find employees whose salary is above the average salary.**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT employee_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees);
• What is a stored procedure in MySQL?
– Answer: A stored procedure is a precompiled group of SQL state-
ments stored in the database. It can be invoked as needed.
• How can you handle errors in stored procedures?
– Answer: In MySQL, you can use the DECLARE statement to define
error handlers using CONTINUE or EXIT handlers.
• How do you prevent SQL injection in your queries?
– Answer: Use parameterized queries or prepared statements, avoid
constructing queries with string concatenation using external input,
and always validate and sanitize user input.
• What are TRIGGERS in MySQL?
– Answer: Triggers are automatic actions that the database can per-
form when a specified change occurs (like an INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE operation).
• Can you explain the difference between CHAR_LENGTH and LENGTH
functions?
– Answer: CHAR_LENGTH returns the number of characters in a string,
while LENGTH returns the number of bytes. For single-byte character
sets, they return the same value.
• What is the purpose of the GROUP_CONCAT function in MySQL?
– Answer: GROUP_CONCAT returns a concatenated string of aggregated
data values for each group of rows in the result set.
• Write a SQL query to concatenate all names from the employees
table into a single string, separated by commas.
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT GROUP_CONCAT(employee_name)
FROM employees;
- **How can you create an index in MySQL?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name(column_name);
• What is the difference between a clustered and a non-clustered
index?
– Answer: A clustered index determines the physical order of data in

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 a table. A table can have only one clustered index. Non-clustered
indexes, on the other hand, do not determine the physical order and
a table can have multiple non-clustered indexes.
• What are views in MySQL, and why are they used?
– Answer: A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL
statement. They allow encapsulating complex queries, providing a
simplified representation or hiding certain data.
• What are transactions in MySQL?
– Answer: Transactions are a sequence of one or more SQL operations
executed as a single unit. They ensure data integrity, following the
ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
• How do you start and commit a transaction in MySQL?
– Answer: “‘sql START TRANSACTION; – SQL operations COM-
MIT;
- **What is the difference between `UNION` and `UNION ALL`?**
- **Answer:** `UNION` returns unique records from the combined dataset, while `UNION ALL`
- **What are the advantages of using stored procedures?**
- **Answer:** They provide better performance as they are precompiled, help in modular pr
- **What is the difference between `DATEDIFF` and `TIMESTAMPDIFF` in MySQL?**
- **Answer:** Both are used to find the difference between two dates, but `TIMESTAMPDIFF`
- **How do you clone a table in MySQL?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
CREATE TABLE new_table AS SELECT * FROM existing_table;
• Write a SQL query to rank employees based on their salary in
descending order.
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT employee_name, salary, RANK()
OVER(ORDER BY salary DESC) AS ranking FROM employees;
- **How do you remove duplicate rows in a table?**
- **Answer:** One common way is to create a new table with the distinct rows and delete t
```sql
CREATE TABLE new_table AS SELECT DISTINCT * FROM original_table;
DROP TABLE original_table;
RENAME TABLE new_table TO original_table;
• What are the default storage engines in MySQL?
– Answer: The default storage engine was MyISAM up to MySQL
5.5, but InnoDB became the default from MySQL 5.5 onward.
• What is a self-join, and why would you use it?
– Answer: A self-join is a join of a table to
• What is the purpose of the SET data type in MySQL?
– Answer: The SET type is used to store a set of strings. You can
store zero or more string values chosen from a list defined at table
creation time. “‘sql CREATE TABLE t1 (colors SET(‘red’, ‘blue’,
‘green’)); INSERT INTO t1 (colors) VALUES (‘red,blue’);

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- **How do you implement pagination in MySQL?**
- **Answer:** Using `LIMIT` and `OFFSET`.
```sql
SELECT * FROM table_name LIMIT 10 OFFSET 20; -- Skips the first 20 records and fetches the
• How can you retrieve the month part from a DATE field in
MySQL?
– Answer: Using the MONTH() function. “‘sql SELECT MONTH(date_column)
FROM table_name;
- **How do you convert a `DATETIME` field into a Unix timestamp?**
- **Answer:** Using the `UNIX_TIMESTAMP()` function.
```sql
SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP(datetime_column) FROM table_name;
• How can you perform a case-sensitive search in a column?
– Answer: Using the BINARY keyword. “‘sql SELECT * FROM ta-
ble_name WHERE BINARY column_name = ‘Value’;
- **How can you transpose rows into columns, and vice versa, in a query result?**
- **Answer:** This process is known as "Pivoting". To convert rows to columns, you use a
```sql
-- Pivoting:
SELECT
SUM(CASE WHEN column = 'value1' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS 'Value1',
SUM(CASE WHEN column = 'value2' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS 'Value2'
FROM table_name;

-- Unpivoting:
SELECT 'Value1' AS 'Column', Value1 AS 'Value' FROM table_name
UNION ALL
SELECT 'Value2' AS 'Column', Value2 AS 'Value' FROM table_name;
• How can you get a list of all indexes in a database?
– Answer: “‘sql SHOW INDEXES FROM table_name IN
database_name;
- **How can you optimize a MySQL query?**
- **Answer:** Some methods include using `EXPLAIN` to analyze the query plan, indexing ap
- **What is the difference between `MyISAM` and `InnoDB`?**
- **Answer:** Major differences include:
- `InnoDB` supports ACID-compliant transactions, whereas `MyISAM` does not.
- `InnoDB` supports foreign key constraints, while `MyISAM` does not.
- `MyISAM` typically offers better read performance, while `InnoDB` offers better writ
- **How can you lock a table explicitly?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
LOCK TABLES table_name READ|WRITE; --Lock for reading/writing
UNLOCK TABLES; --To release the lock

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 • How do you get the second highest value from a table column?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name < (SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM
table_name);
- **What is a correlated subquery?**
- **Answer:** A correlated subquery is a subquery that references columns from the outer
```sql
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name t1
WHERE some_value = (SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name t2 WHERE t1.id = t2.id);
• How can you increase the performance of a MySQL database?
– Answer: Optimize queries using EXPLAIN, use indexes wisely, nor-
malize database schema, consider hardware upgrades, and configure
database parameters appropriately in my.cnf or my.ini.
• How do you backup and restore a MySQL database?
– Answer: “‘bash mysqldump -u username -p database_name >
backup.sql
To restore:

```bash
mysql -u username -p database_name < backup.sql
• What are the different types of MySQL collations?
– Answer: Collations specify the rules for string comparison. There
are various types like utf8_general_ci, utf8mb4_unicode_ci, and
latin1_general_ci.
• How do you find the total number of rows affected by a query?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT ROW_COUNT();
- **Explain the difference between `CHAR` and `VARCHAR` data types.**
- **Answer:** `CHAR` has a fixed length, while `VARCHAR` has a variable length. For `CHAR
- **How can you change the data type of a column in MySQL?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name NEW_DATA_TYPE;
• How can you measure the size of a MySQL database?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT table_schema AS “Database”, ROUND(SUM(data_length
+ index_length) / 1024 / 1024, 2) AS “Size (MB)” FROM informa-
tion_schema.TABLES GROUP BY table_schema;
- **How can you delete all records from a table without deleting the table?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
• How can you prevent a query from displaying duplicate rows?

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 – Answer: “‘sql SELECT DISTINCT column_name FROM
table_name;
- **How do you combine results from multiple SQL queries and return a single table?**
- **Answer:** You can use the `UNION` or `UNION ALL` operator, depending on whether or no
- **How can you convert a string to upper-case in MySQL?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name;
• How can you remove leading and trailing whitespace from a
string in MySQL?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT TRIM(column_name) FROM table_name;
- **Explain the purpose of `information_schema` in MySQL.**
- **Answer:** `information_schema` is a meta-database that provides detailed information
- **How can you ensure that a field value is unique across the table, other than using the `
- **Answer:** Use the `UNIQUE` constraint on the desired column.
```sql
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD UNIQUE (column_name);
• How can you count the total number of tables in a database?
– Answer: “‘sql SELECT COUNT(*) FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE table_schema = ‘your_database_name’;
- **How can you find all the tables that have a specific column name in a database?**
- **Answer:**
```sql
SELECT table_name
FROM information_schema.columns
WHERE column_name = 'desired_column' AND table_schema = 'your_database_name';
• How can you replace a specific string in a field?
– Answer: “‘sql UPDATE table_name SET column_name = RE-
PLACE(column_name, ‘old_string’, ‘new_string’);
- **What is the difference between `NOW()` and `CURDATE()` functions in MySQL?**
- **Answer:** `NOW()` returns the current date and time, while `CURDATE()` returns only t

These questions cover a range of advanced topics and should help in assessing the depth of k

**89. Explain the `WITH` clause and provide an example.**

- **Answer:** The `WITH` clause, also known as Common Table Expressions (CTE), provides a te

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```sql
WITH CTE_Name AS (
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
)
SELECT * FROM CTE_Name;
90. What is a self-join and why would you use it?
• Answer: A self-join is a join where a table is joined with itself. It’s useful
for finding relationships within the same table.
SELECT A.column_name, B.column_name
FROM table_name A, table_name B
WHERE A.column_name = B.column_name;
91. What are the different types of subqueries? Explain with exam-
ples.
• Answer: There are three types:
• Scalar subquery: Returns a single value.
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE another_column = (SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name);
• Row subquery: Returns a single row.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE (column1, column2) = (SELECT column1, column2 FROM another_table WHERE condition);
• Table subquery: Returns a table.
SELECT column_name
FROM (
SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition
) AS subquery_name;
92. How can you update data in one table based on data in another
table?
• Answer:
UPDATE table1
SET table1.column_name = table2.column_name
FROM table2
WHERE table1.another_column = table2.another_column;
93. How can you retrieve a random row from a table?

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 • Answer:
SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY RAND() LIMIT 1;
94. What’s the difference between INNER JOIN and OUTER JOIN?
• Answer: INNER JOIN returns rows when there’s a match in both tables.
OUTER JOIN returns all rows from one table and the matching rows from
the other table, filling with NULL if no match is found.
95. How can you clone a table, including both data and schema?
• Answer:
CREATE TABLE new_table AS SELECT * FROM original_table;
96. How do you insert multiple rows in a single SQL query?
• Answer:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2)
VALUES (value1a, value2a),
(value1b, value2b),
...;
97. Explain partitions in MySQL. How do you create them?
• Answer: Partitioning divides a table into smaller, more manageable
pieces, yet still being treated as a single table. It can improve perfor-
mance and assist in organizing large datasets.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column_name1 INT,
column_name2 DATE
)
PARTITION BY RANGE(YEAR(column_name2)) (
PARTITION p0 VALUES LESS THAN (1991),
PARTITION p1 VALUES LESS THAN (1995),
PARTITION p2 VALUES LESS THAN (1999)
);
98. What is the GROUP_CONCAT function and provide an example.
• Answer: It’s used to concatenate values from multiple rows into a single
string.
SELECT group_column, GROUP_CONCAT(value_column)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY group_column;
99. How can you prevent SQL injection in your queries?
• Answer: Using parameterized queries or prepared statements. In PHP,
for instance, you’d use PDO or MySQLi to bind parameters.

10
100. How do you show the current SQL mode, and how can you
change it?
• Answer:
SELECT @@sql_mode; -- To show
SET sql_mode = 'modes'; -- To change
101. What is a transaction and how would you use it in MySQL?
• Answer: Transactions group a set of tasks into a single execution unit.
If one task fails, all fail. Useful for maintaining data integrity.
START TRANSACTION;
INSERT INTO table_name1 ...;
INSERT INTO table_name2 ...;
COMMIT; -- Or ROLLBACK;
102. What are the differences between VARCHAR and TEXT data types?
• Answer: While both are used to store strings, VARCHAR can store up to
65,535 characters and you can specify its max length, while TEXT can store
up to 65,535 characters without specifying max length. VARCHAR can have
a default value, but TEXT cannot.
103. How do you find and fix broken foreign key constraints?
• Answer: Identify them using a LEFT JOIN to find orphaned records, and
either delete these records or update them to restore referential integrity.
104. How do you use FULLTEXT indexing in MySQL?
• Answer: FULLTEXT indexes are used for full-text searches. You can create
one with:
CREATE FULLTEXT INDEX index_name ON table_name(column_name);
Then you’d search with:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE MATCH(column_name) AGAINST('search term');
105. How can you check for index fragmentation on a table and
defragment it?
• Answer: You can check fragmentation using SHOW TABLE STATUS
LIKE 'table_name'; and optimize (defragment) using OPTIMIZE TABLE
table_name;.
106. How can you convert character sets in columns?
• Answer:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name COLUMN_TYPE CHARACTER SET charset_name;
107. How do you schedule a recurring SQL script execution in
MySQL?

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 • Answer: Using MySQL’s Event Scheduler. First, ensure the scheduler
is on with SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'event_scheduler';, then create your
scheduled event.
108. What are MySQL stored procedures and how do you use them?
• Answer: Stored procedures are SQL codes saved in the database
to be reused. Created using CREATE PROCEDURE, and called via CALL
procedure_name().
109. How would you monitor the performance of your MySQL
database in real-time?
• Answer: Tools like SHOW PROCESSLIST, Performance Schema, MySQL
Enterprise Monitor, and third-party tools like Percona Monitoring and
Management.
110. How can you run SQL script from the command line without
entering the MySQL console?
• Answer: Use:
mysql -u username -p database_name < script.sql
111. What is the EXPLAIN keyword in MySQL?
• Answer: EXPLAIN provides a query execution plan, showing how MySQL
will execute the query, which can be vital for optimization.
112. How do you enforce a column to not accept NULL values?
• Answer: By adding the NOT NULL constraint during table creation or
modification.
113. How do you rename a database in MySQL?
• Answer: MySQL does not have a straightforward command to rename a
database. Instead, one common approach is to dump the database, create
a new one with the desired name, and then restore the dumped database
into the new one.
114. How can you reset the auto-increment value of a column?
• Answer:
ALTER TABLE table_name AUTO_INCREMENT = value;
115. How can you handle time zones in MySQL?
• Answer: MySQL provides the CONVERT_TZ() function to convert
datetime values across time zones. Additionally, SET time_zone =
timezone; sets the time zone for the current session.
116. How do you retrieve only a specified number of characters from
a string column?

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 • Answer:
SELECT LEFT(column_name, number_of_chars) FROM table_name;
117. What are views in MySQL and why are they used?
• Answer: Views are virtual tables based on the result set of an SQL
statement. They encapsulate the SQL statement and present data in a
simplified manner, ensuring data abstraction, protection, and to represent
a subset of the data.
118. How do you find the second highest value in a column?
• Answer:
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name NOT IN (SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name);
These questions should serve well for interviews at product-based companies
that expect a deep understanding of MySQL.

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