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FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

REFERENCE SHEET
Functions and Graphs – Leaving Cert Higher Level Reference Sheet
On the Leaving Cert course most functions questions include a calculus or A function is a rule that maps an input to a unique The domain is the 𝑥 values that can go
graphical aspect. We can differentiate to find slopes of tangents, turning points, output. into the function. The codomain is the
increasing/ decreasing and points of inflection or integrate functions to find 𝑌 set of values that could come out and
average values or areas under and between curves. the range the 𝑦 values that actually
You must be very comfortable with graphing functions and reading information 𝑋 Range come out.
from the graphs. 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌
1 𝐴 An 𝑥 value cannot go to more than one
Substitution and Functions – inputs and outputs 𝐷 𝑦 value. 𝑋 𝑌
2
𝐵 This is not 𝐴
𝟐
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 3 1
𝐸
a function. 𝐵
Find Find 4 𝐶 2
𝒇(𝟖) 𝒉(𝒕) It is a relation. 3 𝐶
𝒇(−𝟐) 𝒉(𝟐𝒕 + 𝟏) Domain Codomain 𝐷
4
𝑓 8 = 2(8)2 − 5(8)+2 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 − 3(t)
= 𝑡 2 − 3t 𝑦 𝑦
= 2 64 − 40 + 2
= 90
Vertical Line Test 𝑦 A Function A Function
NOT a
ℎ(2𝑡 + 1) = 2𝑡 + 1 2 − 3(2𝑡 + 1) Each vertical line Function
ℎ −2 = 2(−2)2 − 5 −2 + 2 = 2𝑡 + 1 2𝑡 + 1 − 6𝑡 − 3 drawn through a
= 2 4 + 10 + 2 = 2𝑡 2𝑡 + 1 + 1 2𝑡 + 1 − 6𝑡 − 3 graph will
= 20 = 4𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 2𝑡 + 1 − 6𝑡 − 3 intersect a function
𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙−𝟑 = 4𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 − 2 in only one 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
location.
Find For what values of 𝒕 is 𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒉 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟏
Notation
𝒈(𝟑) ℎ 2𝑡 + 1 = ℎ(𝑡)
𝒈(𝟕) Rather than writing a whole load of words to describe the numbers that can go into the function
𝟐𝒈(𝟓) 4𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 − 2 = 𝑡 2 − 3t and those that can come out we can use symbols.
4𝑡 2 − 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 3𝑡 − 2 = 0 Most of the time we see functions represented as follows:
𝑔 3 = 23−3 3𝑡 2 + 𝑡 − 2 = 0 2𝑥
= 20 𝑓: 𝑥 → 3𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 86, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−2, 𝑥 ≠ 2, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
3𝑡 − 2 𝑡 + 1 = 0
=1 3𝑡 − 2 = 0 𝑡+1= 0 Both tell us that the domain is all the real numbers, the latter has an exception of 𝑥 = 2.
𝑔 7 = 27−3 3𝑡 = 2 𝑡 = −1 More complicated looking examples!
= 24 2 𝒇: ℕ → ℕ: 𝒙 → 𝟐𝒙
𝑡=
= 16 3 The domain is ℕ (the natural numbers) as is the codomain, however the range consists only of
the even natural numbers.
2𝑔 5 = 2(25−3 ) A function is defined by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒
𝒇: ℝ → ℝ: 𝒙 → 𝒙𝟐
= 2(22 ) If 𝒇(𝒌) = 𝟏𝟏, find the value of 𝒌 The domain is 𝑅 (real numbers) as is the codomain, the range is 0, ∞
=2 4 𝑨 is the closed interval [𝟎, 𝟓]. That is, 𝑨 = {𝒙|𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟓, 𝒙 ∈ ℝ}.
= 8 3(𝑘) − 4 = 11 The function 𝒇 is defined on 𝑨 by:
3𝑘 = 11 + 4 𝒇 ∶ 𝑨 → ℝ: 𝒙 ↦ 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓.
3𝑘 = 15 The closed interval tells us that the domain is only those real numbers from 0 to 5 (inclusive).
𝑘=5
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Functions and Graphs – Leaving Cert Higher Level Reference Sheet The roots of a function are Composite Functions
the values of 𝑥 where the
Forming Function Given the Roots curve/ line crosses the 𝑥-axis. This means applying one function to the results of another.
The graph of a cubic function 𝒇(𝒙) cuts the 𝒙-axis at 𝒙 = −𝟑, 𝒙 = −𝟏, and 𝒙 = 𝟐, and
the 𝒚-axis at 𝟎, −𝟔 , as shown. A function is defined by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 and 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏.
Verify that 𝒇(𝒙) can be written as 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔
To form we simply convert the roots into factors and multiply together. Find 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 𝒙 Find 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 𝟐
𝑥 = −3, 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 2 𝑓 2 =2 2 +1
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 𝑥2 − 1 + 1 =5
3 Real and Unique Roots
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 = 2𝑥 2 − 2 + 1 𝑔 5 = 5 2−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 𝑥 𝑥−2 +1 𝑥−2 = 2𝑥 2 − 1 𝑔 5 = 24
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 Given that 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒 and 𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙 − 𝟐 find 𝒂 if
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6 3 Real Roots, 2 Equal 𝒉𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒈𝒉 𝒙 .
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
ℎ𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔ℎ 𝑥
𝑎 3𝑥 + 4 = 3 𝑎𝑥 − 2
Only 1 Real Root 3𝑎𝑥 + 4𝑎 = 3𝑎𝑥 − 6
4𝑎 = −6
𝑎 = −1.5

Polynomial that touches the axis Inverse Function

It may occur that a root occurs multiple times. If two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined so that 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and
The graph will touch the axis at this point but not cross it. 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴, then if 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, we say that 𝑓 and
Here 𝑥 = 2 is a root that has multiplicity 2. 𝑔 are inverse functions of each other.
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+5 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−4
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 − 23𝑥 3 + 64𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 80 A function 𝑓 has an inverse 𝑓 −1 if and only if 𝑓 is bijective.

If a polynomial has a factor with odd multiplicity greater Find the inverse of the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
than 1, the graph appears to flatten out. Write 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
𝑦 − 3 = 2𝑥
𝑦−3
=𝑥
2
𝑥−3
𝑓 −1 𝑥 =
2
Show that 𝒇𝒇−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒙
Behaviour of polynomials.
𝑥−3
𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 2 +3
If the polynomial is even degree, arms point in same direction. 2
If the polynomial is odd degree, one arm points up and one = 𝑥−3+3
arm points down. =𝑥
If leading coefficient is positive then the right arm points up. If
leading coefficient is negative then the right arm points down.
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Injective, Surjective, Bijective Limits Continuity
Injective Functions (one to one) A limit is the value that a function approaches as the A function is said to be continuous when 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the
Every output is the image of a unique input. input approaches some value. graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be drawn through the point with
Horizontal Line Test – any horizontal line drawn will never coordinates (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) without a break.
cut the graph at more than one point. We can use a table or 𝑥 4𝑥 2 + 7
sub in the limit.
𝑦
𝑥 = 0.5 8
𝐴 𝑓 𝐵 𝑦 lim 4𝑥 2 + 7 𝑥 = 0.9 10.24
. . 𝑥→1
=4 1 2 +7
. . = 11
𝑥 = 0.95 10.61

. . 𝑥 = 0.99 10.92
𝑥
. . 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 Sometimes we need to
𝑥 = 0.999 10.99
. 𝑥 factorise first

𝑥3 − 8
lim A function is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 .
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→𝑎
Surjective Functions (onto) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4
Every element in the co-domain is an output. = lim Otherwise, there is said to be a discontinuity at
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
Horizontal Line Test – every horizontal line intersects the = lim 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑥→2 3
graph of f at at least one point. = 2 2+2 2 +4 The function f 𝑥 = 𝑥−2 is not continuous as it has a
= 12 ‘break’ at 𝑥 = 2
𝐴 𝑓 𝐵 𝑦
. . Limits to ∞ 3
. . In general, limits of Hard Example 𝑓 2 =
2−2
. . quotients, as 𝑥 → ∞, Evaluate 3
= which is not defined.
. are found by dividing
0
𝑓 2 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2
. . 𝑥 above and below by
the highest power of 𝑥. 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒏→∞
−𝟏 +
𝟏+𝒏
𝟐𝒏𝟐
𝑦
1 3
lim = 0 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 −1 + 2𝑛2 𝑥−2
Bijective Functions (one to one & onto) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
Both injective and surjective. 𝑛→∞ 1+ 𝑛 2
𝒏𝟐 + 𝟕
𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒏→∞ 𝟐𝒏𝟐 + 𝟗𝒏 −1 + 2𝑛2
𝑛2 7 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝐴 𝑓 𝐵 𝑦 2 + 𝑛2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1
. . = lim 2𝑛
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 9𝑛 −1 2𝑛2
𝑥=2 𝑥
. . 𝑛2
+ 2
𝑛 𝑛2
+ 2
𝑛
. . 1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2 2𝑛 1
. . 𝑥
=
2
+
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2
+

. . = 2

The above is the graph of a rational function.

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Drawing Graphs The key to drawing any graph is to find points and connect them. To find points sub 𝑥-values into the function and get
out 𝑦-values. Use ‘table mode’ on the calculator to check your points. If only a sketch is needed, differentiation can be
Linear Functions used to find turning points. It is also good to have some idea of the rough shape of each type of function.
A linear function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
You may also be asked to draw the functions of derivatives 𝑓′ 𝑥 and 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 .
is a straight line.
It will have no turning point. Exponential Functions Trigonometric Functions
1 𝑥 The graphs of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are shown below. They have
An exponential function contains the 𝑥 in the power. a range of −1,1 and a period of 2𝜋.
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥

Quadratic Functions 𝑦 𝑦
2
A quadratic function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 4 is a curve
(parabola) with only one turning point.

+𝑥 2 is a ∪ graph. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 −𝑥
−𝑥 2 is a ∩ graph 𝑥 𝑥

𝑦 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑥 If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑥
The graph of an exponential function will never cross the 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥
𝑥-axis. 2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 - the graph will start low and end high. 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 −𝑎, 𝑎 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 = 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝑏 − 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑎
𝑛
𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 −𝑥 - the graph will start high and end low.
𝑥 The graph of tan 𝑥 is shown below. It has a range of
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 will always pass through (0, 𝑎) −∞, ∞ and a period of 𝜋.

Logarithmic Functions 𝑦
Logarithmic functions are the ‘inverse’ of exponential
Cubic Functions
functions.
A cubic function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3
− 5𝑥 2
− 4𝑥 + 3 will give a 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥
−90° 90° 270° 450°
𝑦 = tan 𝑥
curve with more than one turning point. 𝑥
0° 180° 360°
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 Rational Function
𝑦
To graph a rational
+𝑥 3, the graph will start low and end high. function we must
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥
−𝑥 3, the graph will start high and end low. find the asymptotes
𝑔 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥
The exponential and the logarithmic functions are Vertical Asymptote:
Functions and Graphs – symmetric to each other across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. Bottom = 0
𝑥
Leaving Cert Higher Level Reference Sheet The graph of an logarithmic function will never cross the Horizontal Asymptote:
y-axis. 𝑦 = lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→∞
Transformations of Functions
Transformation of Linear Function Transformation of Logarithmic Function (Examples) Transformation of Exponential Function (Examples)
When we make changes to a linear function it can Graphs of the function 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒙 𝑦 𝑦
either shift up/down or change slope. 𝑦 = 2 2𝑥
𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 log 2 𝑥
We know from co-ordinate geometry that a line
in the format 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 2𝑥
has a slope of 𝑚 and a 𝑦 intercept of 𝑐. 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 2

𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥
1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+2
𝑥 𝑥
2 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 log 2 𝑥 lies below 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 for
𝑥 < 1 and above for 𝑥 > 1. Double the function Add 1 to function
2 Vertically stretches curve Shifts graph up 1 unit
𝑦
𝑦 𝑦 = 2 𝑥+1 𝑦
𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥
1 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥
2
Change in the 𝑥 number changes the slope. 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑥
1
𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+4
2 1
𝑓 𝑥 = 2 log 2 𝑥 lies above 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 for 𝑥 < 1 and
1 𝑦 = 2 𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+2 below for 𝑥 > 1
4 2 𝑥 𝑥
Graphs of the function 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒃 Add 1 to the power. Subtract 1 from the power.
2 Adding or subtracting from the equation causes the Shifts curve to left 1 unit Shifts curve to right 1 unit
graph to shift up or down.
𝑥 Graphs of the function 𝑦
𝑦 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒉
𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 + 3
Adding or subtracting 𝑓 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 + 2
inside the brackets
Change in the 𝑦 intercept shifts the line up/down 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥
causes the graph to shift 𝑔 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥
left or right.
𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 + 2 is the
Functions and Graphs – graph 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 shifted 𝑥
Leaving Cert Higher Level Reference Sheet
𝑥 two units to the left.
𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 − 3 is the
For example 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟑 shifts the graph 3 units graph 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 shifted
higher three units to the right.
Transformation of Quadratic Functions A change in the 𝑥 2 𝑦 Completing the Square
When we make changes to a quadratic function
coefficient 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2
narrows or Rearranging a quadratic to the form
it can either shift it up or down or narrow or 𝑦 = 𝑥2
widens the curve. 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 +𝑏
widen it. - allows us read the max or min of the curve and axis
Multiplying 𝑥 2: of symmetry where (– 𝑎, 𝑏) is the max/min and
Adding a number to the function shifts the
by a number 𝑥 = −𝑎 is the line of symmetry.
curve up. Adding 3 shifts the curve up 3 units
between −1 and 1
would widen the 𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 −𝟒
𝑦= 𝑥 +3 2
curve. 𝑥
𝑦 Has a minimum point of (−2, −4) and an axis of
symmetry of 𝑥 = −2
𝑦 = 𝑥2 Find the axis of symmetry and minimum point of the
A change in the value of a constant in a quadratic of the form (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 curve 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟖
shifts the curve to the left or right.
2 2
If the constant 𝑎 is positive it will shift the curve that many units to −8 −8
the left. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 8𝑥 + + 18 −
2 2
2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 18 − 16
𝑦 𝑦=𝑥 2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 2
3 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−4 𝑥−4 +2
𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 4)2 +2
16
𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥+4 2 Has a minimum point of (4,2) and an axis of symmetry
of 𝑥 = 4

Subtracting a number from the function shifts it

𝑦 𝑥=4
down. Subtracting 4 shifts the curve down 4 𝑥
units
𝑦 = 𝑥2 −4 18
𝑦 If the constant 𝑎 is negative it will shift the curve that many units to
the right.

𝑦 2
𝑦 = 𝑥−3

4,2
𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑥
9

𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥 𝑥 Functions and Graphs –

Leaving Cert Higher Level Reference Sheet
−4
3
Transformation of Cubic Functions & Reflections and Stretches Stretches
Transformation of Cubic Function Transformation of Cubic Function Reflections 𝑓 𝑞𝑥 stretches or compresses 𝑓 𝑥
1
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 translates 𝑓 𝑥 vertically a 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 translates 𝑓 𝑥 horizontally a −𝑓 𝑥 reflects 𝑓 𝑥 in the 𝑥 − axis. horizontally with scale factor .
𝑞
distance of 𝑘 units upward. distance of 𝑘 units to the left, when 𝑘 > 0.

The transformation is a horizontal stretch of

1
scale factor .
𝑞
When 𝑞 > 1 the graph is compressed
towards the 𝑦 − axis.
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑘 translates 𝑓 𝑥 vertically a 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑘 translates 𝑓 𝑥 horizontally a When 0 < 𝑞 < 1 the graph is compressed
distance of 𝑘 units downward. distance of 𝑘 units to the right, when 𝑘 > 0. 𝑓 −𝑥 reflects 𝑓 𝑥 in the 𝑦 − axis. away from the 𝑦 − axis.

𝑝𝑓 𝑥 stretches 𝑓 𝑥 vertically with a scale

factor of 𝑝.

The transformation is a vertical stretch of

scale factor 𝑝.
When 𝑝 > 1 the graph stretches away from
the 𝑥 − axis.
When 0 < 𝑝 < 1 the graph is compressed
towards the 𝑥 − axis.
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Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of three functions are shown on the diagram below. The scales on the axes are not The diagram below shows the graph of the function 𝒇: 𝒙 ↦ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙.
labelled. The three functions are: The line 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏 is also shown.
𝑥 → cos 3𝑥
𝑥 → 2cos 3𝑥
𝑥 → 3cos 2𝑥
Identify which function is which, and write your answers in the spaces below the diagram.

𝑓 𝑥 = 3cos 2𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 = 2cos 3𝑥
ℎ 𝑥 = cos 3𝑥
Find the co-ordinates of the point 𝑷 in the diagram.
The graph below shows the voltage, 𝑽, in an electric circuit as a function of time, 𝒕.
The voltage is given by the formula 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟏𝟏𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕), where 𝑽 is in volts and 𝒕 is in seconds. 1
sin 2𝑥 =
Write down the range of the function. 2
How many complete periods are there in one second?
sin is positive in quadrants 1 and 2

Reference Angle
sin−1
1
= 30° 150° 30°
2 𝑆 𝐴
2𝑥 = 30, 150, 390, 510 …
𝑥 = 15°, 75°, 195°, 255° …
𝑇 𝐶
𝑃 is the 4th intersection of the
function and the line, therefore:
𝑃 = 255°

Range: −311,311 1 Period Periods in 1 second

2𝜋 1
= 100𝜋 = 0.02 seconds = 50 periods per second.
0.02

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Exponential Functions
A function is a rule that describes a relationship between variables. Exponential functions can describe things like ‘growth’ or ‘decay’ and so they come up Remember
frequently as part of real world application questions. Like all functions they can be graphed but they are a little more tricky to work with as they sometimes
𝑎0 = 1
require the use of logs to solve.
ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥
Scientists can estimate the age of certain ancient items by measuring the In a science experiment, a quantity 𝑸(𝒕) was observed at various points in time 𝒕. Time is measured in
proportion of carbon−14, relative to the total carbon content in the item. seconds from the instant of the first observation. The table below gives the results.
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝒕
The formula used is 𝑸 = 𝒆− 𝟓𝟕𝟑𝟎 , where Q is the proportion of carbon-14 𝑸 follows a rule of the form 𝑸 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆−𝒃𝒕 where 𝑨 and 𝒃 are constants.
remaining and 𝒕 is the age, in years, of the item. Use any two of the observations from the table to find the value of 𝑨 and the value of 𝒃, correct to three
An item is 2000 years old. Use the formula to find the proportion of decimal places.
carbon−14 in the item.
𝑡 0 1 2 3 4
0.693𝑡
𝑄= 𝑒 − 5730
0.693 2000 𝑄(𝑡) 2.920 2.642 2.391 2.163 1.957
𝑄= 𝑒 − 5730
= 0.7851
@𝑡 = 0, 𝑄 𝑡 = 2.920 Show that 𝑸(𝒕) is a constant Find the value of the constant 𝒌
The proportion of carbon−14 in an item found at Lough Boora, County multiple of 𝑸(𝒕 − 𝟏) , for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟏. 𝟏
Offaly, was 0·3402. for which 𝑸 𝒕 + 𝒌 = 𝑸 𝒕 ,
𝟐
𝑄 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
Estimate, correct to two significant figures, the age of the item. for all 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎.
2.920 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏 0 𝑄 𝑡 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
= Give your answer correct to
0.693𝑡 2.920 = 𝐴 1 𝑄 𝑡−1 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏 𝑡−1 two decimal places.
𝑄 = 𝑒 − 5730 𝐴 = 2.920 𝑄 𝑡 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
0.693𝑡 = −𝑏𝑡+𝑏
0.3402 = 𝑒 − 5730 𝑄 𝑡−1 𝐴𝑒 1
0.693𝑡 𝑄 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑄 𝑡+𝑘 = 𝑄 𝑡
log 𝑒 0.3402 = − @𝑡 = 1, 𝑄 𝑡 = 2.642 = −𝑏𝑡 𝑏 2
5730 𝑄 𝑡−1 𝑒 .𝑒 1
log 𝑒 0.3402 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏 𝑡+𝑘 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑄 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑄 𝑡 1 2
=𝑡 = 𝑏 2𝑒 −𝑏 𝑡+𝑘 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
0.693 𝑄 𝑡−1 𝑒
− 5730 2.642 = 2.920𝑒 −𝑏 1
2.642 2𝑒 −𝑏𝑡−𝑏𝑘 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
= 8915 = 𝑒 −𝑏 2𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑏𝑘 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
2.920 A constant.
≈ 8900 years 2𝑒 −𝑏𝑘 = 1
2.642
−𝑏 = log 𝑒 1
2.920 𝑒 −𝑏𝑘 =
2
−𝑏 = −0.1 1
𝑏 = 0.1 log 𝑒 = −𝑏𝑘
2
1
log 𝑒 2
𝑘=
−𝑏

𝑘 ≈ 6.93

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Exponential Functions Using your values for 𝑨 and 𝒌, sketch the curve 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆𝒌𝒕 for 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟎, 𝐭 ∈ ℝ
Ciarán is preparing food for his baby and must use cooled boiled water.
The equation 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒆𝒌𝒕 describes how the boiled water cools. In this 𝒕 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝟕𝟕𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟗𝒕 𝒇 𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
equation:
• 𝒕 is the time, in minutes, from when the water boiled, 0 77𝑒 −0.0339 0 77 0,77
• 𝒚 is the difference between the water temperature and room 10 77𝑒 −0.0339 10 54.86 10,54.86
temperature at time 𝒕, measured in degrees Celsius,
• 𝑨 and 𝒌 are constants. 20 77𝑒 −0.0339 20 39.09 20,39.09
The temperature of the water when it boils is 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪 and the room
temperature is a constant 𝟐𝟑°𝑪. 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑒𝑡𝑐

(i) Find the values of 𝑨.

@𝑡 = 0 (iii) Ciarán prepares the food for
𝑦 = 100 − 23 his baby when the water has
𝑦 = 77 cooled to 𝟓𝟎°𝑪. How long does it
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡 take, correct to the nearest
minute, for the water to cool to
77 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘 0 this temperature?
77 = 𝐴𝑒 0
77 = 𝐴 1 @𝑡 =?
77 = 𝐴 𝑦 = 50 − 23
𝑦 = 27 On the same diagram, sketch a curve 𝒈 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆𝒎𝒕 showing the water cooling at a faster rate, where 𝑨
(ii) After five minutes, the 𝑦 = 77𝑒 −0.0339𝑡 is the value from part (a), and 𝒎 is a constant. Label each graph clearly.
temperature of the water is 𝟖𝟖°𝑪.
27 = 77𝑒 −0.0339𝑡 Find the rates of change of the function 𝒇(𝒕) after 𝟏 minute and after 𝟏𝟎 minutes.
Find the value of 𝒌, correct to
27 Give your answers correct to two decimal places.
three significant figures. = 𝑒 −0.0339𝑡
77
@𝑡 = 5 27 𝑦 = 77𝑒 −0.0339𝑡
−0.0339𝑡 = ln 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 88 − 23 77
27 = 77𝑒 −0.0339𝑡 −0.0339
𝑦 = 65 ln 77 𝑑𝑡
𝑡= 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 77𝑒 𝑘𝑡 −0.0339 = −2.6103𝑒 −0.0339𝑡
𝑑𝑡
65 = 77𝑒 𝑘 5 𝑡 = 30.91
65 = 77𝑒 5𝑘 𝑡 ≈ 31 minutes @𝒕 = 𝟏 @𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎
65 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 5𝑘 = −2.6103𝑒 −0.0339 1 = −2.6103𝑒 −0.0339 10
77 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
65 = −2.52 = −1.86
5𝑘 = ln 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
77
65 Show that the rate of change of 𝒇(𝒕) will always increase over time.
ln
𝑘 = 77 𝑑2 𝑦
5 = −2.6103𝑒 −0.0339𝑡 −0.0339
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑘 = −0.03388 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑘 ≈ −0.0339 𝑑𝑡 2
= 0.088𝑒 −0.0339𝑡 > 0 ∴ 𝑑𝑡
is increasing
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