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#Block Diagram of telecommunication: is split into separate ranges).

split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog 3)Infrared: Infrared waves are used for very short- #Crossbar switch configuration: The Crossbar switch
television networks widely use Coaxial cables. distance communication. They cannot penetrate through configurations are non-blocking configurations, which
3)Optical Fiber Cable: It uses the concept of the obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. have N2 switching elements for N subscribers and can
reflection of light through a core made up of glass or Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV make N/2 simultaneous conversations. The usage of
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or remotes, wireless mouse, keyboards, printers, etc. Crosspoint depends upon the calling subscriber. This is a
plastic covering called cladding. It is used for the #Crossbar Switching: The Crossbar exchanges were modified non-blocking scheme with a Diagonal Crosspoint
transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be developed during the 1940s. They achieve full access and matrix as discussed above having N(N-1)/2 elements. The
Transmission Media: The transmission medium is a unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength non-blocking capabilities with the Crossbar switches and number of elements is the same as that of a fully
physical path between the transmitter and the receiver Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely common control equipment, used in the Crossbar connected network. The connection in this method is
i.e., it is the channel through which data is sent from one unidirectional and bidirectional mode. exchanges. The active elements called Crosspoint’s are established by first energizing the horizontal bar and then
place to another. Transmission Media is broadly 2) Unguided Media: It is also referred to as Wireless or placed between the input and the output lines. In the the vertical bar. However, this Non-blocking scheme has
classified into the following types: Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is common control switching systems, the separation few disadvantages such as 1) A large number of switching
1)Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. between switching and control operations allows the elements are required. 2)This is difficult to implement in
Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted usage of switching networks by a group of common practice. 3)This is neither a cost-effective process.
#Types Of Unguided Media:
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using control switches to establish many calls at the same time #Crossbar exchange organization: The organization of a
physical links. 1)Radio waves: These are easy to generate and can
on a shared basis. The Crossbar switching system uses Crossbar exchange consists of three basic building blocks
penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
#Types of Guided Media: the common control networks which enable the such as link frames, control markers and registers. Link
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz –
1) Twisted Pair Cable: It consists of 2 separately switching network to perform event monitoring, call frames contain primary and secondary stages having
1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio
insulated conductor wires wound about each other. processing, charging, operation and maintenance as Crossbars, connected with links between them. This two-
waves for transmission.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a discussed previously. The common control also provides stage arrangement with links has the effect of increasing
protective sheath. They are the most widely used 2)Microwaves: It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e. the uniform numbering of subscribers in a multi-exchange the number of outlets for a given number of inlets. If the
Transmission Media sending and receiving antennas need to be properly area like big cities and routing of calls from one exchange number of outlets is high, the selectivity is higher too
2)Coaxial Cable: It has an outer plastic covering aligned with each other. The distance covered by the to another using the same intermediate exchanges. This #Pulse Dialing: Pulse dialing is a signaling technology in
containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate signal is directly proportional to the height of the method helps to avoid the disadvantages associated with telecommunications in which a direct current local loop
insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are the step-by-step switching method through its unique circuit is interrupted according to a defined coding system
information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated majorly used for mobile phone communication and process of receiving and storing the complete number to for each signal transmitted, usually a digit. Each of the ten
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth television distribution. establish a call connection. digits is encoded in sequences of up to ten pulses each.

For this reason, the method is also called decadic dialing, 2)Analog Level 1 (DS0): This level of the hierarchy can SPC stands for Stored Program Control, which is a lines from various exchanges or remote locations are
primarily in the United Kingdom. Historically the most transmit 64 kbps of digital voice data and is equivalent to telecommunication architecture used in telephone connected to this central switching system. The central
common device to produce such pulse trains is the rotary one voice channel. networks to manage and control communication traffic. SPC system uses software to manage and control the call
dial of the telephone, lending the technology another 3)Analog Level 2 (DS1): This level of the hierarchy can SPC is based on the principle of using computer software switching process, replacing the traditional electro-
name, rotary dialing. The term loop disconnect dialing multiplex 24 DS0 channels onto a single physical circuit, to control the switching of telephone calls instead of mechanical switches used in older telephone networks.
arises from its nature of interrupting the local loop circuit. for a total bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps. using mechanical or electro-mechanical switches. In an #Time Division Space Switching: Time Division Space
The pulse repetition rate has historically been 4)Analog Level 3 (DS2): This level of the hierarchy can SPC system, a computerized switching system, known as Switching switches may also employ space division
standardized based on the response time needed for multiplex 96 DS0 channels onto a single physical circuit, the Central Office (CO), manages and controls the entire switching techniques, whereas an appropriate mixture of
electromechanical switching systems, and most for a total bandwidth of 6.312 Mbps. network. The CO is responsible for monitoring all the both time and space division switching is advantageous in
telephone systems used the nominal pulse repetition of 5)Analog Level 4 (DS3): This level of the hierarchy can incoming and outgoing calls, identifying the caller and various circumstances. A Time division space switch takes
10 pulses per second. multiplex 672 DS0 channels onto a single physical circuit, receiver, and routing the calls to the appropriate outputs of several time-division switches (say, TSI
#The analog hierarchy refers to a system of multiplexing for a total bandwidth of 44.736 Mbps. destination. The CO also manages all the network switches) switches) which are then given as inputs to
used in telecommunications networks to transmit 6)Analog Level 5 (DS4): This level of the hierarchy can resources, including the transmission lines, signal space division switches. This means that one of the two
multiple voice channels over a single physical circuit. The multiplex 4032 DS0 channels onto a single physical circuit, processors, and switching element similar outputs produced by a TDM switch, switch, can be
system is based on the principle of time-division for a total bandwidth of 274.176 Mbps. #Centralized SPC: All the control equipment is replaced selected by space switch to deliver to another output
multiplexing (TDM), which involves dividing a physical #Stored program control (SPC): Stored Program Control with a single processor that must be Fairly powerful. The path which reduces the number of Cross points.
circuit into multiple time slots and assigning each time (SPC) is the concept of electronics that ringed in a change dual-processor replaced the single main processor at a #Time Division Time Switching: The main advantage of
slot to a different voice channel. In the analog hierarchy, in telecommunication. It permits features like later stage of advancement. This made the process more time division time multiplexing technique is that, unlike
each level of the hierarchy defines the number of voice abbreviated dialing, call forwarding, calls waiting, etc. The reliable. Centralized Stored Program Control (SPC) is a time division space switching, it allows time slot
channels that can be multiplexed onto a single physical Stored Program Control concept is where a program or a telecommunications architecture where a central interchange (TSI) of sample values. values. In TSI, a
circuit. Most common levels of the analog hierarchy used set of instructions to the computer is stored in its switching system, typically a computer, controls and speech sample input during a time slot may be sent to the
in tele-phone are: memory and the instructions are executed automatically manages all the communication traffic in a network. The output during a different time slot, which implies a delay
1)Analog Level 0 (POTS): This is the lowest level of the one by one by the processor. As the exchange control central switching system is responsible for monitoring, between reception and transmission of a sample. The
hierarchy and refers to a single voice channel, also known functions are carried out through programs stored in the processing, and routing all incoming and outgoing calls, as rate at which the time slot clock runs is 125 micro sec.
as Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS). memory of a computer, it is called the Stored Program well as managing all the network resources. In a The time slot counter increments by one, at the end of
Control (SPC). centralized SPC system, the switching system is physically each clock pulse, the contents of which provide location
located in a central location, and all the communication addresses for data memory and control memory. The

input sample is read at the beginning of the time slot and The Voice Frequency signaling is used when FDM the PSTN for residential and business customers in a local Each level of the PSTN switching hierarchy is responsible
it is clocked at the end of the clock pulse. Because of the (Frequency Division Multiplexing) transmission systems area. Each local exchange serves a specific geographic for routing and switching calls within its specific
storage action, action, the sample is delayed at least by a are used, because low frequency signaling and D.C. area and is connected to the higher levels of the geographic area and interconnecting with other levels of
single time slot in passing from the input to the output, signaling cannot be provided. This Voice Frequency switching hierarchy via trunk lines. the hierarchy to provide end-to-end communication
output, even if there is no time slot interchange. signaling may be In-band or Out-band. 2) The Transit Exchange Level: The transit exchange level services.
#Line of sight: Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation #Common Channel Signaling: Common Channel Signaling is the second level of the PSTN hierarchy. It provides #WIFI VS WI-MAX:
that can transmit and receive data only where transmit uses a separate common channel for passing control interconnection between local exchanges and serves as a WIFI WIMAX
and receive stations are in view of each other without any signals for a group of trunks or information paths as it point of concentration for traffic from multiple local
sort of an obstacle between them. FM radio, microwave does not use the speech or the data path for signaling. exchanges. Transit exchanges are connected to each WIFI stands for Wireless Wi-Max stands for Wireless
and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight The common channel signaling consists of two types of other and to the higher levels of the hierarchy via trunk Fidelity. Interoperability for
communication. Long-distance data communication is nodes such as Signaling Transfer Points (STP) and lines. Microwave Access.
more effective through wireless networks but Signaling Points (SP). A Signaling point is capable of 3) The Toll Exchange Level: The toll exchange level is the
geographical obstacles and the curvature of the earth handling control messages directly addressed to it but is third level of the PSTN hierarchy. It provides long- WIFI uses Radio waves to WiMAX uses spectrum to
bring limitations to line-of-sight transmission. However, incapable of routing messages. Signaling transfer point is distance communication services and connects transit create wireless high-speed deliver connection to
these issues can generally be mitigated through planning, capable of routing messages and can perform the exchanges across a larger geographic area. Toll exchanges internet and network network and handle a larger
calculations and the use of additional technologies. For functions of SP. This common channel signaling is are responsible for routing calls between different transit connections inter-operable network.
example, mobile phones use a modified line-of-sight implemented in two modes – 1) Channel associated mode exchanges and are connected to the higher levels of the
WIFI is defined under IEEE WiMAX is defined under
transmission, which is made possible through a 2) Channel non-associated mode hierarchy via trunk lines.
802.11x standards where "x" IEEE 802.16y standards
combination of effects like diffraction, multipath #The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is a 4)The International Exchange Level: The international
defines various WIFI versions. where "y" defines various
reflection, local repeaters and rapid handoff. circuit-switched telecommunications network that exchange level is the fourth level of the PSTN hierarchy. It
WiMAX versions.
#In-Channel Signaling: This type of signaling is used to provides voice and data communication services to the provides international communication services and
carry voice or data and pass control signals related to a general public. The PSTN uses a hierarchical switching connects different countries' telecommunication WIFI is used in LAN WIFI is used in LAN
call or connection. There are different types of In- architecture to connect various switching nodes and networks. International exchanges are responsible for applications. applications.
channels Signaling, as seen in the above figure. The D.C. provide end-to-end communication services. routing calls between different toll exchanges in different
signaling is simple, cheap and reliable even for The PSTN switching hierarchy consists of four levels: countries and are connected to each other via WIFI does not guarantee WiMAX ensures a high level
unamplified audio circuits. However, for amplified audio 1) The Local Exchange Level: The local exchange level is international trunk lines. Quality of Service (QoS). of Quality of Service
circuits, low frequency A.C. signaling may be adopted. the first level of the PSTN hierarchy. It provides access to

Wi-Fi is a technology that WiMAX is a long-range 3)MTSO: The switching office, the central coordination #Recurrent faults in transmission systems can occur due 4)Protective relays: Installing protective relays that can
works over a short distance. communication technology. element for all cell sites, contains the cellular processor to a variety of reasons, including but not limited to: detect and isolate faults can also help reduce recurrent
Wi-Fi network ranges at max WiMAX network ranges to and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company 1)Overloading: When the transmission lines are faults.
100 meters. max 90 kms. zone offices, controls call processing, and handles billing overloaded beyond their capacity, they can lead to 5)Improved training and safety measures: Proper
activities. recurrent faults. training of personnel and implementing safety measures
Wi-Fi transmission speed can WiMAX transmission speed 4)Connections: The radio and high-speed data links 2)Weather conditions: Adverse weather conditions such can help prevent human error and reduce recurrent faults
be up to 54 mbps. can be up to 70 mbps. connect the three subsystems. Each mobile unit can only as lightning, thunderstorms, and heavy winds in transmission systems.
use one channel at a time for its communication link. But 3)Insulation failure: Insulation failure can occur due to #OTDR stands for Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer,
#Basic Cellular System (Parts): A basic cellular system
the channel is not fixed; It can be anyone in the entire aging, exposure to environmental conditions, or damage which is a testing instrument used to analyze and
consists of three parts: a mobile unit, a cell site and a
band assigned by the serving area, with each site having to the insulation. measure the characteristics of optical fibers. An OTDR
mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), as Fig shows
multichannel capabilities that can connect simultaneously 4)Equipment failure: Faulty or damaged equipment such sends a series of high-intensity optical pulses into an
with connections to link the three subsystems.
to many mobile units. The MTSO is the heart of the as transformers, circuit breakers, and disconnect switches optical fiber and then measures the intensity and time
cellular mobile system. Its processor provides central can cause recurrent faults. delay of the reflected signals to determine the
coordination and cellular administration. The cellular 5)Human error: Improper maintenance, incorrect characteristics of the fiber. The working principle of OTDR
switch, which can be either analog or digital, switches call installation, and operational errors can also cause can be explained as follows:
to connect subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to recurrent faults in transmission systems. 1)Pulse Generation: The OTDR generates a high-intensity
the nationwide telephone network. It uses voice trunks #Remedies for recurrent faults in transmission systems optical pulse, typically in the form of a laser beam, which
similar to telephone company interoffice voice trunks. It include: is sent through the optical fiber.
also contains data links providing supervision links 1)Upgrading the system: Upgrading the transmission 2) Pulse Propagation: The pulse travels through the fiber,
between the processor and the switch and between the system by adding more lines or increasing the capacity of and as it does so, it gets attenuated and dispersed due to
1)Mobile units: A mobile telephone unit contains a cell sites and the processor. The radio link carries the existing lines can help reduce recurrent faults. various factors such as fiber length, quality, and splices.
control unit, a transceiver and an antenna system. voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell 2)Improved maintenance: Regular maintenance and 3)Signal Reflection: Whenever the pulse encounters a
site. The high-speed data links cannot be transmitted inspection of the transmission system can help identify discontinuity such as a splice, connector, or fiber break, a
2)Cell Site: The cell site provides an interface between
over the standard telephone trunks and therefore must potential problems and prevent recurrent faults. portion of the pulse is reflected back towards the OTDR.
the MTSO and the mobile units. It has a control unit,
radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines). 3)Fault detection and isolation: Installing fault detection 4)Signal Detection: The OTDR detects the reflected
terminals. Microwave radio links or T-carriers carry both voice and and isolation systems can help quickly identify and isolate signals and measures their intensity and time delay
data between the cell site and the MTSO faults, minimizing their impact. relative to the original pulse.
5)Data Analysis: The OTDR then uses this data to holding or pulling out things such as nails, or for bending #Maintenance refers to the process of keeping #VSAT: VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite
calculate various fiber parameters such as attenuation, or cutting wire. Pliers consist of a pair of pivoted jaws that equipment, systems, or facilities in a good working communications system that serves home and business
dispersion, splice loss, and fiber length. are used for holding, bending, cutting, or turning objects. condition to ensure their optimal performance and users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces
#The main characteristics of an OTDR include: They also allow one to manipulate objects that are too prevent downtime. There are various types of between the user's computer and an outside antenna
1)Range: The range of an OTDR determines the maximum small or too unwieldy to be manipulated with fingers. maintenance, including: with a transceiver. The transceiver receives or sends a
distance it can measure. OTDRs are available in various 2)Wrenches: Wrenches are used to turn objects; most 1)Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance signal to a satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite
ranges, from a few meters to several kilometers. commonly nuts and bolts. Unlike pliers, wrenches involves the scheduled inspection, cleaning, and sends and receives signals from an earth station
2)Pulse Width: The pulse width determines the generally do not have pivoting jaws (an exception is the replacement of equipment parts before they fail. The goal computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user
resolution and accuracy of the measurements. Shorter sink wrench). Wrenches are almost always a better tool is to prevent unexpected breakdowns and ensure is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite in
pulse widths provide better resolution, but may not than pliers for loosening and tightening nuts and bolts equipment longevity. This type of maintenance is typically a star topology. For one end user to communicate with
penetrate as far into the fiber. because they provide greater torque than pliers and are based on the equipment's usage, time, or specific another, each transmission has to first go to the hub
3)Dynamic Range: The dynamic range of an OTDR is the less likely to round or damage fasteners. manufacturer recommendations. station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other
maximum attenuation range it can measure. Higher 3)Winch Machine: An Industrial Winch Machine is a 2) Corrective Maintenance: Corrective maintenance is a end user's VSAT. VSAT handles data, voice, and video
dynamic ranges allow for measurements of longer fibers mechanical device that is used to pull in (Wind up) or let type of maintenance that is performed to correct a signals. VSAT is used both by home users who sign up
and smaller losses. out (wind out) or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope problem after it has been identified. This could be due to with a large service such as DirePC and by private
4)Dead Zones: Dead zones are areas in which an OTDR or wire rope (Also called "cable" or "wire cable"). In its a breakdown, malfunction, or defect. The aim of companies that operate or lease their own VSAT systems.
cannot accurately measure due to the residual pulse from simplest form, it consists of a spool and attached hand corrective maintenance is to restore the equipment to its #Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR): SWR (Voltage
a previous reflection. Dead zones can be minimized by crank. In larger forms, winches stand at the heart of original working condition. Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure of how efficiently
using shorter pulse widths and higher dynamic ranges. machines as diverse as tow trucks, steam shovels, and 3)Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance is a radio-frequency power is transmitted from a power
5)Data Processing: Advanced OTDRs feature elevators. The spool can also be called the winch drum. type of maintenance that uses data and analytics to source, through a transmission line, into a load (for
sophisticated data processing capabilities, such as 4)Multimeter: A multimeter, also known as a volt-ohm predict when equipment might fail. By monitoring example, from a power amplifier through a transmission
automatic event detection, fiber profiling, and graphical meter, is a handheld tester used to measure electrical equipment performance, collecting data and using line, to an antenna). Mathematically: VSWR is the voltage
display of fiber characteristics. voltage, current (amperage), resistance, and other values. statistical algorithms, the maintenance team can ratio of the signal on the transmission line:
#List the measuring instrument and tool used in Multimeters come in analog and digital versions and are anticipate potential problems before they occur and take VSWR = |V (max)| / |V (min)|
telecommunication. explain useful for everything from simple tests, like measuring action to prevent equipment failure. Where V (max) is the maximum voltage of the signal
1)Pliers: Pliers are a tool with two handles at one end and battery voltage, to detecting faults and complex along the line, and V (min) is the minimum voltage along
two hard, flat, metal parts at the other. Pliers are used for Diagnostics. the line.

#Stored program control: Stored Program Control (SPC) is transmission, which is made possible through a capacity, then the queue lengths become very large and #Switching system: A Switching system can be
the concept of electronics that ringed in a change in combination of effects like diffraction, multipath the calls experience undesirably long delays. understood as a collection of switching elements
telecommunication. It permits features like abbreviated reflection, local repeaters and rapid handoff. arranged and controlled in such a way as to set up a
#Lightning protection mechanisms: in communication
dialing, call forwarding, calls waiting, etc. The Stored #Fading: fading is the loss of signal strength that occurs as common path between any two distant points. The
systems are essential to prevent damage to equipment
Program Control concept is where a program or a set of the signal travels from the transmitter to the receiver. introduction of switching systems reduced the complexity
and ensure reliable operation. Here are a few commonly
instructions to the computer is stored in its memory and This loss of signal strength can occur due to various of wiring and made the telephony hassle-free.
the instructions are executed automatically one by one by reasons such as attenuation, reflection, diffraction, and used techniques: 1)Manual Switching: In a Manual switching system, the
the processor. As the exchange control functions are scattering. The result is that the quality of the received 1)Surge arrestors: Surge arrestors are devices that divert operator has full control of a connection. He/She enables
carried out through programs stored in the memory of a signal may deteriorate, leading to errors in the high-voltage surges away from sensitive equipment. They the signaling systems, performs switching, and releases a
computer, it is called the Stored Program Control (SPC). transmission. Fading is a major challenge in wireless are placed in series with the communication line and connection after a conversation.
The processors used by SPC are designed based on the communications and can be mitigated through provide a low-resistance path to ground for high voltage 2)Automatic Switching: It is a switching system in which
requirements of the exchange. The processors are techniques such as diversity, equalization, and power surges. all the operations required to execute the three phases
duplicated; and, using more than one processor makes control. of Information transfer transactions are automatically
the process reliable. A separate processor is used for the #Grade of service: The amount of traffic rejected by the 2)Grounding: Proper grounding is essential for lightning executed in response to signals from a user end-
maintenance of the switching system. network is an index of quality of the service offered by protection. Grounding provides a low-resistance path for instrument.
#Line of sight: Line of sight (Los) is a type of propagation the network. Defined as the ratio of lost traffic to offered the electrical energy from a lightning strike to dissipate 3)Electromechanical Switching: Electromechanical
that can transmit and receive data only where transmit traffic. Offered traffic is product of the average number of harmlessly into the earth. switching systems are a combination of mechanical and
and receive stations are in view of each other without any calls generated by the users and the Average holding time 3)Isolation transformers: Isolation transformers are used electrical switching types. The electrical circuits and the
sort of an obstacle between them. FM radio, microwave per call. Actual traffic carried by the network is called the to isolate communication lines from the electrical power mechanical relays are deployed in them.
and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight Strowger/Step by Step Switching
carried traffic and the average occupancy of the servers in system.
communication. Long-distance data communication is The Step-by-step switching system is also called the
the network is given by: Where, A= Offered traffic A0= 4)Shielding: Shielding is used to protect the
more effective through wireless networks but Strowger switching system after its inventor A B
geographical obstacles and the curvature of the earth Carried traffic A-A0= Lost traffic GOS is called call communication cables from electromagnetic interference Strowger. The control functions in a Strowger system are
bring limitations to line-of-sight transmission. However, congestion or loss probability and the blocking probability (EMI) and radio frequency interference performed by circuits associated with the switching
these issues can generally be mitigated through planning, is called time congestion. Delay probability is the elements in the system.
5)Lightning rods: Lightning rods are a traditional method
calculations and the use of additional technologies. For probability that a call experiences delay. If the offered Types:
of lightning protection that can be used for
example, mobile phones use a modified line-of-sight load or the input rate of traffic far exceeds the network ● Uni-Selector ● Two motion Selector
communication towers.

#COMBINATION SWITCHING: We have seen that time microwave radio signals over considerable distances – #GSM: GSM is a digital telecommunications standard that #ONT: ONT stands for Optical Network Terminal. An ONT
multiplexed time division space switches do not provide often up to 300 kilometers (190 mi), and further was developed by the European Telecommunications is the device that serves as the telecommunication
full availability as they are not capable of performing time depending on terrain and climate factors. This method of Standard Institute (ETSI) to define the 2G cellular chain’s endpoint of the PON on user end. Another
slot interchange. Time slot interchange switches are not propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon, network. 2G GSM offered voice calls, SMS messaging, and abbreviation to know is an ONU, which stands for Optical
capable of switching sample values across the trunks where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are basic data services. Every network (2G, 3G, and 4G LTE) Network Unit. ONU and ONT are often used
without the help of some space switching matrices. randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers utilizes cellular frequency bands to send and receive interchangeably. More or less, they are the same. Simply
Therefore, a combination of the time and space switches of the troposphere. Radio signals are transmitted in a information, which varies by country. 2G GSM used the put, an ONT/ONU refer to the user side equipment. In
leads to configurations that achieve both time slot narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz frequency bands in North and today's optical network topologies, the advent of fiber
interchange and sample switching across trunks. A two- direction of the receiver station. As the signals pass South America, and the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz bands in optic splitter contributes to helping users maximize the
stage combination switch may be organized with time through the troposphere, some of the energy is scattered Europe, Asia, Australia, Middle East, and Africa. To performance of optical network circuits. Fiber optic
switch as the first stage and the space switch as the back toward the Earth, allowing the receiver station to transmit information, GSM uses FDMA and TDMA. FDMA splitter, also referred to as optical splitter, or beam
second stage or vice versa. Accordingly, the two switch pick up the signal. breaks down the radio frequency band into multiple splitter, is an integrated waveguide optical power
configurations are known by the nomenclature time- #FTTH network: Fiber to the home (FTTH), also called channels and TDMA breaks the channel down into time distribution device that can split an incident light beam
space (TS) or space-time (ST) switches respectively. fiber to the premises (FTTP), is the installation and use of slots to allow more people to transmit information at the into two or more light beams, and vice versa, containing
#skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio optical fiber from a central point directly to individual same time. multiple input and output ends. Optical splitter has
waves reflected or refracted back toward Earth from the buildings such as residences, apartment buildings and played an important role in passive optical networks (like
ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper businesses to provide high-speed internet access. FTTH EPON, GPON, BPON, FTTX, FTTH, etc.) by allowing a single
atmosphere. ... line-of-sight propagation, in which radio dramatically increases connection speeds available to PON (passive optical network) interface to be shared
waves travel in a straight line, the dominant mode at computer users compared with technologies now used in among many subscribers.
higher frequencies. The range lies between 5 MHz to 25 most places. FTTH promises connection speeds of up to #CPE: In telecommunications, a customer-premises
MHz. 100 megabits per second (Mbps). These speeds are 20 to equipment or customer-provided equipment (CPE) is any
#Space waves are used for very high-frequency bands 100 times as fast as a typical cable modem or DSL (Digital terminal and associated equipment located at a
ranging from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, ultra-high frequency Subscriber Line) connections. subscriber's premises and connected with a carrier's
(UHF) bands, and microwaves. It is because, at such high #OLT: OLT stands for Optical Line Terminal. An OLT is the telecommunication circuit. CPE generally refers to devices
frequencies, both the skywave propagation and ground device that serves as your ISPs endpoint of the passive such as telephones, routers, network switches, residential
wave propagation fail. Tropospheric scatter, also known optical network (PON). The OLT also provides the gateways (RG), set-top boxes, fixed mobile convergence
as troposcatter, is a method of communicating with interface between a PON and ISP’s core network. products, home networking adapters and Internet access

gateways that enable consumers to access providers' #Wattmeter: A wattmeter is an electric instrument that is motors, appliances, circuits, power Supplies, and wiring
communication services and distribute them in a used to measure the electric power of Various electric systems.
residence or enterprise with a local area network (LAN). circuits. It consists of a current coil and a voltage coil. #GPS: stands for Global Positioning System, which is a
#In-Channel Signaling: This type of signaling is used to These instruments are widely used in the transmission satellite-based navigation system that provides location
carry voice or data and pass control signals related to a and distribution of electric power and these are also used and time information anywhere on Earth. The system is
call or connection. There are different types of In- for protection purposes composed of a network of satellites orbiting the Earth,
channels Signaling, as seen in the above figure. The D.C. #Frequency meter: A frequency meter is an instrument ground control stations, and GPS receivers.
signaling is simple, cheap and reliable even for that displays the frequency of a periodic electrical signal. GPS works by measuring the time it takes for radio signals
unamplified audio circuits. However, for amplified audio Nowadays frequency counter is used instead of a to travel from the GPS satellites to the GPS receiver. The
circuits, low frequency A.C. signaling may be adopted. frequency meter. It measures the frequency in Hertz. We receiver uses this information to calculate its distance
The Voice Frequency signaling is used when FDM can find analog and digital versions of this device. from the satellites, and then uses the signals from
(Frequency Division Multiplexing) transmission systems multiple satellites to determine its precise location on
are used, because low frequency signaling and D.C. Earth.
signaling cannot be provided. This Voice Frequency GPS is used in a wide range of applications, including
signaling may be In-band or Out-band. navigation, surveying, mapping, and tracking. It is
#Common Channel Signaling: Common Channel Signaling commonly used in vehicles for navigation and tracking, in
uses a separate common channel for passing control mobile devices for location-based services, and in
signals for a group of trunks or information paths as it aviation and marine navigation systems.
does not use the speech or the data path for signaling.
The common channel signaling consists of two types of
nodes such as Signaling Transfer Points (STP) and #Multimeter: A multimeter, also known as a volt-ohm
Signaling Points (SP). A Signaling point is capable of meter, is a handheld tester used to measure electrical
handling control messages directly addressed to it but is voltage, current (amperage), resistance, and other values.
incapable of routing messages. Signaling transfer point is Multimeters come in analog and digital versions and are
capable of routing messages This common channel useful for everything from simple tests, like measuring
signaling is implemented in two modes − 1) Channel battery voltage, to detecting faults and complex
associated mode 2) Channel non-associated mode Diagnostics. They are one of the tools preferred by
electricians for Troubleshooting electrical problems on
#A computer network is a group of devices connected with #OSI Reference Model: OSI (Open System and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the #Firewall: A firewall is a software utility or hardware
each other through a transmission medium such as cables, Interconnection) is reference model for how application physical layer. it converts the digital bits into electrical device that acts as a filter for data entering or leaving a
wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers, can communicate over a network. A reference model is a signal. network or computer. You could think of a firewall as a
scanners, Fax machines etc. The purpose of having conceptual framework for understanding relationships. 2)Data link Layer: Data link layer synchronizes the security guard that decides who enters or exits a building.
computer network is to send and receive data stored in other The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide information which is to be transmitted over the data. A firewall work by blocking or restricting network ports.
devices over the network. These devices are often referred vendors and developers so the digital communication Error controlling is easily done. The encoded data are Firewalls are commonly used to help prevent
as node. #There are five basic component of computer products and software programs they create will then pass to physical. Error Detection bits are used by the unauthorized access to both company and home
network. interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among data link on layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing networks. #There are two types:
1)Message: It is the data or information which needs to communications tools. messages are assembled into frames. Then the system 1)Software Firewalls: These firewalls are installed on a
be transferred from one device to another device over a The OSI reference model architecture divides network waits for the acknowledgement to be receive after the computer or a server and are typically included as part of
computer network. communication into seven layers. The seven layers of transmission. It is reliable to send message. This layer has the operating system or as a separate software
2)Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and function are provided by a combination of applications, two sub-layers, the logical link control layer and the application. They can be configured to protect a single
needs to send the data to others device connected to operating systems, network card device drivers and Media Access Control Layer. computer or a group of computers on a network.
network. networking hardware that enable a system to put a signal 3)The Network Layer: It routes the signal through Software-based firewalls can provide protection against
3)Receiver: A receiver is the device which is excepting the on a network cable or out over Wi-fi or other wireless different channel to the other end. It acts as a network inbound and outbound traffic and can be customized to
data from others device on the network. protocol). controller. It decides by which route data should take. It block or allow specific types of traffic.
4)Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one Each layer covers different network activities, equipment, divides the outgoing messages into packets and to 2)Hardware Firewalls: Hardware firewalls are physical
device to another device we need a transmission media or protocols. The OSI layers may be summarized by: assemble incoming packets into messages for higher devices that are installed on a network to protect
such as wires, cables, radio waves etc. 1)Physical Layer: The physical layer is the actual cable, levels. This layer also determines the route from the multiple computers or devices. They are designed to
5)Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by fibers, cards, switches, and other mechanical and source to the destination computer. Its determiners handle large amounts of traffic and can provide faster
both sender and receiver, without protocol two device electrical equipment that make up a network. This is the which path the data should take base on network and more reliable protection than software-based
can be connected to each other but they cannot layer that transforms digital data into signals that can be conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also firewalls. Hardware-based firewalls are typically more
communicate. In order to establish a reliable sent down a wire to transmit data. These signals are often manages traffic problem on the network, such as expensive than software-based firewalls and are used by
communication or data sharing between two different electrical but, as in the case of fiber optics, they can also switching and routing a packet and controlling the larger organizations or businesses that require more
device we need set of rules that are called protocol. be non-electrical signals such as optics or any other type congestion of data. robust security solutions.
Example, http and https are the two-protocol used by of pulse that can be digitally encoded. It activates,
web browsers to get and post the data to internet. maintain and deactivate the physical connection. Voltage

#OSI (Open System Interconnection) VS TCP/IP It has 7 layers It has 4 layers 3)Fiber optic cables: Fiber optic cables use light to #Role of Switches in networks: A Switch is an intelligent
OSI TCP/IP Model #Transmission Media: Transmission media refer to the transmit data over long distances. They consist of thin device that works in the data link layer. The term
OSI provides layer TCP/IP model is more physical pathways through which data is transmitted glass or plastic fibers that are surrounded by a protective intelligent refers to the decision-making capacity of the
functioning and also defines based on protocols and between devices in a network. It includes wired media coating and an outer jacket. Fiber optic cables can switch. since it works in the Data link layer, It has
functions of all the layers protocols are not flexible such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optic transmit data at very high speeds and are commonly used knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the
with other layers. cables, as well as wireless media such as radio waves, in long-distance communication systems such as those network. If data has to be sent from Computer A to
In OSI model the transport In TCP/IP model the microwave, infrared, and satellite communication. The used by internet service providers (ISPs). Computer B, then, the data is transferred to the
layer guarantees the delivery transport layer does not
choice of transmission media depends on factors such as #Role of Router in networks: A router is connected to at Computer B only, and not any other computers connected
of packets guarantees delivery of
distance, data transfer rate, cost, and reliability. Here are least two networks and decides which way to send each to the networks. Hence, it establishes a link between the
packets.
Follows horizontal approach Follows vertical approach some examples of guided transmission media: information packet based on its current understanding of Sender and receiver based on the MAC addresses. This
OSI model has a separate TCP/IP does not have a 1)Twisted pair cables: Twisted pair cables are the most the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is a also means that when data is being sent from A to B,
presentation layer separate presentation layer common type of guided transmission media used in local device that forwards data packets along networks. A Computer C can establish a link with computer D and
OSI is a general model TCP/IP model cannot be area networks (LANs). They consist of two copper wires router is connected to at least two networks, commonly communication can take place between them. so,
used in any other twisted together in pairs and are available in two types: two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers simultaneous data transfer is possible in switch.
application. unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair are located or more networks connect. A router may It also to be noted that a switch is a secure device,
Network layer of OSI model The Network layer in (STP). UTP cables are used in most Ethernet networks, create or maintain a table of the available routes and because it sends information only to the desired
provide both connection TCP/IP model provides while STP cables are used in environments where there is their conditions and use this information along with destinations, and also certain security features such as
oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
a high level of electromagnetic interference. distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route firewalls can be implemented in the switches.
service.
2)Coaxial cables: Coaxial cables are thicker than twisted for a given packet. Typically, a packet may travel through a #Role of Hub in Networks: A hub works in the physical
OSI model has a problem of TCP/IP model does not fit
fitting the protocols in the any protocol pair cables and have a copper core surrounded by a layer number of networks points with routers before arriving at layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-intelligent
model of insulation, a braided shield, and an outer jacket. They its destination. Routing is a function associated with the device, and has no decision-making capability, what a Hub
Protocols are hidden in OSI In TCP/IP replacing are commonly used for cable TV networks and can networks layer (layer3) in the standard model of the basically does it take the input data from one of the ports
model and are easily protocol is not easy. support higher data transfer rates than twisted pair network programming, the Open System Interconnection and broadcast the information to all other ports
replaced as the technology cables. (OSI) model. connected to the network.
changes

so, there is lack of security in the Hub. The network Hubs If data has to be sent from Computer A to Computer B, #Role of Gateway in networks: A gateway is a device #Ethernet IEEE 802.3(CSMA/CD) Local Area Network
are outdated and are out of the market. then the date is transferred to the Computer B only, and used to connect networks using different protocols. (LAN) Protocols: The IEEE 802.3 architecture is a set of
not to any other computers connected to the network. Gateways operate at the network layer of the OSI model. standards that defines the physical and data link layers of
#Role of repeaters in Networks: A repeater is a device
Hence, it establishes a link between the sender and the In order to communicate with a host on another network, the Ethernet local area network (LAN). This architecture
similar to the Hub, but has additional features. It also
receiver on the MAC addresses. This also means that an IP host must be configured with a route to the uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
works in the physical layer. The repeaters are used in destination network. If a configuration route is not found, Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol to manage the flow of
places where amplification of input signal is necessary. when data is being sent from A to B, Computer C can
the host uses the gateway (default IP router) to transmit data between devices on the network.
but, the kind of amplification done by the repeater is establish with computer D and communication can take
the traffic to the destination host. The default t gateway
different from the regular amplification by amplifiers. The place between them.so, simultaneous data transfer is The CSMA/CD protocol determines when a device can
is where the IP sends packets that are destined for
possible in a switch. transmit data onto the network. Before transmitting, the
regular amplifies everything fed on it. That means, If the remote networks. If no default gateway is specified,
device listens to the network to check if there is any
input signal has noise induced into it, both the desired #Role Of Bridge in networks: A bridge is also device communication is limited to the local network. Gateway
ongoing transmission. If the network is idle, the device
signal and noise signal are together amplified. But, in the which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more primitive receive data from a network using one type of protocol
transmits its data. But if another device starts
case of a repeater, it regenerates the input signal, and when compared to switch. initial bridges were used to stack, removes that protocol stack and repackages it with
transmitting at the same time, a collision occurs, and
amplifies only the desirable signal. Hence, the noise connect only 2 LANs, but the most recent one performs the protocol stack that the other network can use.
both devices detect it. The devices then stop
component of the signal is eliminated. similar operation as the switches. It also works on the A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to
transmitting, wait for a random amount of time, and try
principle of transfer information using the MAC addresses another network. E-mail gateways-for example, a
The repeaters are necessary since, during the again. This process is called collision detection.
gateway that receives Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
transmission of the signal over a long distance, the signal of the ports.
(SMTP) e-mail, translates it into a standard X.400 format, The IEEE 802.3 architecture specifies the physical layer
has attenuation, delay distortion and noise, which leads in It can be noted is that normal ADSL modem can be and forwards it to its destination. standards for Ethernet, such as the type of cables and
loss of data. Hence, in order to prevent this, the connected via bridging also. The only difference is that, connectors used to connect devices on the network. It
regenerative repeaters are used. when bridging is used, each time the device has to also defines the data link layer standards for Ethernet,
#Role of Switches in Networks: A Switch is an intelligent connected to the internet; It has to dial to the internet such as the frame format, maximum frame size, and
and establish a connection. Also, a bridge alone cannot be error detection and correction mechanisms.
device that works in the data link layer. The term
intelligent refers to the decision-making capacity of the used to connect to the internet, because the bridge works In addition to CSMA/CD, IEEE 802.3 includes other
Switch. Since it works in the Data Link Layer, it has in the Data link layer, and has no knowledge of the IP protocols and technologies that improve the
knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the Addresses, which are used in the internet. performance and reliability of Ethernet networks. For
network. example, it defines the use of switches to replace hubs,

which allow for faster and more efficient data The most important properties of public key encryption #Symmetric Key Encryption (private Key): An encryption and cumbersome. 3)) In a group of n people, to enable
transmission. It also includes the use of virtual LANs scheme are – system in which the sender and receiver of a message two-party communication between any two persons, the
(VLANs) to separate network traffic and improve security 1)Different keys are used for encryption and decryption. share a single, common key that is used to encrypt and number of keys required for group is n × (n – 1)/2. 4))
This is a property which set this scheme decrypt the message is called Symmetric key encryption Length of Key (number of bits) in this encryption is
#public Key Cryptography (Asymmetric Key Encryption):
different than symmetric encryption scheme. smaller and hence, process of encryption decryption is
Asymmetric cryptography (public key cryptography) uses
encryption that splits the key into two smaller keys. One ➢ Each receiver possesses a unique decryption key, faster than asymmetric key encryption. 5)) Processing
generally referred to as his private key. power of computer system required to run symmetric
of the keys is made public and one is kept private. You
encrypt a message with the recipient's public key. The ➢ Receiver needs to publish an encryption key, referred algorithm is less.
to as his public key. #Routing: Routing is the process of selecting best paths in
recipient can then decrypt it with their private key. And
➢ Some assurance of the authenticity of a public key is a network. A simple definition of routing is "learning how
they can do the same for you, encrypting a message with
needed in this scheme to avoid spoofing to get from here to there". The main function of the
your public key so you can decrypt it with your private Symmetric key encryption algorithm uses same
by adversary as the receiver. Generally, this type of network layer is routing packets from source to machine
key. cryptographic keys for both encryption and decryption of
cryptosystem involves trusted third party to the destination machine. The various Routing are:
cipher text. Symmetric-key systems are simpler and 1)Static Routing: A static routing table is created,
which certifies that a particular public key belongs to a faster, but their main drawback is that the two parties
specific person or entity only. maintained, and updated by a network administrator,
must somehow exchange the key in a secure way. manually. A static route to every network must be
➢ Encryption algorithm is complex enough to prohibit Symmetric encryption is also known as private-key configured on every router for full connectivity. This
attacker from deducing the plaintext encryption and secure-key encryption. The salient provides a granular level of control over routing and is
from the cipher text and the encryption (public) key. features of cryptosystem based on symmetric key completely manageable on smaller networks. However,
Though private and public keys are related encryption are: static routing is not fault-tolerant, as any change to the
mathematically, it is not be feasible to calculate Persons using symmetric key encryption must share a
Asymmetric cryptography is usually implemented by the routing infrastructure (such as a link going down, or a
the private key from the public key. In fact, intelligent common key prior to exchange of
use of one-way functions. In mathematic terms, these are new network added) requires manual intervention.
part of any public-key cryptosystem is information.1)) Keys are recommended to be changed
functions that are easy to compute in one direction but Routers operating in a purely static environment cannot
in designing a relationship between two keys. regularly to prevent any attack on the system.2)) A robust
very difficult to compute in reverse. This is what allows seamlessly choose a better route if a link becomes
you to publish your public key, which is derived from your mechanism needs to exist to exchange the key between unavailable, because no information is intelligently
private key. It is very difficult to work backwards and the communicating parties. As keys are required to be shared between routers.
determine the private key. changed regularly, this mechanism becomes expensive Advantages of Static Routing
• Minimal CPU/Memory overhead • Ability to load balance between multiple links algorithms do not base their routing decision on 4) The computers that are connected to the mainframe or
• No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing measurements or estimates of the current traffic and server are called Clients or Nodes.5) These nodes are not
between routers) • Updates are shared between routers, thus consuming topology. Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their connected to each other; they are only connected to
• Granular control on how traffic is routed bandwidth routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology, and server
Disadvantages of Static Routing • Routing protocols put additional load on router usually the traffic as well. Peer-to-Peer Network Model (P2P Architecture) and
• Infrastructure changes must be manually adjusted CPU/RAM #Networking Models Client server Architecture (Diffferences): In its simplest
• No “dynamic” fault tolerance if a link goes down • The choice of the “best route” is route” is in the hands #Client-Server Model (Architecture): A client-server form, a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two
• Impractical on large network of the routing protocol, and not the network is designed for end-users, called clients, to or more PCs are connected and share resources without
2)Dynamic Routing: Dynamic routing protocols are the network administrator access resources such as files, songs, video collections, or going through a separate server computer. Peer-to-peer
applications which discover network destinations #Routing Algorithm: The main function of the network some other service from a central computer called a networks are quite common in small offices that do not
dynamically. Routers will communicate the adjacent layer is routing packets from the source machine to the server. A server's sole purpose is to do what its name use a dedicated file server. All client versions of Windows,
routers which informs the network to which each router destination machine. In most subnets, packets will implies - serve its clients! The type of computing system, Mac and Linux can function as nodes in a peer-to-peer
is connected. Dynamic routing protocols are supported by require multiple hops to make the journey. The only in which one powerful workstation serves the requests of network and allow their files to be shared. It is easy to
software applications running on the routing device (the notable exception is for broadcast networks, but even other systems, is an example of client server technology. install and so is the configuration of computers on this
router) which dynamically learn network destinations and here routing is an issue if the source and destination Once the server has fulfilled the client's request, the network. P2P is more reliable as central dependency is
how to get to them and also advertise those destinations are not on the same network. The algorithms that choose connection is terminated. Your Web browser is a client eliminated. Failure of one peer doesn’t affect the
to other routers. This advertisement function allows all the routes and the data structures that they use are a program that has requested a service from a server; in functioning of other peers.
the routers to learn about all the destination networks major area of network layer design. The routing algorithm fact, the service and resource the server provided is the In case of Client –Server network, if server goes down
that exist and how to use those networks. Router using is that part of the network layer software responsible for delivery of this Web page. whole network gets affected. The over-all cost of building
dynamic routing will 'learn' the routes to all networks deciding which output line an incoming packet should be 1)It is also known as and maintaining this type of network is comparatively
that are directly connected to the device. Next, the router transmitted on. If the subnet uses datagrams internally, centralized computing.2) In very less. In this network, the whole system is
will learn routes from other routers that run the same this decision must be made a new for every arriving data this type of system, multiple decentralized thus it is difficult to administer. Security in
routing protocol. packet since the best route may have changed since last computers are joined to one this system is very less viruses, spywares, Trojans, etc.
Advantages of Dynamic Routing time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing powerful mainframe Malwares can easily transmit over this P-2-P architecture.
• Simpler to configure on larger networks decisions are made only when a new virtual circuit is computer.3) The server or Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications
• Will dynamically choose a different (or better) route if a being set up.Routing algorithm can be grouped into two mainframe computer has huge model in which each party has the same capabilities and
link goes down major classes: non-adaptive and adaptive. Non-adaptive storage and processing power. either party can initiate a communication session. Unlike

the client/server model, in which the client makes a Circuit Switching Packet Switching Circuit Switching Packet Switching #Connection oriented and connectionless service
service request and the server fulfills the request, the P2P
network model allows each node to function as both a Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
iii) Connection Released. Circuit switching is more Packet switching is less
client and server. reliable. reliable. Connection-oriented service Connection-less service is
In Packet switching, is related to the telephone related to the postal
In-circuit switching, each data each data unit just Less wastage of system. system.
Wastage of resources is more
unit knows the entire path knows the final resources as compared
in Circuit Switching
address which is provided by destination address to Circuit Switching Connection-oriented service Connection-less Service is
the source. intermediate path is is preferred by long and preferred by bursty
decided by the routers. It is not a store and forward It is a store and forward steady communication. communication.
technique. technique.
In Packet switching, data Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is
In-Circuit switching, data is is processed at all Transmission of the data is necessary. not compulsory.
Fig: Client-Server Fig: Peer-to-Peer processed at the source system intermediate nodes Transmission of the data is is done not only by the
Networking Model Networking Model only including the source done by the source. source but also by the Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is
system. intermediate routers. is feasible. not feasible.
#Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching: The delay between data Congestion can occur during In connection-oriented
The delay between data units Congestion can occur In connection-less Service,
units in packet switching the connection establishment Service, Congestion is not
in circuit switching is uniform. during the data transfer Congestion is possible.
Circuit Switching Packet Switching is not uniform. phase because there might be possible.
a case where a request is being phase; a large number
Resource reservation is the There is no resource made for a channel but the of packets comes in no
In-circuit switching has there In Packet switching Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
feature of circuit switching reservation because channel is already occupied. time.
are 3 phases: directly data transfer gives the guarantee of does not give a guarantee
i) Connection Establishment. because the path is fixed for bandwidth is shared reliability. of reliability.
takes place.
ii) Data Transfer. data transmission. among users.

Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service future growth of the Internet and provides relief for what #DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Dynamic #HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Hypertext Transfer
was perceived as an impending shortage of network Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server Protocol. It's the communication protocol you use when
In connection-oriented In connection-less Service, addresses. IPv6 also supports autoconfiguration to help protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol you browse the web. to a fundamental level, when you
Service, Packets follow the Packets do not follow the correct. Pv6 features include: (IP) host with its IP address and other related visit a website, your browser makes an HTTP request to a
same route. same route. Supports source and destination addresses that are 128 configuration information such as the subnet mask and server. Then that server responds with a resource (an
bits (16 bytes) long. default gateway. RFCs 2131 and 2132 define DHCP as an image, video, or the HTML of a web page) - which your
Connection-oriented services Connection-less Service ✓ No more NAT (Network Address Translation) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard based on browser then displays for you. This is HTTP's message-
require a bandwidth of a requires a bandwidth of ✓ Auto-configuration Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), a protocol with which DHCP based model. Every HTTP interaction includes a request
✓ No more private address collisions shares many implementation details. DHCP allows hosts and a response. By its nature, HTTP is stateless. Stateless
high range. low range. to obtain required TCP/IP configuration information from means that all requests are separate from each other. So,
✓ Better multicast routing
a DHCP server. each request from your browser must contain enough
Ex: TCP (Transmission Ex: UDP (User Datagram ✓ Simpler header format, Simplified, more efficient
#DNS (Domain Name System): DNS, or the Domain Name information on its own for the server to fulfill the request.
Control Protocol) Protocol) routing
System, translates human readable domain names (for That also means that each transaction of the message-
✓ Built-in authentication and privacy support. example, www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP based model of HTTP is processed separately from the
Connection-less Service #IPV4-Subnetting: addresses (for example, 192.0.2.44). The Domain Name others. HTTP is a protocol which allows the fetching of
Connection-oriented
does not require System resolves the names of internet sites with their resources, such as HTML documents. It is the foundation
requires authentication.
authentication. underlying IP addresses adding efficiency and even of any data exchange on the Web and it is a client-server
security in the process. The Domain Name System (DNS) protocol, which means requests are initiated by the
#IPV6 and its necessity: IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is one of the foundations of the internet, yet most people recipient, usually the Web browser.
is a set of specifications from the Internet Engineering outside of networking probably don’t realize they use it WIFI: Wireless Fidelity: WIFI also Spelled as Wi-Fi is a
Task Force (IETF) that's essentially an upgrade of IP every day to do their jobs, check their email or waste local area wireless technology. It allows an electronic
version 4 (IPv4). The basics of IPv6 are similar to those of time on their smartphones. device to transfer data or connect to the internet using
IPv4-- devices can use IPv6 as source and destination
ISM radio bands. It is an underlying technology of wireless
addresses to pass packets over a network, and tools
local area network (WLAN). Wi-Fi allows computers and
like ping work for network testing as they do in IPv4, with
some slight variations. The most obvious improvement in other devices to communicate over a wireless network.
IPv6 over IPv4 is that IP addresses are lengthened from 32 Wi-Fi network components are based on the one of the
bits to 128 bits. This extension anticipates considerable 802.11 standards developed by the IEEE and adopted by

Wi-Fi alliance. It provides a standard way to connect with #Computer Network: A computer network is a group of Flow control is the management of data flow between #Bandwidth refers to the range of component
wireless network. Wi-Fi is the trademark of the Wi-Fi interconnected computers and other devices that can computers or devices or between nodes in a network so frequencies that is contained in a signal. If the minimum
alliance and used as a brand name for products using the communicate and share resources with each other. that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too and maximum components of frequencies that occur in a
IEEE 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi can be used on several types Networks can be used for a wide variety of purposes, much data arriving before a device can handle it causes modulated signal are and, then the bandwidth is given by
of devices like personal computers, video game console, such as sharing files and printers, accessing the internet, data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or must be When the bandwidth is larger, a larger number of
smart phones, digital camera, tablet computers etc. You and communicating with other people and devices. retransmitted. Flow Control is one important design issue frequencies can be represented by a signal. For digital
There are many different types of computer networks, for the Data Link Layer that controls the flow of data devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per
can use Wi-Fi to create a hotspot within the range of 20
including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks between sender and receiver. second (bps) or bytes per second. For analog devices, the
meters (66 feet). It is less secure than wired connection
(WANs), and wireless networks. LANs are typically used #FLOW CONTROL is introduced in Data Link Layer. It also bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz
because the intruder does not need the physical in a single building or location, while WANs can span works on several higher layers. The main concept of Flow (Hz). For instance, AM radio signals which have a
connection to use the Wi-Fi. large distances and connect multiple LANs together. Control is to introduce efficiency in Computer Networks. bandwidth of 9-10 kHz fail to transmit higher frequencies
#WiMax: stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Wireless networks, also known as Wi-Fi networks, use Networks of any size have many different devices of sound that FM radios, having bandwidths of 100-200
Microwave Access. This technology is based on IEEE radio waves to connect devices without the need for connected and each device has unique data transmission kHz, can transmit without a problem.
802.16. It is used to provide higher data rates with physical cables. parameters. For instance, a router is built to manage the # Channel Bandwidth: Channel bandwidth refers to the
increased coverage. It is based on MAN (Metropolitan #Network protocol is a set of rules and standards that routing of data whereas a desktop, at the receiving end of range of frequencies available for data transmission over
Area Network) technology. Its range is up to 50 Km. It govern the communication between devices in a that data, has far less sending/receiving abilities. These a communication channel, such as a wired or wireless
may provide speed up to 70 Mbps and it can operate in computer network. It defines the format and sequence differences sending/receiving abilities may lead to conflict network. It is typically measured in Hertz (Hz) and
Non-Line-of-Sight. This technology is fast, convenient and of messages exchanged between devices, as well as the if the sender starts transmitting data faster than the represents the difference between the highest and lowest
cost effective. Architecture: procedures for establishing, maintaining, and receiving node’s ability. To counteract this problem, flow frequencies that can be transmitted over the channel.
terminating connections. control is used. This technique manages the flow of data
Protocols allow different devices and software between nodes, keeping the sending/receiving In general, a wider channel bandwidth allows for greater
applications to communicate with each other, regardless capabilities of both nodes as the primary concern. One- data throughput and faster transmission speeds. This is
of the hardware and operating systems they use. They Off is an example of a flow control protocol that sync the because a wider bandwidth allows for more data to be
ensure that data is transmitted reliably, efficiently, and sender with the receiver. It transmits an off signal when transmitted at once, which can result in higher data rates
securely across the network. the receiver no longer has space in its buffer and and better performance.
Examples of common network protocols include the transmits on signal when the receiver can resume taking
(TCP/IP), which is used for communication. data. One-Off works on asynchronous serial connections.
#Inter-network is a collection of multiple interconnected #A transaction refers to a sequence of messages 2. Fragmentation and reassembly: The network layer can #Virtual Private Network (VPN) is the technology that
computer networks that use a common set of protocols exchanged between two devices or applications to fragment large packets into smaller packets for you can use to access the office or home network
to communicate with each other. It allows devices on perform a specific task or operation. For example, a transmission over networks with smaller maximum remotely and securely over the Internet, so that the
different networks to communicate with each other as if transaction might involve a client sending a request to a transmission unit (MTU) sizes, and reassemble the communication data is protected from sniffing or
they were on the same network, even if they are server, and the server responding with the requested packets at the receiving end. hijacking by hackers. Typically, private networks are not
physically separated by great distances. data. 3. Error detection and handling: The network layer accessible from the Internet or other public networks,
Internetworks can be created by connecting multiple local IP packets are the basic units of data in the internet includes error detection and correction mechanisms to because firewalls will block all unrequested traffic. To
area networks (LANs) together using routers and other protocol (IP) suite, which includes both IPv4 and IPv6. ensure that packets are transmitted reliably and without remotely access a private network over Internet, we need
networking devices. This creates a larger network known These packets are formed by the transport layer of the errors. to use technology like Virtual Private Network (VPN).
as a wide area network (WAN) that spans multiple OSI model, which takes data from the application layer 4. Congestion control: The network layer includes When the VPN connection is established between 2
locations and can support a larger number of users. and adds headers to prepare it for transmission over the mechanisms for managing network congestion and parties (between a VPN client and VPN gateway or
Internetworks can be found in many different settings, network. avoiding packet loss and delays. between 2 VPN gateways), a secured virtual tunnel will be
such as corporate networks, academic institutions, The transport layer encapsulates the application layer The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 involves the adoption of created with capability to encrypt the data (so no hacker
government agencies, and the internet itself. They allow data into segments or datagrams, depending on the a new version of the IP protocol that uses 128-bit can see the data content), preserve data integrity (no
users to access resources and communicate with each protocol being used (TCP or UDP). These segments or addresses instead of 32-bit addresses. This transition is data change during transmission) and ensure the
other across multiple networks, making it easier to share datagrams include header information such as the source necessary because the number of available IPv4 communication only happen between that 2
information and collaborate on projects. and destination port numbers, sequence numbers, and addresses is running out, while IPv6 provides a virtually authenticated parties.
Internetworking also requires the use of common checksums, which are used to ensure reliable delivery and unlimited number of addresses to support the growing #WWW (World Wide Web): World Wide Web, which is
networking protocols and standards, such as the error detection. number of devices and users on the internet. also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), The network layer then takes the segments or datagrams The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 involves several steps, pages stored in web servers and connected to local
which is used to enable communication across different created by the transport layer and adds additional including the adoption of IPv6 addressing, the creation of computers through the internet. These websites contain
networks and devices. These protocols ensure that data is headers, including the source and destination IP dual-stack networks that support both IPv4 and IPv6, and text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can
transmitted reliably, securely, and efficiently across the addresses, to route the packet across the network.The the eventual phase-out of IPv4 in favor of IPv6. This access the content of these sites from any part of the
internetwork, regardless of the specific devices and functions of the network layer include: transition is expected to take many years and requires world over the internet using their devices such as
networks involved. 1. Addressing and routing: The network layer uses IP coordination between network operators, software computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along
addresses to identify devices on the network and routes vendors, and end-users. with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text
packets to their destination. and media to your device. The building blocks of the Web

are web pages which are formatted in HTML and #Flow control is necessary in the transport layer of the #Security is critical in the field of computer networks for Confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) are the
connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and network stack to prevent the sender from overwhelming several reasons: three primary goals of network security, and maintaining
accessed by HTTP. These links are electronic connections the receiver with data. The transport layer is responsible 1.Confidentiality: Network security ensures that data these goals requires a variety of measures and
that link related pieces of information so that users can for providing end-to-end communication between transmitted over the network remains confidential and is technologies. 1)Confidentiality: ##Encryption: Encryption
access the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers applications running on different hosts. only accessible to authorized individuals or systems. is used to protect data from unauthorized access.
the advantage to select a word or phrase from text and Without flow control, a fast sender could send data to a Encryption, access control, and other security Encryption techniques such as symmetric encryption,
thus to access other pages that provide additional slow receiver faster than the receiver can process it. As a mechanisms are used to prevent unauthorized access to asymmetric encryption, and hashing are commonly used
information related to that word or phrase. A particular result, the receiver's buffer could overflow, causing data sensitive data. to secure data in transit and at rest. ##Access control:
collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is loss or degraded performance. To prevent this, flow 2.Integrity: Network security ensures that data Access control mechanisms such as firewalls, intrusion
called a website, e.g., www.google.com, etc. control mechanisms regulate the rate of data transmitted over the network is not altered or modified prevention systems, and user authentication are used to
#Two protocol of transport layer: transmission to match the receiver's ability to process the by unauthorized parties. Data integrity mechanisms such ensure that only authorized users and systems have
1.Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a data. as message digests, hash functions, and digital signatures access to sensitive data.2)Integrity: ##Message digests
connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable and Flow control can be implemented using various are used to detect and prevent data tampering. and hash functions: Message digests and hash functions
ordered delivery of data between applications. It ensures techniques, such as window-based flow control, rate- 3. Availability: Network security ensures that the are used to verify the integrity of data by creating a fixed-
that data is transmitted without errors or loss, and uses a based flow control, and credit-based flow control. The network and its resources are available when needed. size message digest or hash value of the original data. Any
three-way handshake to establish a connection between most commonly used flow control mechanism is the Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, malware, and other alteration to the data will result in a different digest or
devices before data transfer begins. TCP also includes sliding window protocol, which uses a window size to threats can disrupt network services and cause hash value, alerting the receiver to the tampering.
flow control and congestion control mechanisms to control the amount of data that can be sent before downtime, which can be costly for businesses and ##Digital signatures: Digital signatures are used to verify
optimize the use of network resources. receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver. organizations. the authenticity and integrity of digital documents or
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a In summary, flow control is essential in the transport 4.Compliance: Many industries have regulatory messages. A digital signature provides proof of the
connectionless protocol that provides best-effort delivery layer to ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the compliance requirements that dictate specific security identity of the signer and ensures that the document has
of data between applications. It does not provide receiver with data, thereby preventing data loss or standards that must be followed to protect sensitive data. not been tampered with.3)Availability: #Redundancy:
reliability or error checking, and does not establish a degraded performance. Network security helps organizations meet these Redundancy is used to ensure that network services are
connection before data transfer begins. UDP is often used requirements and avoid penalties for noncompliance. available even if some components fail. Redundant
for real-time applications such as video streaming and 5. Reputation: Security breaches and data leaks can have servers, network devices, and power supplies are
online gaming, where speed and low latency are more a significant impact on an organization's reputation. common examples of redundancy in networks. ##Load
important than reliability. balancing: Load balancing is used to distribute network

traffic evenly across multiple servers or devices to #Router and a Repeater are both devices used in
prevent overloading and ensure that network services computer networking, Here are the differences between:
remain available.
1) A router is a device that connects multiple networks
#computer network is a group of computers linked to together and routes data between them based on IP
each other that enables the computer to communicate addresses.
with another computer and share their resources, data,
1)A repeater is a device that amplifies or regenerates a
and applications. A computer network can be categorized
signal to extend its reach or improve its quality.
by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:
1) Based on Size: ##Personal Area Network (PAN): A 2) A router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the
network that spans a small area, such as a room or a OSI model and is responsible for forwarding data
building. ##Local Area Network (LAN): A network that between networks based on IP addresses.
connects devices within a small geographic area, such as
2)A repeater operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of
a home, office, or campus. ##Metropolitan Area
the OSI model and is responsible for amplifying or
Network (MAN): A network that spans a city or
regenerating signals on a network
metropolitan area. ##Wide Area Network (WAN): A
network that covers a large geographical area, such as a 3)A router can cover a large geographic area and connect
country or the entire world. multiple networks together.
2) Based on Topology: ##Bus Network: A network where 3)A repeater is typically used to extend the reach of a
all devices are connected to a common backbone or bus. network or improve its signal quality in a limited area,
##Star Network: A network where all devices are such as a building or a room.
connected to a central hub or switch. ##Ring Network: A 4)A router can improve network performance by
network where devices are connected in a circular ring, directing traffic between networks and providing network
and data flows in one direction around the ring. ##Mesh services such as QoS (
Network: A network where devices are connected to
multiple other devices, forming a mesh of connections. 4) A repeater can improve signal strength and quality, but
it does not affect the performance of the network itself.
#What is cybercrime: Cybercrime is criminal activity that prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing business travelers want to access a site that is #Cyber Laws in Nepal:
either targets or uses a computer, a computer network private networks connected to the Internet. All messages geographically restricted. 1)The Electronic Transactions Act, 2008: This was
or a networked device. Most, but not all, cybercrime is are entering or leaving the intranet pass through the #Cryptography: is the practice and study of techniques Nepal’s first cyber law. Cybercrimes were dealt with
committed by cybercriminals or hackers who want to firewall. The firewall examines each message and blocks used to secure communication and information from under the Country’s criminal code before this law came
make money. Cybercrime is carried out by individuals or those that do not meet the specified security criteria. The unauthorized access or modification. It involves various into force. Since the cases of cybercrime increased, it
organizations. Some cybercriminals are organized, use primary purpose of a firewall is to allow non-threatening methods and tools for transforming information into a became necessary to enact a separate law. Chapter 9 of
advanced techniques and are highly technically skilled. traffic and prevent malicious or unwanted data traffic for format that is unintelligible to anyone except those with the Act deals with offences relating to computers, the
Others are novice hackers. Rarely, cybercrime aims to protecting the computer from viruses and attacks. A the appropriate knowledge or key to decrypt it. The main highlights of which are as follows:
damage computers for reasons other than profit. These firewall is a cybersecurity tool that filters network traffic primary goal of cryptography is to ensure confidentiality, a) Pirating or destroying any computer system
could be political or personal. and helps users block malicious software from accessing integrity, and authenticity of data. intentionally without authority carries imprisonment for
#Types of cybercrime: the Internet in infected computers. #Confidentiality: Information should only be seen by three years, or a fine of two hundred thousand rupees,
1) Email and internet fraud. #VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN stands for virtual those persons authorized to see it. Information could be or both.
2)Identity fraud (where personal information is stolen private network. It is a technology which creates a safe confidential because it is proprietary information that is b) Accessing any computer system without authority
and used). and an encrypted connection on the Internet from a created and owned by the organization or it may be results in imprisonment for three years, or a fine of two
3)Theft of financial or card payment data. device to a network. This type of connection helps to customers’ personal information that must be kept hundred thousand rupees, or both.
4)Theft and sale of corporate data. ensure our sensitive data is transmitted safely. It confidential due to legal responsibilities. c) Intentional damage to or deleting data from a
5)Cyberextortion (demanding money to prevent a prevents our connection from eavesdropping on the #Integrity: Information must not be corrupted, computer system carries imprisonment for three years,
threatened attack). network traffic and allows the user to access a private degraded, or modified. Measures must be taken to or a fine of two hundred thousand rupees, or both.
6)Ransomware attacks (a type of cyberextortion). network securely. This technology is widely used in the insulate information from accidental and deliberate c) Publication of illegal material in electronic form carries
7)Crypto jacking (where hackers mine cryptocurrency corporate environments. A VPN works same as firewall change. imprisonment for 5 years, or a fine of one hundred
using resources they do not own). like firewall protects data local to a device wherever #Availability: Information must be kept available to thousand rupees, or both.
8)Cyberespionage (where hackers access government or VPNs protects data online. To ensure safe authorized persons when they need it. d) Commission of a computer fraud carries imprisonment
company data). communication on the internet, data travel through #Authentication: Authentication is the process of for two years, or a fine of one hundred thousand rupees,
#Firewall: Firewall is a computer network security system secure tunnels, and VPNs user used an authentication validating the identity of a user. When a user presents its or both.
designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a method to gain access over the VPNs server. VPNs are identifier, prior to gaining access, the identifier 2) The Children’s Act, 1992: The aim of this Act is to
private network. It can be implemented as hardware, used by remote users who need to access corporate (identification) must be authenticated. Authentication protect and uphold the rights of children. It also prohibits
software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are used to resources, consumers who want to download files and verifies identities there by providing a level of trust. child pornography. Section 16(2) of the Act prohibits

individuals from capturing any immoral picture of a child. sculpture and films, to computer programs, databases, #Incident analysis: also known as incident investigation #Cyber Law Dealing online harassment: Electronic
Section 16(3) of the Act prohibits publication and advertisements, maps and technical drawings or incident review, is a systematic process of examining Transaction Act, 2063 (2008): This act governs various
distribution of any such photographs of children. 2)Trademark: is a distinctive sign that distinguishes the and understanding an event or incident to determine its aspects of electronic transactions and covers offenses
3)The Copyright Act, 2002: This act protects the products and software of one business from that of causes, contributing factors, and consequences. The related to cybercrime, including online harassment.
copyright of ideas, including a computer program. It another. A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing steps involved in the incident investigation following: Section 47 of the act criminalizes the unauthorized
prohibits people from copying and modifying the original the goods or services of one enterprise from those of 1)Immediate Response: When an incident occurs, the access, use, or interception of computer systems, and
work of others, and using it for their own advantage or other enterprises first step is to ensure the safety of individuals and Section 48 prohibits the publication or transmission of
economic benefits. 3)A trade secret: is confidential information related to mitigate any immediate risks. This may involve providing offensive materials through electronic means. Accessing
4)The Individual Privacy Act, 2018: This act is the first the work procedure of the organization. medical attention, securing the scene, or taking any computer system without authority results in
legislation in Nepal to protect the right to privacy of its 4)Patent: A patent is an exclusive right granted for an immediate actions to prevent further harm. imprisonment for three years, or a fine of two hundred
people, and define personal information. It protects the invention. Generally speaking, a patent provides the 2)Reporting and Documentation: It is crucial to promptly thousand rupees, or both. Intentional damage to or
privacy of body, family life, residence, property, and patent owner with the right to decide how - or whether - report the incident and document all relevant deleting data from a computer system carries
communication. It puts the responsibility on public the invention can be used by others. In exchange for this information. This includes gathering witness statements, imprisonment for three years, or a fine of two hundred
entities to protect the personal data of individuals. They right, the patent owner makes technical information taking photographs, collecting physical evidence, and thousand rupees, or both. Publication of illegal material
cannot transfer such data to anyone without the consent about the invention publicly available in the published recording observations or measurements related to the in electronic form carries imprisonment for 5 years, or a
of the owner. The Act prescribes a general punishment patent document. incident. fine of one hundred thousand rupees, or both.
for violation of privacy as three years of imprisonment, 5)Industrial Designs: An industrial design constitutes the 3)Establishing Investigation Team: Forming a dedicated Commission of a computer fraud carries imprisonment
or a fine of NPR 30,000, or both. ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. A design investigation team or assigning responsible individuals for two years, or a fine of one hundred thousand rupees,
#Intellectual Property Law: It presents a bunch of may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the with the necessary expertise and authority to conduct or both
exclusive rights in relation to the manner in which shape or surface of an article, or of two-dimensional the investigation. The team may include representatives #Ethical dissent: is a process, not a single action The IEEE
intellectual ideas or information are expressed and used features, such as patterns, lines or color. from relevant departments or disciplines. has guidelines for ethical dissent that include:
Some of the intellectual property law are as follows: 6)Geographical indications: Geographical indications 4)Information Gathering: Collecting comprehensive 1)Establish a clear technical foundation
1)Copyright: exists in many computer related creative and appellations of origin are signs used on goods that information and data about the incident. This may 2)Be professional, impersonal, objective.
works like software, source code discovery etc. Copyright have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities, involve reviewing records, examining equipment or 3)Catch problems early, keep issues at lowest managerial
is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators a reputation or characteristics that are essentially systems involved, conducting interviews with witnesses level possible
have over their literary and artistic works. Works covered attributable to that place of origin or personnel, and analyzing relevant documents or 4)Make sure you think the issue is important enough to
by copyright range from books, music, paintings, procedures. make your case

#Whistleblowing: It is a special form of dissent in which #Security Policies: Security policies are a formal set of #Computer fraud: closely linked to internet fraud, is phishing site. The target will unknowingly sign in to the
a member or former member of an organization goes rules which is issued by an organization to ensure that defined as the use of a computer or computer system to fake websites giving the hacker his login credentials.
outside the organization or outside normal the user who are authorized to access company help execute a scheme or illegal activity and the targeting 2)SQL Injections: Most websites use an SQL database to
organizational channels to reveal organizational technology and information assets comply with rules and of a computer with the intent to alter, damage, or disable store information about their customers. An application
wrongdoing, illegally, or actions that threaten the public. guidelines related to the security of information. It is a it. Computer fraud breaks down roughly into three communicating with that database can be exploited with
#Role of professional in public policy: Strive to achieve written document in the organization which is categories: SQL-injections if it’s poorly coded. The attack is executed
high quality in both the processes and products of responsible for how to protect the organizations from a) Theft of information on the website’s user-input fields (search box, login box.
professional work. Computing professionals should insist threats and how to handles them when they will occur. A b) Theft of or denial of service etc.) that accept illegal input, giving the hacker access to
on and support high quality work from themselves and security policy also considered to be a "living document" c)Hacking into or damaging a computer’s hardware the database.
from colleagues. The dignity of employers, employees, which means that the document is never finished, but it system 3)DoS/DDoS: In a Denial-of-Service attack, the hacker
colleagues, clients, users, and anyone else affected either is continuously updated as requirements of the #What is cybercrime: Cybercrime is criminal activity that uses a Botnet (network of hijacked computers) to flood a
directly or indirectly by the work should be respected technology and employee changes. either targets or uses a computer, a computer network specific server with massive amounts of traffic. The
throughout the process. Maintain high standards of #Risk Assessment: This involves identifying the or a networked device. Most, but not all, cybercrime is server is quickly overloaded, and all websites hosted on
professional competence, conduct, and ethical practice. software’s security vulnerabilities and may consist of a committed by cybercriminals or hackers who want to it will be offline.
High quality computing depends on individuals and variety of techniques including question and answer, make money. Cybercrime is carried out by individuals or 4)Brute Force: Essentially, it’s guessing password until
teams who take personal and group responsibility for qualitative assessment, or methodology and calculation. organizations. Some cybercriminals are organized, use the hacker gets it right. If a user has a weak password, i.e.
acquiring and maintaining professional competence. A simple equation for calculating risk is Risk = Assets X advanced techniques and are highly technically skilled. “1234” or “password”, the hacker can try to guess it
#Digital Signature: Digital signatures are the public-key Threats X Vulnerabilities Others are novice hackers. either by hand or using specialized tools.
primitives of message authentication. In the physical #Risk management: is a process to estimate the impact #Hacking Techniques: Usually a hacker deploys multiple 5)Fake WAP: Free wifi is common in public spaces like
world, it is common to use handwritten signatures on of risk. It is an approach for system managers to measure techniques to reach their goal, sometimes the simplest airports and coffee shops making it an ideal target for a
handwritten or typed messages. They are used to bind the system’s assets and vulnerabilities, assessing the ways are the most efficient. Using social engineering hacker to exploit. The hacker creates a fake wireless
signatory to the message. Similarly, a digital signature is threat and monitoring security. For software, we look at techniques exploiting human kindness, greed and Access Point(WAP) mimicking the name of the real WIFI,
a technique that binds a person/entity to the digital data. risk management both during the design phase and curiosity to gain access is not uncommon. so user connect to it. While the users is connected to the
This binding can be independently verified by the during use. Risk is an important aspect of the design 1)Phishing: The hacker makes a perfect copy of a popular fake WiFi the hacker can read all information going
receiver as well as any third party. The digital signature is process. Because it is so important, two constituent website and uses a URL that is closed enough to the through it, login credentials, credit card, and personal
a cryptographic value that is calculated from the data and components must be included. original to go unnoticed. He then sends a legitimate- messages.
a secret key known only by the signer. looking email to the target containing a link to the

6)Sniffing/Snooping: The hacker monitors traffic on #SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): is a security protocol that #Cryptography: is a method of securing information by #Important (Need) of Security policies:
unsecured networks to find relevant information that can provides encryption and authentication for data converting it into an unreadable format, known as 1) It increases efficiency: The best thing about having a
be used in a future attack. transmission over the internet. It is crucial for an e- ciphertext, using mathematical algorithms and keys. policy is being able to increase the level of consistency
7)Bait & Switch: In this attack, the hacker buys commerce website for the following reasons: There are several types of cryptography used for which saves time, money and resources.
advertising space on popular websites, and the ads will 1)Data Security: This encryption prevents unauthorized different purposes. Here are some common types: 2) It upholds discipline and accountability: When any
redirect the target to a page full of malware. The hackers parties from intercepting and accessing the data, such as 1)Symmetric Key Cryptography: Also known as secret human mistake will occur, and system security is
ads will look legitimate and very appealing to the target, credit card details, login credentials, and personal key cryptography, symmetric key cryptography uses a compromised, then the security policy of the
but as soon as the target clicks them they will be infected. information. single secret key for both encryption and decryption. The organization will back up any disciplinary action and also
It’s called Bait & Switch since the hacker’s baiting with 2)Trust and Authentication: SSL certificates include same key is used by both the sender and receiver to supporting a case in a court of law. The organization
good ads and then switching the link to a bad page. digital signatures that verify the authenticity of the encrypt and decrypt the message. Examples of policies act as a contract which proves that an
8)Cookie Theft: Most websites use cookies to store user website and establish trust with users. When an e- symmetric key algorithms include Advanced Encryption organization has taken steps to protect its intellectual
data and make them load faster, this can be passwords, commerce website has an SSL certificate, it enables the Standard (AES), Data Encryption Standard (DES), and property, as well as its customers and clients.
browsing history, etc. if the connections are not secured browser to display a padlock icon or a green address bar, Triple DES (3DES). 3) It can make or break a business deal: It is not
through SSL the hacker can steal this data and use the indicating that the connection is secure. 2)Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Also referred to as necessary for companies to provide a copy of their
cookie to authenticate themselves as the target. 3)Compliance with Data Protection Regulations: Many public key cryptography, asymmetric key cryptography information security policy to other vendors during a
9)Waterhole Attacks: The hacker studies the target’s countries have data protection regulations that require uses two different keys: a public key for encryption and a business deal that involves the transference of their
daily routines to find out his favorite physical appropriate security measures to be implemented when private key for decryption. The public key is freely sensitive information. It is true in a case of bigger
locations(cafe)), these are the waterholes. handling personal and sensitive data. distributed, while the private key remains secret. businesses which ensures their own security interests are
#Types of Firewalls: Depending on their structure and 4)Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI Messages encrypted with the public key can only be protected when dealing with smaller businesses which
functionality, there are different types of firewalls. The DSS) Compliance: implementing SSL, e-commerce decrypted using the corresponding private key. have less high-end security systems in place.
following is a list of some common types of firewalls: websites can ensure that sensitive cardholder data is Asymmetric key cryptography is used for secure key 4) It helps to educate employees on security literacy:
o Proxy Firewall protected during transmission, reducing the risk of exchange, digital signatures, and secure communication. A well-written security policy can also be seen as an
o Packet-filtering firewalls payment card fraud and maintaining compliance Examples of asymmetric key algorithms include RSA, educational document which informs the readers about
o Stateful Multi-layer Inspection (SMLI) Firewall 5) Enhanced Customer Confidence: With the rise in cyber Diffie-Hellman, and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). their importance of responsibility in protecting the
o Unified threat management (UTM) firewall threats and online fraud, customers have become organization sensitive data. It involves on choosing the
o Next-generation firewall (NGFW) increasingly cautious about sharing their personal and right passwords, to providing guidelines for file transfer.
o Network address translation (NAT) firewalls financial information online.
#Code of ethics: is a set of principles or guidelines that
outline the expected behavior and ethical standards for
a particular profession, organization, or group. It serves
as a moral compass and provides guidance on how
individuals should conduct themselves in their
professional roles.
#Risk(Software Risk): The first step in understanding the
nature of software is to study the concept of risk,
software risk in particular. However, before we define
risk, let us define hazard. A hazard is a state or set of
conditions of a system or an object that, together with
other conditions in the environment of the system, or
object, will lead inevitably to an accident. According to
Leveson, hazard has two components: severity and
likelihood of occurrence. These two form the hazard
level. Risk is a hazard level together with the likelihood of
an accident to occur and the severity of the potential
consequences.
#IDS (Intrusion Detection System): is a security system
which monitors the computer systems and network
traffic. It analyses that traffic for possible hostile attacks
originating from the outsider and also for system misuse
or attacks originating from the insider. A firewall does a
job of filtering the incoming traffic from the internet, the
IDS in a similar way compliments the firewall security.
Like, the firewall protects an organization sensitive data
from malicious attacks over the Internet.
#Distributed System (distributed computing): A collection #Disadvantages of Distributed Systems: #Types of parallelism(Level): #Uniprocessor Architecture: A type of architecture that is
of independent computers that appears to its users as a 1)It is difficult to provide adequate security in distributed 1)Bit-level parallelism: increases processor word size, based on a single computing unit. All operations (additions,
single coherent system (Independent computers are self- systems because the nodes as well as the connections which reduces the quantity of instructions the processor multiplications, etc.) are done sequentially on the unit. A
sustaining and functional without other machines, and if need to be secured. must execute in order to perform an operation on uniprocessor (or a uniprocessor system) is a system
other machines go down this independent computer will 2)Some messages and data can be lost in the network variables greater than the length of the word. Example: configuration whereby at most, a single microprocessor
not go down because of the others. while moving from one node to another. Consider a scenario where an 8-bit processor must used to execute tasks. In such configuration, a single
A distributed system consists of a collection of 3)The database connected to the distributed systems is compute the sum of two 16-bit integers. It must first sum processor is the sole consumer of resources (e.g., memory,
autonomous computers, connected through a network quite complicated and difficult to handle as compared to a up the 8 lower-order bits, then add the 8 higher-order bits, I/O, peripherals), although other units such as an IGP may
and distribution middleware, which enables computers to single user system. thus requiring two instructions to perform the operation. also be incorporated. For this reason, this is type of system
coordinate their activities and to share the resources of the 4)Overloading may occur in the network if all the nodes of 2)Instruction-level parallelism: a) the hardware approach is sometimes also referred to as a single-socket system.
system, so that users perceive the system as a single, the distributed system try to send data at once. works upon dynamic parallelism, in which the processor This opposite type of this system is a multiprocessor.
integrated computing facility. Generally, all the #Parallel computing structure: Parallel computing is a type decides at run-time which instructions to execute in Almost all modern desktop and mobile systems are
components of the distributed system interact so as to of computing architecture in which several processors parallel; uniprocessors.
obtain a common goal. simultaneously execute multiple, smaller calculations 3)Task parallelism: a form of parallelization of computer
#Advantages of Distributed Systems(computing): broken down from an overall larger, complex problem. code across multiple processors that runs several different
1)) All the nodes in the distributed system are connected Parallel computing refers to the process of breaking down tasks at the same time on the same data.
to each other. So, nodes can easily share data with other larger problems into smaller, independent, often similar #Moore’s Law: Moore’s Law is the prediction that the
nodes. parts that can be executed simultaneously by multiple number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles
2)More nodes can easily be added to the distributed processors communicating via shared memory, the results every two years as technological progress advances
system i.e., it can be scaled as required. of which are combined upon completion as part of an though the cost of computers is halved. The observation
3)The failure of one node does not lead to the failure of overall algorithm. The primary goal of parallel computing was made by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, who saw
the entire distributed system. Other nodes can still is to increase available computation power for faster that the size of transistors was shrinking rapidly due to
communicate with each other application processing and problem solving. There are continuous innovation. Moore's Law states that we can
4)Resources like printers can be shared with multiple generally three types of parallel computing, available: expect the speed and capability of our computers to
nodes rather than being restricted to just one. 1)Bit-level parallelism increase every couple of years, and we will pay less for In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of
2)Instruction-level parallelism them. Another tenet of Moore's Law asserts that this rules and methods that describe the functionality,
3)Task parallelism growth is exponential. organization, and implementation of computer systems.

#Parallelism and Pipelining within CPU: Pipelining is a Most general-purpose uniprocessor systems have same It uses a limited number of It uses a large number of #Distributed Memory Multiprocessors (Multi computer):
technique where multiple instructions are overlapped basic structure. To reach parallel is min uniprocessor instructions that requires instructions that requires Any processor can directly access its own memory. A
during execution. Pipeline is divided into stages and these system multiple hardware functional units operating in less time to execute the more time to execute the message passing (MP) mechanism is used in order to allow
stages are connected with one another to form a pipe like parallel inside a single processor instructions. instructions. a processor to access other memory modules associated
structure. Instructions enter from one end and exit from #Differntiate between RISC and CISC RISC has more transistors CISC has transistors to store with other processors. Message passing interface (MPI) is
another end. Pipelining increases the overall instruction RISC CISC on memory registers. complex instructions a language-independent communication protocol.
throughput. Parallel adders can be implemented using It is a Reduced Instruction It is a Complex Instruction RISC architecture can be CISC architecture can be 1)In that sense, memory access by a processor is not
techniques such as carry-look ahead and carry-save. A Set Computer. Set Computer used with high-end used with low-end uniform since it depends on which memory module the
parallel adder is a digital circuit that adds two binary It emphasizes on software It emphasizes on hardware applications like applications like home processor is trying to access. This is referred to as a NUMA
numbers, where the length of one bit is larger as compared to optimize the instruction to optimize the instruction telecommunication, image automation, security multiprocessor system.
to the length of another bit and the adder operates on set. set. processing, video system, etc. 2)If the distributed-memory multiprocessor is composed
equivalent pairs of bits parallelly. The multiplier can be It is a hard-wired unit of Microprogramming unit in processing, etc. of identical processors, we say that this is a symmetric
recoded to eliminate more complex calculations. Various programming in the RISC CISC Processor. It has fixed format It has variable format multiprocessor (SMP). If the distributed-memory
instruction execution phases are pipelined and to Processor. instruction. instruction. multiprocessor is composed of heterogeneous processors,
overcome the situation of overlapped instruction It requires multiple register It requires a single register The execution time of RISC The execution time of CISC we say that this is an asymmetric multiprocessor (ASMP).
execution the techniques like instruction prefetch and sets to store the instruction. set to store the is very short. is longer. 3)Distributed-memory systems are easier to build but
data buffers are used. instruction. The program written for Program written for CISC harder to use, comprising many shared memory
#Parallel Processing mechanism for Uni–processor: RISC has simple decoding of CISC has complex decoding RISC architecture needs to architecture tends computers each with their own operating system and their
Parallelism in a uniprocessor means a system with a single instruction of instruction. take more space in to take less space in own separate memory. However, this is the only feasible
processor performing two or more than two tasks Uses of the pipeline are Uses of the pipeline are memory. memory. architecture for constructing a modern supercomputer.
simultaneously. Parallelism can be achieved by two means simple in RISC. difficult in RISC. Example of RISC: ARM, PA- Examples of CISC: VAX,
hardware and software. Parallelism increases efficiency It uses LOAD and STORE It uses LOAD and STORE RISC, Power Architecture, Motorola 68000 family, #Shared Memory Multiprocessors (Multi Computer):
and reduces the time of processing. A uniprocessor is a that are independent instruction in the Alpha, AVR, ARC and the System/360, AMD and the Data and code in a parallel program are stored in the main
system with a single processor which has three major instructions in the register- memory-to-memory SPARC. Intel x86 CPUs. memory accessible for processors of the executive system.
components that are main memory i.e., the central to-register a program's interaction of a In a shared memory system, all processors can access all
storage unit, the central processing unit i.e., CPU and an interaction. program. the main memory address space.
input-output unit like monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc.

A shared-memory multiprocessor is an architecture 3)Reduced Power Consumption: Smaller transistors # How Centralized system differ from distributed system: The overall system is less The system is complex as
consisting of a modest number of processors, all of which require less power to operate, which can result in lower Centralized Systems Distributed Systems complex as the system we need to address replica
have direct (hardware) access to all the main memory in power consumption and longer battery life for mobile Low fault tolerance as the High fault tolerance due to can be managed through management and
the system. In the shared-memory architecture all the devices. central server acts as a the absence of a single the central server. maintaining consistency.
CPU-cores can access the same memory, much like several 4)Higher Energy Efficiency: Smaller processors typically single point of failure. point of failure. #Types of Distributed Systems: Grid, Cluster, Cloud
workers in an office sharing the same whiteboard, and are have better energy efficiency, which is important for Low maintenance costs as High maintenance costs The growing popularity of the Internet and the availability
all controlled by a single operating system. Modern devices that are powered by batteries or other portable the system are run through because each node in the of powerful computers and high-speed networks as low-
processors are all multicore processors, with many CPU- power sources. a single main server. And it system comprises varying cost commodity components are changing the way we do
cores manufactured together on the same physical silicon 5)More Compact Designs: Smaller processors can be used is easier to monitor and processing power and computing. Distributed computing has been an essential
chip. Shared-memory systems are difficult to build but to create more compact designs for electronic devices, manage the whole system distributed across component of scientific computing for decades. It consists
easy to use, and are ideal for laptops and desktops. such as smartphones and laptops. using a single main server. geographical regions. of a set of processes that cooperate to achieve a common
# Why processor is designed with smaller in size. Does size 6)Reduced Heat Dissipation: Smaller processors generate Systems are only vertically Both horizontally and specific goal. It is widely recognized that Information and
benefit with performance? less heat, which reduces the need for elaborate cooling scalable. Processing power vertically scalable. Servers Communication Technologies (ICTs) have revolutionized
smaller processors offer a range of benefits, including systems and allows for smaller, more compact designs. can only be added to the can be added and removed the everyday practice.
improved performance, increased processing power, 7)Lower Manufacturing Costs: As the manufacturing central server and up to a with varying loads. #Cluster Computing (Distributed Systems): A Computer
reduced power consumption, and more compact designs, process for smaller transistors becomes more mature, it certain limit only. Cluster is a local network of two or more homogeneous
making them essential components in a wide range of becomes more cost-effective to produce small processors Less reliable if the central More reliable as if one computers. A computation process on such a computer
electronic devices. in bulk. server crashes the system server crashes the system network i.e., cluster is called Cluster Computing. A cluster
Here is a list of benefits of small processors: will be unavailable for all as a whole can still survive. is a collection of parallel or distributed computers which
1)Improved Performance: Smaller transistors in a Yes, the size of a processor can have a significant impact the clients. are interconnected among themselves using high-speed
processor allow for faster switching times, which can result on its performance. Smaller transistors in a processor Less throughput as the Higher throughput as the networks, such as gigabit Ethernet, SCI, Mirante and
in faster clock speeds and improved performance. allow for faster switching times, which can result in faster single server model will processing power is InfiniBand. They work together in the execution of
2)Increased Processing Power: Smaller processor sizes clock speeds and improved performance. This is because become a bottleneck when distributed throughout the compute intensive and data intensive tasks that would be
enable manufacturers to pack more transistors onto a smaller transistors require less time to switch on and off, keeping up with system. not feasible to execute on a single computer. Clusters are
single chip, which can increase the processor's processing allowing the processor to perform calculations more increasing client requests. used mainly for high availability, load balancing and for
power. quickly compute purpose. They are used for high availability
purpose as they maintain redundant nodes which are used

to provide service when system components fail. A cluster as; Knowledge, Data, Computational, Application Service organizational domains (also called generic domains) in #Flynn's Taxonomy: M.J. Flynn proposed a classification
computing comprises a set of independent or stand-alone Provisioning, Interaction or Utility. use across the Internet were: 1) com – Commercial for the organization of a computer system by the number
computers and a network interconnecting them. It works #Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is another form of organizations 2) Edu – Universities and other educational of instructions and data items that are manipulated
cooperatively together as a single integrated computing utility computing. It is a new term in the computing world institutions gov – US governmental agencies 3) mil – US simultaneously. The sequence of instructions read from
resource. A cluster is local in that all of its component and it signals the advent of a new computing paradigm. military organizations 4) net – Major network support memory constitutes an instruction stream.
subsystems are supervised within a single administrative This new paradigm is quickly developing and attracts a centers 5) org – Organizations not mentioned above int – The operations performed on the data in the processor
domain, usually residing in a single room and managed as number of customers and vendors alike. The quick International organizations constitute a data stream. Flynn’s classification divides
a single computer system. The components of a cluster are development of cloud computing is being fueled by the #Advantages of Distributed Systems: computers into four major groups that are:
connected to each other through fast local area networks. emerging computing technologies which allows for 1)All nodes in the distributed system are connected to 1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
To handle heavy workload with large datasets, clustered reasonably priced use of computing infrastructures and each other. Nodes can easily share data with other nodes. 2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
computer systems have demonstrated impressive results mass storage capabilities. It also removes the need for 2)More nodes can easily be added to the distributed 3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
in the past. heavy upfront investment in Information Technology (IT) system i.e., it can be scaled as required. 4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream
#Grid Computing: The aim of Grid computing is to enable infrastructure. Cloud computing is a computing paradigm 3)The failure of one node does not lead to the failure of (MIMD)
coordinated resource sharing and problem solving in that involves outsourcing of computing resources with the the entire distributed system
dynamic, multi-institutional virtual organizations. As an capabilities of expendable resource scalability, on-demand 4)Resources like printers can be shared with multiple
electric-utility power grid, a computing grid offers an provisioning with little or no up-front IT infrastructure nodes rather than being restricted to just one.
infrastructure that couples computers, investment costs. Cloud computing offers its benefits #Disadvantages of Distributed Systems:
software/middleware, special instruments, and people through three types of service or delivery models namely 1)It is difficult to provide adequate security in distributed
and sensors together. Grid is often constructed across LAN, infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS), platform-as-a-service systems because the nodes as well as the connections
WAN, or Internet backbone networks at regional, national, (PaaS) and software-as-a-Service (SaaS) need to be secured.
or global scales. Enterprises or organizations present grids #DNS is designed for use in multiple implementations, 2)Some messages and data can be lost in the network
as integrated computing resources. They can be viewed each of which may have its own name space. In practice, while moving from one node to another.
also as virtual platforms to support virtual organizations. however, only one is in widespread use, and that is the one 3)The database connected to the distributed systems is
The computers used in a grid are primarily workstations, used for naming across the Internet. The Internet DNS quite complicated and difficult to handle as compared to a
servers, clusters, and supercomputers. Personal name space is partitioned both organizationally and single user system.
computers, laptops and PDAs can be used as access according to geography. The names are written with the 4)Overloading may occur in the network if all the nodes of
devices to a grid system. The grids can be of many types highest-level domain on the right. The original top-level the distributed system try to send data at once.
#Feng's classification: #Data Level Parallelism (DLP): Data parallelism is #Granularity: #Amdahl’s Law: was named after Gene Amdahl, who
1)Word Serial and Bit Serial (WSBS): One bit of one parallelization across multiple processors in parallel 1. Fine-grain Parallelism: a)) In fine-grained parallelism, presented it in 1967.In general terms, Amdahl’s Law states
selected word is processed at a time. This represents serial computing environments. It focuses on distributing the the program is divided into a large number of small tasks. that in parallelization, if P is the proportion of a system or
processing and needs maximum processing time. data across different nodes, which operate on the data in b)) These tasks are assigned individually for many program that can be made parallel, and 1-P is the
2)Word Parallel and Bit Serial (WPBS): It is found in most parallel. It can be applied on regular data structures like processors. c)) The amount of work associated with a proportion that remains serial, then the maximum
existing computers and has been called as Word Slice arrays and matrices by working on each element in parallel task is low, and the work is evenly distributed speedup S(N) that can be achieved using N processors is:
processing because one word of n bit is processed at a parallel. Data parallel job on an array of n elements can be among the processors. d)) Therefore, fine-grained S(N)=1/((1-P) +(P/N))
time. All bits of a selected word are processed at a time. divided equally among all the processors. In a parallelism facilitates load balancing. e)) Each task As N grows the speedup tends to 1/(1-P).
Bit parallel means all bits of a word. multiprocessor system where each one is executing a processes less data, the number of processors required to Speedup is limited by the total time needed for the
3)Word Serial and Bit Parallel (WSBP): It has been called single set of instructions; data parallelism is achieved when perform a full treatment high. f)) This, in turn, increases sequential (serial) part of the program. For 10 hours of
bit slice processing because m-bit slice is processed at a each processor performs the same task on different pieces communication and synchronization. g)) Fine-grained computing, if we can parallelize 9 hours of computing and
time. Word parallel signifies selection of all words. It can of distributed data. Data parallelism is used by many parallelism used in the architecture to support fast 1 hour cannot be parallelized, then our maximum speedup
be considered as one bit from all words are processed at a applications especially data processing applications; one of communication. is limited to 10 times as fast. If computers get faster the
time. the examples is database applications. 2)Coarse-grain Parallelism: a)) In coarse-grained speedup itself stays the same.
4)Word Parallel and Bit Parallel (WPBP): It is known as #Memory Level Parallelism (MLP): Memory level parallelism, the program is broken down into major tasks. #Multiprocessor: A Multiprocessor is a computer system
fully parallel processing in which an array on n x m bits is parallelism means generating and servicing multiple b)) In this regard, a large amount of computation occurs in with two or more central processing units (CPUs) share full
processed at one time. Maximum parallelism is achieved memory accesses in parallel. Memory-level parallelism the processor. c)) This can lead to load imbalance, in which access to a common RAM. The main objective of using a
here. (MLP) is a term in computer architecture referring to the certain processing tasks of the data array, while others multiprocessor is to boost the system’s execution speed,
#Centralized System: In Centralized system, the network ability to have pending multiple memory operations, in may be idle. d)) Further, coarse-grained parallelism is not with other objectives being fault tolerance and application
resources are placed and managed from a main location. particular cache misses or translation look aside buffer used parallelism in the program as most of the matching. There are two types of multiprocessors, one is
Centralized network model allows administrators to (TLB) misses, at the same time. In a single processor, MLP computations are executed sequentially on the CPU. e)) called shared memory multiprocessor and another is
manage the resources centrally, which other users can may be considered a form of instruction-level parallelism The advantage of this type of parallelism is low distributed memory multiprocessor. In shared memory
access. The network servers and other critical network (ILP). Memory- Level Parallelism (MLP) is the ability to communication and synchronization. f)) Messaging multiprocessors, all the CPUs share the common memory
resources are located in a central location in a secure and perform multiple memory transactions at once. In much architecture takes a long time to transfer data between but in a distributed memory multiprocessor, every CPU has
dedicated server room. architecture, this manifests itself as the ability to perform processes, making it suitable for coarse-grained its own private memory
both a read and write operation at once, although it also parallelism. g)) The Y-MP is an example of a coarse-grained #Benefits of a multiprocessor: 1) Enhanced performance.
commonly exists as being able to perform multiple reads. parallel computer, which has a grain size of about 20 years. 2) Multiple applications. 3) Multi-tasking

#Gustafson’s Law: This law says that increase of problem #There are three models comes under a multiprocessor: 3)COMA (Cache-Only Memory Architecture) model: This Distributed File System. A DFS is executed as a part of the
size for large machines can retain scalability with respect 1) UMA (Uniform Memory Access) model: UMA (Uniform model is composed by the combination of multiprocessor operating system. A distributed file system (DFS) is a file
to the number of processors. American computer scientist Memory Access) system is a shared memory architecture and cache memory. It changes distributed memory into system with data stored on a server. The data is accessed
and businessman, John L. Gustafson (born January 19, for the multiprocessors. In this model, a single memory is caches and is an exceptional case of NUMA. It lacks the use and processed as if it was stored on the local client
1955) found out that practical problems show much better used and accessed by all the processors present the of the memory hierarchy, and global address space is machine. The DFS makes it convenient to share
speedup than Amdahl predicted. Gustafson’s law: The multiprocessor system with the help of the made up of combining all the caches. information and files among users on a network in a
computation time is constant (instead of the problem size), interconnection network. Each processor has equal 1)Similar to the NUMA, each processor has part of the controlled and authorized way. The server allows the client
increasing number of CPUs solve bigger problem and get memory accessing time (latency) and access speed. It can shared memory in the COMA users to share files and store data just as if they are storing
better results in the same time. employ either of the single bus, multiple bus or crossbar 2)However, in this case the shared memory consists of the information locally. the servers have full control over
switch. As it provides balanced shared memory access, it is cache memory. A COMA system requires that data be the data, and give access control to the clients.
1)Execution time of program on a parallel computer is also known as SMP (Symmetric multiprocessor) systems. migrated to the processor requesting it. #Features of DFS:
(a+b) 3)There is no memory hierarchy and the address space is 1)Transparency: ((-Structure transparency. ((-Access
2) a is the sequential time and b is the parallel time 2) NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory Access) model: It can be made of all the caches. transparency. ((-Replication transparency.
3)Total amount of work to be done in parallel varies considered as the shared memory multiprocessor only 4)There is a cache directory (D) that helps in remote cache 2)User mobility: It will automatically bring the user’s home
linearly with the number of processors. where the access time can vary regarding the location of access. directory to the node where the user logs in.
4) So b is fixed as P is varied. The total run time is (a+p*b) the memory word. There are two variants of NUMA model. 5)The Kendall Square Research's KSR-1 machine is an 3)Performance: Performance is based on the average
5)The speed up is (a+p*b)/(a+b) NUMA (Non-uniform Memory Access) is also a example of such architecture. amount of time needed to convince the client requests.
6)Define α = a/(a+b), the sequential fraction of the multiprocessor model in which each processor connected #Distributed File System (DFS): A Distributed File System 4)Simplicity and ease of use: The user interface of a file
execution time, then with the dedicated memory. However, these small parts of (DFS) as the name suggests, is a file system that is system should be simple and the number of commands in
7)Any sufficiently large problem can be efficiently the memory combine to make a single address space. The distributed on multiple file servers or multiple locations. It the file should be small.
parallelized with a speedup main point to ponder here is that unlike UMA, the access allows programs to access or store isolated files as they do 5)High availability: A Distributed File System should be
8)Where p is the number of processors, and α is the serial time of the memory relies on the distance where the with the local ones, allowing programmers to access files able to continue in case of any partial failures like a link
portion of the problem processor is placed which means varying memory access from any network or computer. The main purpose of the failure, a node failure, or a storage drive crash.
9)Gustafson proposed a fixed time concept which leads to time. It allows access to any of the memory location by Distributed File System (DFS) is to allows users of physically 6)Scalability: Since growing the network by adding new
scaled speed up for larger problem sizes. using the physical address. distributed systems to share their data and resources by machines or joining two networks together is routine, the
10)Basically, we use larger systems with more processors using a Common File System. A collection of workstation distributed system will inevitably grow over time.
to solve larger problems and mainframes connected by (LAN) is a configuration on

7)High reliability: The likelihood of data loss should be #JINI


minimized as much as feasible in a suitable distributed file -)) It is a coordination-based system from Sun
system. Microsystems written in JAVA.
8)Data integrity: Multiple users frequently share a file -)) It uses RMI and Java object serialization to enable Java
system. The integrity of data saved in a shared file must be objects to move around the network.
guaranteed by the file system. -)) Services may be added or removed without
9)Security: A distributed file system should be secure so configuration.
that its users may trust that their data will be kept private. -)) It is not based on central control.
10)Heterogeneity: Heterogeneity in distributed systems is #Google File System (GFS or GoogleFS), not to be
unavoidable as a result of huge scale. confused with the GFS Linux file system) is a proprietary
distributed file system developed by Google to provide
#Mach: efficient, reliable access to data using large clusters of
1)Mach is a microkernel that runs on both multiprocessor commodity hardware. The last version of Google File
and uniprocessor computers connected by networks. System Codenamed Colossus was released in 2010.
2)It incorporates sophisticated IPC and virtual memory
facilities.
3)Port is used to identify individual resources.
4)To access a resource, a message is sent to the
corresponding port.
5)It provides a single system call for message passing:
mach_msg
6)This system call provides interactions for both
asynchronous message passing and request-reply.
Google File System (GFS) is a scalable distributed file
7) mach_ msg contains msg_header, option, snd_siz,
system (DFS) created by Google Inc. and developed
rcv_siz, rcv_name, timeout and notify.
to accommodate Google’s expanding data processing
requirements. GFS provides fault tolerance, reliability,
scalability, availability and performance to large networks.
#Arithmetic operators: are used to perform System.out.println("Difference: " + difference); 7)Bitwise Operators 1)State: It is represented by attributes of an object. It also
mathematical calculations. The following are the System.out.println("Product: " + product); 8)Shift Operators reflects the properties of an object.
arithmetic operators in Java: System.out.println("Quotient: " + quotient); #Class: A class is a user defined blueprint or prototype 2)Behavior: It is represented by methods of an object. It
1)Addition (+): Adds two operands. System.out.println("Remainder: " + remainder); from which objects are created. It represents the set of also reflects the response of an object with other objects.
2)Subtraction (-): Subtracts the second operand from the // Increment and Decrement properties or methods that are common to all objects of 3)Identity: It gives a unique name to an object and
first operand. a++; one type. In general, class declarations can include these enables one object to interact with other objects.
3)Multiplication (*): Multiplies two operands. b--; components, in order: Below is the example of java program using class and
4)Division (/): Divides the first operand by the second System.out.println("Incremented a: " + a); 1)Modifiers: A class can be public or has default access object: -
operand. System.out.println("Decremented b: " + b); class keyword: class keyword is used to create a class. public class Person
5)Modulus (%): Returns the remainder after division. // Unary minus 2)Class name: The name should begin with an initial {
6)Increment (++) and Decrement (--): Increase or int negation = -sum; letter (capitalized by convention). private String name;
decrease the value of an operand by 1. System.out.println("Negation of sum: " + negation); 3)Superclass (if any): The name of the class’s parent public void setName(String name) {
7)Unary minus (-): Negates the value of an operand. } (superclass), if any, preceded by the keyword extends. A this.name = name;
Here's a simple Java application that uses basic arithmetic } class can only extend (subclass) one parent. }
operators to perform calculations: #Operators: constitute the basic building block to any 4)Interfaces (if any): A comma-separated list of interfaces public String getName() {
public class ArithmeticOperations { programming language. Java too provides many types of implemented by the class, if any, preceded by the return name;
public static void main(String[] args) { operators which can be used according to the need to keyword implements. A class can implement more than }
int a = 10; perform various calculations and functions, be it logical, one interface. public static void main(String[] args) {
int b = 5; arithmetic, relational, etc. Here are a few types: 5)Body: The class body surrounded by braces, { } Person person = new Person();
int sum = a + b; 1)Arithmetic Operators #Object: It is a basic unit of Object-Oriented person.setName("John");
int difference = a - b; 2)Unary Operators Programming and represents the real-life entities. A System.out.println("Name: " +
int product = a * b; 3)Assignment Operator typical program creates many objects, which as you person.getName());
int quotient = a / b; 4)Relational Operators know, interact by invoking methods. An object consists of }
int remainder = a % b; 5)Logical Operators : }
System.out.println("Sum: " + sum); 6)Ternary Operator Output: Name: John

#Write a java program to calculate area of rectangle: // Display the area Errors Exceptions }
public class rectangle{ System.out.println("Area of the rectangle: " + area); int greatestNumber = numbers[0];
public static void main(String args[]) } the compiler while for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
{ } unchecked are not. if (numbers[i] > greatestNumber) {
int width=5; Area of the rectangle: 15.0 They are defined in They are defined in greatestNumber = numbers[i];
int height=10; #Errors And Exceptions: java.lang.Error package. java.lang.Exception package }
int area=width*height; Errors Exceptions }
System.out.println("Area of rectangle="+area); Examples : Checked System.out.println("The greatest number is: " +
} We can recover from Examples : Exceptions : SQLException, greatestNumber);
} exceptions by either using java.lang.StackOverflow IOException Unchecked }
Recovering from Error is
try-catch block or throwing Error, Exceptions :
Output: Area of rectangle=50 not possible. }
exceptions back to the java.lang.OutOfMemory ArrayIndexOutOfBoundExce
#Write a java program to calculate area of rectangle and In this program, we first create an integer array numbers
caller. Error ption, NullPointerException,
display it using concept of class and object: ArithmeticException. to store the 10 input numbers. We then use a Scanner
public class Rectangle { Exceptions include both object to read the numbers from the user and store them
All errors in java are # Write a java program to find greatest numbers among
double length; checked as well as in the array. Next, we find the greatest number by
unchecked type. 10 input number using arrays:
double width; unchecked type. iterating over the array and comparing each element with
double calculateArea() { import java.util.Scanner; the current greatest number. If a number is found to be
Errors are mostly caused public class GreatestNumberFinder {
return length * width; greater than the current greatest number, we update the
by the environment in Program itself is responsible public static void main(String[] args) {
} which program is for causing exceptions. value of greatest Number accordingly.
public static void main(String[] args) int[] numbers = new int[10]; // Create an array to Finally, we print the greatest number to the console. You
running. store the numbers
Rectangle rectangle = new Rectangle(); can compile and run this program to test it out. It will
rectangle.length = 5.0; Errors can occur at All exceptions occurs at Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in); prompt you to enter 10 numbers, and after you input
rectangle.width = 3.0; compile time as well as runtime but checked System.out.println("Enter 10 numbers:"); them, it will display the greatest number among them.
// Calculate area run time. exceptions are known to for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
double area = rectangle.calculateArea(); numbers[i] = scanner.nextInt();

#OOPs (Object-Oriented Programming System): Object method overloading and method overriding to achieve #What is the Difference Between Applet and 5)Override the `start()`, `stop()`, and `destroy()` methods
means a real-world entity such as a pen, chair, table, polymorphism. for example, a cat speaks meow, dog Application: to handle the lifecycle of your applet.
computer, watch, etc. Object-Oriented Programming is a barks woof, etc. The main difference between Applet and Application is 6)Implement the `paint(Graphics g)` method to define
methodology or paradigm to design a program using 5)Abstraction: Hiding internal details and showing that the applet is a small java program that can be the applet's graphical output using the provided
classes and objects. It simplifies software development functionality is known as abstraction. For example, executed by a Java-compatible web browser while the `Graphics` object.
and maintenance by providing some concepts: phone call, we don't know the internal processing. In application is a standalone program that can directly run 7)Compile your Java code to generate the bytecode
1)Object: Any entity that has state and behavior is known Java, we use abstract class and interface to achieve on the machine. (.class) files.
as an object. For example, a chair, pen, table, keyboard, abstraction. Applet is specifically designed to be executed within an 8)Embed the applet in an HTML file using the `<applet>`
bike, etc. It can be physical or logical. An Object can be 6)Encapsulation: Binding (or wrapping) code and data HTML document using a Java-enabled web browser. It is tag, specifying the necessary attributes such as the
defined as an instance of a class. An object contains an together into a single unit are known as encapsulation. a small program and does not affect the operating system applet's code, width, and height.
address and takes up some space in memory. Objects can For example, a capsule, it is wrapped with different or the hardware. Application is a standalone java 9)Test the applet by opening the HTML file in a web
communicate without knowing the details of each other's medicines. A java class is the example of encapsulation. program that can be directly run on the machine. It will browser that supports Java applets.
data or code. Java bean is the fully encapsulated class because all the perform the tasks defined in the program regardless of #Overloading method: allows you to define multiple
2)Class: Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical data members are private here. the computer architecture. methods with the same name but different parameters
entity. A class can also be defined as a blueprint from #Features of Java: The features of Java are also known as To create applets in Java, here are the basic steps in a within the same class. The compiler determines which
which you can create an individual object. Class doesn't Java buzzwords. nutshell: method to call based on the number, type, and order of
consume any space 1)Set up your development environment with a Java the parameters provided when invoking the method. To
3)Inheritance: When one object acquires all the Development Kit (JDK) and an Integrated Development overload methods in Java, follow these guidelines:
properties and behaviors of a parent object, it is known Environment (IDE) like Eclipse or IntelliJ. 1)Method Name: All overloaded methods must have the
as inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to 2)Create a new Java project in your IDE. same name.
achieve runtime polymorphism. 3)Define a class that extends the `JApplet` class provided 2)Parameter List: Overloaded methods must have
4)Polymorphism: If one task is performed in different by the Java Applet API. different parameter lists. This can be achieved by having
ways, it is known as polymorphism. For example: to 4)Override the `init()` method to initialize your applet and a different number of parameters, different parameter
convince the customer differently, to draw something, for set up any necessary components. types, or both.
example, shape, triangle, rectangle, etc. In Java, we use

3)Return Type: The return type of a method does not method, the compiler determines which version of the Rectangle r1 = new Rectangle(); }
contribute to method overloading. method to call based on the arguments provided: r1.getArea(5, 6); Output: my name is sachin
4)Access Modifier: Overloaded methods can have #Interface: in Java programming language is defined as } #Writing(method) to a File in java programming:
different access modifiers (e.g., public, private, an abstract type used to specify the behavior of a class. }
protected) or the same access modifier. An interface in Java is a blueprint of a behavior. A Java Output: The area of the rectangle is 30
5)Exceptions: Overloaded methods can declare different interface contains static constants and abstract methods. #To read and write to a file: in Java, you can use the
checked or unchecked exceptions, or they can have The interface in Java is a mechanism to achieve classes provided by the `java.io` package. Here's a basic
different exception lists. abstraction. There can be only abstract methods in the guide on how to read from and write to a file:
#Here's an example to illustrate method overloading: Java interface, not the method body. It is used to achieve #Reading(method) from a File in Java programming:
public class Calculator { abstraction and multiple inheritance in Java. In other #Here's an example that writes some text to a file:
public int add(int a, int b) { words, you can say that interfaces can have abstract import java.io.*;
return a + b; methods and variables. It cannot have a method body. class Simple{
} Java Interface also represents the IS-A relationship. public static void main(String args[]){
public double add(double a, double b) { #Example: try{
return a + b; interface Polygon { Here's an example that reads and prints the contents of FileWriter fw=new FileWriter("abc.txt");
} void getArea(int length, int breadth); a file line by line: fw.write("my name is sachin");
public int add(int a, int b, int c) { } import java.io.*; fw.close();
return a + b + c; class Rectangle implements Polygon { class Simple{ }catch(Exception e){System.out.println(e);}
} public void getArea(int length, int breadth) { public static void main(String args[])throws Exception{ System.out.println("success");
} System.out.println("The area of the rectangle is " + FileReader fr=new FileReader("abc.txt"); }
In above example, the add method is overloaded three (length * breadth)); int i; }
times. The first method accepts two integers, the second } while((i=fr.read())!=-1) Output: success.
method accepts two doubles, and the third method } System.out.println((char)i); #Encapsulation: is a fundamental concept in object-
accepts three integers. Each method performs addition, class Main { fr.close(); oriented programming (OOP) that refers to the bundling
but the parameter lists differ. When invoking the add public static void main(String[] args) { } of data and methods that operate on that data within a
single unit, which is called a class in Java. Encapsulation is then the method in the subclass is said to override the - Static fields can be accessed directly using the class 1)Platform Independence: Java is known for its "Write
a way of hiding the implementation details of a class from method in the superclass. name followed by the field name (e.g., Once, Run Anywhere" principle. Java code can be
outside access and only exposing a public interface that Method overriding is one of the way by which java `ClassName.staticField`). compiled into bytecode, which is platform-independent.
can be used to interact with the class. achieve Run Time Polymorphism. The version of a Static Methods: 2)Object-Oriented: Java is a fully object-oriented
In Java, encapsulation is achieved by declaring the method that is executed will be determined by the object - Static methods are also declared with the `static` programming language. It follows the principles of
instance variables of a class as private, which means they that is used to invoke it. If an object of a parent class is keyword and are associated with the class itself. encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism, allowing
can only be accessed within the class. To allow outside used to invoke the method, then the version in the parent - They can be called using the class name followed by the developers to build modular and reusable code.
access to the instance variables, public methods called class will be executed, but if an object of the subclass is method name (e.g., `ClassName.staticMethod()`). 3)Garbage Collection: Java employs automatic memory
used to invoke the method, then the version in the child -Static methods cannot access non-static (instance) fields management through its built-in garbage collector. It
class will be executed. In other words, it is the type of the or methods directly. automatically handles memory allocation and
object being referred to (not the type of the reference - They are commonly used for utility methods, helper deallocation, freeing developers from manual memory
variable) that determines which version of an overridden. functions, or operations that don't require access to management tasks and reducing the risk of memory
#Static fields and methods: in Java are associated with instance-specific data. leaks.
the class itself rather than individual instances of the 4)Robust and Secure: Java was designed with a strong
class. #What is Java: Java is a widely-used programming emphasis on robustness and security. It includes features
getters and setters are defined, which are used to retrieve
Static Fields: language for coding web applications. It has been a like exception handling, type checking, and runtime
and modify the values of the instance variables,
- Static fields are declared using the `static` keyword and popular choice among developers for over two decades, security checks to ensure reliable and secure execution of
respectively.
are shared among all instances of a class. with millions of Java applications in use today. Java is a programs.
#Overriding: is a feature that allows a subclass or child
- They are associated with the class itself, not with any multi-platform, object-oriented, and network-centric 5)Multi-threading: Java provides built-in support for
class to provide a specific implementation of a method
specific instance. language that can be used as a platform in itself. It is a multi-threading, allowing developers to write concurrent
that is already provided by one of its super-classes or
- Static fields are initialized only once, when the class is fast, secure, reliable programming language for coding and parallel programs. It simplifies the creation and
parent classes. When a method in a subclass has the
loaded, and retain their value throughout the program's everything from mobile apps and enterprise software to management of threads, enabling the utilization of
same name, same parameters or signature, and same
execution. big data applications and server-side technologies. multiple processors and improving performance in
return type(or sub-type) as a method in its super-class,
Here are some key characteristics of Java: applications.

6)Rich Standard Library: Java comes with a the constants. There is an alternative way to define the Output: 20 5)Shift Operators: The shift operator is used to shift the
comprehensive standard library (Java Class Library or JCL) constants in Java by using the non-access modifiers static #What are Java Operators: Java operators are symbols bits of a number left or right by multiplying or dividing the
that provides a wide range of pre-built classes and and final. Examples of Java Constants: that are used to perform operations on variables and numbers.
functions for common tasks. The standard library covers public class Declaration { manipulate the values of the operands. Each operator 6)Bitwise Operators: The bitwise operator operates on
areas such as input/output, networking, data structures, static final double PI = 3.14; performs specific operations. Let us consider an bit string, binary number, or bit array. It is fast and simple
utilities, and more, enabling developers to quickly build public static void main(String[] args) { expression 5 + 1 = 6; here, 5 and 1 are operands, and the and directly supported by the processor. The bitwise
applications without reinventing the wheel. System.out.println("Value of PI: " + PI); symbol + (plus) is called the operator. We will also learn operation is also known as bit-level programming.
7)Large Community and Ecosystem: Java has a vast and } about operator precedence and operator associativity. 7)Ternary Operators: Ternary operator is an conditional
active community of developers, which contributes to its } Types of Java Operators: operator, it reduces the line of code while performing the
extensive ecosystem. There is a wide range of third-party Output: Value of PI: 3.14 1)Unary Operators: Unary operator requires only a single conditional or comparisons. It is the replacement of if-
libraries, frameworks (such as Spring, Hibernate, and #Java Variables: A variable is a container which holds the operand; this operator is used to increment or decrement else or nested if-else statements. It is also referred to as
Apache Kafka), and tools available to support Java value while the Java program is executed. A variable is the value, negating an expression or inverting a boolean inline if, conditional operator, or ternary if.
development, making it suitable for various application assigned with a data type. Variable is a name of memory value. 8)Relational Operators: Relational operator compares
domains. location. Three types of variables in java: local, instance 2)Arithmetic Operators: Arithmetic operators are used to two numbers and returns a boolean value. This operator
8)Interoperability: Java supports interoperability and static. There are two types of data types in Java: performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, is used to define a relation or test between two operands.
through Java Native Interface (JNI), allowing developers primitive and non-primitive. and modulus. It acts as a mathematical operation. #multi-dimensional array is nothing but an array of
to integrate native code written in other languages, such #Java Variable Example: Add Two Numbers 3)Assignment Operators: Assignment operator are used arrays.
as C or C++, with Java applications. public class Simple{ to assign new value to a variable. The left side operand of
9)Scalability: Java's architecture and robustness make it public static void main(String[] args){ the assignment operator is called variable and the right 2D array: A two-dimensional array in Java is represented
well-suited for building scalable and enterprise-level int a=10; side operand of the assignment operator is called value. as an array of one-dimensional arrays of the same type.
applications. It offers features like modular development, int b=10; 4)Logical Operators: Logical operators are used to Mostly, it is used to represent a table of values with rows
extensive support for networked environments, and int c=a+b; combining two or more conditions or complement the and columns − Int[][] myArray = {{10, 20, 30}, {11, 21, 31},
frameworks that facilitate distributed computing. System.out.println(c); evaluation of the original condition under consideration. {12, 22, 32} }
#What is constant: Constant is a value that cannot be }
changed after assigning it. Java does not directly support }

1)Namespace Management: Packages help to prevent 5)Save this file with same name of public class importing the classes within it using the import
naming conflicts by providing a unique namespace for Note: only one class in a program can declare as public. statement in other Java files.
classes. Each package acts as a container for related Now you can use this package in your program. #Exception handling: in Java allows you to handle and
classes, ensuring that class names within a package are #How to create package in Java explain: [8marks]: manage unexpected or exceptional situations that may
distinct from classes in other packages. 1)Choose a package name: A package name typically occur during the execution of a program. By using try-
In short, a two-dimensional array contains one- follows the reverse domain name convention to ensure catch blocks, you can catch and handle exceptions,
2)Code Organization: Packages facilitate the organization
dimensional arrays of elements. It is represented by two uniqueness. For example, if your domain is preventing your program from crashing. Here's an
of code by grouping related classes together. This helps
indices where the first index denotes the position of the "example.com" and you want to create a package for explanation of exception handling in Java example:
developers to locate and maintain classes more easily,
array and the second index represents the position of the utility classes, you might choose the name 1)Try-Catch Block: The try block contains the code that
leading to better code maintainability and readability.
element within that particular array – com.example.utilities. may throw an exception. The catch block is used to catch
3)Access Control: Packages provide a level of access
2)Create a directory structure: In your project's source and handle the exception. If an exception occurs in the
control through the use of access modifiers (e.g., public,
code directory, create a directory structure that mirrors try block, the corresponding catch block is executed.
protected, and private). Classes and members declared
the package structure. For example, if your package name 2)Catching Exceptions: You can catch a specific type of
with specific access modifiers can be accessed within the
is com.example.utilities, create the directory structure exception using a corresponding catch block. This allows
same package or by classes in other packages based on
com/example/utilities. you to handle different exceptions differently.
their access level.
3)Add package declaration: At the beginning of each Java 3)Finally Block: The finally block is optional and is
4)Modularity and Reusability: Packages promote file that belongs to the package, add a package executed regardless of whether an exception is thrown or
modular programming and code reuse. Related classes declaration statement. For example, for a class named not. It is commonly used for cleanup tasks, such as closing
can be grouped together in a package, making it easier to MyClass in the com.example.utilities package, the resources, that need to be performed regardless of any
reuse and share those classes in different projects. package declaration would be: package exception.
#A package in Java: is used to group related classes. #How to create package in Java: [5marks] com.example.utilities;. #Examples of Exception handling:
Think of it as a folder in a file directory. We use packages 1)First create a directory within name of package. 4)Compile and use the package: Compile the Java files public class JavaExceptionExample{
to avoid name conflicts, and to write a better 2)Create a java file in newly created directory. within the package using the appropriate compiler public static void main(String args[]){
maintainable code. Here are the main uses of packages 3)In this java file you must specify the package name with command. Once compiled, you can use the package by try{
in Java: the help of package keyword. int data=100/0;

}catch(ArithmeticException e){System.out.println(e);} providing a way to create multiple objects of the same #Simple java program to reads data from one file and #Dynamic binding: or late binding is the mechanism a
System.out.println("rest of the code..."); type. It encapsulates data and behavior into a single unit. write data to another file: computer program waits until runtime to bind the name
} #Example of class: import java.io.*; of a method called to an actual subroutine. It is an
} Main.java class file1 { alternative to early binding or static binding where this
Output: Exception in thread main java. lang. Arithmetic Create a class named "Main" with a variable x: public static void main(String arg[]) { process is performed at compile-time. Dynamic binding is
Exception:/ by zero. In the above example, 100/0 raises public class Main { File inf = new File("in.dat"); more expensive computationally, but it has the
an Arithmetic Exception which is handled by a try-catch int x = 5; File outf = new File("out.dat"); advantage of being more likely to avoid version conflicts
block. } FileReader ins = null; when binding functions of a linked library.
#Object: An object is an instance of a class created at #Polymorphism: If one task is performed in different FileWriter outs = null; The ability to perform dynamic binding is a common
runtime. It has a unique identity, state, and behavior. It ways, it is known as polymorphism. For example: to try { characteristic of high-level languages, such as C++, Java,
encapsulates data (attributes) and operations (methods) convince the customer differently, to draw something, for ins = new FileReader(inf); and LISP.
that can be performed on that data. Objects interact with example, shape, triangle, rectangle, etc. In Java, we use outs = new FileWriter(outf); #Superclass: also known as a parent class or base class, is
each other by invoking methods and accessing each method overloading and method overriding to achieve int ch; a class that serves as a template or blueprint for other
other's properties. polymorphism. Another example can be to speak while ((ch = ins.read()) != -1) { classes. It defines common attributes and behaviors that
#Example: public class Main { something; for example, a cat speaks meow, dog barks outs.write(ch); are shared by its subclasses. In other words, a superclass
int x = 5; woof, etc. } encapsulates the common characteristics of related
public static void main(String[] args) { #Data Types in Java: Data types specify the different sizes } catch (IOException e) { classes.
Main myObj = new Main(); and values that can be stored in the variable. There are System.out.println(e); #Subclass: also known as a child class or derived class, is
System.out.println(myObj.x); two types of data types in Java: System.exit(-1); a class that inherits properties and behaviors from its
} 1)Primitive data types: The primitive data types include } finally { superclass. It extends the superclass by adding additional
} boolean, char, byte, short, int, long, float and double. try { attributes or overriding inherited methods with its own
#Class: A class is a blueprint or a template that defines 2)non-primitive data types: The non-primitive data types ins.close(); implementations. A subclass can have its own unique
the structure and behavior of objects. It defines the include Classes, Interfaces, and Arrays. outs.close(); attributes and behaviors while also inheriting and reusing
properties and methods that objects of that class will } catch (IOException e) {} the features of its superclass.
possess. A class acts as a user-defined data type, } .. } .. }
#"this" keyword: is a reference to the current instance of this paradigm. Java is a pure object-oriented program versions of Windows, Mac or various flavors of Linux. In 12)Platform Independent: Java program after
a class in Java. It serves as a way to refer to the object on where everything in Java is object-oriented. addition, Java let you run the program without the need compilation generates the bytecode which is platform-
which a particular method or constructor is being 3)Network -Savvy (Distributed): Remote Method for any implementation. independent. Therefore, It can run on any computer.
invoked. When used within non-static methods, Invocation (RMI) and Enterprise Java Bean (EJB) are the 8)Interpreted: Java is an interpreted language. The Programming languages like C and C++ are compiled
constructors, or instance initializers, "this" allows direct distributed applications that are programmed using Java. bytecode generated by the Java compiler can certainly based on the platforms they run on.
access to the members (fields, methods, and Simple and easy networking capabilities in Java makes its run on any machine has an interpreter. Early Java
constructors) of the current object. choice of many programmers. The distributed structure development tools were quite slow. Today, the Just-in-
One common use of the "this" keyword is to resolve of Java ensures to call any machine in the network time (JIT) compiler helps to translate the bytecode into
naming conflicts between instance variables and (internet) by just calling its method. machine code.
parameters or local variables within a method or 4)Robust: Strong is the synonym of Robust. Java Compiler 9)High Performance: As compared to other interpreted
constructor. By using "this", you can explicitly refer to the detects error detects before runtime, which other languages, Java is faster. It is because the Java bytecode
instance variable, making it clear that you are accessing programming language lacks. Also, there won’t be is close to native code. It is again slower than compiled
the field belonging to the current object. pointer problem in java. languages like C and C++. Java is an interpreted language,
#Java white paper Buzzwords (Features of java)that 5)Secured: Java programs eliminate the use of pointers so it is slower than compiled languages. Today, JIT helps
makes Java Special: which help them to become secure. Also, the programs Java to execute the program faster.
1)Simple: If you are familiar with the C++, you’ll feel easy run in JVM which is Java own virtual environment. 10)Multithreaded: When you use Java to program
to program in Java. Most of the syntax in Java are refined Development of secured and virus free system is possible multithreading, you’ll love it because of its simplicity.
version of C++. Indeed if you are a programmer with the with help of java. Threads are the separate programs that run concurrently.
Visual Basic background, you’ll find a little bit hard to get 6)Architecture-Neutral: Java doesn’t implement the Threads occupy the same memory space in multi-
used to it. If you intend to learn a program, you’ll quickly dependent features for the different machine. Hence, it threading which is the main advantage to use it. Web
learn Java in small time due to its simple syntax. is architecture- neutral. An example is the fixed size of a applications, multimedia, games, use multi-threading.
2)Object-Oriented: The object-oriented concept is a primitive data type. 11)Dynamic: Dynamic nature of Java supports dynamic
proven means for effective and manageable software 7)Portable: When you program, compiles and generates loading of classes. It means the classes loads whenever
Features of java is also known as java “white paper”
development. This concept evolved more than forty years the bytecode you can easily transfer the bytecode and needed in the program.
buzz words.
ago, so most of the modern programming language use run on any machine. The machine can be different

#To execute the applet by html file, create an applet and 1 for each subsequent element. Top of Form Below is the #What are the different types of datatypes used in Java 3)interfaces: a blueprint of methods and properties for a
compile it. After that create an html file and place the program to arrange any ten numbers in ascending order Programming.Explain the comments and variables with class.
applet code in html file. Now click the html file. using array in java: an example. 4)strings: a sequence of characters that represents
//First.java import java.util.Arrays; In Java, data types are used to specify the type of data text.
import java.applet.Applet; public class BubbleSortAscendingOrder { that can be stored in a variable or returned by a method. In Java, it is important to choose the appropriate data
import java.awt.Graphics; public static void main(String[] args) { Java has two categories of data types: primitive and non- type for your variable or method to ensure that the
public class First extends Applet{ int[] numbers = {9, 2, 8, 5, 1, 7, 4, 3, 6, 10}; primitive. program runs efficiently and accurately.
public void paint(Graphics g){ System.out.println("Original array: " + A)Primitive Data Types: These are the most basic data #Comments: In a program, comments take part in making
g.drawString("welcome",150,150); Arrays.toString(numbers)); types in Java, and they are built-in to the language. the program become more human readable by placing
} // Bubble sort algorithm Primitive data types are used to represent simple values the detail of code involved and proper use of comments
} myapplet.html for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length - 1; i++) { like numbers and characters. Java has eight data types: makes maintenance easier and finding bugs easily.
<html> for (int j = 0; j < numbers.length - i - 1; j++) { 1)byte: 8-bit signed integer 2)short: 16-bit signed integer Comments are ignored by the compiler while compiling a
<body> if (numbers[j] > numbers[j+1]) { 3)int: 32-bit signed integer 4)long: 64-bit signed integer code.
<applet code="First.class" width="300" height="300"> int temp = numbers[j]; 5)float: 32-bit floating point number 6)double: 64-bit 1)Comments are used to make the program more
</applet> numbers[j] = numbers[j+1]; floating point number 7)char: 16-bit Unicode character readable by adding the details of the code.
</body> numbers[j+1] = temp; 8)boolean: true or false 2)It makes easy to maintain the code and to find the
</html> } B)Non-Primitive Data Types: Also known as reference errors easily.
#What is array? Write a java program to arrange any ten } types, non-primitive data types are used to represent 3)The comments can be used to provide information or
numbers in ascending order using array: } complex objects such as arrays, classes, and interfaces. explanation about the variable, method, class, or any
Array is a collection of similar data types that are stored System.out.println("Array in ascending order: " + Non-primitive data types are created by the programmer statement.
in contiguous memory locations and accessed using an Arrays.toString(numbers)); and are not built-in to the language. 4)It can also be used to prevent the execution of program
index. An array is used to store a group of elements of the } 1)arrays: a collection of elements of the same data type. code while testing the alternative code. There are three
same data type, such as integers, characters, or objects. } Output: Original array: [9, 2, 8, 5, 1, 7, 4, 3, 6, 10] 2)classes: a user-defined data type that can have types of comments in java: -
Each element in the array is assigned a unique index, Array in ascending order: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] properties and methods. 1)Single-line comments: These are comments that start
which starts from 0 for the first element and increases by

with two forward slashes (//) and continue until the end
of the line. For example:
// This is a single-line comment
2)Multi-line comments: These are comments that start
with a forward slash followed by an asterisk (/) and end
with an asterisk followed by a forward slash (/). For
example:
/*
This is a multi-line comment
that spans multiple lines.
*/
3)Javadoc comments: These are special comments that
are used to generate documentation for the code. They
start with a forward slash followed by two asterisks (/**)
and end with an asterisk followed by a forward slash (*/).
For example:
/**
* This is a Javadoc comment that describes
a class or method.
*/
#Fundamental of Information System: system. Complete, accurate information means 3) Management Information Systems (MIS): MIS is mostly #management information system: MIS is an application
1) Operations: A business information system carries out management decisions are more concerned with internal sources of information. These of computer related technology to programs. It provides
specific functions in support of operations, including effective. systems usually take data from the transaction processing managers with information and support for effective
payroll, employee record storage, preparing and storing #Types of information systems: systems and summaries it into a series of management decision-making and provides feedback on daily
company documents and credit card processing. If your reports. MIS is an information system that generates exact, operations. The outputs or reports are usually generated
company operates a manufacturing line, the information 1) executive Support Systems (ESS): This type of IS was through accumulation of transaction processing data.
designed to help senior management support the business timely and structured information so managers and other
system can schedule tasks and processes while keeping It ensures that appropriate data is collected from the valid
and make strategic decisions. It gathers, analyses and users can make decisions, resolve problems, supervise
quality records. Some companies, such as graphic sources, processed and passed to needy destinations. It
summarizes the key internal and external information activities, and track progress. For example, compiled data
designers or advertising companies, use the information satisfies the needs through query systems, analysis
system to produce their products and services. In used in the everyday business. It supports an inventory of of call volume in a call center with abandon % and call systems, modelling systems.
supporting operations, the information system can all present information assets; projected revenue figures service levels for every hour, every day and monthly #Structure of a Management information system: The
increase efficiency and improve employee productivity. based on new product sales expectations and reasonable summary. physical structure of an MIS includes hardware, software,
2) Controls: Monitoring and controlling the activities of sales figures between one week and the next. For example, 4) Office Support Systems (OSS): Office support system is database, personnel and procedures.
employees is a core function of information systems. This a CEO may require overall sales for the company, along a system designed to assist employees in accomplishing 1)Hardware: Hardware consists of all physical components
is especially true of financial transactions in which their day-to-day tasks and to improve communications of a computer system like central processing unit (CPU),
with sales for every department separately, and general
management has a duty to prevent fraud and theft. In this 5) Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): TPS are designed input devices, output devices, storage and communication
economic data for the year.
role, the security of the information system is critical, as to process repetitive transactions efficiently and devices.
managers rely on it to track payments received from 2) Decision Support Systems (DSS): DSS is an information accurately. A business will have many (sometimes several) 2)Software: Software is an interface between the
customers and invoices from suppliers. The system system intended to help users reach a decision when a TPS; e.g.: billing systems to send invoices and statements information system and users of the information system.
imposes its control functions by allowing only authorized decision-making situation arises. This system comprises to clients; systems which calculate weekly or monthly Software can be of two types’ system software and
employees to log in and access the relevant functions. For tools and techniques to help collect relevant information payroll and tax payments; stock control systems to route applications. The system software includes the operating
example, only a few employees may be authorized to and analyze the choices and alternatives. DSS usually all transactions into, within and out of the business; system and special purposes programs. Application is
generate a company check. In addition to limiting who can involves use of complex spreadsheets and databases to production and purchasing systems to analyze and developed to achieve a specific task. Software plays an
perform such functions, the system keeps track of who create models which will help determine difficult calculate all raw material requirements. important part in MIS. (Sarkissian, 2009)
logged in and carried out the task situations and its possible outcomes. 3)Database: A database is a centrally managed and
3) Decisions: Managers can get all the information they organized collection of data. Database helps to store data
need about company activities from the in an organized manner and to make available to those

who need that data. Database helps to reduce duplication of planning is a subset of the prior, with strategic planning 4)Contingency: Contingency plans wait in the wings in case CRM can help businesses to (benefits of CRM):
of data as it is centrally managed data one data can be being the foremost. There are four phases of a proper of a crisis or unforeseen event. Contingency plans cover a 1) Improve customer satisfaction: By understanding their
stored at one place avoiding redundancy and duplication organizational plan: strategic, tactical, operational, and range of possible scenarios and appropriate responses for customers' needs and preferences, businesses can create
of data. contingency. Each phase of planning is a subset of the issues varying from personnel planning to advanced more personalized and relevant experiences, which can
4)Procedures: Procedures are essential for effective use prior, with strategic planning being the foremost. preparation for outside occurrences that could negatively increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
of the information system. Procedures consist of various Types of Organizational Planning: impact the business. Companies may have contingency 2)Increase efficiency: By automating many customer-
instructions like user instructions, instructions for input 1)Strategic: A strategic plan is the company’s big picture. plans for things like how to respond to a natural disaster, facing processes, businesses can reduce the time and
preparation and operating instructions. These instructions It defines the company’s goals for a set period of time, malfunctioning software, or the sudden departure of a C- resources needed to manage customer interactions,
help in using the information system effectively. whether that’s one year or ten, and ensures that those level executive. freeing up employees to focus on more high-value tasks.
5)Personnel: Number of personnel is required for goals align with the company’s mission, vision, and values. #Customer Relationship management: Customer 3)Enhance customer retention: By providing personalized
implementation of MIS like computer operators, Strategic planning usually involves top managers, although Relationship Management (CRM) is a strategy and and efficient service, businesses can improve customer
programmers, systems analysts and managers. Human some smaller companies choose to bring all of their approach that businesses use to manage their interactions retention, reducing customer churn and increasing
beings are key requirements for implementation of MIS. In employees along when defining their mission, vision, and with customers and potential customers. The goal of CRM revenue.
MIS both technical and managerial level people are values. 2)Tactical: The tactical strategy describes how a is to improve customer satisfaction, loyalty, and retention 4)Identify new opportunities: By analyzing customer data,
required for proper implementation of MIS. company will implement its strategic plan. A tactical plan by providing personalized and efficient service at every businesses can identify new sales opportunities and
#Planning: is an essential aspect of information system is composed of several short-term goals, typically carried stage of the customer journey. develop targeted marketing campaigns to attract new
management. It involves the process of creating a out within one year, that support the strategic plan. CRM involves collecting and analyzing data on customer customers.
roadmap or a blueprint that outlines the steps necessary Generally, it’s the responsibility of middle managers to set behavior, preferences, and needs, as well as using that Overall, CRM is an essential strategy for businesses looking
to achieve the desired goals and objectives of an and oversee tactical strategies, like planning and executing data to create tailored marketing and sales strategies. It to build stronger relationships with their customers,
organization using technology and information systems. a marketing campaign. 3)Operational: Operational plans typically involves the use of technology such as CRM improve customer satisfaction and loyalty, and increase
Effective planning helps organizations to align their encompass what needs to happen continually, on a day-to- software, which enables businesses to automate many of revenue. By leveraging technology and data to create
information technology (IT) resources and capabilities with day basis, in order to execute tactical plans. Operational their customer-facing processes, track customer personalized and efficient experiences, businesses can
their business goals and strategies. plans could include work schedules, policies, rules, or interactions across multiple channels, and provide differentiate themselves from competitors and build long-
#Organizational Planning: Organizational planning is the regulations that set standards for employees, as well as employees with a unified view of each customer's history lasting customer relationships.
process of defining a company’s reason for existing, setting specific task assignments that relate to goals within the with the company.
goals aimed at realizing full potential, and creating tactical strategy, such as a protocol for documenting and
increasingly discrete tasks to meet those goals. Each phase addressing work absences.

#Buisness application of information Technology: Here just a few examples of technologies that enable businesses #Security & Ethical challenges: MIS security refers to #Supply Chain Management: Supply chain management is
are some examples of how businesses can use IT: to sell their products and services online, reaching a global measures put in place to protect information system the management of the flow of goods and services and
1)Communication and collaboration: IT enable businesses audience. resources from unauthorized access or being includes all processes that transform raw materials into
to communicate and collaborate more effectively, 5)Supply chain management: IT can help businesses compromised. Security vulnerabilities are weaknesses in a final products. It involves the active streamlining of a
whether internally or externally. Email, instant messaging, manage their supply chain more effectively, from computer system, software, or hardware that can be business's supply-side activities to maximize customer
video conferencing, and project management tools are procurement to logistics to inventory management. Supply exploited by the attacker to gain unauthorized access or value and gain a competitive advantage in the
just a few examples of technologies that can facilitate chain management systems, electronic data interchange compromise a system. Ethics refers to rules of right and marketplace. SCM represents an effort by suppliers to
communication and collaboration among teams and with (EDI), and radio frequency identification (RFID) are just a wrong that people use to make choices to guide their develop and implement supply chains that are as efficient
customers and partners. few examples of technologies that can help businesses behaviors. Ethics in MIS seek to protect and safeguard and economical as possible. Supply chains cover
2) Marketing and sales: IT can help businesses market and optimize their supply chain operations. individuals and society by using information systems everything from production to product development to
sell their products and services more effectively. Online #Decision support systems (DSS): are interactive responsibly. Most professions usually have defined a code the information systems needed to direct these
advertising, social media, and customer relationship software-based systems intended to help managers in of ethics or code of conduct guidelines that all undertakings. SCM attempts to centrally control or link the
management (CRM) systems are just a few examples of decision-making by accessing large volumes of information professionals affiliated with the profession must adhere production, shipment, and distribution of a product. By
technologies that can help businesses reach and engage generated from various related information systems to. With great power comes great responsibility. managing the supply chain, companies are able to cut
with customers, analyze customer data, and personalize involved in organizational business processes, such as Information systems bring new opportunities and excess costs and deliver products to the consumer faster.
marketing and sales efforts. office automation systems, transaction processing advantages to how we do business but they also introduce This is done by keeping tighter control of internal
3) Data management and analysis: IT can help businesses systems, etc. DSS uses the summary information, issues that can negatively affect society (cybercrime). An inventories, internal production, distribution, sales, and
manage and analyze vast amounts of data, providing exceptions, patterns, and trends using the analytical organization needs to address these issues and come up the inventories of company vendors.
valuable insights into customer behavior, market trends, models. A decision support system helps in decision- with a framework (MIS security, ICT policy, etc.) that #Enterprise Resource Planning(management): Enterprise
and business performance. Business intelligence (BI) tools, making but does not necessarily give a decision itself. addresses them. resource planning (ERP) is a process used by companies to
data warehousing, and big data analytics are just a few Benefits of DSS: 1)Improves efficiency and speed of manage and integrate the important parts of their
examples of technologies that can help businesses make decision-making activities. 2)Increases the control, businesses. Many ERP software applications are important
data-driven decisions. competitiveness and capability of futuristic decision- to companies because they help them implement resource
4)E-commerce and online sales: IT has transformed the making of the organization. 3)Facilitates interpersonal planning by integrating all of the processes needed to run
way businesses sell products and services, with e- communication.4)Encourages learning or training. 5)Since their companies with a single system. An ERP software
commerce and online sales becoming increasingly popular. it is mostly used in non-programmed decisions, it reveals system can also integrate planning, purchasing inventory,
Online stores, mobile apps, and digital marketplaces are new approaches and sets up new evidence for an unusual. sales, marketing, finance, human resources, and more.

ERP applications also allow the different departments to supplies and managing the process, with sourcing organization. It includes information about the changing The HRIS can either run on the company’s own technical
communicate and share information more easily with the considered more strategic, and purchasing and market trends, competitor’s pricing strategy, changes in infrastructure or, more common nowadays, be cloud-
rest of the company. It collects information about the procurement used to refer to the actual operational the customer’s tastes and preferences, new products based. This means that the HR software is running outside
activity and state of different divisions, making this function. launched in the market, promotion strategy of the of the company’s premises, making it much easier to
information available to other parts, where it can be used #Marketing information systems: The Marketing competitor, etc. update.
productively. Information System refers to the systematic collection, 3)Marketing Research: Marketing Research is the #Benefits of an HRIS (Human Resources information
#Customer Relationship Management: Customer analysis, interpretation, storage, and dissemination of the systematic collection, organization, analysis, and System):
relationship management (CRM) is the combination of market information, from both the internal and external interpretation of primary or secondary data to find out the 1)Record-keeping: An HRIS is a record-keeping system that
practices, strategies and technologies that companies use sources to the marketers on a regular, continuous basis. solutions to the marketing problems. Several Companies keeps track of changes to anything related to employees.
to manage and analyze customer interactions and data The marketing information system distributes the relevant conduct marketing research to analyze the marketing The HRIS can be seen as the single source of truth when it
throughout the customer lifecycle. The goal is to improve information to the marketers who can make efficient environment comprising of changes in the customer’s comes to personnel data.
customer service relationships and assist in customer decisions related to the marketing operations via. Pricing, tastes and preferences, competitor’s strategies, the scope 2)Compliance: Some data is collected and stored for
retention and drive sales growth. CRM systems compile packaging, new product development, distribution, media, of new product launch, etc. by applying several statistical compliance reasons. This includes material for the
customer data across different channels, or points of promotion, etc. tools. In order to conduct the market research, the data is identification of employees in case of theft, fraud, or other
contact, between the customer and the company, which #Components of Marketing Information System: to be collected that can be either primary data (the first- misbehaviors, first contact information in case of
could include the company's website, telephone, live chat, 1)Internal records: The Company can collect information hand data) or secondary data (second-hand data). accidents, citizens identification information for the tax
direct mail, marketing materials and social networks. CRM through its internal records comprising of sales data, #Human resource information systems: The HRIS is a office, and expiration dates for mandatory certification. All
systems can also give customer-facing staff members customer database, product database, financial data, system that is used to collect and store data on an this information can be stored in the HRIS. It is essential
detailed information on customers personal information, operations data, etc. The information can be collected organization’s employees. HRIS encompasses the basic that data is stored safely and securely, in line with GDPR
purchase history, buying preferences and concerns. from the documents such as invoices, transmit copies, functionalities needed for end-to-end Human Resources regulations.
#Procurement Management: Procurement management billing documents prepared by the firms once they receive Management (HRM). It is a system for recruitment, 3)Efficiency
is responsible for overseeing all the processes involved in the order for the goods and services from the customers, performance management, learning & development, and Having all this information stored in one place not only
acquiring the products, materials, goods and services dealers, or sales representatives. more. An HRIS is also known as HRIS software. This is a bit benefits accuracy but also saves time. Some companies
needed for efficient business operations. Depending on 2)Marketing Intelligence System: The marketing confusing as it implies that different systems can have still keep a lot of data about employees as physical
the business and industry, the terms “sourcing,” intelligence system provides the data about the different software running on them. However, this is not paperwork. Finding the right folder, and locating the right
“purchasing” and “procurement” may be used happenings in the market, i.e., data related to the the case. The HRIS is, in essence, an HR software package. sheet, can take up a lot of staff time.
interchangeably to describe the function of procuring marketing environment which is external to the
4)HR strategy #Neural networks: Neural networks reflect the behavior of Types Of Technology Used in Office Information System: activity classification, scene classification, and object
The HRIS permits the tracking of data required to advance the human brain, allowing computer programs to 1) Mobile Computing: Mobile phones have evolved from recognition have been addressed. Context recognition
the HR and business strategy. Depending on the priorities recognize patterns and solve common problems in the simple communication devices to very sophisticated multi- technology will be useful in OIS for understanding a user’s
of the organization, different data will be essential to track. fields of AI, machine learning, and deep learning. A neural function devices that are already part of the organizational request and this is expected to be an easier task since the
This is where the HRIS shines. network is a series of algorithms that endeavors to computing landscape. As many as 90% of smartphone scope is limited to office work.
5)Self-Service HR recognize underlying relationships in a set of data through users access organizational resources through their 3)Speech Recognition: Speech Recognition is called SR or
A final benefit is the ability to offer self-service HR to a process that mimics the way the human brain operates. devices. However, mobile phones have been integrated ASR (Automatic Speech Recognition). The basic problem in
employees and managers. This enables employees to In this sense, neural networks refer to systems of neurons, much more rapidly into their users’ daily lives than into SR is to map a speech signal into a set of words in the
manage their own affairs. When done right, the HRIS can either organic or artificial in nature. Neural networks can their work lives. They are still awkward to use for many spoken language. The first step is to identify “phonemes”
offer a good employee experience. Keep in mind that not adapt to changing input; so, the network generates the office tasks such as developing spreadsheets or preparing or pronunciation sounds that are combined to form words.
all HRIS systems offer this in a user-friendly manner! best possible result without needing to redesign the formal reports. This is because speech is the natural Phonemes are identified through one of two techniques,
#Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence is the output criteria. The concept of neural networks, which has interface for mobile phones rather than the keyboard- Hidden Markovian Models or through neural networks.
simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, its roots in artificial intelligence, is swiftly gaining monitor interface common for desktops. It is for this The former approach relies on sampling the speech signal
especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI popularity in the development of trading systems. reason that voice interfaces for application functionality for small time intervals, transforming the signal, and using
include expert systems, natural language processing, A neural network works similarly to the human brain’s are of great importance to the future of mobile computing. state transition networks to identify phonemes. The latter
speech recognition, and machine vision. neural network. A “neuron” in a neural network is a 2)Pervasive Computing: Pervasive or Ubiquitous approach uses multi-layered nets for acoustic modeling of
Advantages of AI: mathematical function that collects and classifies computing is the creation of environments saturated with speech signals and requires very large volumes of training
1. Good at detail-oriented jobs information according to a specific architecture. The computing and communication capabilities that are data. The next step is word recognition and for this, the
2. Reduced time for data-heavy tasks network bears a strong resemblance to statistical methods seamlessly and unobtrusively integrated with human system needs a vocabulary for matching. Despite decades
3. Delivers consistent results such as curve fitting and regression analysis. users. They make use of sensors, mobile and cloud of research, SR is still a very complex, computationally
4. AI-powered virtual agents are always available. A neural network contains layers of interconnected nodes. resources to help users react dynamically to situations. intensive task that is confounded by vocabulary,
Disadvantages of AI Each node is a perceptron and is similar to multiple linear Pervasive computers can help open doors automatically, An information system (IS) in business refers to a set of
1. Expensive regression. The perceptron feeds the signal produced by a report on parking situations, detect when a person is busy interconnected components that collect, process, store,
2. Requires deep technical expertise multiple linear regression into an activation function that or help a cell phone user manage his/her health. The most and distribute information to support decision-making,
3. A limited supply of qualified workers to build AI tools may be nonlinear significant problem in pervasive computing is context coordination, and control within an organization.
4. Only knows what it's been shown recognition and many strides have been made in this
5. Lack of ability to generalize from one task to another. direction. Areas such as the user’s physical location,

#Information system in business Application: typically #Data processing System: DPS is the manipulation of data department is hitting its quota●)) Develop contingency quota. A marketing team, on the other hand, might
consists of hardware, software, data, procedures, and by computers. It represents the automation of routine plans, like what to do in case the sales team’s CRM analyze whether or not their efforts to optimize
people, and it can support various functions and activities processing to support operations. Basically, it converts raw malfunctions or there’s a data breach advertising and landing pages succeeded in generating a
within an organization, such as finance, human resources, data into readable format which can be easily utilized by 3)Plan daily operations: Operational plans, or the certain number of leads for the sales department.
marketing, operations, and customer service. the people in the organization. The data processing processes that determine how individual employees spend #Internet & electronic commerce and its applications
examples of information systems used in business include: functions are data collection, manipulation, storage as their day, are largely the responsibility of middle managers Enterprise Solutions:
1)Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems: These used to report and analyze business activities. It is oriented and the employees that report to them. For example, the #E-commerce: E-commerce (electronic commerce) is the
systems integrate various business processes and primarily to processing transaction data for day-to-day process that a sales rep follows to find, nurture, and buying and selling of goods and services, or the
functions into a single, centralized system, providing real- transactions. convert a lead into a customer is an operational plan. Work transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network,
time visibility and control over operations. #The Planning Process: schedules, customer service workflows, or GDPR policies primarily the internet. E-commerce is powered by the
2)Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems: 1) Develop the strategic plan: that protect prospective customers’ information all aid a internet, where customers can access an online store to
These systems manage customer interactions and ●)) Review your mission, vision, and values●)) Gather data sales department in reaching its tactical goal—in this case, browse through, and place orders for products or services
relationships, providing insights into customer behavior about your company, like performance-indicating metrics a sales quota—so they fall under the umbrella of via their own devices.
and preferences, and supporting personalized marketing from your sales department●)) Perform a SWOT analysis; operational plans. Types Of E-commerce:
and sales efforts. take stock of your company’s strengths, weaknesses, 4)Execute the plans: It’s time to put plans into action. 1)Business-to-business (B2B): Business-to-business e-
3)Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems: These opportunities, and threats●)) Set big picture goals that Theoretically, activities carried out on a day-to-day basis commerce refers to the electronic exchange of products,
systems manage the flow of goods and services, from take your mission, vision, values, data, and SWOT analysis (defined by the operational plan) should help reach tactical services or information between businesses rather than
procurement to production to distribution, helping into account goals, which in turn supports the overall strategic plan. between businesses and consumers.
organizations optimize their supply chain operations. 2. Translate the strategic plan into tactical steps: 5)Monitor progress and adjust plans: No plan is complete 2)Business-to-consumer (B2C): Business-to-consumer is
4)Business Intelligence (BI) systems: These systems ●)) Define short-term goals—quarterly goals are without periods of reflection and adjustment. At the end the retail part of e-commerce on the internet. It is when
analyze and present data in a way that supports decision- common—that support the strategic plan for each of each quarter or the short-term goal period, middle businesses sell products, services or information directly to
making, providing insights into market trends, customer department, such as setting a quota for the sales team so managers should review whether or not they hit the consumers.
behavior, and business performance. the company can meet its strategic revenue goal ●)) benchmarks established in step two, then submit data- 3)Consumer-to-consumer (C2C): Consumer-to-consumer
5)Knowledge Management (KM) systems: These systems Develop processes for reviewing goal achievement to backed reports to C-level executives. For example, this is is a type of e-commerce in which consumers trade
enable organizations to capture, store, and share make sure strategic and tactical goals are being met, like when the manager of the sales department would run a products, services and information with each other online.
knowledge and expertise, supporting learning and running a CRM report every quarter and submitting it to report analyzing whether or not a new process for These transactions are generally conducted through a
innovation. the Chief Revenue Officer to check that the sales managing the sales pipeline helped the team reach its third party that provides an online platform on which the

transactions are carried out. Online auctions and classified appointments, providing information about illnesses, #Accounting information systems: An accounting #Quality information systems: Quality Information
advertisements are two examples of C2C platforms, with making health services payments, etc. information system involves the collection, storage, and System establishes a system that enables to analysis of the
eBay and Craigslist being two of the most popular of these #Security & Ethical challenges: MIS security refers to processing of financial and accounting data used by relation between base practices and processes of the
platforms. measures put in place to protect information system internal users to report information to investors, creditors, SPICE model and the eleven product quality factors and
4)Consumer-to-business (C2B): Consumer-to-business is a resources from unauthorized access or being and tax authorities. It is generally a computer-based criteria of McCall's (1977) model for software product
type of e-commerce in which consumers make their compromised. Security vulnerabilities are weaknesses in a method for tracking accounting activity in conjunction with evaluation. The main goal of QIS is to evaluate and verify
products and services available online for companies to bid computer system, software, or hardware that can be information technology resources. A typical AIS includes the benefits gained by improving the process maturity
on and purchase. This is the opposite of the traditional exploited by the attacker to gain unauthorized access or data relating to revenue, expenses, customer information, level.
commerce model of B2C. compromise a system. Ethics refers to rules of right and employee information, and tax information. Specific data #Client-server computing: Client-server computing is a
5)Business-to-administration (B2A): Business-to- wrong that people use to make choices to guide their includes sales orders and analysis reports, purchase distributed computing model in which client applications
administration refers to transactions conducted online behaviors. Ethics in MIS seek to protect and safeguard requisitions, invoices, check registers, inventory, payroll, request services from server processes. Clients and servers
between companies and public administration or individuals and society by using information systems ledger, trial balance, and financial statement information. typically run on different computers interconnected by a
government bodies. Many branches of government are responsibly. Most professions usually have defined a code An accounting information system must have a database computer network. Any use of the Internet, such as
dependent on e-services or products in one way or of ethics or code of conduct guidelines that all structure to store information. This database structure is information retrieval from the World Wide Web is an
another, especially when it comes to legal documents, professionals affiliated with the profession must adhere typically programmed with a query language that allows example of client-server computing. However, the term is
registers, social security, fiscals and employment. to. With great power comes great responsibility. for table and data manipulation. generally applied to systems in which an organization runs
6)Consumer-to-administration (C2A): Consumer-to- Information systems bring new opportunities and #Geographical information systems: A geographic programs with multiple components distributed among
administration refers to transactions conducted online advantages to how we do business but they also introduce information system is a system that creates, manages, computers in a network. The concept is frequently
between individual consumers and public administration issues that can negatively affect society (cybercrime). An analyzes, and maps all types of data. GIS connects data to associated with enterprise computing, which makes the
or government bodies. The government rarely buys organization needs to address these issues and come up a map, integrating location data with all types of computing resources of an organization available to every
products or services from citizens, but individuals with a framework (MIS security, ICT policy, etc.) that descriptive information. This provides a foundation for part of its operation. A client application is a process or
frequently use electronic means in the following areas: addresses them. mapping and analysis that is used in science and almost program that sends messages to a server via the network.
)) Education: Disseminating information, distance every industry. GIS helps users understand patterns, Those messages request the server to perform a specific
learning/online lectures, etc.)) Social security: Distributing relationships, and geographic context. The benefits task, such as looking up a customer record in a database or
information, making payments, etc.)) Taxes: filing tax include improved communication and efficiency as well as returning a portion of a file on the server’s hard disk. The
returns, making payments, etc.)) Health: Making better management and decision-making. client manages local resources such as a display, keyboard,
local disks, and other peripherals. The server program

listens for client requests that are transmitted via the #Nature of office: 7)Provides Innovation: Innovation is finding a new,
network. Servers receive those requests and perform 1)Helps in Achievement of Targets: Targets or goals are different, and better method of doing existing work. To
actions such as database queries and reading files. Server results in quantitative terms which are to be achieved in a plan and manage innovation, management has to play an
processes typically run on powerful PCs, workstations, or given time. Management makes people realize the goals important role. Suggestions from customers, information
mainframe computers. and directs their efforts towards the achievement of these from salesmen, close watch on competitor’s activities
#Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is a model enabling goals. provide sources of innovation.
convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool 2)Optimum Use of Resources: Management helps in the 8)Helps in Retaining Talent and Inculcating Sense of
of configurable computing resources. There are three utilization of resources effectively. Scarce resources are Loyalty in Office Staff: Efficient management helps in
types of cloud services—infrastructure, platform, and put to use optimistically by managers. Managers bring retaining talented and hard-working employees by
application [ibid]. Infrastructure is a very basic type of about coordination and integration of various resources providing them comfortable work environment. The
cloud service and is concerned mostly with storage and 3)Minimization of Costs: Office costs can be reduced manager must motivate his employees by recognizing and
network services. Platform services provide a under the guidance and control of efficient management. appreciating their talents.
development environment for running and testing Office Management is concerned with doing office 9)Provides Leadership: Management provides leadership
applications. The last is also known as SAAS (software as a activities in the best and cheapest way. by influencing and guiding office personnel. Managers
service) and is concerned with providing applications on- 4)Smooth Flow of Work: An uninterrupted flow of work is influence their subordinates to work willingly for achieving
demand to users. For OIS, a combination of these types of only possible if there is proper planning and control. organizational goals.
services could be utilized. For example, office software Management ensures an efficient and smooth flow of
could be cloud-based while at the same time some work.
infrastructure services such as video storage and or 5)Helps in Maintaining Office Efficiency: Management
information extraction could also be provisioned from the helps in maintaining efficiency in an office. A manager not
cloud. only performs and produces results but may do it in the
most efficient manner so as to contribute towards profit
generation.
6)Managing Survival and Growth: Management has to
play an important role in keeping the organization alive.
Change in technology and methods must be anticipated
and adapted for survival and growth.
#operating system is a program that acts as an interface #Thread: Thread is an execution unit that is part of a #Inter Process Communication: Interprocess #Mutual exclusion: is a concept in computer science that
between the user and the computer hardware and process. A process can have multiple threads, all communication is the mechanism provided by the ensures that only one process or thread can access a
controls the execution of all kinds of programs. executing at the same time. It is a unit of execution in operating system that allows processes to communicate shared resource or critical section at a time. It is used to
#OS as resource manager: An Operating System is a concurrent programming. A thread is lightweight and can with each other. This communication could involve a prevent multiple processes from simultaneously
collection of programs and utilities. It acts as an interface be managed independently by a scheduler. It helps you to process letting another process know that some event has modifying a shared resource and potentially causing data
between user and computer. It creates a user-friendly improve the application performance using parallelism. occurred or the transferring of data from one process to inconsistencies or race conditions.
environment. A computer has many resources (Hardware Multiple threads share information like data, code, files, another. Interprocess communication (IPC): refers to the One way to implement mutual exclusion is by using locks
and Software), which may be required to complete a task. etc. mechanism by which different processes running on a or semaphores. A lock is a synchronization mechanism
The commonly required resources are Input/Output computer system can communicate and exchange data that provides exclusive access to a shared resource. A
devices, Memory file storage space, CPU (Central with each other. process that wants to access the resource acquires the
Processing Unit) time and so on. When a number of There are several methods for achieving IPC, some of the lock, and no other process can access the resource until
computers are connected through a network with more most common ones are: the lock is released. A semaphore is a similar mechanism
than one computer trying for a computer print or a 1)Shared Memory: Processes can share a common that can be used to control access to a shared resource by
common resource, then the operating system follows the portion of memory where they can read and write data. multiple processes.
same order and manages the resources in an efficient This can provide fast communication between processes #Peterson’s Solution: Peterson’s solution provides a good
manner. Resources sharing in two ways "in time" and "in as there is no need to copy data between processes. algorithmic description of solving the critical-section
space". When a resource is a time-sharing resource, first 2)Message Passing: Processes can send and receive problem and illustrates some of the complexities involved
one of the tasks gets the resource for some time, then messages through a communication channel. This can be in designing software that addresses the requirements of
another and so on. The other kind of sharing is "space implemented using sockets, pipes, or other mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded waiting. This
sharing". communication mechanisms. solution is for 2 processes to enter into critical section.
#Function of Operating Systems: 1)Memory 3)Remote Procedure Calls (RPC): This is a way for This solution works for only 2 processes.
Management 2) Processor Management 3) Device processes to call procedures or functions that are located Here is the pseudocode for Peterson's algorithm:
Management 4)File Management 5)Security 6)Control in another process or on another machine. 1) flag[1] = false 2) flag[2] = false 3) turn = 1 4) while true:
over system performance 7)Job accounting 8)Error 4)Signals: Processes can send signals to other processes 5) flag[1] = true 6) turn = 2 7) while flag[2] and turn == 2:
detecting aids 9)Coordination between other software to notify them of events or to request their attention. pass
and users Signals can be used to interrupt a process, terminate a # Critical section...# End of critical section
process, or handle exceptional conditions.

#Dekker's algorithm: is a classic mutual exclusion #Deadlock:Deadlock is a situation where a set of #Ostrich Algorithm: The ostrich algorithm means that the #Recovery From Deadlock:There are three basic
algorithm used in concurrent programming to ensure that processes are blocked because each process is holding a deadlock is simply ignored and it is assumed that it will approaches to getting out of a bind:
two processes can access a shared resource in a mutually resource and waiting for another resource acquired by never occur. 1)Inform the system operator and give him/her
exclusive manner. It was developed by Dutch computer some other process. 1)Pretend (imagine) that there’s no problem. permission to intervene manually.
scientist Th. J. Dekker in 1965.The algorithm works by 2)This is the easiest way to deal with problem. 2)Stop one or more of the processes involved in the
having two processes (Process 1 and Process 2) share two 3)This algorithm says that stick your head in the sand and deadlock. 3)Prevent the use of resources
boolean variables, flag1 and flag2, that indicate whether pretend (imagine) that there is no problem at all. #Round Robin Scheduling: 1)Round Robin is the
each process is currently in its critical section. Here is the 4)This strategy suggests to ignore the deadlock because preemptive process scheduling algorithm.
pseudocode for Dekker's algorithm: deadlocks occur rarely, but system crashes due to 2)Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called
Process 1: hardware failures, compiler errors, and operating system a quantum.
flag1 = false bugs frequently, then not to pay a large penalty in 3)Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is
flag2 = false performance or convenience to eliminate deadlocks. preempted and other process executes for a given time
while true: #Deadlock Detection: Deadlock detection is used by period.
flag1 = true #Condition of Deadlock arises: employing and algorithm that tracks the circular waiting 4)Context switching is used to save states of preempted
while flag2: 1)Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be kept in and killing one or more processes so that deadlock is processes.
if turn == 2: a non-shareable state; if another process requests it, it removed. The system state is examined periodically to
flag1 = false must wait for it to be released. determine if a set of processes is deadlocked.
while turn == 2: 2)Hold and Wait: A process must hold at least one A deadlock is resolved by aborting and restarting a
pass resource while also waiting for at least one resource that process, relinquishing all the resources that the process
flag1 = true another process is currently holding. held.
# Critical section 1)This technique does not limit resources access or Wait time of each process is as follows:
3)No preemption: Once a process holds a resource (i.e.
... after its request is granted), that resource cannot be taken restrict process action.
# End of critical section away from that process until the process voluntarily 2)Requested resources are granted to processes
turn = 2 releases it. whenever possible.
flag1 = false 4)Circular Wait: There must be a set of processes P0, P1, 3)It never delays the process initiation and facilitates
P2,…, PN such that every P[I] is waiting for P[(I + 1) percent online handling.
(N + 1)]. 4)The disadvantage is the inherent pre-emption losses. Average Wait Time: (9+2+12+11) / 4 = 8.5

#Process Scheduling: The process scheduling is the Contiguous Memory Allocation Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation #Importance of Segmentation: that cannot be allocated to incoming processes. It is called
activity of the process manager that handles the removal In contiguous memory allocation, swapped-in In non-contiguous memory allocation, swapped- 1)No internal fragmentation fragmentation.
processes are arranged in the originally in processes can be arranged in any place in the
of the running process from the CPU and the selection of allocated space. memory.
2)Average Segment Size is larger than the actual page size. #Types of Fragmentation:
another process on the basis of a particular strategy. 3)Less overhead 1)Internal Fragmentation: When a process is allocated to
It is of five types:
Process scheduling is an essential part of a 1. Paging
4)It is easier to relocate segments than entire address a memory block, and if the process is smaller than the
It is of two types:
Multiprogramming operating systems. Such operating 1. Fixed(or static) partitioning
2. Multilevel Paging
3. Inverted Paging
space. amount of memory requested, a free space is created in
2. Dynamic partitioning
systems allow more than one process to be loaded into 4. Segmentation 5)The segment table is of lesser size as compared to the the given memory block. Due to this, the free space of the
5. Segmented Paging
the executable memory at a time and the loaded process page table in paging. memory block is unused, which causes internal
shares the CPU using time multiplexing. It could be visualized and implemented using
It could be implemented using Linked Lists. #Drawback of Segmentation: fragmentation.
Arrays.
#Virtual Memory: Virtual memory is a section of volatile 1)It can have external fragmentation. 2)External Fragmentation: External fragmentation
Degree of multiprogramming is fixed as fixed
memory created temporarily on the storage drive. It is partitions
Degree of multiprogramming is not fixed 2)It is difficult to allocate contiguous memory to variable happens when a dynamic memory allocation method
created when a computer is running many processes at sized partition. allocates some memory but leaves a small amount of
once and RAM is running low #Segmentation: A process is divided into Segments. The 3)Costly memory management algorithms. memory unusable. The quantity of available memory is
Contiguous Memory Allocation Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation
chunks that a program is divided into which are not #Fragmentation: Fragmentation is an unwanted problem substantially reduced if there is too much external
necessarily all of the same sizes are called segments. in the operating system in which the processes are loaded fragmentation. There is enough memory space to
Contiguous memory allocation allocates Non-Contiguous memory allocation allocates
consecutive blocks of memory to a file/process. separate blocks of memory to a file/process. Segmentation gives user’s view of the process which and unloaded from memory, and free memory space is complete a request, but it is not contiguous. It's known as
paging does not give. Here the user’s view is mapped to fragmented. Processes can't be assigned to memory external fragmentation.
Faster in Execution. Slower in Execution.
physical memory. There are types of segmentation: blocks due to their small size, and the memory blocks stay #Advantages Of fragmentation:
It is easier for the OS to control. It is difficult for the OS to control.
1)Virtual memory segmentation: Each process is divided unused. It is also necessary to understand that as 1)Fast Data Writes:Data write in a system that supports
Overhead is minimum as not much address More Overheads are there as there are more into a number of segments, not all of which are resident programs are loaded and deleted from memory, they data fragmentation may be faster than reorganizing data
translations are there while executing a process. address translations.
at any one point in time. generate free space or a hole in the memory. These small storage to enable contiguous data writes.
Both Internal fragmentation and external
Only External fragmentation occurs in Non-
2)Simple segmentation: Each process is divided into a blocks cannot be allotted to new arriving processes, 2)Fewer Failures: If there is insufficient sequential space
fragmentation occurs in Contiguous memory
Contiguous memory allocation method. number of segments, all of which are loaded into memory
allocation method.
resulting in inefficient memory use.The conditions of in a system that does not support fragmentation, the
at run time, though not necessarily contiguously. fragmentation depend on the memory allocation system. write will fail.
It includes single partition allocation and multi-
It includes paging and segmentation.
partition allocation.
As the process is loaded and unloaded from memory, 3)Storage Optimization:A fragmented system might
Wastage of memory is there. No memory wastage is there. these areas are fragmented into small pieces of memory potentially make better use of a storage device by utilizing
every available storage block.

#Disadvantages Of fragmentation: #Disk scheduling. Disk scheduling is important because:


During writing or read During writing or read
1)Need for regular defragmentation: A more fragmented 1)Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different processes
cycles (IO/M` = 0) in case cycles (IO/M` = 1) in case
storage device's performance will degrade with time, and only one I/O request can be served at a time by the
of Memory Mapped IO. of IO Mapped IO.
necessitating the requirement for time-consuming disk controller. Thus, other I/O requests need to wait in
defragmentation operations. the waiting queue and need to be scheduled.
No separate control signal
2)Slower Read Times: The time it takes to read a non- 2)Two or more request may be far from each other so can
required since we have
sequential file might increase as a storage device becomes result in greater disk arm movement.
unified memory space in Special control signals
more fragmented. 3)Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of the computer
the case of Memory are used in the case of IO
#DMA (Direct Memory Access): Direct memory access #Difference between Memory-Mapped I/O Interfacing system and thus need to be accessed in an efficient
Mapped IO. Mapped IO.
(DMA) is a method that allows an input/output (I/O) and I/O Mapped I/O Interfacing: manner.
device to send or receive data directly to or from the main #Optimal Page replacement: In this algorithm, pages are
Memory Mapped IO IO Mapped IO Arithmetic and logical Arithmetic and logical
memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory replaced which would not be used for the longest duration
operations are performed operations cannot be
operations. The process is managed by a chip known as a of time in the future. Example: Consider the page
IO devices are accessed They cannot be accessed directly on the data in the performed directly on
DMA controller (DMAC). references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, with 4 page
like any other memory like any other memory case of Memory Mapped the data in the case of IO
frame. Find number of page fault.
location. location. IO. Mapped IO.
#Memory Hierarchy:

They are assigned with They are assigned with 8- Separate address and
16-bit address values. bit address values. Only one set of address data buses are required
and data buses are for memory and I/O
The instruction used are The instruction used are required for memory and devices
LDA and STA, etc. IN and OUT. I/O devices
#Disk Scheduling: Disk scheduling is done by operating
216 IO ports are possible Only 256 I/O ports are systems to schedule I/O requests arriving for the disk. Disk
to be used for interfacing available for interfacing scheduling is also known as I/O
The operating system uses the DMA hardware as follows: in case of memory IO in case of IO Mapped IO.
#Following characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design 2)Writing a file: To write a file, specify both the name of than one computer trying for a computer print or a various tasks. The OS responds with an output. The
from above figure: the file and the information to be written to the file. The common resource, then the operating system follows the instructions are usually given through an input device like
1)Capacity: It is the global volume of information the system must keep a write pointer to the location in the same order and manages the resources in an efficient the keyboard.
memory can store. As we move from top to bottom in the file where the next write is to take place. manner. Resources sharing in two ways "in time" and "in 5)Real Time OS: Real-Time OS are usually built for
Hierarchy, the capacity increases. 3)Reading a file: To read from a file, directory is searched space". When a resource is a time-sharing resource, first dedicated systems to accomplish a specific set of tasks
2)Access Time: It is the time interval between the for the associated entry and the system needs to keep a one of the tasks gets the resource for some time, then within deadlines
read/write request and the availability of the data. As we read pointer to the location in the file where the next another and so on. The other kind of sharing is "space #Preemptive: These algorithms are either non-
move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time read is to take place. sharing". In this method, the users share the space of preemptive or preemptive. Non-preemptive algorithms
increases. 4)Repositioning within a file: Directory is searched for resources. By allocating the time and space for the are designed so that once a process enters the running
3)Performance: Earlier when the computer system was the appropriate entry and the current file position different computers by their requirement so it is called state, it cannot be preempted until it completes its
designed without Memory Hierarchy design, the speed pointer is repositioned to a given value. This operation is resource manager. allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is
gap increases between the CPU registers and Main also known as file seek. #Types of OS: based on priority where a scheduler may preempt a low
Memory due to large difference in access time. This 5)Deleting a file: To delete a file, search the directory for 1) Batch OS: A set of similar jobs are stored in the main
priority running process anytime when a high priority
results in lower performance of the system and thus, the named file. When found, release all file space and memory for execution. A job gets assigned to the CPU,
process enters into a ready state.
enhancement was required. This enhancement was made erase the directory entry. only when the execution of the previous job completes.
in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design because of which 6)Truncating a file: User may want to erase the contents 2)Multiprogramming OS: The main memory consists of #Starvation: Starvation is the problem that occurs when
the performance of the system increases. One of the most of a file but keep its attributes. This function allows all jobs waiting for CPU time. The OS selects one of the high priority processes keep executing and low priority
significant ways to increase system performance is attributes to remain unchanged except for file length. processes and assigns it to the CPU. Whenever the processes get blocked for indefinite time. In heavily
minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one has #OS as resource manager: An Operating System is a executing process needs to wait for any other operation loaded computer system, a steady stream of higher-
to go to manipulate data. collection of programs and utilities. It acts as an interface (like I/O), the OS selects another process from the job priority processes can prevent a low-priority process from
#File Operations: A file is an abstract data type. OS can between user and computer. It creates a user-friendly queue and assigns it to the CPU. ever getting the CPU
provide system calls to create, write, read, reposition, environment. A computer has many resources(Hardware 3)Multitasking OS: Multitasking OS combines the benefits
delete and truncate files. and Software), which may be required to complete a task. of Multiprogramming OS and CPU scheduling to perform #Starvation and deadlock: are both concepts related to
1)Creating a file: First space in the file system must be The commonly required resources are Input/Output quick switches between jobs. The switch is so quick that resource management and process execution in computer
found for the file. Second, an entry for the new file must devices, Memory file storage space, CPU(Central the user can interact with each program as it runs systems, but they refer to different scenarios:
be made in the directory. Processing Unit) time and so on. When a number of 4)Time Sharing OS: Time-sharing systems require
computers are connected through a network with more interaction with the user to instruct the OS to perform

1)Starvation: Starvation occurs when a process is unable using the Banker's algorithm, the following conditions #Deadlock handling policies: refers to the strategies and #Swapping: refers to the process of moving data or entire
to access a resource it needs to execute, even though the must be satisfied: techniques used to detect, prevent, and recover from processes between main memory (RAM) and secondary
resource is available. The process keeps waiting 1)Available resources: The system must keep track of the deadlock situations in computer systems. Deadlocks occur storage (typically a hard disk drive or solid-state drive). It
indefinitely, and other processes may continue to acquire number of available instances of each resource type. when two or more processes are unable to proceed is a technique used by operating systems to manage
and release the resource, further prolonging the waiting 2)Maximum resource need: Each process must declare its because each is waiting for a resource held by another memory efficiently and accommodate more processes
time of the starved process. Starvation can happen due to maximum demand for each resource type before it starts process within the same set. than can fit in the available physical memory. Here's a
scheduling policies, resource allocation algorithms, or executing. 1)Deadlock Prevention: Deadlock prevention aims to general overview of how swapping works:
priority mismanagement. Essentially, a process is starved 3)Current resource allocation: The system keeps track of eliminate one or more of the necessary conditions for 1)Paging: The memory is divided into fixed-size pages, and
when it is continuously denied access to a resource it the current allocation of resources to each process. deadlock occurrence. By ensuring that at least one of the the processes are divided into corresponding fixed-size
requires. 4)Maximum resource claim: The maximum resource need conditions (mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no blocks called page frames.
2)Deadlock: Deadlock is a situation where two or more declared by each process must be less than or equal to the preemption, circular wait) cannot hold, deadlocks can be 2)Demand paging: Initially, only a portion of a process is
processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting total system resources available for each resource type. prevented. loaded into memory, typically the pages required for
for a resource held by another process within the same The Banker's algorithm proceeds as follows: 2)Deadlock Detection: Deadlock detection involves immediate execution. Other pages are stored in secondary
set. In other words, each process is waiting for a resource 1)When a process requests additional resources, the periodically examining the state of the system to storage until they are needed.
that is being held by another process in the deadlock set, algorithm checks if granting those resources will result in determine whether a deadlock has occurred. Several 3)Page fault: When a page fault happens, the operating
and no process can make progress. Deadlock typically an unsafe state or potential deadlock. algorithms, like the resource allocation graph algorithm or system retrieves the required page from secondary
involves a circular dependency of resources, where each 2)The algorithm considers the maximum resource need, the Banker's algorithm, can be used to detect deadlocks. storage (disk) and swaps it into a free page frame in the
process holds a resource that another process is waiting the current resource allocation, and the available 3)Deadlock Avoidance: Deadlock avoidance involves main memory.
for. Deadlocks can occur due to resource allocation resources to determine. dynamically analyzing the resource allocation and request 4)Swapping: If there are no free page frames available in
strategies, lack of synchronization, or improper locking 3)If the requested resources cannot be safely allocated, patterns to determine if a particular resource allocation memory, the operating system selects one or more pages
mechanisms. the process is forced to wait until the required resources request will potentially lead to a deadlock. to swap out.
#Banker's algorithm: is a resource allocation and become available. 4)Deadlock Recovery: Deadlock recovery involves taking 5)Context switching: Swapping involves suspending the
deadlock avoidance algorithm used in operating systems. 4)When a process finishes executing and releases its corrective actions once a deadlock is detected. Recovery execution of the process being swapped out, saving its
It ensures that a system remains in a safe state while resources, the released resources become available for methods can include process termination, resource state (registers, program counter, etc.) to the disk, and
allocating resources to processes. To achieve a safe state allocation to other processes. preemption, or resource reallocation. loading the state of the process being swapped in.

#fixed and variable partitioning in multiprogramming: #Semaphore: Semaphores are integer variables that are #Disadvantages of Semaphores: 1)Purpose: Interrupt handlers serve the purpose of
Fixed partitioning Variable partitioning used to solve the critical section problem by using two 1)Semaphores are complicated so the wait and signal handling interrupts and responding to them
atomic operations, wait and signal that are used for operations must be implemented in the correct order to appropriately. Interrupts are used to notify the CPU about
In multi-programming In multi-programming process synchronization. prevent deadlocks. events that require immediate attention, such as
with fixed partitioning with variable partitioning #Types of Semaphores: 2)Semaphores are impractical for last scale use as their hardware events (e.g., hardware faults, I/O completion) or
the main memory is the main memory is not use leads to loss of modularity. This happens because the
1)Counting Semaphores: These are integer value software events (e.g., exceptions, system calls).
divided into fixed sized divided into fixed sized wait and signal operations prevent the creation of a
semaphores and have an unrestricted value domain. 2)Execution: When an interrupt occurs, the processor
partitions. partitions. structured layout for the system.
These semaphores are used to coordinate the resource interrupts the execution of the current program and
3) Semaphores may lead to a priority inversion where low
In variable partitioning, access, where the semaphore count is the number of priority processes may access the critical section first and transfers control to the corresponding interrupt handler.
Only one process can be
the process is allocated a available resources. If the resources are added, high priority processes later. The interrupt handler executes the necessary code to
placed in a partition.
chunk of free memory. semaphore count automatically incremented and if the #Process Scheduling: The process scheduling is the handle the specific interrupt type.
resources are removed, the count is decremented. activity of the process manager that handles the removal 3)Execution Flow: Interrupt handlers typically follow a
It does not utilize the It utilizes the main
2)Binary Semaphores: The binary semaphores are like of the running process from the CPU and the selection of predefined sequence of steps. Upon invocation, they save
main memory effectively. memory effectively.
counting semaphores but their value is restricted to 0 and another process on the basis of a particular strategy. the current execution context, including registers and
There is presence of 1. The wait operation only works when the semaphore is Process scheduling is an essential part of a program counters, to ensure that the interrupted program
internal fragmentation There is external 1 and the signal operation succeeds when semaphore is 0. Multiprogramming operating systems. Such operating can resume correctly later. Then, the handler executes the
and external fragmentation. It is sometimes easier to implement binary semaphores systems allow more than one process to be loaded into necessary actions to handle the interrupt, such as reading
fragmentation. than counting semaphores. input from a device or servicing a request.
the executable memory at a time and the loaded process
#Advantages of Semaphores: shares the CPU using time multiplexing. 4)Completion and Return: After the interrupt handler
Degree of multi- Degree of multi-
programming is less. programming is higher. 1)Semaphores allow only one process into the critical #Interrupt handlers: also known as interrupt service completes its execution, it restores the saved execution
section. They follow the mutual exclusion principle strictly. routines (ISRs), are software routines or functions that are context and returns control to the interrupted program,
It is less easy to 2)There is no resource wastage because of busy waiting in executed in response to an interrupt signal generated by allowing it to continue from where it was interrupted.
It is easier to implement.
implement. semaphores as processor time is not wasted hardware or software events. Here are key points about
unnecessarily.3) Semaphores are implemented in the interrupt handlers:
machine independent code of the microkernel.

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