NEBOSH

International Diploma
ID3: Do – Workplace
Safety Issues
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NEBOSH International Diploma

element 10
Do – Workplace Safety Issues
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Learning Outcomes

On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:

10.1 Outline the practical considerations for maintaining a safe working environment.
10.2 Recognise risks and design safe working practices in confined spaces.
10.3 Describe the mechanisms for fire and explosions, how building materials behave in a
fire and methods that can be used for prevention and protection from fire and explosion.
10.4 Summarise the considerations for fire risk assessment, methods for fire prevention and
detection, types of firefighting equipment, means of escape and emergency evacuation
procedures.
10.5 Describe the risks and controls inherent in industrial chemical processes and hazardous
environments, including the storage, handling and transport of dangerous substances
and planning for emergencies.

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Learning Outcomes

On completion of this element, candidates should be able to (cont’d.):

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

10.6 Summarise what needs to be considered during maintenance, inspection and testing of work
equipment and machinery.
10.7 Understand why and how risks from work equipment and pressure systems should be
managed.
10.8 Explain the principles of machinery safety integration and risk assessment and generic
hazards and controls for machinery.
10.9 Outline the hazards and controls for mobile work equipment and lifting equipment.
10.10 Identify the hazards and outline control measures associated with electricity (including work
on high voltage systems) and risks associated with portable electrical equipment.
10.11 Describe the different types of construction activities and outline how people can be protected
during construction works, safe work at height practices, and the hazards and controls for
demolition and excavation work.
10.12 Outline the duty to manage workplace transport risks and how to manage work-related
driving risks using a Plan, Do, Check, Act approach.
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Contents Page No

10.1 Safe Working Environment 10

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Safe Place of Work – Provision and Maintenance 11
Provision of Safe Means of Access and Egress 15
Safety Signs 16
Emergency Escape or First-Aid Signs 17
Lighting in the Workplace 19
The Impact of Lighting Levels on Safety 19
The Impact of Lighting Levels on Health 20
Visual Fatigue 20
Managing Health and Safety Risks from Lighting 21
Managing health and safety risks from lighting in the workplace include: 21
Assessing Lighting in the Workplace 21
The factors to consider: 21
10.2 Work in Confined Spaces 24
Factors to be Considered when Assessing Risk 26
Design of Safe Work Practices 28
Fire Prevention and Protection Procedures 31
10.3 Fire and Explosions 36
Properties of Flammable and Explosive Materials and the Mechanisms by which they Ignite 36
Table 1: Examples of Flammable Substance Properties 39
Examples of Flammable Substance Properties 39
The Fire Triangle 41
Mechanism of Explosion and Fire Spread 43
Effects of Atomisation/Particle Size and Oxygen Content 48
Major Incidents 54
Dust Explosions 55
The Behaviour of Structural Materials, Buildings and Building Contents in a Fire 60
Behaviour of Common Building Contents in Fire 65 NEBOSH
ID3 - Workplace
Fire and Explosion Prevention and Protection 66
Segregation and Storage of Flammable, Combustible, and Incompatible Materials 70
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Explosion Relief/Mitigation 77
10.4 Workplace Fire Risk Assessment 82
5 Steps to Fire Risk Assessment 83
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems and Procedures 92
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Design and Application of Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 92

Fixed and Portable Fire Fighting Equipment 102
Design and Application of Fixed Fire-Fighting Systems and Equipment 102
Classification of Fires 102
Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment (PFFE) 103
Types of Extinguishers 104

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Fixed Fire-Fighting Equipment (FFFE) 107

Fixed Foam Installations 110
Means of Escape 113
Emergency Evacuation Procedures 126
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Evacuation Procedures and Drills 128

10.5 Dangerous Substance 134
Industrial Chemical Processes 134
Heat of Reaction 136
The Storage, Handling and Transport of Dangerous Substances 140
Identification of Dangerous Substances 140
Bulk Storage 145
Storage of Toxic and Corrosive Substances 153
Leakage and Spillage Containment 154
Principles in Dispensing, Spraying and Disposal of Flammable Liquids 157
Transport of Dangerous Substances 160
Hazardous Environments 168
Principles of Selection of Electrical Equipment for Use in Flammable Atmosphere 169
10.6 Work Equipment and Machinery Maintenance 182
Maintenance Hazards 182
Mechanisms of Mechanical Failure that Lead to a Loss of Containment 193
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) 198
10.7 Work Equipment and Pressure Systems 202
Ergonomic, Anthropometric and Human Reliability Considerations 203
The Risks Associated with Using Work Equipment 210
Pressure Systems 214
10.8 Safety Integration and Machinery Risk Assessment 220
Role and Application of Standards Relating to Machinery 220
Principles of Safety Integration 226
Purpose of CE marking and the relevance of the CE mark 228
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Conformity Assessments 229

Generic Hazards 232
3D printers 239
Hazards, Advantages and Disadvantages of AI Including Wearable Technologies 239
Machinery Control System 240
Control Systems 240
10.9 Mobile Work Equipment and Lifting Equipment 244
Reach Trucks 246
Side Loading Trucks 246
Pedestrian Controlled Trucks 247
Mobile Work Equipment: Control Measures 252
Requirement for Selection and Training of Operators 257
Lifting Equipment: Hazards and Control Measures 260

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Application and Types of Lifting Equipment 260

Hazards Associated with Cranes and Lifting Operations 265
Lifting Equipment Control Measures 266

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Access and Work at Height Equipment: Hazards and Control Measures 276
The Applications and Different Types of Access and Work at Height Equipment 276
The Hazards of Access and Work at Height Equipment 277
General Precautions for The Use of MEWPs 280
10.10 Electricity 281
Hazards of Electricity and Static Electricity 281
Control Measures for The Use of Electrical Equipment and Electrical Systems 289
Important Aspects of Electrical Systems 290
Control Measures 294
High Voltage Systems 305
Portable Electrical Equipment 306
Why portable electrical appliances are at a higher risk of electrical accidents? 307
10.11 Construction, Work at Height, Demolition and Excavation 310
Types of Work 310
Range of Activities 311
Particular Construction Issues 314
General Duties 316
Arrangements for Protecting Employees and Others 319
Work at Height 321
The Hazards Associated with Working at Heights 321
Access and Work at Height Equipment: Hazards and Control Measures 321
The Applications and Different Types of Access and Work at Height Equipment 321
The Hazards of Access and Work at Height Equipment 323
General Precautions for The Use of MEWPs 325
Scaffolding 329
Means of Temporary Access 337
Demolition Work 345 NEBOSH
ID3 - Workplace
Main Techniques Used in Demolition of Buildings 347
Typical Hazards 353
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Excavations 356
Safe Systems of Work 363
10.12 Workplace Transport and Work-Related Driving 368
Typical Hazards 368
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Factors to Be Considered in A Workplace Transport Risk Assessment 369

References 375

List of Illustration

Illustration 1: Minimum Adjustable Range of Seating 13

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Illustration 2: The Fire Triangle 41

Illustration 3: Fire Spread 44
Illustration 4: BLEVE 47
Illustration 5: 20 Inch ‘Dog-Leg’ Bypass Pipe on Scaffolding at Flixborough 54
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Illustration 6: Collapse of Structural Steel Subjected to Fire 62

Illustration 7: Storage of Flammable Liquid Containers 71
Illustration 8: Preferred Symbols for Hazardous Area Zones 0, 1 and 2 73
Illustration 9: Preferred Symbols for Hazardous Area Zones 20, 21 and 22 74
Illustration 10: Zoning of a Flammable Liquid Vessel Vented to Atmosphere 75
Illustration 11: Zoning of a Powder Hopper with LEV 75
Illustration 12: Rotary Valve 77
Illustration 13: Choke Within a Screw Transfer 78
Illustration 14: Explosion Suppression System 78
Illustration 15: Fast Acting Isolation Valve 79
Illustration 16: Explosion Relief Vents & Bursting 80
Illustration 17: Fusible Solder Link Sprinkler Heads 107
Illustration 18: Quartzoid Bulb 108
Illustration 19: Wet Pipe Sprinkler Zone Installation 109
Illustration 20: Deluge System 109
Illustration 21: Water Drench System 110
Illustration 22: Place of Safety 115
Illustration 23: Means of Escape from a Dead End 118
Illustration 24: Direct Distance 119
Illustration 25: Distribution of Exits Greater Than 45° 119
Illustration 26: Distribution of Exits Less Than 45° 120
Illustration 27: Alternative Exits from a Dead End 120
Illustration 28: Inner Room 121
Illustration 29: Typical Storage Facility 143
Illustration 30: Solid Dangerous Substances Storage Facility 144
Illustration 31: Filling External Powder Product Bins 145
Illustration 32: Powder Off-Loading 146
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Illustration 33: General Layout of Storage Facilities 147

Illustration 34: Storage of Liquefied Gases 148
Illustration 35: Typical Drum Storage Facility 150
Illustration 36: Typical Vertical Storage Tank 156
Illustration 37: Typical Underground Storage Tank 156
Illustration 38: Tremcard 164
Illustration 39: Warning Mark for Elevated Temperature Substances 167
Illustration 40: Example Test House Marks 170
Illustration 41: Example Hazardous Area Equipment Marking 171
Illustration 42: Ex ia Installation 173
Illustration 43: Example of Anthropometric Data Given in BS EN 547-2:1997 208
Illustration 44: Example of a CE Mark Required for the Machinery Directive 228
Illustration 45: An Example of a Declaration of Conformity 231

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Illustration 46: Counterbalance Truck 245

Illustration 47: Industrial Reach Truck 246
Illustration 48: Rough Terrain Counterbalance Lift Truck 246

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Illustration 49: Telescopic Materials Handler 246
Illustration 50: Side Loading Lift Truck 246
Illustration 51: Pedestrian Controlled Lift Truck 247
Illustration 52: Large Lift Truck 247
Illustration 53: Longitudinal Instability 251
Illustration 54: Longitudinal Instability 251
Illustration 55: Lateral Instability 251
Illustration 56: Lateral Stability 252
Illustration 57: Reach Truck Instability 252
Illustration 58: Segregated Access for Vehicles and Pedestrians 254
Illustration 59: Working Platform on a Counterbalance Lift Truck 254
Illustration 60: Side Shift Carriage 255
Illustration 61: Fork Positioner Illustration 62: Paper Reel Clamp 255
Illustration 63: Crane Jib Attachment Illustration 64: Boom 255
Illustration 65: Mobile Crane 260
Illustration 66: Crawler Crane 261
Illustration 67: Lorry Loaders 261
Illustration 68: Tower Crane (Trolley / Saddle Jib) 261
Illustration 69: Wire Rope 270
Illustration 70: Types of Slings 270
Illustration 71: Hooks 270
Illustration 72: D Shackle 271
Illustration 73: Eye Bolts 271
Illustration 74: Lifting Beam 271
Illustration 75: Rope and Chain Pulleys 272
Illustration 76: Gin Wheel 272
Illustration 77: Mobile Elevated Work Platforms - Scissors Lift and Articulated Boom 277
Illustration 78: SWA Cables 291
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Illustration 79: 110 V CTE Transformer 295 ID3 - Workplace
Illustration 80: RCD Circuit 296
Illustration 81: Double Insulation Symbol 296
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Illustration 82: Visible Damage to a Plug Casing 299

Illustration 83: Mobile Elevated Work Platforms - Scissors Lift and Articulated Boom 322
Illustration 84: Edge Protection 326
Illustration 85: Access Ladder, Tied at Top, Correct Angle for Use, Suitable Extension above Landing 329
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Illustration 86: Parts of a Scaffold 330

Illustration 87: Independent Tied Scaffold 331
Illustration 88: Putlog Scaffold 331
Illustration 89: Scaffold Hoist Tower 333
Illustration 90: Mobile Tower Scaffold 334
Illustration 91: Properly Anchored Roof Ladder with Ridge Iron 335

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Illustration 92: Scaffold at Eaves Level with Edge Protection 335

Illustration 93: Suspended Access Cradle - Raised Roof Rig 337
Illustration 94: Boatswain Chair 339
Illustration 95: Safety Net and Supporting Framework 340
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Illustration 96: Base Machine, Equipment and Attachments 349

Illustration 97: Exclusion Zone – Plan 355
Illustration 98: Exclusion Zone 356
Illustration 99: Sheeted Excavation with Edge Protection, Ladder Access and Supported Services 357

List of Chart

Chart 1: Flammable Range between Flammable Limits 38

List of Tables

Table 1: Examples of Flammable Substance Properties 39

Table 2: Fire Hazards 41
Table 3: Primary Construction Classification (BS 476) 61
Table 4: Examples of ‘Temperature Rise Hazard’ Materials 65
Table 5: Examples of ‘Smoke Hazard’ Materials 66
Table 6: Risk Ranking Matrix 88
Table 7: Risk Ranking Conclusions 88
Table 8: Suitability of Automatic Fire Detectors 95
Table 9: Fire Alarm Testing Schedules 97
Table 10: Fire Categories BS EN 2 103
Table 11: Extinguishing Media 103
Table 12: Discharge Intervals for the Extinguishers 106
Table 13: Fusible Solder Link 108
Table 14: Quartzoid Bulb Sprinkler Head Colour Codes 108
Table 15: Escape Times 115
Table 16: Floor Space Factors 116
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Table 17: Example Fire Risk Categories 118

Table 18: Minimum Numbers of Escape Routes / Exits 119
Table 19: Width of Escape Routes and Exits 121
Table 20: Emergency Lighting Testing Schedules 125
Table 21: Separation Distances for Tanks Storing Flammable Liquids 147
Table 22: Recommended Minimum Separation Distances for Total Storage of LPG in Cylinders or Size of
Maximum Stack (the greater of the two distances is advised) 149
Table 23: Danger Signs 162
Table 24: Methods of Protection for Electrical Equipment for Use in Flammable Atmospheres 169
Table 25: Methods of Protection for Electrical Equipment for Use in Combustible Dust Atmospheres
Marking of Hazardous Area Electrical Apparatus 170
Table 26: Advantages / Disadvantages of the Various Types of Maintenance Regimes 185
Table 27: Benefits which can be derived from Condition Monitoring 186

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Table 28: Summary of Inspections and Frequencies 190

Table 29: Comparison: Six Main Branches of Non-Destructive Testing 201
Table 30: Typical energy sources and isolation methods 203

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Table 31: List of the Relative Advantages of Men and Machines the Fitts List (From Singleton) 205
Table 32: Functional Characteristics of the Main Types of Display based upon Grandjean 206
Table 33: Relevant Transposed Harmonised Standards to Human Performance and Anthropometry 208
Table 34: Example of a BS EN 1050 Risk Assessment 230
Table 35: Pedestal and Radial Arm Drills – Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 232
Table 36: Paper Shredder- Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 233
Table 37: Simple Robots - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 233
Table 38: Circular Saw – Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 234
Table 39: Abrasive Wheels - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 235
Table 40: Mechanical and Hydraulic Presses - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 236
Table 41: Guillotine - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 236
Table 42: Lathe - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 237
Table 43: Portable Power Tools - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 237
Table 44: Adverse or Hazardous Environmental Hazards 291
Table 45: Classification of Electrical Equipment for Providing Protection Against Electrical Shock 297
Table 46: Periodic Inspection and Testing of Fixed Electrical Installations 302
Table 47: Scaffold Hoist Lift: Hazards and Precautions 333
Table 48: Underground Services and Associated Hazards 363

List of Graph

Graph 1: The Bathtub Curve 185

Graph 2: Graph of Tensile Stress against Temperature Showing Stress Decreasing with Increased
Temperature 194
Graph 3: Graph Showing the Three Stages of Creep 196

List of Flowchart

Flowchart 1: Machinery Risk Assessment Process 202 NEBOSH

ID3 - Workplace
Flowchart 2: The Man-Machine Interface, Emphasising the Performance of the Human Information
Processing System 204
Flowchart 3: Elements of Risk 211
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Flowchart 4: Stages of a Demolition Project 346

Flowchart 5: Underground Services Safe System of WorkPlanning the Work 364
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10.1 Safe Working Environment

Introduction
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

This Element will explain the requirements relating to the workplace environment plus providing further
information regarding the details of the provision of workplace signs and the provision of first-aid cover.
Additionally, the working environment has brought potential risks from entry into confined spaces and from
the risks of building collapse. Details of the problems associated with both confined spaces and building
structures are also covered in this element of the syllabus.
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Safe Place of Work – Provision and Maintenance

Employers should ensure that every workplace, modification, extension, or conversion which is under his
control and where any of his employee’s work, complies with the following requirements. People other

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than employers also have duties if they have control, to any extent, of a workplace, e.g., owners and
landlords (of business premises) should ensure that common parts, common facilities, common services
and means of access within their control, comply. Tenant employers are responsible for ensuring that the
workplace which they control complies, and has adequate facilities, particularly welfare provisions, are
provided. Where a workplace is in a building, the building should have stability and solidity appropriate to
the nature of the use of the workplace.

Most National legislation requires employers to ensure a safe workplace under a common duty of care.

The approach to creating a safe place of work requires consideration of:

1. Separation of the worker from the hazard
2. Containment of the hazard
3. Removal of the hazard, such as by exhaust ventilation for appropriate disposal.

In general, the development and application of the approach to creating a safe place of work is based
upon sound engineering principles. This should be the initial approach to be adopted.
Engineering strategies remove much, if not all, of the vagaries of human behaviour as they can ensure
only certain actions or conditions are met, for example, by provision of interlock switching to prevent
access to moving parts of machinery.

Only where engineering applications by themselves will not sufficiently control risks should other
strategies be adopted.

Clearly not all risks can be controlled by engineering alone. Often the nature of the work activities and
tasks will prevent engineering solutions being the sole means for risk control.

The application of safe place strategies/approaches and the utilisation of engineering principles are
underpinned by the various British Standards, European and International Standards which exist to
support accident prevention. Such standards may be process or equipment specific or be involved with
general principles and outcomes to be adopted.

Practical Considerations
Maintenance
The workplace, and the equipment and devices should be maintained in an efficient state, in efficient
working order and in good repair. ‘Efficient’ in this context means efficient from the view of health, safety
and welfare (not productivity or economy).
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ID3 - Workplace
The frequency of regular maintenance, and precisely what it involves, will depend on the equipment or
device concerned. The likelihood of defects developing, and the foreseeable consequences, are highly
relevant. The age and condition of equipment, how it is used and how often it is used should also be
considered. Sources of advice include published ILO guidance, and EU standards and other authoritative
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guidance, manufacturers’ information and instructions.

Ventilation
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Effective and suitable provision should be made to ensure that every enclosed workplace is ventilated by
a sufficient quantity of fresh or purified air.

Enclosed workplaces should be sufficiently well ventilated so that stale air, and air which is hot or humid
because of the processes or equipment in the workplace, is replaced at a reasonable rate.

In many cases, windows or other openings will provide sufficient ventilation in some or all parts of the
workplace. Where necessary, mechanical ventilation systems should be provided for parts or all the
workplace, as appropriate.

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In the case of mechanical ventilation systems which recirculate air, including air-conditioning systems,
recirculated air should be adequately filtered to remove impurities. Ventilation systems should be subject to
a suitable system of maintenance.

Where necessary for reasons of health and safety, mechanical ventilation systems should include an
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

effective device to give visible or audible warning of any failure. This will not apply in most workplaces. It
will, however, apply to ‘dilution ventilation’ systems used to reduce concentrations of dust or fumes in the
atmosphere and to any other situation where a breakdown in the ventilation system would be likely to result
in harm to workers. Workers should not be subject to uncomfortable draughts. In the case of mechanical
ventilation systems, it may be necessary to control the direction or velocity of air flow. Workstations should
be re-sited or screened if necessary.

Temperature in Indoor Workplaces

The temperature in workrooms should provide reasonable comfort without the need for special clothing.
Where such a temperature is impractical because of hot or cold processes, steps should be taken to achieve
a temperature that is as close as possible to comfortable. Excessive effects of sunlight on temperature
should also be avoided.

Methods of heating or cooling which results in the escape into a workplace of fumes, gas, or vapour of such
character and to such extent that they are likely to be injurious or offensive to any person should not be
used, e.g., fixed heating systems should be installed and maintained in such a way that the products of
combustion do not enter the workplace.

Where the temperature in a workroom would otherwise be uncomfortably high, e.g., because of hot
processes or the design of the building, steps should be taken to achieve a reasonably comfortable
temperature. Where a reasonably comfortable temperature cannot be achieved throughout a workroom,
local heating or cooling (as appropriate) should be provided.

A sufficient number of thermometers should be provided to enable persons at work to determine the
temperature in any workplace inside a building.

Workplaces should be adequately thermally insulated where necessary, having regard to the type of work
carried out and the physical activity of the persons carrying out the work, and excessive effects of sunlight
on temperature should be avoided.

Thermal comfort is very difficult to define, normally because a range of environmental and personal factors
need to be taken into account when deciding on the temperatures and ventilation that will make the
employees feel comfortable. The most that can realistically be achieved is a thermal environment that
satisfies most the employees.

The most effective way of ensuring thermal comfort is to design the workplace appropriately. Several issues
can be addressed as follows:
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Heating: Many types of heating are available, such as hot air heated by gas or oil burners, central heating
by steam heat circulated through radiators, combined heating, and ventilating systems where the air-
conditioning system is used to heat air, which is then circulated, electric heaters, floor heating or overhead
radiant heating from gas or electric.

Air movement: Small personal fans can provide a refreshing movement of air on the face and larger
oscillating fans can provide a swirling air movement, although some people find this ‘draughty’. Large
diameter fans suspended from the ceiling can provide a swirling air movement that is effective over wide
areas. Exhaust fans mounted in the roofs and walls are useful for removing heated air, however, whilst
improving general air movement they may have little effect on thermal comfort.

Air-conditioning: This can range from small units that lower the air temperature but do not control
humidity levels or air movement, to large units that can cope with extreme conditions, and control humidity
and air movement.

Evaporative cooling: These produce a moderate reduction in air temperature and increase humidity.
They operate by passing hot air over water-saturated pads and the water evaporation effect reduces the
dry–bulb temperature.

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Thermal insulation: There are many different types of thermal insulation materials such as loose fills,
foams, rock wool and boards. The material acts as a barrier that retards heat flow in the summer and heat
loss in the winter. It is only effective where there is a temperature difference between the inside and the
outside of the building or between two areas inside a building.

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Workstations should be arranged so that each
Cleanliness & Waste task can be carried out safely and comfortably.
Materials Workers should be at a suitable height in relation
to the work surface. Work materials and frequently
The standard of cleanliness required will depend used equipment or controls should be within easy
on the use to which the workplace is put. reach, without undue bending or stretching.
Workstations including seating, and access to
Floors and indoor traffic routes should be workstations, should be suitable for any special
cleaned at least once a week. In factories and needs of the individual worker, including workers
other workplaces of a type where dirt and refuse with disabilities.
accumulate, any dirt and refuse which is not in
suitable receptacles should be removed at least Illustration 1: Minimum Adjustable Range of
daily. These tasks should be carried out more Seating
frequently where necessary to maintain a
reasonable standard of cleanliness or to keep
workplaces free of pests and decaying matter.

Interior walls, ceilings and work surfaces should

be cleaned at suitable intervals. Except in parts
which are normally visited only for short periods,
or where any soiling is likely to be light, ceilings
and interior walls should be painted, tiled or
otherwise treated so that they can be kept clean,
and the surface treatment should be renewed
when it can no longer be cleaned properly.

Room Dimensions and Space

The seat needs to be adjustable. Seating should
Workrooms should have enough free space to
be suitable for the people using them and for the
allow people to get to and from workstations and
work. People should be able to leave workstations
to move within the room, with ease. The number
swiftly in an emergency. If work can or must be
of people who may work in any room at any one
done sitting, seats which are suitable for the NEBOSH
ID3 - Workplace
time will depend not only on the size of the room,
people using them and for the work done there
but on the space taken up by furniture, fittings,
should be provided. Seating should give adequate
equipment, and on the layout of the room.
support for the lower back, and footrests should be
provided for workers who cannot place their feet
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flat on the floor.

Workstations and Seating
Every workstation should be arranged so that it is
suitable both for any person at work and for any
Seat
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work done. Every outdoor workstation should be

The seat needs to be adjustable in height so that
arranged that it provides protection from adverse
it meets the needs of a range of users. The size
weather, it enables any person at the workstation
of the seat needs to be wide enough to seat big
to leave it swiftly or, as appropriate, to be
people comfortably and deep enough to support
assisted in the event of an emergency, and it
the legs of tall people, but not so deep that
ensures that any person at the workstation is not
shorter workers cannot use the backrest.
likely to slip or fall.
The surface of the seat should not be hollowed
or deeply shaped, as this makes it harder to get
up or change position.

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The front edge of the seat needs to be rounded-

over and well-padded to prevent it digging into
Footrests
the thighs.
Any worker who cannot easily place their feet

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flat on the ground, when using the seat adjusted
to the correct working height, needs a footrest.
Backrest This should be large enough to allow for foot
movement.
The backrest needs to give firm support to the
lower and the middle part of the back. Adjustable footrests of a selection of heights are
preferred. Freestanding footrests should not be
Height adjustment is recommended unless the so light that they move accidentally.
backrest is high and provides complete support
for the back. There should be adequate space
for the buttocks; this is usually achieved by
leaving a gap between the seat and the
backrest. Backrests which tilt with the worker, or
whose angle can be adjusted, can improve
comfort by providing support for the back in a
range of working positions.

Armrests
For most jobs armrests are not essential.

They can restrict arm movement, although for

many jobs they can provide comfort.

They should be set back from the front edge of

the seat or be adjustable to allow the chair to be
drawn up close to the work surface. The height
of armrests should not be too low or too high to
cause discomfort.

Adjustability
Mobility The commonest adjustments included in
seating design are seat height, backrest height
Swivel-action chairs provide flexibility when the and tilt. In some chairs the seat and backrest
worker needs to conduct a variety of tasks and can tilt forward together; this feature can reduce
move from one location to another. neck discomfort and improve the worker’s reach
over the work surface. Some backrests can be
Ensure that chairs with castors do not slide adjusted backwards and forwards to change the
away too easily when the user gets up or sits depth of the seat to meet individual needs.
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ID3 - Workplace
down. This is a common problem when they are
used on hard floors, or with chairs that have a Armrests can be designed to be adjustable to
high or tilting seat. Different types of castors are aid work that requires a steady arm position,
available for different floor types, such as hard and to provide for a better match between the
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floors and carpeted floors. In certain situations, needs of the user, their workstation, and the
glides are safer to use than castors. task (see Illustration 1). Adjustment controls
should be easy and convenient to use from a
Ensure that the correct ones are chosen to sitting position, especially where the workspace
meet workplace needs. Some seating is is confined. Controls must be sturdy and
designed so that a brake is applied when the reliable.
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chair is sat on, or when the user gets up.

For example, when adjustments are made, they
must be able to withstand the worker’s weight to
prevent a slip or failure which may lead to an
injury. Mechanisms need to be designed to
prevent workers from trapping their fingers
when adjusting the seating.

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Falls or Falling Objects

Every tank, pit, or structure where there is a risk of a person in the workplace falling into a dangerous

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substance should be securely covered or fenced. In addition, every traffic route over, across or in an
uncovered tank, pit or structure should be securely fenced.

Dangerous substances may include:

x Any substance likely to scald or burn
x Any poisonous substance
x Any corrosive substance
x Any fume, gas, or vapour likely to overcome a person; or
x Any granular or free-flowing solid substance or any viscous substance which, in any case, is of
a nature or quantity which is likely to cause danger to any person

Every vessel containing a dangerous substance should also be adequately protected to prevent a person
from falling into it.

Windows, Skylights and Ventilators

Openable windows, skylights and ventilators should be capable of being opened, closed, or adjusted
safely and, when open, should not be dangerous. Windows and skylights should be designed so that
they may be cleaned safely. When considering if they can be cleaned safely, account may be taken of
equipment used in conjunction with the window or skylight or of devices fitted to the building.

Ability to Clean Windows and Skylights Safely

Suitable provision should be made so that windows and skylights can be cleaned safely if they cannot be
cleaned from the ground or other suitable surface.

Suitable provision includes:

x Fitting windows which can be cleaned safely from the inside, for example windows which pivot
so that the outer surface is turned inwards
x Fitting access equipment such as suspended cradles or travelling ladders with an attachment
for a safety harness
x Providing suitable conditions for the future use of mobile access equipment, including ladders
up to 9 metres long. Suitable conditions are adequate access for the equipment, and a firm level
surface in a safe place on which to stand it. Where a ladder over 6 metres long will be needed,
suitable points for tying or fixing the ladder should be provided

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Provision of Safe Means of Access and Egress
All passageways and corridors between working areas, and those leading on to the outside of buildings,
must be kept clean, free of obstructions and well maintained. Designs need to take into consideration
special groups such as children, the disabled, and the elderly.

Doors are often a problem. People rarely think about whether there might be any hazards on the other
side and many accidents are caused by people colliding with other people, plant and equipment, or
vehicles, when coming out of a door. There are a number of measures to ensure safety around doors,
including:
x One-way systems through double doors, as used in busy areas such as restaurant kitchens,
schools and hospitals
x Automatic doors which can be easily pushed open when carrying or pushing loads
x Hazard signals and warning lights on the doors and in surrounding areas
x Insertion of window viewing panels. Positioning of the panels is also important, as small
children may not be seen if the viewing panel is set too high

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Doors and Gates

Doors and gates should be suitably constructed and fitted with safety devices if necessary.

Doors and gates which swing both ways and conventionally hinged doors on main traffic routes should
have a transparent viewing panel.
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Power operated doors and gates should have safety features to prevent people being struck or trapped
and, where necessary, should have a readily identifiable and accessible control switch or device so that
they can be stopped quickly in an emergency. Upward opening doors or gates need to be fitted with an
effective device to prevent them falling back. Provided that they are properly maintained,
counterbalance springs and similar counterbalance or ratchet devices to hold them in the open position
are acceptable.

Escalators and Moving Walkways

Escalators and moving walkways should function safely, be equipped with any necessary safety
devices, and be fitted with one or more emergency stop controls which are easily identifiable and readily
accessible.

Safety Signs
In determining where to use safety signs, employers need to take into
account the results of the risk assessment.

This assessment deals with hazard identification, the risks associated

with those hazards, and the control measures to be taken. When the
control measures identified in the assessment have been taken there
may be a ‘residual’ risk such that employees need to be warned and
informed of any further measures necessary. Safety signs are not a
substitute for other means of controlling risks to employees; safety signs
are to warn of any remaining significant risk or to instruct employees of
the measures they must take in relation to these risks.

For example, in some workplaces:

x Risk of flammable materials catching fire may exist. In addition to the other necessary
precautions, provision of the ‘no smoking’ prohibition sign may be needed
x There may be a risk of foot injury despite taking measures to control the risk. In this case, it
may be appropriate to remind staff with the sign indicating that wearing foot protection is
mandatory
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Employees should be provided with comprehensible and relevant information, instruction and training
on safety signs and signals. Safety signs do not need to be used where there are no significant risks to
health and safety. However, in some countries certain fire safety signs may be specified under quite
separate legal provisions. Safety signs need to contain a pictogram to convey the message instead of
relying solely on text.

Prohibition Signs
These have a white background with a red circular band and crossbar, including:
x No smoking
x Smoking or naked flames prohibited
x Do not extinguish with water
x Not drinking water
x Pedestrians prohibited

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Warning Signs
These have black triangular bands, yellow background with symbol or text in black and a general
warning.

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Signs may include:
x Caution, risk of fire
x Caution, risk of explosion
x Caution, toxic hazard
x Caution, corrosive substances
x Caution, risk of ionising radiation
x Caution, overhead load
x Caution, industrial trucks
x Caution, risks of electric shock
x Caution, laser beam

Mandatory Signs
These have a blue circle with symbol or text in white. For example:
x Eye protection must be worn
x Head protection must be worn
x Hearing protection must be worn
x Respiratory protection must be worn
x Hand protection must be worn

Emergency Escape or First-Aid Signs

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These are rectangular or square shape with a white pictogram on a green background.

Fire - Fighting Signs

These are rectangular or square shape with a white pictogram on a red background.

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ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Any supplementary signs must be rectangular or square. Usually, they are white with black text but can
be the same colour as the background of the associated sign with text in the symbol colour. Alternative
colours of black with fluorescent orange, red or yellow can be used to indicate a place of danger.

In addition, pipework containing dangerous substances should be marked, especially at sample or

discharge points. Small stores of dangerous substances also need to be marked in a similar way. The
symbols used to label pipework and stores tend to be the same as those used on containers of
dangerous substances, using triangular shaped warning signs. Signs and signals not only relate to
signboards, but also other methods of communicating health and safety information.

These include illuminated signs, spoken communication, hand and acoustic signals.

Illuminated Signs
The sign should be bright enough to be seen, without causing glare. Care is needed to ensure that a
number of illuminated signs are not used together if this could give rise to confusion.

If an illuminated sign can either be on continuously or operate intermittently (i.e., flash on and off), use
the flashing sign to indicate a higher level of danger or a more urgent need for intervention or action.

The duration and frequency of flashes for an intermittent illuminated sign need to be such as to ensure
the message is properly understood, and avoid any confusion with other illuminated signs, including
continuous illuminated signs.

If a flashing sign is used instead of, or together with, an acoustic signal, it is important to synchronise the
two. This means that the duration and frequency of flashes need to be in line with both the pulse length
and interval for an acoustic signal. The choice of equipment and the way it operates will, of course, need
to take account of other risks.

For example, with fast flicker rates epilepsy could be triggered in some people. Where flashing signs are
used to warn of imminent danger, it is particularly important to ensure that measures are in place to
either detect failure of the sign quickly or to prevent its failure (e.g., by fitting duplicate bulbs, etc.).
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Use, Location, and Compliance Issues

Safety signs and signals are not a substitute for other controls. They are for situations where, having
conducted a risk assessment and applied all appropriate techniques for collective protection and higher-
level controls, the employer cannot reduce risks other than by the provision of signs to provide warnings
or instruction.

Signs should be installed at a suitable height and position appropriate to the line of sight, taking into
account obstacles. They will be located either at the access point to an area with a general hazard or in
immediate proximity to a specific hazard.

The location of signs will depend on the hazards in the workplace and the existence of residual risks
The following indicate specific locations that should be considered:
x Important locations
x Containers and visible pipes used for dangerous substances must be marked with a suitable
warning sign/label

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x Places where there is a risk of colliding with obstacles or of falling must be permanently marked
with a safety colour or with signs
x Traffic routes must be permanently marked with a safety colour

Signs or a safety colour must be used to permanently mark the location and identification of firefighting

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equipment. Care should be taken to ensure that too many signs are not located together as this can lead
to confusion or difficulty in observing the intended information or instruction.

If illuminated signs are used, they should not be placed where other light sources would prevent them
being properly visible.

Compliance issues
Permanent signboards must be used for signs relating to prohibitions, warnings and mandatory
requirements and the location and identification of emergency escape routes and first-aid facilities
The pictograms used can differ slightly but must still convey the same intent.

In the UK, where there is a risk related to the movement of traffic, including pedestrians, in a workplace
the appropriate sign normally used to comply with the Road Traffic Regulation Act (RTRA) 1984 must
be used, even if the RTRA 1984 does not apply to the workplace

Lighting
Lighting in the Workplace
The work environment can impact on a person's performance in several different ways from effects that
damage health (heat stress, musculoskeletal disorders); effects that reduce the individual's ability to
perform a task (poor lighting, distraction); to effects that cause dissatisfaction, resistance to change and
uncooperative attitudes ("if management think so little of us why should we …").

At its simplest, different levels of lighting are required for different types of work – close, accurate work
such as soldering a control panel will require higher light levels than walking down a corridor. However,
when considering lighting, a number of different factors need to be considered such as colour, contrast,
glare and so on

Giving workers in open plan offices local control of lighting can increase job satisfaction (and decrease
the experience of stress). Sudden contrasts in light levels e.g., coming out of a well-lit area into a dark
area or vice versa can be a problem because it takes the eye several seconds to adapt to new lighting
conditions. Changes in lighting levels should be made gradually where possible.

The Impact of Lighting Levels on Safety

The employer has a duty of care to provide suitable and sufficient lighting in the workplace. Lighting ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
from natural and/or artificial sources needs to be provided for employees to ensure working conditions
that are appropriate to the nature of the work, the location of the work and the times at which the work is
performed.

People see differently at different light levels. Some common issues related to lighting levels include:

Veiling Reflections
Veiling reflections are high-luminance reflections that overlay the detail of the task. Such reflections
may be sharp-edged or vague in outline, but regardless of form they may affect task performance and
cause discomfort. Task performance will be affected because veiling reflections usually reduce the
contrast of a task, making task details difficult to see, and may give rise to discomfort, e.g., reflections
on a DSE screen.

Incorrect Perception
Deterioration of visual acuity. For example, visual fatigue, glare, falls resulting from level changes
which are not apparent.

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Failure to Perceive
Increased likelihood of accidents caused by incorrect perception. For example, slips, trips and falls,
vehicle collision, etc.
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Stroboscopic Effect
One aspect of lighting quality that formerly gave trouble was the stroboscopic effect of fluorescent tubes
that gave the illusion of motion or even the illusion that a rotating part of machinery was stationary. With
modern designs of fluorescent tubes, this effect has largely been eliminated.

Colour Rendition
Colour rendition refers to the appearance of an object under a specific light source, compared to its
colour under a reference illuminant, e.g., natural light. Good standards of colour rendition allow the colour
appearance of an object to be properly perceived. Generally, the colour rendering properties of
luminaires should not clash with those of natural light and should be just as effective at night when there
is no daylight contribution to the total illumination of the working area.

The Impact of Lighting Levels on Health

Visual Fatigue
Visual fatigue adversely affects focusing resulting in blurred vision and a feeling of discomfort which
could lead to reduction in productivity and the ability of the person to concentrate. It is caused by
spending extended hours in close-range activities such as computer work, e-books, and even hand-held
gaming.

Visual fatigues can be controlled by improving the working environment:

x Reduce screen glare, but only use anti-glare screen filters as a last resort (as these will reduce
contrast and hinder reading)
x Ensure the field of vision doesn’t include a window or any source of direct light, to minimise
glare
x Use blinds or curtains to prevent screen glare
x Ceiling lights should have shades or grids to deflect the light
x Take regular breaks and switch between different tasks to prevent eye strain
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Radiation
All light sources radiate energy at shorter wavelengths in the ultra-violet as well as at longer wavelengths
in the infrared parts of the spectrum. This radiation can promote physiological effects that are either a
benefit or a hazard.

Lasers
The narrow beam of light produced by lasers can focus on the retina to cause severe burns. Since some
lasers operate at non-visible frequencies, the eye may not have the natural protection of the blink
response.

Flicker
Light modulation at lower frequencies (about 50 Hz or less) which is visible to most people, is called
flicker. Flicker is a source of both discomfort and distraction and may even cause epileptic seizures in
some people. Sensitivity to flicker varies widely between individuals.

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The perceptibility of flicker is influenced by the frequency and amplitude of the modulation and the area
of vision over which it occurs. The eye is most sensitive to flicker at the edge of the field of view thus
visibly flickering overhead lights can be a source of great discomfort.

Poor lighting can not only affect the health of people at work causing symptoms like eyestrain, migraine

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and headaches, but it is also linked to Sick Building Syndrome in new and refurbished buildings.
Symptoms of this include headaches, lethargy, irritability, and poor concentration.

Different areas in a workplace will need different levels of lighting because activities which are
performed in these areas, objects, materials, equipment and people present, surfaces and its
reflectance might be different.
Managing Health and Safety Risks from Lighting
Managing health and safety risks from lighting in the workplace include:

x Planning – employers should assess the lighting requirements and set targets for improving
the lighting levels as per the assessed requirements.
x Organising – workers should be allocated with their responsibilities such as reporting problems
in lighting levels and employer need to make available competent person to deal with such
issues.
x Control- Employer need to ensure that lighting levels remain efficient by implementing proper
inspection and maintenance.
x Monitoring – Employers need to ensure that lighting levels (Lux levels) are regularly monitored
using appropriate equipment and adjustments are made if needed. UK HSE’s document HSG
38- lighting at work gives some practical guidance regarding illuminance requirements for
different workplaces.

Assessing Lighting in the Workplace

The factors to consider:

Tasks to be done - The amount of light a worker needs depends on the tasks to be done. For example:
detailed work such as making diamond polishing, requires lighter than less visually demanding tasks
such as general office work.

People Affected - older people to be considered - Lighting should be suitable and sufficient to allow all
employees to comfortably see what they’re doing, without straining their eyes.

Consideration for special lighting arrangement needs to be given to older workers and workers with
visual limitations.

Size of Workplace - Consider the size and shape of the work area and how it is used and ensure that
the right level of lighting is installed. Lighting design needs to consider casting of shadows. Shadows
can make work difficult and dangerous as potential hazards may be hidden behind shadows. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Illuminance Ratios - The relationship between the lighting of the work area and adjacent areas is
significant. Large differences in illuminance between these areas may cause visual discomfort or even
affect safety levels where there is frequent movement, e.g., fork-lift trucks. This problem arises most
often where local or localized lighting in an interior exposes a person to a range of illuminance for a long
period, or where there is movement between interior and exterior working areas exposing a person to a
sudden change of illuminance.

Maintenance of Light Fitments - The lighting output of a given lamp will reduce gradually in the course
of its life but regular cleaning and maintenance, not only of the lamp itself but also of the reflectors,
diffusers and other parts of the luminaire, can obtain an improvement. A sensible and economic lamp
replacement policy is called for, e.g., it may be more economical, in labour cost terms to change a batch
of lamps than deal with them singly as they wear out.

Distribution - Distribution is concerned with the way light is spread. The actual spacing of luminaires is
also important when considering good lighting distribution. To ensure evenness of illuminance at
operating positions, the ratio between the height of the luminaire and the spacing of it must be
considered. The IES spacing height ratio provides a basic guide to such arrangements.

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Brightness - Brightness or ‘luminosity’ is very much a subjective sensation and, therefore, cannot be
measured. However, it is possible to consider a brightness ratio, which is the ratio of apparent
luminosity between a task object and its surroundings. To ensure the correct brightness ratio, the
reflectance (i.e., the ability of a surface to reflect light) of all surfaces in the working area should be well
maintained and consideration given to reflectance values in the design of interiors.

Diffusion - This is the projection of light in all directions with no predominant direction. The directional
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flow of light can often determine the density of shadows, which may prejudice safety standards or
reduce lighting efficiency. Diffused lighting will reduce the amount of glare experienced from bare
luminaires.
Emergency Lighting - There must be adequate lighting in the workplace during an emergency or
power failure.

Emergency lighting provides visual conditions which make safe and timely evacuation possible.
Safeguards for emergency management are vital in areas to which either the public or workers have
access. The lighting could be between 5 & 100% of the illuminance produced by ambient lighting. The
lights may be powered by either batteries or generator, and the lighting should reach illuminance within
15 seconds.

Why Different Work Areas Require Different Light Conditions

There is no ‘one size fits all’ when it comes to illuminance and lighting levels. According to the HSE UK
(HSG38 Lighting at Work), different activities require different levels of light. In general, the more
detailed the task, the greater the light requirement. A process control room should be lit at an
illuminance of 300 lux, a corridor or walkway may only require 50 lux, whilst studying an engineering
drawing may require 750 lux.

Different areas in a workplace will need different levels of lighting. Work in an indoor environment will
need artificial lighting compared to that in an outdoor environment where there is enough natural
lighting.

In addition, a workplace with flammable atmosphere will need different lighting requirements such as
intrinsically safe lights in comparison with that of a normal work environment.

It is the duty of the employer to assess and arrange for appropriate lighting to be provided to ensure a
safe working environment.
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 NEBOSH International Diploma ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
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10.2 Work in Confined Spaces

The Meaning of Confined Spaces
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Confined Spaces are places which are substantially (though not always entirely) enclosed and,
secondly, there will be a reasonably foreseeable specified risk leading to serious injury from hazardous
substances or conditions within the space or nearby. Some confined spaces are easy to identify, such
as closed tanks, vessels, and sewers. Others are less obvious such as open-topped tanks and vats,
closed and unventilated or inadequately ventilated rooms and silos. A confined space may also include
ducts, culverts, tunnels, bore-holes, bored piles, manholes, shafts, excavations, sumps, inspection pits,
cofferdams, freight containers, ship cargo holds / tanks, and are not designed for continuous
occupancy.

A specified risk means one or more of the following:

x Serious injury due to a fire or explosion
x Loss of consciousness due to increased body temperature
x Loss of consciousness or asphyxiation due to gas, fume, vapour or the lack of oxygen
x Drowning due to an increase in the level of liquid; or
x Asphyxiation in a free flowing solid or the inability to reach a respirable environment due
to entrapment by a free flowing solid

Every entry into a confined space is potentially hazardous. Accidents in confined spaces are a major
source of deaths at work, killing many people each year in a wide range of industries. Employers have a
duty to prevent employees, or others who are to any extent within the employer’s control, such as
contractors, from entering or working inside a confined space, where it is possible, to undertake the
work without entering the space.

In every situation, the employer or the self-employed must consider what measures can be taken to
enable the work to be carried out without the need to enter the confined space.

The measures might involve modifying the confined space itself to avoid the need for entry, or to enable
the work to be undertaken from outside the space. In many cases, it will involve modifying working
practices.

Where it is not reasonable to avoid entering a confined space to undertake work, the employer or self-
employed person is responsible for ensuring that a safe system of work is used. In the UK, there have
been several court cases involving accidents and fatalities in sewers and other confined spaces. In
1998 at Cardiff Crown Court, a record fine was imposed on Neath Port Talbot Council following the
deaths of two employees. The judge, John Prosser, said that the accident should never have happened;
the dangers of toxic gases associated with sewer work were well known. The case demonstrated the
need for employers to carry out, with strict care, the undertaking of such work and that the difficulty and
danger must not be underestimated.
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At Carsington Reservoir four men, all aged between 20 and 30 and physically fit, died in an open-
topped inspection shaft. Naturally evolved carbon dioxide had displaced the oxygen.

No tests were made before entry. The first man down collapsed, and the three other men climbed down
to their deaths in futile attempts to affect a rescue.

Some confined spaces are easy to identify, and some may become a confined space only occasionally,
perhaps due to the type of work to be undertaken, such as a room during paint spraying.

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Examples of Where Confined Space Entry May Occur

in The Workplace

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Chamber Caisson, cofferdam, or interception chamber for water.
Tank Storage tanks for solid or liquid chemicals.
Vat Process vessel which may be open, but by its depth confines a person.

Silo May be an above the ground structure for storing cereal, crops.
Pit Below ground, such as a chamber for a pump.
Pipe Concrete, plastic steel etc., fabrication used to carry liquids or gases.

Sewer Brick or concrete structure for the carrying of liquid waste.

Flue Exhaust chimney for disposal of waste gases.
Well Deep source of water.
Trunking Trunking ducts used to extract fumes, for example, industrial kitchen where
ducts LEV systems remove grease laden vapour that require the trunking to be
cleaned.

Watercourses A brook, stream or artificially created water channel, especially where running
underground.
Trenches Deep excavations where gases may pool, or subterranean watercourses may
be opened up.

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Factors to be Considered when Assessing Risk

Where Do Confined Spaces Occur?

Some confined spaces are easy to identify, such as closed tanks, vessels and sewers. Others are less
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

obvious such as open-topped tanks and vats, closed and unventilated or inadequately ventilated rooms
and silos. A ‘confined space’ may also include ducts, culverts, tunnels, bore-holes, bored piles,
manholes, shafts, excavations, sumps, inspections pits, cofferdams, freight containers, ship cargo
holds/tanks.

Avoid entry
No person at work shall enter a confined space to carry out work for any purpose unless it is not
reasonably practicable to achieve that purpose without such entry

Emergency Arrangements
No person at work should enter or carry out work in a confined space unless there are suitable and
sufficient arrangements, specific to the confined space, for the rescue of persons in the event of an
emergency, whether or not arising out of a specified risk.

It is important that the risk assessment take account of:

x The need for safe access
x Provision and maintenance of safe atmospheres
x The task, materials, and equipment
x The persons at risk
x Reliability of safeguards
x Emergency arrangements

Safe Access to And Egress from Confined Spaces

Openings need to be sufficiently large and free from obstruction to allow the passage of persons
wearing the necessary protective clothing and equipment and to allow access for rescue purposes
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Toxic Gas, Fume or Vapour

Fume may remain from previous processing or as a result of previous storage, or arise from sludge or
other deposits disturbed, for example during cleaning. Hydrocarbon vapour may also be present under
scale even after cleaning. Fume may also enter the space from adjoining plant that has not been

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effectively isolated. Gas and fume can build up in sewers, manholes, contaminated ground, or leak from
behind vessel linings, rubber, lead, brick, etc. Fume and vapour can also be produced by work inside
the confined space, for example, welding, flame cutting, lead lining, brush and spray painting, or
moulding using glass reinforced plastics, use of adhesives or solvents, or from the products of
combustion. They can also occur inside a compartment or space by hot work taking place on the
exterior surfaces or enter the space from equipment in use outside the space, such as exhaust fume
from mobile plant, especially on construction sites. Plant failure can also cause problems: for example,
by the build-up of ammonia if refrigeration plant fails or the potential for accumulation of carbon dioxide
in pub cellars following leaks from compressed gas cylinders.

Oxygen Deficiency
Normal air that we breathe contains about 21% oxygen. A fall to 17% brings on the start of ill effects
including loss of co-ordination, concentration, and abnormal fatigue. A fall to 10% brings on breathing
difficulties, unconsciousness and death. Oxygen deficiency may result from, for example:
x Purging of the confined space with an inert gas to remove flammable or toxic gas, fume,
vapour or aerosols; naturally occurring biological processes consuming oxygen, which can
occur in sewers, storage tanks, storm water drains, wells, etc. Similarly, gases can be
produced as a result of fermentation in sealed silos where crops have been or are being
stored; in fermentation vessels in brewing; or in cargo holds caused by the carriage of timber
or timber products, steel turnings or swarf, vegetable products, grain, coal, etc.; leaving a
vessel completely closed for some time (particularly one constructed of steel) since the
process of rust formation on the inside surface consumes oxygen. Newly fabricated or shot
blasted carbon steel vessels are especially vulnerable to rusting, particularly those with a large
surface area, for example, heat exchangers, separators, filters, etc.; the risk of increased
levels of carbon dioxide from limestone chippings associated with drainage operations when
they get wet
x Burning operations and work such as welding and grinding which consume oxygen
x Displacement of air during pipe freezing, for example, with liquid nitrogen
x A gradual depletion of oxygen as workers breathe in confined spaces and where provision of
replacement air is inadequate

The Ingress or Presence of Liquids

Liquids can flow into the confined space and lead to drowning and other serious injury depending on the
nature of the liquids such as their corrosivity or toxicity.
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Solid Materials Which Can Flow
Free flowing solids can submerge a person, preventing breathing. Materials which create this hazard
include grain, sugar, flour, sand, coal dust and other substances in granular or powder form.

Presence of Excessive Heat

This can lead to a dangerous rise in core body temperature and can be made worse as a result of
personal protective equipment being worn. In extreme cases heat stroke and unconsciousness can
result. A slower heat build-up in the body can cause heat stress, and if action is not taken to cool the
body there is also a risk of heat stroke and unconsciousness.

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Persons at Risk
It is important to consider the effects on the risk of the individuals involved, and this may involve their:
‡ Medical condition, for example, physical fitness and need for medication
‡ Physical attributes, for example, size, strength and agility
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‡ Mental attributes, including capacity to work to formal instructions, temperament and capability
to work in a confined space (claustrophobia)
‡ Understanding of the risk and controls

Design of Safe Work Practices

Development of a Safe System of Work
The priority when carrying out a confined space risk assessment is to identify the measures needed so
that entry into the confined space can be avoided. If it is not possible to prevent work in a confined
space the employer (or the self-employed) must assess the risks connected with persons entering or
working in the space and also to others who could be affected by the work. The assessor(s) must
understand the risks involved, be experienced and familiar with the relevant processes, plant and
equipment and be competent to devise a safe system of working.

If, in the light of the risks identified, it cannot be considered possible to carry out the work without
entering the confined space, then it will be necessary to secure a safe system for working. The
precautions required to create a safe system of work will depend on the nature of the confined space
and the hazards identified during the risk assessment.
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 29

Use of a Permit-To-Work Procedure

Not all work involving confined spaces requires the use of a permit-to-work system. For example, it is
unlikely that a system would be needed where:

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x The assessed risks are low and can be controlled easily
x The system of work is very simple
x It is known that other work activities being carried out cannot affect safe working in the confined
space

Although there is no set format for a permit system, it is often appropriate to include certain information
relevant to all confined space working. In all cases, it is essential that a system be developed which
ensures that:
x The people working in the confined space are aware of the hazards involved and the identity,
nature and extent of the work to be carried out
x There is a formal and methodological system of checks undertaken by competent people before
the confined space is entered and which confirms that a safe system of work is in place
x Other people and their activities are not affected by the work or conditions in the confined
space. Isolation requirements, that is the need to isolate the confined space to prevent dangers
arising from outside, should also be included in the permit system. Permits are particularly
appropriate if essential supplies and emergency services, such as sprinkler systems,
communications, etc., are to be disconnected. The most effective isolation technique is to
disconnect the confined space completely by removing a section of pipe or duct and fitting
blanks. Other methods include the use of blinds and lockable valves

Respiratory Protective Equipment

Where Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE) is provided or used in connection with confined space
entry or for emergency or rescue, it should be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended, that is,
correctly selected and matched both to the job and the wearer.

Where the intention is to provide emergency breathing apparatus to ensure safe egress or escape, or for
self-rescue in case of emergency, the type commonly called an ‘escape breathing apparatus’, or ‘self-
rescuer’ (escape set) may be suitable. These types are intended to allow time for the user to exit the
hazard area.

They are generally carried by the user or stationed inside the confined space but are not used until
needed.

In some circumstances entry without the continuous wearing of breathing apparatus may be possible.
Several conditions must be satisfied to allow such work including:

ͻ A risk assessment must be done and a safe system of work in place including all required
controls, and continuous ventilation ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
ͻ Any airborne contamination must be of a generally non-toxic nature, or present in very low
concentrations well below the relevant occupational exposure limits.

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Planning an Entry into Confined Spaces

Competence for Confined Space Working
The competent person carrying out the risk assessment for work in confined spaces will need to
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consider the suitability of individuals in view of the particular work to be done. Examples:
ͻ Suitable build of individuals for exceptional constraints in the physical layout of the space (this
may be necessary to protect both the individual and others who could be affected by the work
to be done)
ͻ Medical fitness concerning claustrophobia or the wearing of breathing apparatus

Procedures and Written Instructions

To be effective, a safe system of work needs to be in writing, in the form of written instructions, setting
out the work to be done and the precautions to be taken. Each procedure should contain all appropriate
precautions to be taken and in the correct sequence. In particular, procedures for confined space
working should include instructions and guidance for:

First-aid: the availability of appropriate first-aid equipment for emergencies until professional medical
help arrives.
First-aiders: the strategic positioning of trained personnel to deal with foreseeable injuries.
Limiting working time: for example, when respiratory protective equipment is used, or when the
work is to be carried out under extreme conditions of temperature and humidity.
Communications: arrangements to enable efficient communication between those working inside the
confined space and others to summon help in case of emergency.
Engine driven equipment: rules regarding the siting of such equipment, which should be well away
from the working area, and downwind of any ventilator intakes.
Water surges: especially the anticipation that sewers can be affected over long distances by water
surges, for example following sudden heavy rainfall upstream of where the work is being carried out.
Toxic gas, fume or vapours: procedures to ensure that work can be undertaken safely to include
the availability of additional facilities and arrangements where residues may be trapped in sludge, scale
or other deposits, brickwork, or behind loose linings, in liquid traps, joints in vessels, in pipe bends, or in
other places where removal is difficult.
Testing / monitoring the atmosphere: procedures for the regular testing for hazardous gas, fume
or vapour or to check the concentration of oxygen before entry or re-entry into the confined space.
Gas purging: the availability of suitable equipment to purge the gas or vapour from the confined
space.
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Ventilation requirements: the provision of suitable ventilation equipment to replace oxygen levels
in the space, and to dilute and remove gas, fume or vapour produced by the work.
Lighting: to ensure that the confined space is well lit. Lighting equipment, including emergency
lighting, must be suitable for use in flammable or potentially explosive atmospheres.

Generally, all lighting to be used in confined spaces should be protected against knocks, for example,
by a wire cage and be waterproof. Where water is present in the space, suitable plug / socket
connectors capable of withstanding wet or damp conditions should be used and protected by residual
current devices (RCDs) suitable for protection against electric shock. The position of lighting may also
be important, for example to give ample clearance for work or rescue to be carried out unobstructed.

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Fire Prevention and Protection Procedures

The presence of flammable substances and oxygen enrichment in a confined space creates a serious
hazard to workers inside the space. There is also a risk of explosion from the ignition of airborne
flammable contaminants. In addition, a fire or explosion can be caused by leaks from adjoining plant or

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processes and the use of unsuitable equipment.

There are many fire precautions necessary for safe working in confined spaces. Some of the more
important of these are outlined below:
Fire prevention measures - procedures to ensure that no flammable or combustible materials are
stored in confined spaces that have not been specifically created or allocated for that purpose. In any
event, the quantity of the material should be kept to a minimum and stored in suitable fire-resistant
containers.
Fire protection and fire-fighting equipment - procedures to ensure the availability of appropriate fire-
fighting equipment where the risk of fire has been identified. In some situations, a sprinkler system may
be appropriate.
Smoking - procedures to ensure the prohibition of all smoking within and around all confined spaces.
Static electricity - procedures to ensure that the build-up of static in a confined space is minimised. It
may be necessary to obtain specialist advice regarding insulating characteristics (for example, most
plastics), steam or water jetting equipment and clothing containing cotton or wool, flowing liquids or
solids, such as sand.

Supervision and Training

It is likely that the risk assessment will identify a level of risk requiring the appointment of a competent
person to supervise the work and ensure that the precautions are adhered to.

Competence for safe working in confined spaces requires adequate training – in addition, experience in
the particular work involved is essential. Training standards must be appropriate to the task, and to the
individuals’ roles and responsibilities as indicated during the risk assessment.

Access and Egress

A safe way in and out of the confined space should be provided and, wherever possible, allow quick,
unobstructed, and ready access. The means of escape must be suitable for use by the individual who
enters the confined space so that they can quickly escape in an emergency. Suitable means to prevent
access should also be in place when there is no need for anybody to work in the confined space.

To satisfy the safe system requirements it is necessary to plan the work thoroughly and to organise
various facilities and arrangements. For a large, confined space and multiple entries, a logging or tally
system may be necessary in order to check everyone in and out and to control duration of entry. A safety ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
sign that is clear and conspicuous to prohibit unauthorised entry alongside openings that allow for safe
access should be displayed.

Cleaning
There are a variety of methods of cleaning the inside of confined spaces to remove hazardous solids,
liquids, or gases:
x Cold water washing
x Hot water washing
x Steaming
x Solvents or neutralising agents

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Purging and Ventilation

Air purging and ventilation may be carried out by removing covers, opening inspection doors, etc. and
allowing ordinary air circulation, or by the introduction of compressed air via an air line. Higher rates of
air exchange can be achieved using air movers, induction fans or extractor fans. It is especially
important that when an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen) has been used to purge or render inert a flammable
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atmosphere, the inert gas itself is properly purged with air.

Atmosphere Testing and Monitoring

Before entry is made into a confined space, tests must be carried out to establish the levels of oxygen,
toxic gas or flammable gas in the atmosphere. Suitably trained and qualified personnel may use simple,
reliable instruments to measure oxygen and flammable gas levels. A satisfactory oxygen content must
not in itself be relied upon to indicate safety since flammable, explosive or toxic gas may exist alongside
oxygen and need only be present in minute quantities to create a serious hazard. The tests should take
account of what the space is known to have contained, including any inert gas used to purge a
flammable atmosphere that may itself produce toxic hazards or the risk of asphyxiation.

Methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide can all evolve naturally due to the decomposition of
organic matter or, in some cases, by the effect of rainwater percolating through certain types of ground.
The initial monitoring and testing must establish that the confined space is safe to enter. To ensure the
safety of those that enter the space continual monitoring may be required, it may also be necessary to
issue individual monitors to those that enter the confined space to give instant warning of low oxygen, or
toxic or flammable gas hazards.

Emergency Arrangements and Procedures

The arrangements for the rescue of persons in the event of an emergency must be suitable and, where
appropriate, include rescue and resuscitation equipment. The arrangements should be in place before
any person enters or works in a confined space.

The arrangements should cover any situation requiring the recovery of a person from a confined space,
for example incapacitation following a fall.

Openings for Rescue Purposes

Experience has shown that the minimum size of an opening to allow access with full rescue facilities
including self-contained breathing apparatus is 575 mm diameter. This size should normally be used for
new plant, although the openings for some confined spaces may need to be larger depending on the
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circumstances, for example to take account of a fully equipped employee, or the nature of the opening.

Public Emergency Services

In some circumstances, for example where there are prolonged operations in confined spaces and the
risks justify it, there may be advantage in prior notification to the local emergency services before the
work is undertaken. In all cases, however, arrangements must be in place for the rapid notification of
the emergency services should an accident occur. On arrival, the emergency services should be given
all known information about the conditions and risks of entering and / or leaving the confined space
before a rescue is attempted.

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Emergency and Rescue Training

Arrangements for training site personnel for rescue and resuscitation should include consideration of:

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x Rescue and resuscitation equipment
x Raising the alarm and rescue
x Safeguarding the rescuers
x Fire safety
x Control of plant
x First-aid

Regular refresher training in the emergency

procedures is essential and practice drills
including emergency rescues will help to
check that the size of openings and entry
procedures are satisfactory.

The risk assessment may indicate that at

least one person, dedicated to the rescue role, should be stationed outside the confined space to keep
those inside in constant direct visual sight.

All members of rescue parties should be trained in the operation of appropriate fire extinguishers, which
should be strategically located at the confined space. In some situations, a sprinkler system may be
appropriate. In all cases, in the event of a fire the local fire service should be called in case the fire cannot
be contained or extinguished by first-aid measures.

The training syllabus should include the following, where appropriate:

x The likely causes of an emergency
x Rescue techniques and the use of rescue equipment, for example breathing apparatus, lifelines,
and where necessary a knowledge of its construction and how it works
x The checking procedures to be followed when donning and using breathing apparatus the
checking of correct functioning and / or testing of emergency equipment (for immediate use and
to enable specific periodic maintenance checks)
x Identifying defects and dealing with malfunctions and failures of equipment during use
x Works, site or other local emergency procedures including the initiation of an emergency
response
x Instruction on how to shut down relevant plant as appropriate (this knowledge would be required
by anyone likely to perform a rescue)
x Resuscitation procedures and, where appropriate, the correct use of relevant ancillary equipment
and any resuscitation equipment provided (if intended to be operated by those receiving
emergency rescue training)
x Emergency first-aid and the use of the first-aid equipment provided
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x Liaison with local emergency services in the event of an incident, providing relevant information
about conditions and risks, and providing appropriate space and facilities to enable the
emergency services to carry out their tasks

Safety Equipment and Tools

Rescue Equipment
When safety harness and lines are provided, it is essential that proper facilities to secure the free end of
the line are available. In most cases the line should be secured outside the entry to the confined space.
Lifting equipment may be necessary and the harness should be of suitable construction and made of
suitable material to recognised standards capable of withstanding both the strain likely to be imposed, and
attack from chemicals.

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Maintenance of Safety and Rescue Equipment

All equipment provided or intended to be used for the purposes of securing the health and safety of
people about confined space entry or for emergency or rescue, should be maintained in an efficient
state, in efficient working order and in good repair. This should include periodic examination and testing
as necessary. Some types of equipment, for example breathing apparatus, should be inspected each
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time before use.

Atmospheric monitoring equipment – and special ventilating or other equipment provided or used in
connection with confined space entry – needs to be properly maintained by competent persons. It
should be examined thoroughly, and where necessary, calibrated and checked at intervals in
accordance with recommendations accompanying the equipment or, if these are not specified, at such
intervals determined from the risk assessment.

Records of the examination and tests of equipment should normally be kept. The records may be in any
suitable format and may consist of a suitable summary of the reports. Records should be kept readily
available for inspection by the employees, and other interested parties, such as employment medical
advisers.

Equipment for Use in Explosive Atmospheres

When selecting equipment for use in confined spaces where an explosive atmosphere may be present,
country specific standards and legislation must be complied with. Requirements often relate to specific
equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres.

An explosive atmosphere refers to the mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable
substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts in which, after ignition has occurred,
combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.

The equipment used within an explosive atmosphere may include machines, apparatus, fixed or mobile
devices, control components and instrumentation thereof and detection or prevention systems which,
separately or jointly, are intended for the generation, transfer, storage, measurement, control and
conversion of energy or the processing of material and which can cause an explosion through their own
potential sources of ignition.

Protective systems include design units which are intended to halt incipient explosions immediately and
/ or to limit the effective range of explosion flames and explosion pressures; protective systems may be
integrated into equipment or separately placed on the market for use as autonomous systems.

Devices includes safety devices, controlling devices and regulating devices intended for use outside
potentially explosive atmospheres but required for or contributing to the safe functioning of equipment
and protective systems with respect to the risks of explosion.
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Selection and Use of Equipment

Any equipment provided for use in a confined space needs to be suitable for the purpose.

Where there is a risk of a flammable gas seeping into a confined space, which could be ignited by
electrical sources (e.g.: a portable hand lamp), specially protected electrical equipment must be used.

To be suitable, the equipment should be selected on the basis of its intended use – proper earthing is
essential to prevent static charge build-up. Mechanical equipment may need to be secured against free
rotation, as people may tread or lean on it.

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Plant and Equipment

The following information relates to plant and equipment used within confined spaces:

Respiratory Protective Equipment

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Where respiratory protective equipment (RPE) is provided or used in connection with confined space
entry or for emergency or rescue, it should be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended. RPE will
not normally be suitable unless it is a breathing apparatus.

Other Equipment
Ropes, harnesses, fall arrest gear, lifelines, first-aid equipment, protective clothing and other special
equipment provided or used for confined space entry or, in case of emergency rescue or resuscitation,
should be suitable for the purpose for which they are intended, and account taken of appropriate
recognised standards where these exist.

Maintenance of Equipment
All equipment provided or used for securing the health and safety of people about confined space entry
or for emergency or rescue, should be maintained in an efficient state, good working order and good
repair. This should include periodic examination and testing as necessary. Some types of equipment,
for example breathing apparatus, should be inspected each time before use.

Test Certificates and Examination Records

Records of the examinations and tests of equipment should normally be kept. The records may be in
any suitable format and may consist of a suitable summary of the reports.

Records need to be kept readily available for inspection by the employees, and other interested parties,
including employment medical advisers.

Training
Employers are required to provide information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to
ensure the health and safety at work of employees.

Training should take into account the practical use of safety features and equipment, the identification of
defects and, where appropriate, it should involve demonstrations and practical exercises. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

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10.3 Fire and Explosions

Properties of Flammable and Explosive Materials and

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the Mechanisms by which they Ignite

Properties of Solids, Liquids

and Gases
Vapour is the dispersion of the molecules of a substance
in air that is liquid or solid in its normal state, whereas a
gas is the dispersion of vapour in air of a substance that is
normally a gas. Vapours and gases mix with air, oxygen
or other oxidising agents, e.g., chlorine, to produce an
ignitable concentration.

Combustion of a solid or a liquid fuel requires their

conversion into a vapour by heating. Fuel vapours are
evolved from solid fuels by pyrolysis. Combustion of
liquid vapours and gases is known as a vapour phase
reaction.

Temperatures
Where liquids or gases are involved, it is possible to measure some combustion characteristics, ignition
energy and flammable / explosive limits. Ignition heat energy has three measurements, flash point, fire
point and auto-ignition temperature.

Flash Point
This is the minimum temperature where flammable vapours are capable of being ignited momentarily by
an outside source of heat, e.g., spark, etc.

At this temperature, the ignited vapours will flash but will not continue to burn. Combustion is not
sustained as there is insufficient heat generated to cause replacement of the vapour that has ignited.

The flash point of a vapour or gas is one measure of its fire potential, the lower the flash point the
greater the hazard.
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Fire Point
This is the minimum temperature where sufficient flammable vapour is produced to support continuous
combustion once ignited by an outside source of heat. The fire point for any substance is always higher
than its flashpoint.

N.B. Both flash point and fire point both require an external source of ignition.

Auto-Ignition Temperature
Sometimes referred to as the self-ignition temperature, this is the temperature where a flammable
vapour will ignite without an external source of ignition. Unlike the flash point and fire point of a
flammable vapour, auto-ignition temperature will vary with the fuel / air. In all cases, the auto-ignition
temperature is higher than the fire point temperature, which in turn is higher than the flash point
temperature of a particular substance.

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 37

Density
Density is a measure of how tightly the molecules of a substance are packed together, and is its mass
divided by its volume. Gases and vapours have very low densities compared with liquids and solids.

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The density of a burning liquid partly decides whether it is possible to cover it with water to extinguish the
fire, or whether the fire fighter will need to use foam or other another extinguishing medium. However,
another important factor is how well the burning liquid mixes with water.

Vapour Density
Specific gravity is not a sensible parameter to use for gases, as their densities are so low, e.g., the
specific gravity of air is 0.0013. For this reason, vapour density is used, which is the density of a gas or
vapour compared to the density of an equal volume of hydrogen under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure. Hydrogen is used as a comparison for calculating vapour density because it
is the lightest gas. The vapour density is worked out by comparing the molecular weights of the atoms
concerned. The vapour density of carbon dioxide, molecular weight 44, compared with hydrogen,
molecular weight 2, is 22 (44/2 = 22). This means that a given volume carbon dioxide is 22 times heavier
than the same volume of hydrogen.

Relative Vapour Density

For fire safety purposes, it is much more convenient to compare the density of gases and vapours with
that of air, therefore relative vapour density is expressed as the ratio of the density of a vapour to the
density of air (air is given a value of one).

The reference gas should always be given to avoid confusion: for example, the vapour density of
methane is 0.556 (air = 1).

Understanding relative density is extremely important in fire safety, e.g., the relative density of a gas or
vapour determines whether it will tend to rise or sink in air and be found in the greatest concentrations at
the upper or lower levels in a building. If a vapour is less dense than air, e.g., hydrogen and methane, it
will rise and tend to dissipate, unless confined. If a vapour is heavier than air, e.g., propane and butane,
it will tend to sink to the ground and travel in the direction of the terrain and wind. Most flammable liquid
vapours are heavier than air and can flow into drains, etc. where ignition can occur.

Releases with a relative density greater than 1.2 may flow into areas below ground level, whereas
releases with a relative density less than 0.8 may be retained at high level. Most flammable liquid
vapours are heavier than air and can therefore flow into drains etc., where ignition can occur.

Flammability
An indication of the flammability of a substance or preparation is given by reference to its flash point, the
lower the flash point of a substance or preparation the greater the hazard. Chart 1 provides examples of ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
how levels of flammability are classified within the UK.

Extremely Flammable
Liquid substances and preparations which have a flash point lower than 0°C and a boiling point (or, in the
case of a boiling range the initial boiling point) lower than or equal to 35°C.

Gaseous substances and preparations are flammable in contact with air at ambient temperature and
pressure.

Highly Flammable
Solid substances and preparations, which may readily catch fire after brief contact with a source of
ignition and which continue to burn or to be consumed after removal of the source of ignition.

Liquid substances and preparations having a flash point below 21°C but are not extremely flammable.

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Flammable
For liquid substances and preparations having a flash point equal to or greater than 21°C, and less than
or equal to 55°C.

However, a preparation having a flash point equal to or greater than 21°C and less than or equal to
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55°C need not be classified as flammable if the preparation could not in any way support combustion
and only so long as there is no reason to fear risks to those handling the preparation or to other
persons.

Flammable Limits
The concentration of a flammable vapour in air is expressed as a percentage by volume in air (%v/v).

Flammable vapours are only capable of being ignited in certain concentrations in air; this is known as
the flammable range. The flammable range occurs between flammable limits, or concentrations, of the
fuel vapour and air. Most substances have a lower (too lean) and an upper (too rich) flammable limit,
although the flammable range for different fuel vapours varies.

The lower flammable limit (LFL) is the smallest concentration of flammable vapour in air that is capable
of being ignited and propagating flame under test conditions.

The upper flammable limit (UFL) is the greatest concentration of flammable vapour in air that is capable
of being ignited and propagating flame under test conditions. Unlike flash point and fire point, the auto-
ignition temperature of a vapour varies in proportion with the concentration of flammable vapour in air.

The concentration of flammable vapour in air increases with the application of heat. As the temperature
of a liquid rises it produces more vapour until the air is saturated, i.e., it can hold no more vapour. The
blue line in Chart 1 represents the percentage vapour saturation (concentration) in air.

Chart 1: Flammable Range between Flammable Limits

There are two flash points on the curve,

lower and upper, however the lower
value for a given substance is always
quoted. The lowest auto-ignition
temperature of a flammable vapour is at
its lowest at its stoichiometric fuel / air
concentration.

The speed of the flame front through a

flammable vapour is also influenced by
the proportion of oxygen present. In
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mixtures approaching the stoichiometric

concentration the flame speed is the
fastest and the energy required to ignite
the mixture is the least.

The majority of gases have a fuel / air (v/v) flammable range of 2% v/v to 10% v/v; however, there are
substances whose flammable range exceeds these limits, as illustrated in Table 1

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Table 1: Examples of Flammable Substance Properties

Examples of Flammable Substance Properties

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Boiling Relative Vapour Flash Flammability in Auto-
Substance Point Density Point Air Vol % Ignition
o o
C (air = 1) C Lower Upper Temp oC
Acetone 56 2 -19 2.15 13 535
Acetylene -84 0.9 N/A 1.5 100 305
Benzene 80 2.7 -11 1.2 8 560
Butane -1 2.05 -60 1.5 8.5 365
Ethanol 78 1.59 12 3.3 19 425
Hydrogen -253 0.07 N/A 4.0 75.6 560
Hydrogen -60 1.19 N/A 4.3 45.5 270
Sulphide
Methane -161 0.55 N/A 5 15 595
Firedamp

Critical Temperature
If a liquid is stored under pressure, its boiling point is increased. Storage capacity is therefore
maximised by storing flammable gases with low boiling points as liquids under pressure. An exception
being acetylene as it liquefies only at very high pressures. When storing acetylene, the storage vessel
is packed with a porous material, which contains a solvent. Acetylene under pressure dissolves in the
solvent and a considerable amount of gas can thus be contained.

One potential hazard in handling all liquefied gases (cryogenics) is their high expansion rates from a
liquid to a gas as they boil. For example, the volumetric expansion rate of LPG (typically Butane or
Propane) from liquid to gas is in excess of 1:250.

The critical temperature of a liquefied gas refers to the temperature above which it cannot remain as a
liquid no matter how high the pressure is. Raising the temperature above the critical temperature leads
to the liquid boiling, with subsequent rapid expansion from the liquid state to the gaseous state, and
pressure rise within the container. This pressure rise continues until the container fails.

Example critical temperatures for LPG are

Propane 96oC and Butane 153oC. Therefore,
only moderate heating is required to cause a
dangerous situation, such as their storage
vessels being subjected to an external fire.

When storing liquefied gases, it is important ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

that the ullage space (space above the liquid) is
sufficient to allow thermal expansion of the
liquid; otherwise, this might lead to an excess
pressure being exerted on the container with
catastrophic consequences. The official cause
of the tanker explosion accident at Los
Alfaques, San Carlos de la Rapita Spain, 1978,
according to the Court of Tarragona was:
“The container had been overfilled which
prevented the expansion of the liquid inside.
The excessive heat at the time of the year in
which it happened was a contributory factor…”

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Explosions
Explosions occur as sudden, uncontrollable releases of energy causing a blast wave, and result from a
rapid combustion process where the reaction cannot dissipate thus causing pressure to be generated.

A pressure disturbance is generated into the surrounding medium. Air becomes heated due to its
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

compressibility, and this leads to a pressure, or blast, wave.

The damage caused is governed by the magnitude and duration of this blast wave. Ground shock and
crater formation are only of real importance where underground structures, e.g., pipelines are present.
For structures above ground the effects from blast waves and any fireball can be significant. Missiles
may be generated by an explosion and can cause severe damage to adjacent plant structures and
people.

Deflagration
Deflagration is an explosion that causes a blast pressure wave with a velocity below the speed of sound
(subsonic). The speed of sound is 330 m/s.

A deflagration may result in a fireball and a destructive blast pressure wave is generated. Damage
caused by the blast wave is normally limited to the area of the deflagration. Deflagration is a
characteristic of a low explosive, such as within an internal combustion engine.

Detonation
Detonation is an explosion that causes a blast pressure wave with a velocity above the speed of sound
(supersonic).

These explosions also result from an extremely rapid combustion process. A high pressure and
temperature blast wave is generated that can travel up to 9,000 m/s. The blast pressure wave is far
more destructive, often characterised by a localised shattering effect (brizance). Detonation is a
characteristic of a high explosive, such as is used in demolition.

An example is ignition of hydrogen and oxygen gases formed when a lead-acid car battery is
overcharged. If the battery is disconnected at the terminals there is a risk of spark ignition leading to
explosion of the gases with the brizance sufficient to shatter the battery, causing significant noise,
shrapnel and battery acid dispersion.

Detonation of any flammable gas mixture is possible if initiated by a sufficiently energetic source.
Detonation is unlikely in storage vessels due to a lack of oxygen but may occur in low pressure
pipework where air ingress is allowed. Hence the need for flashback arresters to be fitted for example,
on oxy-acetylene torch hoses.

Explosive Limits
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The flammable limits for a flammable substance may be expressed as explosive limits where the
substance presents a risk of explosion. Here rather than using the term upper and lower flammable
limits, the terms upper and lower explosive limits are used instead.

For explosive dusts the concentration is expressed as a mass per volume of air (g/m3). For gases and
vapours the explosive concentration is expressed as a percentage by volume in air (%v/v).

Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

This is the smallest concentration of flammable fuel in air that is capable of being ignited and
propagating an explosion under test conditions.

Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)

This is the greatest concentration of flammable fuel in air that is capable of being ignited and
propagating an explosion under test conditions.

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The Fire Triangle

Essentially there are three components necessary for a fire (combustion) to start:
x An ignition source above a minimum temperature, energy and duration

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x A fuel (gas, vapour, mist or dust) within certain limits of concentration with oxygen
x A supply of oxygen, generally from air, above a certain minimum concentration with fuel. In
some cases, oxygen may derive from an oxidising agent

In essence an explosion is combustion, requiring the presence of the three sides of the fire triangle,
which goes ‘bang’ and causes a pressure, or blast, wave.

A fire process is relatively slower because the fuel and the air are not originally mixed, often because
the fuel is a solid or a liquid. An explosion process is rapid because the reactants are already mixed
when ignition takes place. This is possible when the fuel is a gas, a vapour, or a finely divided liquid
‘mist’ or solid ‘dust’, which can readily mix with the air.

Illustration 2: The Fire Triangle

Source of Ignition
A fire cannot start if any one side of the triangle is missing, therefore control of each side of the fire
triangle is necessary to reduce the likelihood of a fire occurring. Some examples of fire hazards are
illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2: Fire Hazards

Source of Fuel Sources of Oxygen Sources of Ignition ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Flammable dusts Atmosphere Arson

Flammable gases Oxidising chemicals Cooking
Flammable liquids Oxygen / air cylinders Electrical Equipment
Flammable chemicals Compressors and piped systems Engines / boilers
Electrical equipment Ventilation systems Friction
Paper, card Hot processes
Plastics, rubber and foam Heaters
Furniture, textiles Lighting
Fixtures, fittings Machinery
Waste materials Naked flames
Wood Smokers’ materials

Fuel

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The physical state of a fuel may be a solid, liquid or gas. Solids do not burn; however, dusts of
combustible solids will ignite. Oxygen must be in contact with solids for them to combust.

When liquids emit a vapour or a gas, which mixes with oxygen, combustion of the vapour can occur.
Some liquids emit vapour or gas at and below atmospheric temperature without the application of heat.
Vapours and gases not in contact with oxygen pose a combustion risk as they can diffuse and mix with
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oxygen. Combustion of liquid vapours and gases is known as the vapour phase reaction.

The application of heat is often required for the solids and liquids to emit a vapour or gas. The
propagation of fire speeds up the heating process. Vapour and gases mixed with oxygen will only ignite
within certain volumetric concentration limits, referred to as the flammable range.

Most organic (carbon containing) elements and their compounds are flammable. Examples include coal,
natural fibres, oil, paper, petrol, plastics, wood, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Most inorganic
substances are non-flammable, with a few notable exceptions, e.g., aluminium, hydrogen, magnesium,
titanium, zirconium, phosphorus and sulphur.

Oxygen
The atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen by volume, when combined with a fuel vapour of
gas within the flammable range combustion can occur.

There are other sources of oxygen other than air, such as oxidising agents, e.g., organic peroxides,
hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid and sodium chlorate and combustible substances containing oxygen,
e.g., ammonium nitrate.

There are a small number of cases where specific substances have both the properties of a flammable
gas that can form an explosive atmosphere with air and can also explode in the absence of air.
Examples include acetylene, methyl acetylene and ethylene oxide.

Source of Ignition
Heat is a form of energy caused by the movement of molecules. When a substance is heated the
speed of the molecules increases and therefore its temperature increases. Heat is required to initiate
and sustain combustion.

The energy required to ignite fuels varies, e.g., hydrogen is readily ignited, whereas dusts require more
heat energy for combustion to take place.

Heat is commonly emitted from an external ignition source, e.g., from a burning match, a fire, hot
surfaces, and mechanical friction. Also heat emits from electrical arcing from the making or breaking of
a circuit, e.g., switch, relay or commutator, or from static electricity.

Application of heat to a fuel can result in combustion, e.g., oil or grease falling on the lagging of hot
pipes may well become combustible after a short time due to decomposition by oxidation. Employers
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should consider all possible ignition sources where ignition of a fuel can cause risk.

Example potential ignition sources include:

Heat energy Electrical energy

Heating installations Lighting devices

Internal combustion engines Electromagnetic radiation
Open fire and flame Short circuit
Hot surfaces Electric arc
Radiant, conductive and convective heat Earth fault
Smoking Conductor fault
Hot work, including weld spatter Lightning strike
Laser or other intense radiation sources Static discharge
Loose contact
Overload causing excessive temperature rise.

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ͻ Induction heating.
ͻ Resistive heating.

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Mechanism of Explosion and Fire Spread
The Stages Of Combustion
There are four generally acknowledged stages contained within the process. These start at the
induction/ignition stage where the component parts of the triangle come together and initiate the
reactions.

The growth stage, where supplied with an uninterrupted level of oxygen or fuel the reactions become
rapid and grow in intensity, creating large volumes of smoke (unburnt products of pyrolysis) the time
taken for the growth of a fire may be from a few minutes to several hours dependent upon the prevailing
conditions. At the point of which the fire involves all the combustible materials within the room or area is
known as the ‘flashover point’

The time taken to arrive at this flashover point will vary and is likely to involve more than one area or
phenomenon, including the size of the room, the surface linings, the availability of oxygen and a variety
of complex chemical reactions.

The fully developed stage in a fire is whilst the reactions are not as rapid as in the growth stage; the fire
continues to burn violently consuming the available oxygen supply and fuel sources. This ‘fully
developed stage’ is characterised by massive flames and very high temperatures (in excess of 300oC). It
is in fact now that the fire is controlled not by the amount of fuel that it has to burn but by the amount of
oxygen it has on which to feed.

Finally, the decay stage, where having consumed all the available fuel the fire dies down and is
eventually extinguished, can be as a direct result of fire service intervention or can occur naturally when
there is no further oxygen or fuel to support the combustion process.

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During the growth stage, there is a period of time prior to reaching the fully developed stage where here
is a serious risk of flashover. This is due to the layering of hot gases beneath the ceiling and the xygen
concentration in the air being less than normal. It is at this time, as the concentration of gaseous fuel
rises sharply in the growth stage that allowing air to enter causes it to mix with the fuel layer, and with the
already existent heat and flame a flashover occurs, a process which is not dissimilar to an explosion. The
firing process is ‘exothermic’, in other words, it releases significant quantities of heat.

The amount of heat produced is dependent upon the fuel involved and its location, e.g., whether it is from
the building components itself or materials introduced to the building such as plastics, furnishings, etc.

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Thermal Layering
Thermal layering during combustion is the tendency for hot gases to form into layers according to
temperature. The hottest gases tend to be in the top layer, while the cooler ones form the bottom layer.

Unless wholly confined the heated gases are pushed, under pressure, away from the fire area into
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uninvolved areas. The heated gases mix with oxygen and ignite (sometimes referred to as flame-over)
when their flammable range is reached, thus the fire spreads. When smoke extends down from the
ceiling (mushrooms) to head height it causes difficulty in breathing. Visibility is impaired, interfering with
the efforts of occupants to make their way towards the exits. People who are prevented, or delayed,
from escaping by dense smoke may be exposed to the toxic products of combustion that accompany
the smoke. The asphyxiating effect caused by lack of oxygen or by the intense heat of the gases
making up the smoke can cause intoxication, disorientation, scorching of the lungs, burns, heat stress,
incapacity, unconsciousness, and death.

Flash-Over
A flash-over occurs when the vapours from all combustible materials within an enclosed space that is
subject to fire simultaneously reach their flash point and ignite. It is caused by the build-up of heat from
the fire. As the fire continues to burn, all the contents of the fire area are gradually heated to their
ignition temperatures. When they reach their ignition point, simultaneous ignition occurs, and the room
or area becomes fully involved in fire. This ignition is almost instantaneous and can be quite dramatic.

A fire in an enclosed space can rapidly intensify, consuming all available fuel, and reach flash-over in
several minutes. Flash-over is the most significant event in the growth of fire. In an enclosed space the
fire continues to consume the free oxygen, and if confinement is sufficiently airtight a point will be
reached where there is insufficient oxygen to react with the fuel. This typically occurs after flash-over.
In this instance, burning is reduced to smouldering, glowing embers. As the flames die down, the space
becomes completely filled with dense smoke and gases.

Fire Spread
Heat tends to flow from a hot substance to a cold substance. Heat can travel throughout a burning
building by one or more of four methods:

Illustration 3: Fire Spread

1. Direct contact.
2. Conduction.
3. Convection.
4. Radiation.
An important aspect in the control of fire
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is the need to prevent it from spreading

from one room into another (particularly
escape routes).

1. Direct Contact
In their early stages, most fires spread
almost entirely by direct contact between
a flame (or other source of ignition) and a
combustible material that liberates
flammable vapours as it gets hotter.
Direct contact, therefore, heats and
eventually ignites the materials that are
in direct contact with the source of
ignition. These materials then transfer
heat to other materials by radiation,
conduction and convection as well as by
direct contact with the flame.

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2. Conduction
Conduction describes the transfer of heat within a solid material from hotter to cooler parts. Different
materials conduct heat at different rates - metals conduct heat well, bricks and concrete at a much lower
rate and materials such as asbestos so slowly that they are widely used for heat insulation. Once heat

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reaches a steel structural member for example, it will be conducted rapidly along it. If a steel joist or
column passes through a wall or floor it may become the route by which sufficient heat can pass to
initiate fire in adjacent rooms. Similarly, a non-combustible wall or ceiling may become so hot that heat
will be conducted through it even though it does not burn itself.

Although a substance may be a heat insulator it does not necessarily mean that it does not present a
fire risk. The surface temperature of flammable insulators can rise more rapidly than the temperature of
conductive materials when subjected to heat. Flammable insulators, such as fibrous materials, e.g., felt
and cloth, can ignite rapidly when subject to sufficient external heat.

3. Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid. In a fire situation, hot gases and air
expand, become lighter and rise. As the heated gases move upwards, cooler air takes its place at the
lower levels, supplying oxygen to continue the combustion process. The hot air and gases heat
surfaces at lower temperatures over which they pass.

The atmosphere in a burning room can exceed 700°C. At this temperature, hot air and gases can
easily pass-through small gaps, e.g., around ill-fitting fire doors or where cables/pipes pass through
ceilings, etc., and will quickly allow a fire to spread from one room to another. It is estimated that
convection accounts for approximately 75% of the heat spread from a room in most fires.

Fire spread by convection is mostly in an upward direction, although air currents can carry heat in any
direction. If the convected heat encounters a ceiling it will spread out laterally (mushroom).

4. Radiation
Radiation is heat transfer from one surface to another across a space. Radiation can be absorbed,
reflected, or transmitted at a surface.

A fire radiates heat in all directions, sideways, upwards and downwards. Although air is a poor
conductor, thermal radiation can travel through it causing heating of materials at a distance from a fire.
The intensity of the radiant heat falling on a surface increases the nearer the surface is to the radiating
source. One of the reasons why a fire in an enclosed space such as a room develops so quickly is that
radiated heat causes other parts of the room to heat rapidly.

Radiant heat will pass through windows or through other openings and thus may spread fire to an
adjacent building. It can also make escape routes impassable if doors or windows on the route are left
open allowing the fire to radiate heat into the escape route.

Radiation is the most significant means of heat transfer in a large fire. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

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Mechanisms of Explosions
A gas or vapour explosion can occur if a combustible gas or vapour is dispersed in the presence of an
oxidiser and a source of ignition.

flammable range exceeds these limits, e.g.,

Vapour Cloud Explosions
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acetylene and hydrogen.

The risk of a gas or vapour explosion is If no source of ignition is available a gas or
influenced by: vapour released to the atmosphere will
eventually be diluted by dispersion in free air
x The quantity and flammability of the until its concentration is at a safe limit below its
material LFL. The time taken for this to occur, and the
x The fuel / air concentration within the size and spatial location of the gas cloud
explosive range depends upon the nature of the release, the
x An ignition source, the rate of vapour properties such as density relative to air,
combustion the movement of the air and the presence of
turbulence to promote mixing. However, it is
x Confinement of the combustion important to also consider, in a sheltered or
obstructed open area or enclosed area, whether
any re-circulating motions may lead to a gradual
Quantity and Flammability accumulation of gas or vapour over time.

An open area is defined as an area that is open-

The magnitude of risk increases with quantities
air without stagnant regions, where vapours are
involved. When considering the possible
rapidly dispersed by wind and natural
formation of potentially explosive atmospheres,
convection.
it is important to consider all substances that
may be present at the workplace, including
Where the release is not into completely free air
waste products, residues and materials used for
(i.e., not into an open area) then the air flow, or
cleaning or maintenance. The release of
ventilation, is also a factor in determining the
explosive gases and vapours may result from
rate of gas or vapour dispersion.
those expected to occur:
The concentration of fuel / air within a gas or
x Continuously during normal operations, vapour cloud is not normally uniformly within the
e.g., from the surface of a flammable explosive range. On ignition of a gaseous
liquid inside a storage vessel. mixture this leads to the propagation of a flame
x Frequently during normal operation, front.
e.g., from a flammable liquid storage
vessel vent. Ignition Source
x Infrequently in normal operation, e.g.,
from spillages and leaks. Gases and vapours require less heat input than
dusts to cause an explosion. The relative
The calorific value and the flash point will density of the gas or vapour cloud will affect its
influence the heat release and flammability of dispersion towards potential ignition sources.
any release. Most organic vapours and hydrocarbon gases in
air are readily ignited and have minimum
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Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) comprise of ignition. Control over ignition sources is
hydrocarbons containing three or four carbon essential.
atoms per molecule, e.g., butane and propane.
They are readily liquefied by moderate
compression at ambient temperature. Confinement
Their expansion rate from a liquid to a gas is Gas and vapour explosions occur as either:
significant, e.g., 1:250, such that a small release
of liquid will cause a large volume as a gas. x An Unconfined Vapour Cloud
Explosion (UVCE)
x A Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion
Concentration (CVCE); or
x A Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
The concentration of flammable gases and Explosion (BLEVE)
vapours is expressed as a percentage by
volume in air. The majority of vapours and
gases have a flammable range of 2% v/v to 10%
v/v, however there are substances whose

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Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion (UVCE)

A release in a sheltered or obstructed open area or semi-enclosed area may lead to a gradual

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accumulation of gas or vapour over time. Ignition of large releases of flammable gases, e.g., tonnes, in
outdoor environments can lead to an explosion. These explosions are termed unconfined vapour cloud
explosions (UVCE) and usually occur as deflagrations.

Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion (CVCE)

An explosion can occur when a flammable vapour cloud is contained, e.g., in a storage or process
vessel or building, mixes with air into its flammable range and is then ignited. Pressure can then build
up until the containment walls rupture causing shrapnel, fire, and a destructive blast wave. These
events are termed confined vapour cloud explosions (CVCE) and can lead to significant damage from
the blast pressure wave in addition to the fire damage, e.g., as occurred in the initial explosion on the
Piper Alpha platform.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE)

Pronounced ("blevy"), is an acronym for "boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion". This is a type of
explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurised liquid is ruptured. Such explosions can
be extremely hazardous. A BLEVE can occur in a vessel that stores a substance that is usually a gas at
atmospheric pressure, but is a liquid when pressurised (for example, liquefied petroleum gas).

The substance is stored partly in liquid form, with a gaseous vapour above the liquid filling the
remainder of the container. If the vessel is ruptured, for example, due to corrosion, or failure under
pressure, the vapour portion may rapidly leak, lowering the pressure inside the container and releasing
a wave of over-pressure from the point of rupture. This sudden drop in pressure inside the container
causes violent boiling of the liquid, which rapidly liberates large amounts of vapour in the process.

The pressure of this vapour can be extremely high, causing a second, a much more significant wave of
overpressure (an explosion) which may destroy the storage vessel and project fragments over the
surrounding area. BLEVEs can also be caused by an external fire near the storage vessel causing
heating of the contents and pressure build-up. A BLEVE can occur even with a non-flammable
substance, and therefore is not usually considered a type of chemical reaction.

However, if the substance involved is flammable, it is likely that the resulting cloud of the substance will
ignite after the BLEVE has occurred, forming a fireball and possibly a fuel-air explosion, also termed a
vapour cloud explosion (VCE). If the materials are toxic, a large area will be contaminated.

Illustration 4: BLEVE

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Effects of Atomisation/Particle Size and Oxygen

Content
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Atomisation
Liquids not normally considered as a fire hazard may present a considerable risk when atomised into a
spray / mist, due to their increased surface area being exposed to oxygen. For example, diesel (gas oil)
at atmospheric pressure and temperature is not considered to be a flammable liquid, however when
atomised it will readily ignite.

Mineral oils can produce flammable mists for example, in high-pressure hydraulic systems if the oil is
discharged through a tiny pinhole leak. Such mists are easily ignitable and burn fiercely. The fluids in
these systems are normally under very high pressures (several hundred bar) and all hydraulic systems
are prone to leak. An external fire impinging on a compressed air system, e.g., an air receiver which
contains an oil mist, presents a significant explosion risk.

The smaller the size of fuel droplet in a fuel mist, the greater the probability of complete combustion
occurring, therefore incomplete combustion of larger fuel droplets may lead to the formation of tarry and
sooty decomposition products.

Oxygen Content
Materials, including those which do not combust in air, will ignite more readily in oxygen-enriched
atmospheres, even if the enrichment is only by several percent.

Gases in the atmosphere can be stored as liquids under different conditions of pressure and
temperature. The potential hazards in handling these liquefied gases stem mainly from two important
properties they have in common:
x High expansion rates. Very small amounts of liquid are converted into very large amounts of
gas. In enclosed spaces this can either cause reduced oxygen levels below those required for
supporting life or oxygen enrichment, if liquid oxygen is released, giving an increased risk of
fire
x Explosion and expansion from liquid state to a gas is an endothermic reaction, which causes
localised cooling. In humid atmospheres, the localised cooling effect can lead to icing of
mechanisms and controls and cause an uncontrollable escape. Liquid nitrogen is colder than
liquid oxygen therefore, if large quantities of liquid nitrogen are exposed to the air, e.g., a major
spillage, oxygen from the air may condense into the liquid nitrogen. If this can continue for any
length of time the oxygen content of the liquid nitrogen may become appreciable and the liquid
will require the same precautions in handling as liquid oxygen

Oil and grease become highly flammable in the presence of pure oxygen. Where oxygen is supplied in
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pipework, special attention should be paid to avoid oil in the pipework and grease on taps and joints,
which will include certain types of jointing tape that contains mineral oil. Leak testing on oxygen
installations should not be done with materials which contain oils or detergents, e.g., soapy water tests.

Oxygen enrichment can occur from decomposition of oxidising agents, e.g., hydrogen peroxide liquid
spilled onto a worker’s protective clothing will decompose and liberate oxygen. If the protective clothing
is then placed in a locker during this decomposition process, the oxygen content can increase, and the
contents of the locker spontaneously combust.

Particle Size
Particle size has a significant effect on fire and explosion properties. The rate of combustion reaction of
a substance is related to its contact area with oxygen. Compacted materials tend to burn slower as their
surface area exposed for the oxidation process is limited. Generally, the dust explosion hazard
increases as the dust particle size decreases. Most combustible dusts can explode when the particle
size is less than 500 microns (500 x 10-6 m), however, will only produce a weak explosion if over 200
microns.

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Small particles are required to provide a large ratio of surface area to mass and for the solid to remain in
suspension. Solid particles less than 10 microns in diameter settle slowly in air and behave, in some
ways, like gas.

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Failure of Control Measures Leading to Explosion
(Physico-chemical means something relating to both physical and chemical properties and/or relating to
physical chemistry).

There are many potential causes of explosions and fires at sites where hazardous substances that may
explode or catch fire are stored/used/generated.

Such situations may arise due to and one or a combination of the following:
x Chemical reactions that produce an explosion, fire, or heat
x Ignition of explosive or flammable chemicals
x Ignition of materials due to oxygen enrichment
x Agitation of shock or friction-sensitive compounds
x Sudden release of materials under pressure

The UK HSE publication INDF227 safe working with flammable substances, establishes five principles of
control for safe working with flammable substances which aim to prevent fires and explosions. Failure of
these control measures coupled with the physico-chemical properties of flammable material can bring
about an explosion.
x Ventilation ensures that any vapours given off from a spill, leak, or release from any process will
be rapidly dispersed, preventing the formation of a vapour/air mixture above the LFL.
x Ignition sources must be removed from storage and handling areas for flammable materials. If
the ignition source generates energy above the MIE for the combustible vapour or gas, then an
explosion will occur.
x Containment prevents the escape of flammable materials into the workplace which can release
vapours and generate explosive mixtures.
x Exchange of a flammable substance for a less flammable one will reduce the risk of formation of
an explosive mixture. Flammable liquids with flash points well above room temperature will be
unlikely to form explosive atmospheres under normal working conditions. Controlling the
flammability of substances used in the workplace or eliminating them altogether will prevent the
formation of explosive mixtures.
x Separation of flammable substances from other processes and general storage areas by
physical barriers, walls or partitions will contribute to a safer workplace by controlling the zone in
which flammable atmospheres may be present.

Oxidisation ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The chemical process of altering a substance by the addition of oxygen is generally perceived as the
oxidisation process. The combustion process itself is a chemical reaction involving oxygen, but this an
exothermic reaction where heat energy is released. Oxidization of a substance often involves some
form of heat output. of this heat cannot be dissipated into the atmosphere, then the heat buildup can
take the material through its induction phase and up to its ignition point, where true combustion can take
place.

This can happen for example in coal stocks, where oxidation of the outer surface of the coal produces
heat; if the stacks are not turned over to allow the heat to escape, then ignition can and has occurred.

Oxidizing agents are chemical compounds that readily transfer oxygen atoms and therefore allow
materials to burn that would otherwise not be capable of sustained combustion and increase the
burning rates of combustible materials. They add to the severity of fire by increasing the supply of
oxygen. Examples of oxidising agents include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and sodium hypochlorite
(including bleach).

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Complete combustion, where all the oxygen is consumed in the combustion reaction, is the most
efficient combustion of a fuel. This occurs at the stoichiometric concentration, i.e., when the fuel /
oxygen ratio is ideal.

Complete combustion is rare as very often flames are relatively starved of oxygen, leading to
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incomplete combustion. In the absence of oxygen within certain zones of the flame, organic materials
are decomposed by heat giving rise to tarry and sooty decomposition products, i.e., smoke is formed.
Toxic carbon monoxide is also formed during incomplete combustion.

Flammable Atmospheres
Flammable atmospheres can arise or be caused by the release of flammable gases, mists, vapors or
combustible dust into an area where, if there is enough of the substance, mixed with air, then all that is
required is a source of ignition to cause a fire or an explosion.
Many workplaces may contain potentially explosive atmospheres or have activities that produce such
atmospheres.

Examples include:
x Activities that create or release flammable gases or vapors, such as vehicle solvent paint
spraying
x Workplaces are handling fine organic dust such as grain flour or wood

Control measures for entering areas where a flammable atmosphere may exist include:
x Carrying out a thorough risk assessment
x Employing safe systems of work
x Use of a permit-to-work
x A competent and well-trained workforce; and
x Cleaning and purging of the area to keep any flammable atmosphere to below the Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL)

Ignition sources should be controlled, and the workforce should use anti-static clothing, spark-proof
(bronze) tools and entry musically safe, explosion-proof (ATEX) electrical equipment.

Causes and Effects of Vapour Explosions

Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosion (UVCE)

According to the Institute of Petroleum, a minimum of 5 tonnes of vapour is probably necessary. Hence,
UVCEs are rare events. As the explosion is unconfined, the maximum explosion pressure is usually
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limited below 1 bar. A 0.03 bar overpressure represents the standard separation distance for the
protection of personnel in inhabited buildings from shrapnel, and a 0.06 bar overpressure distance is the
normal threshold for serious injury from glass fragments. These distances from the source (blast radii)
will be determined by the nature and quantity of substance released.

Such incidents can cause damage by blast pressure. However, they generally cause a fireball and
damage by radiated heat, which can start secondary fires at some distance, e.g., as occurred in the
explosions as the gas pipes ruptured on the Piper Alpha oil and gas platform in 1998.

The unconfined vapour cloud can ignite and explode by detonation (supersonic velocity) under certain
conditions, e.g., significant liquefied gas releases forming a large vapour cloud within its flammable
range before ignition occurs. These events are termed percussive unconfined vapour cloud explosions
(PUVCE) and can lead to significant damage from the blast pressure wave in addition to the fire
damage, e.g., as occurred in the UK at Flixborough in 1974 resulting in considerable off-site effects.

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Confined Vapor Cloud Explosion (CVCE)

Several CVCEs have occurred following leaks into enclosures built to prevent environmental noise.
Hydrocarbon storage vessels do not normally contain oxygen; then catastrophic failure can occur from a

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CVCE should the mixture be ignited.

Large containers, or large amounts of vapour, are not needed to cause a CVCE, e.g., several
kilogrammes of flammable vapour can lead to a CVCE. Since the energy release is directly related to
the mass of fuel involved, explosions resulting from large gas or flammable vapour accumulations, e.g.,
in basements or compressor houses, have been devastating. CVCEs can cause considerable damage.
In a fully confined VCE, an MEP of up to 8 bars can be generated, with higher pressures generated in
the event of a detonation. In general, however, a CVCE has insufficient energy to have more than
‘localised effects’, e.g., breakage of windows so far as off-site damage is concerned. If the results of a
CVCE affects nearby plant equipment, then serious secondary explosions can follow.

For personnel, close to the event blast, projectiles and flash burns can produce serious or fatal injuries.
Fatalities have occurred due to explosions, for example:
x During hot work on inadequately cleaned / purged 205-litre drums or other small containers, or
on large storage vessels and pipework
x When natural gas has been ignited within a building, e.g. the following leakage into a
basement or leakage from a faulty appliance
x When petrol vapour has been ignited in a sewer
x When LPG has been ignited following leakage within a room, site office, boat, etc.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)

All liquefied gas (cryogenic) storage vessels can fail in this manner. The release of a liquefied gas,
stored under pressure, to the atmosphere, causes the liquid to boil explosively after the containment
vessel has failed and, if the liquid is flammable, it will probably ignite and produce a fireball. The
change of physical state from liquid to gas is an endothermic reaction (takes the heat in) causing
localised cooling. More importantly, the volumetric expansion from liquid to gas is significantly high.
Catastrophic failure of the storage vessel can happen in two ways:
x Because the storage vessel is overfilled causing excessive hydrostatic loads on the vessel
x Because the storage vessel’s mechanical integrity can be impaired through impact, any
leakage increasing the risk of brittle failure, or by excess pressure caused by high temperature

The failure usually occurs along the weld of an overstressed vessel mid-section. This unwraps
instantaneously leaving the dished ends full of liquid above its boiling point. Before gravity can take
effect the rapidly expanding boiling liquid produces a motive force that turns each dished end of the
vessel into a rocket projectile, each taking off in the direction it was pointing, and fragmentation of the
vessel. These failures are termed Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE).

The cause of a BLEVE is nearly always an external flame impinging on the shell of a vessel, often
above the liquid level (flames impinging upon the liquid space cause the liquid to boil, thus causing an ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
endothermic cooling effect on the vessel wall). A jet fire impinging on the vapour space will cause the
vessel to fail in a very short time. A pool fire below the vessel acts in a slower manner.

The temperature of the liquefied gas may rise above its critical temperature (temperature at which it can
no longer remain as a liquid no matter how high the storage pressure is) in storage vessels subjected to
external heating by fire. This causes the liquid to boil within the vessel with the associated rapid
expansion and build-up of pressure. The rise in pressure eventually exceeds the set pressure of the
storage vessel pressure relief valves, which open, and gas is vented. Where the liquefied gas is
flammable, the vented gas initially ignites without causing damage to the storage vessel.

The relief valves cannot vent all the pressure increase. Therefore, the pressure within the container
continues to rise. The effect of this pressure increases and the external fire is that the container
weakens, losing tensile strength, leading to its catastrophic failure and a BLEVE.

Where the liquefied gas is flammable, the released gas mixes with the air and is ignited by the fire. The
heat created by the burning of the dispersed liquid vapour causes a powerful thermal updraft. This
creates a fireball and radiant heat. The projected dished ends spread the fire, with distances of up to
500 metres recorded. The resultant vapour cloud is therefore spread over a large area causing a wide
fire spread.

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In some incidents, the BLEVE has caused a large ball of unburned liquid droplets and people have
been covered with flammable rain, then subsequently set alight by heat radiation.

Damage is caused by:

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x A blast wave due to the relief of internal pressure. This is not a major consideration (e.g.,
maximum explosion pressure at the source = 0.05 bar) except near the event
x Thermal radiation from the fireball produced by the rapid burning of the contents of the vessel
in the air; and
x Projection of large fragments as missiles for considerable distances on violent rupture of the
tank

A BLEVE does not have the same explosion pressure potential as a percussive unconfined vapour
cloud explosion (PUCE), the main damage arises from thermal radiation and fire spread over a wide
area. The risk of a BLEVE is significant to onlookers and emergency services at road or rail tanker
incidents involving LPG. If flames are impinging on the tanker, it is likely to be difficult to apply sufficient
water to cool the vessel shell. Therefore, complete evacuation is the recommended course of action.

Significant industrial BLEVEs include accidents at Feyzin in France in 1966, Kingman, Arizona in 1973,
Texas City, Texas in 1978, and San Juan in Mexico in 1984.

In 1978, a BLEVE occurred after a road accident with an LPG truck in the Los Alfaques Disaster in
Spain. The course syllabus calls for an example of a BLEVE, one example being an incident in Mexico
City in 1984.

The Prevention and Mitigation of Vapour Phase Explosions

When considering hazards arising from the design of plant, equipment and workplaces where
dangerous substances may be present, the purpose of the risk assessment is to determine measures
that will:
x Avoid or minimise the potential risk of spillage or release of a dangerous substance
x Avoid the occurrence of explosive atmospheres both within and outside of the plant and
equipment
x Prevent plant and equipment from unintentionally igniting dangerous substances and explosive
atmospheres
x Prevent unintentional or uncontrolled hazardous chemical reactions or decompositions of
dangerous substances
x Avoid the spread of fires or explosions through interconnected plant and equipment and in
work areas; and
x Mitigate the dangerous effects where a fire or explosion may occur so as not to endanger
people
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The usual virtues of sound design, installation, operation, and maintenance of a chemical plant will go a
long way towards minimising the risk of VCEs occurring.

Some precautions aimed at mitigating the effects of a VCE are as follows:

Location
The plant which could give rise to a VCE should be sited to minimise the consequences of an explosion
on surrounding plant, property, and people. The plant design process should include an assessment of
what these consequences could be.
Hazardous Area Zoning
Classifying the area based on the frequency and duration of the occurrence of an explosive
atmosphere.

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Inventory
The amounts of flammable material, particularly gases and volatile liquids under pressure, should be
kept to a minimum on the plant.

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Remotely operated isolation and shut-off valves can be useful in limiting the size of any release from
large vessels or pipelines.
Prevention of release
Storing flammable liquids in a separate storage area, or in a purpose-made bin or cupboard, keeping
containers closed when not in use, using safety containers which have self-closing lids, dispensing
liquids over a tray and using non-flammable absorbent material to mop up spills
Layout
The layout of a plant should take account of the need to minimise congestion. As much open space
between units as possible should be provided. Where congestion is unavoidable, it is better to have
'islands' of plant interspersed with free space rather than to have one large block of the plant through
which a flame front could accelerate.
Minimising the number of small-scale obstacles, like pipework and cabling, or reducing their flame
acceleration potential by routeing them together should also be considered.
Structural Protection of Buildings
Buildings containing process plant should be as well ventilated as possible. Other buildings should be
resistant to the entry of flammable vapour leaking from the nearby plant. The number of frequently
occupied buildings on the plant should be kept to a minimum.
Control rooms, for example, are better situated at the plant periphery rather than at the centre.
Consideration should be given to the blast protection of such buildings.
Inerting
Partial or complete substitution of the air in an enclosed space by an inert gas and can be employed
very effectively to prevent explosions.
Explosion Relief Mechanisms
Relieving the pressure generated by the explosion by means of vents, panels and busting discs or by
suppressing the explosion through inerting.
Ignition Control
Removing all obvious ignition sources from the storage and handling areas for flammable liquids.
Typical ignition sources include sparks from electrical equipment or welding and cutting tools, hot
surfaces, open flames from heating equipment and smoking material.
Leak/gas Detection
Installing sensors to detect the formation of an explosive atmosphere, which can trigger an alarm
system or preventative actions such as ventilation or inerting. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Although it may not be practicable to make a building completely explosion-proof, it is usually possible,
for example, for it to be of single-storey construction, to avoid having any windows and to provide
escape routes at the rear of the building.

The following measures are those specified for the purposes of mitigation:
x The reduction to a minimum of the number of employees exposed
x The avoidance of the propagation of fires or explosions
x The provision of explosion pressure relief arrangements
x The provision of explosion suppression equipment
x The provision of plant which is constructed so as to withstand the pressure likely to be
produced by an explosion; and
x The provision of suitable personal protective equipment

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Major Incidents
The Flixborough Explosion, 1st June 1974
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At 4.53 pm on 1 June 1974 there was an explosion at a chemical factory owned by Nypro (UK) Ltd. at
Flixborough on Humberside. On site 28 employees were killed and 36 injured, off site there were 53
reported injuries with many properties affected.

The disaster occurred on a process consisting of 6 reactor vessels containing superheated

cyclohexane, at 155°C and 8.8 bar. A crack had developed on reactor No 5, so a 20-inch (0.5 m)
diameter pipe was installed to bypass the damaged reactor.

The bypass pipe was ‘dog-legged’ to accommodate a 14 inch (0.35 m) drop in level between each
vessel, which permitted flow of reactants. It was connected to the 28-inch (0.7 m) diameter nozzles on
reactors Nos. 4 and 6 via flexible bellows which, as a result of the dogleg, were out of line. The by-pass
pipe was supported by scaffolding, as shown in Illustration 5.

Illustration 5: 20 Inch ‘Dog-Leg’ Bypass Pipe on Scaffolding at Flixborough

Complete failure of the bypass pipe resulted in

loss of about 40 tonnes of cyclohexane within
45 seconds. The vapour cloud, produced as
the superheated liquid ‘flashed-off’, had a
volume of about 0.5 x 106 m3 and spread over
the site. Upon reaching a source of ignition it
exploded as a percussive unconfined vapour
cloud explosion (PUVCE) with a force
equivalent to between 15 & 45 tonnes of TNT.

The San Carlos Explosion, 11th July 1978

A disaster occurred at San Carlos de la Rapita on the Mediterranean coast of Spain when a road tanker
loaded with 23.5 tonnes of liquefied propylene burst as it passed the campsite of Los Alfaques and
released a large cloud of flammable vapour. The cloud was ignited, probably by a camping stove,
producing an UVCE, killing 215 people (including the owner-driver), seriously injuring another 67 and
destroying buildings, vehicles and tents over an area of 50,000 m2.

It was concluded that the limited amount of blast damage was due to the violent disintegration of the
tanker accompanying the rapid flashing of the escaping liquid and by a number of internal explosions in
buildings into which the flammable vapour had seeped, and that the injuries to the victims were inflicted
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by fire rather than by blast.

Certainly, there was an extremely powerful flash fire. It is also to be supposed that many of the victims
were killed instantly by shock, resulting from breathing in the flashing vapour at - 47°C and being
drenched in the cold liquid before they were burned.

The Mexico City Explosion, 19th November 1984

A major fire and a series of catastrophic explosions occurred at the government owned and operated
PEMEX LPG Terminal at San Juan Ixhuatepec, Mexico City. Because of these events some 500
individuals were killed and the terminal destroyed.

Three refineries supplied the facility with LPG daily. The plant was being filled from a refinery 400 km
away, as on the previous day it had become almost empty. Two large spheres and 48 cylindrical
vessels were filled to 90% and 4 smaller spheres to 50% full.

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A drop-in pressure was noticed in the control room and at a pipeline pumping station. An 8-inch (0.2 m)
pipe between a sphere and a series of cylinders had ruptured. Unfortunately, the operators could not
identify the cause of the pressure drop. The release of LPG continued for about 5 to 10 minutes when
the gas cloud, estimated at 200 m x 150 m x 2 m high, drifted to a flare stack. It ignited, causing violent

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ground shock. A number of ground fires occurred.

The first BLEVE occurred about 15 minutes after the initial release. For the next hour and a half there
followed a series of BLEVEs as the LPG vessels violently exploded. LPG was said to rain down and
surfaces covered in liquid were set alight. The explosions were recorded on a seismograph at the
University in Mexico.

The Fire at Hickson & Welch Ltd, 21st September 1992

At the time of the incident a process vessel known as ‘60 still base’, used to distil an organic liquid in
batches, was being raked out to remove an accumulation of semi-solid residue or sludge which was rich
in dinitrotoluenes and nitrocresols. Before raking, heat was applied for about three hours to the
residues through an internal steam coil. This started a self-heating (exothermic) runaway reaction in the
residue leading, with disastrous consequences, to deflagration and a jet flame.

The incident could have been prevented if the hazards and the risks associated with this non-routine
clean-out operation had been accurately assessed beforehand and suitable precautions taken.
However, fundamental errors and incorrect assumptions were made, which led to an incident in which
five people lost their lives. The incident also revealed defects in fire precautions affecting the means of
escape from parts of the main office block. Following the investigation by HSE, Hickson & Welch were
prosecuted. The company was convicted for an offence under the Health and Safety at Work Act at
Leeds Crown Court on 30th July 1993 & was fined £250,000 with £150,000 in costs awarded against it.

Dust Explosions
A dust explosion can occur if a confined finely divided combustible powder is dispersed as a dust cloud
in the presence of an oxidiser and a source of ignition. Dust explosions are relatively rare, but they can
involve an enormous energy release. Dusts generally provide good surface area contact with oxygen,
hence are readily ignitable.

In dust explosions, the combustion process is very rapid. It is common for a primary explosion,
involving a limited quantity of material, to cause a further larger dust cloud and secondary explosions.

Materials presenting a risk of dust explosion are found in many industries however, fatalities in such
incidents have usually resulted from the collapse of buildings or structures. Premises at risk include
those:
x Where large quantities of aluminium or magnesium powder are processed (explosions
involving these dusts exhibit the most rapid rates of pressure rise) ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x Involved in the production of sugar, starch or flour, involving large quantities of flammable
dusts in processes in tall or multi-storey structures of heavy construction
x Where grain is stored or processed into animal or human foodstuffs
x Which process pharmaceutical products

Based on the Combustible Dust Explosion Pentagon, five elements are all necessary for a combustible
dust explosion to occur.

These elements include a combustible dust, oxygen, dispersion method, confinement and an ignition
source.

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The Dust Pentagon

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All these conditions must be in the same place and at the same time for dust explosions to occur.

Consequently, that is why dust explosions are rare events but with devastating consequences.

Five things necessary for a dust explosion to occur:

1. Combustible/Ignitable Dust
2. Oxygen/Oxidant (usually air)
3. Dispersion/Suspension of the dust into a cloud (in sufficient concentration)
4. Confinement
5. Ignition Source(s)

If any one of these is missing, there can be no explosion.

Element 1 - Combustible Dust

Any flammable material (and some products typically thought about non-combustible) can burn quickly
when in a finely divided kind. It can end up being explosive if such dust is suspended in air in the ideal
concentration.

Materials that may form flammable dust consist of farming items farming dust, carbonaceous dust,
chemical dust, plastic dust and metal dust.
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The dust includes starch, powdered milk, sugar, flour, cocoa powder, malted jumps, grain dust, coke,
pine soot, coal, wood charcoal, sulphur, resins, aluminium, bronze, magnesium and zinc.
Particle size is a crucial factor to consider and hardly ever is all of the particles the exact same size. The
finer the particle the more surface area exposed and makes it more explosive. The smaller the particle,
the faster it will combust. Because you do not have the ability to size your product, use ordinary salt or
granulated sugar to gauge the prospective size that would be capable of supporting a dust explosion.

Particle shape is likewise essential. Simply since flakes or fibres of the very same material as your dust
do NOT pass through the very same screen, does not suggest that they are NOT a dust explosions
hazard.

Particle size circulation does NOT stay the very same throughout a process. Typically, particle size gets
smaller as the particulate is processed. Fugitive dust build-ups normally are the finest (most risks)
portion of the procedure product. Normally the finest fraction of the collected fugitive dust settles highest
in the compartment of the building.

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Element 2 - Oxygen
The Oxygen material in the air is necessary to support a surge. Any oxidizer, such as nitrous oxide,
bleach, peroxide substances, ozone, etc. might likewise support an explosion.

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Element 3 - Dispersion
Dust needs to be dispersed in the air to achieve a concentration at which it can explode.
We discussed earlier in this Study Element ‘The Effects of Atomisation/Particle Size and Oxygen
Content on the Likelihood and Severity of Fire/Explosion’ for more detail on this particular point.

Element 4 - Confinement
Buildings, process equipment, ducting, piping and dust collection equipment are types of confinement.
Combustible dust that is confined may achieve concentrations sufficient to explode easier.

Element 5 - Ignition Source

When adequate energy per system of time and volume is used to a deflagrable particulate suspension,
ignition happens. Energy per unit of mass is determined as "temperature". When the temperature of the
suspension is enhanced to the "auto-ignition" temperature level, combustion starts. Normally
determined as the Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE).

Ignition sources can differ from electrical to mechanical. When ordinary electrical wiring, lighting and
gadgets are covered in dust; they may offer adequate heat to start a fire or explosion. Another source of
ignition is fixed charge. You most likely experienced walking throughout a carpet and getting surprised
when you touched the doorknob. You created 20-- 30 mJ which was sufficient to ignite a fire or
explosion. Believe it or not, moving, communicating and pneumatically transferring product can produce
fixed charge.

Combustion Rate
For an explosion to occur, the rate at which the substance burns must be sufficiently fast that the gases
released caused the necessary pressure rise with a confined area. Only if this pressure rise occurs will
an explosion occur.

MEP and Rate of Pressure Rise

Apart from the differing ignition characteristics and lower explosive limits, the important data is the
maximum explosion pressure (MEP) and the rate of pressure rise.

The MEP of dusts varies, and significant damage can occur if this pressure is reached. For example, ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
the MEP for sugar dust is 6 bar. Organic or carbonaceous materials, or easily oxidisable metals such
as aluminium or magnesium, are more hazardous than nitrogenous organic materials, e.g., oil seeds or
leather. The least hazardous materials are those that contain an appreciable amount of mineral matter,
e.g., coke or bone meal.

Other factors that will affect the combustibility of dust are:

x Any flammable impurities or additives. Flammable impurities and additives can increase
the combustibility of the dust whereas inert impurities can inhibit the combustion process
x The moisture content. A dust moisture content of over 15% by mass reduces the likelihood
of an explosion. The presence of moisture reduces the tendency to ignite and also favours
agglomeration to produce larger particles

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Primary and Secondary Explosion

The sequence of events in a serious industrial dust explosion is often as follows.

Primary Explosion
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A primary explosion occurs in an item of plant.

The explosion protection is not adequate to prevent the flame arising from the plant, due to either
rupture of the plant or to poor explosion venting.

Secondary Explosion

The air disturbance disperses the dust in the work room and causes a secondary explosion. The
quantity of dust in the secondary explosion often exceeds that in the primary one. Moreover, the
building in which the secondary explosion occurs may be weaker than the plant itself.

The secondary explosion is thus often more destructive than the primary one. In some cases, the
primary explosion also occurs in the open and disturbs dust deposits, and this causes a secondary
explosion. In other cases, the primary explosion occurs in one unit of the plant and the explosion
propagates within the plant to other units. The possibility of a highly destructive secondary explosion
makes dust explosions rather unpredictable.

Measures to Mitigate the Effects of a Dust Explosion

The right conditions that must prevail for a dust explosion to occur are summed up under the ‘dust
explosion pentagon’. The most obvious way to prevent a dust explosion from happening is to not allow
the dust pentagon to be closed. This can be attempted in the following ways:
x Effectively modifying the process to reduce dust handling hazards
x Preventing suspensions of flammable dust
x Completely removing or minimising the presence of ignition sources
x Inerting

Summary
Factors that influence the severity of a dust explosion include:
x Quantity of material in use
x The radiant heat from an explosion
x Number of persons exposed
x The explosion rate and maximum explosion pressure
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x The absence of any pressure relief mechanism

x The absence of any fire or explosion suppression systems
x The strength and stability of plant and building structures
x The potential for flying debris
x Oxygen deficiency in the aftermath of a dust explosion
x The absence of an emergency plan

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Factors that influence the likelihood of an explosion include:

x The frequency and duration of process operations.
x High levels of confinement.

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x Materials with a low minimum ignition energy and minimum ignition temperature.
x Materials with a small particle size
x Dispersion of the dust particles within the explosive range
x The speed of movement of the dust, which increases the likelihood of static generation
x Uncontrolled ignition sources, including static
x Unsuitable plant and process design
x Poor housekeeping
x Supply of oxygen or poor inerting methods
x The adoption of unsafe systems of work

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The Behaviour of Structural Materials, Buildings

and Building Contents in a Fire
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Designers should consider the risk of fire in the design, the method of construction, the choice of
materials used and future maintenance / demolition requirements. Risk assessments, taking account of
fire risks, should be undertaken at the design stage. Construction should be in accordance with the
design specification to recognised standards.

Behaviour of Building Structures and Materials in Fire

Common construction materials include steel, bricks, blocks, concrete, timber, stone, insulation, glass
and plastic. The use of the building primarily dictates the construction materials used however, for fire
safety the choice of materials will also require consideration of:
x The structural strength and integrity when heated
x The combustibility of the material and rate of fire spread
x The products of combustion

Elements of Structure
An element of structure is a member forming part of the structural frame of a building or any other beam
or column, and includes:
x A load-bearing wall or load-bearing part of a wall, a floor, a gallery, and an external wall
x A compartment wall, including a wall common to two or more buildings
x An element requiring fire resistance, e.g., a non-load-bearing partition enclosing a protected
escape route

Load-bearing parts of a building should be able to withstand the effects of fire without loss of load-
bearing capacity for a suitable period. This resistance to collapse should be sufficient to:
x Minimise the risk to occupants while evacuation proceeds
x Reduce the risks to fire-fighters
x Reduce the risk to people near the building, who might be hurt by falling debris or as a result of
the impact of the collapsing structure on other buildings

Separating structural elements should be:

x Resistant to heat transfer
x Resistant to fire penetration
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A structural element should offer a suitable standard of insulation to avoid the unexposed side of the
element becoming hot enough to ignite material in contact with it. It should also offer a suitable standard
of integrity to avoid the formation of openings or cracks in it that allow flame or hot gases to pass
through it, which could ignite the unexposed surface or materials on the unexposed side of the element.

In the UK, British Standard 476 ‘Fire tests on building materials and structures’ specifies a series of
tests for determining the acceptability of materials and structures used to protect buildings against fire.
For fire safety purposes BS 476 is invaluable as a source of guidance and gives the following
classifications:
x Primary construction
x Secondary construction

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Primary Construction
This applies to the main ‘fabric’ of the building, i.e., walls, floors, roof and internal dividing walls, i.e.,

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elements of structure.

Table 3: Primary Construction Classification (BS 476)

Primary Class of
Primary Class Definition
Construction

A Main fabric of the building is completely non-combustible.

Traditional main fabric of the building is i.e., non-

B
combustible walls with combustible floors.

Main fabric of the building is combustible, i.e., timber floors

C
and walls.

Levels of fire resistance vary from 30 minutes to a maximum of 4 hours. The degree of
compartmentation required depends upon the use of the building, once this is established the degree of
fire resistance of the elements of the structure is then dependent upon the building height, floor area
and compartment volume. Factors such as a low ceiling height, promoting early flash-over, and the
presence of large ceiling beams, promoting smoke accumulation, have a significant bearing on a
building’s performance in a fire.

BS 476 specifies methods for determining the fire resistance, when subjected to heating & pressure, of:
x Load bearing elements e.g., walls, beams, columns, and flat roofs
x Non-load bearing elements e.g., vertical partitions, vertical door sets (door and frame), shutter
assemblies, ceilings, and glazing

BS 476 also specifies methods for determining the fire resistance of elements of construction. Building
construction elements are classified by means of their ability to withstand exposure to high
temperatures, against one or more of the criteria for load bearing capacity, fire containment (integrity)
and thermal transmittance (insulation).

Secondary Construction
This refers to internal partitioning, wall, and ceiling linings, etc. The combustibility and products of ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
combustion from secondary construction materials influences the escape from a fire, and whether or not
a flashover is reached. Large loss of life can occur by fire spread of the materials used to line the
interior no matter how well a building is constructed, e.g., Stardust Disco, Dublin (48 dead, 214 injured)
due to the fire spread of carpet tiles used to line walls.

BS 476 specifies tests for materials used for surface linings to walls and ceilings for their tendency to
spread flame across their surface. The materials are classified in terms of the rate and distance of
flame spread over the surface.

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Fire Properties of Common Building

Materials in Fire
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Structural Steel
Unprotected metal surfaces may constitute a serious risk in a fire because all metals expand when
exposed to fire and are also a potential cause of fire spread by conduction. A 10-m steel joist will
expand 60 mm for a 500oC rise of temperature.

Unprotected metal, which is used to carry a load, presents a more danger of rapid collapse when
excessively heated. Steel will weaken, deform and / or collapse at moderate temperatures. Structural
steel loses two-thirds of its strength at 593 oC and, in proportion to the amount and direction of the load
to which it is subjected, begins to sag and twist (buckle). This is not an abnormal temperature in a
moderate fire. Steel columns expanding or buckling in a fire may cause collapse of a floor slab onto the
storey below, which in turn collapses due to overload leading to a ‘domino’ effect.

To withstand a fire, structural steel should always be protected by a layer of non-combustible heat-
insulating material, e.g., concrete. Structural steel which passes between fire resistant compartments
should be insulated to prevent the spread of fire by conduction. Resistance to failure in a fire can be
increased by using increased thicknesses of insulation or by providing extra structural strength by
increasing the amount of steel necessary for normal conditions
(over-engineering).

Cast Iron is a brittle material so when fighting fire near cast-iron columns, which have been heated, it is
a wise precaution to avoid playing a jet directly on them since the rapid cooling may cause them to
crack and fail suddenly (brittle failure).

Illustration 6: Collapse of Structural Steel Subjected to Fire

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Concrete
Concrete is a thermal insulator and only allows limited expansion when heated. Concrete is likely to
‘spall’ (blistering and breaking away) when subjected to fire. Although, even after a severe fire, most
concrete structures are safe enough to be reinstated to perform their original functions.

Aerated concrete or the use of lightweight aggregate can reduce the severity of spalling.

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Reinforced Concrete
Structural concrete is normally reinforced with an internal steel lattice. Structural concrete in a fire does

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not normally collapse suddenly, it may deflect considerably under load, and floors may suffer local
breakdown. When heated, the steel reinforcement acts as a conductor, expands and increases the rate
of spalling.

On cooling, reinforced concrete loses structural strength. When reinforced concrete is subjected to
temperatures between 400oC and 600oC over 80% loss of compressive and tensile strength in
reinforced concrete can be caused.

The fire resistance of structural concrete is determined primarily by the protection against an excessive
rise in the temperature of the steel afforded by the concrete cover, i.e., the concrete between the
surface of the member and the nearest surface of the embedded steel. Generally, the greater the
amount of cover, the longer is the period of fire resistance.

Bricks and Blocks

Bricks are commonly made from clay, calcium silicate and concrete. Of these fired clay bricks, having
already been exposed to high temperatures during manufacture, are most resistant to movement in a
fire situation. The integrity of a wall, no matter which material is used, depends upon its thickness,
whether the wall is load bearing, and the effects of any surface material, e.g., plaster.

Large perforations or cavities in some bricks may make them susceptible to some extent to spalling of
small areas of the exposed surfaces.

Blocks are commonly made from clay or concrete. Fire resistance is increased the greater the
thickness of the block, the application of lining, e.g., plaster, the denser the aggregate and smaller the
voids. Spalling of areas of the exposed surfaces is likely, however blocks offer high fire resistance with
little risk of collapse so are commonly used for walls of a fire compartment.

Timber
When wood is heated, it begins decomposing at approximately 170 oC, forming char (a hard carbon) on
its surface. The proportion of flammable vapours released at this stage is low, the main products of
combustion being carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H20). Above 300°C the
release of smoke and flammable vapours increases, and the charring effect reduces.

Thin sections of timber promote fire. Large sections of timber char at 250°C. The burning, or charring,
rate of timber is predictable and varies only slightly with species of timber, and not on the severity of the
fire. The charring of the surface of wood acts as a thermal insulator providing protection to the wood
underneath.
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Timber does not expand significantly under the influence of heat; it may even shrink slightly. Therefore,
buildings reliant upon timber for structural purposes are unlikely to suffer sudden collapse, caused by
induced stresses brought about by unrestrained expansion. Timber structures do not collapse suddenly in
a fire and timber members will not reach breaking point until they have bent to an alarming extent.

The fire resistance of timber can be increased by the selection of fire-resistant timber and increased
thickness allowances for charring. All load-bearing elements of construction are designed with safety
factors enabling them to support loads two or more times those involved so there is always a time factor of
safety in timber buildings irrespective of the additional protection afforded by the lining or coating usually
incorporated.

These linings or coatings, e.g., plaster lining, fire retardant impregnation or intumescent coating, often
provide the bulk of the fire resistance and may protect the timber frame for an hour or more.

In terms of fire, plywood and chipboard sheets used for flooring have an advantage over normal
boarding. The larger sizes of sheet material result in fewer joints, which are usually backed by joists or
noggins. Since the joists in flooring represent the weak links in the chain, for the same thickness, the

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sheet material has a greater resistance to penetration by fire than boarding. Plywood or chipboard
applied as lining to partitioning behaves much as plasterboard and provides similar fire resistance.

Asbestos-Cement Boards
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No longer used in construction, asbestos-cement boards may be present in existing buildings.

Asbestos is non-combustible and resistant to flame spread; hence, its use was widespread. There
is some contraction at high temperatures causing bowing of the material away from the source of
heat. Asbestos-cement boards often shatter and disintegrate in a fire leading to health risks by
inhalation of fibres.

Plywood Boards
Block boards are made from a core of separate wood blocks bonded together and finished
externally with a veneer or plastic overlay to give the appearance of homogeneous boards. The
susceptibility of plywood boards to fire depends on the grade and quality of timber used and board
thickness. The type of bonding material may have some bearing on the development of a fire.

Stone Cladding
Stone is often used to clad a structure, which increases the fire resistance, however stone is
generally brittle and likely to crack and fail when subjected to heat or to subsequent rapid cooling,
e.g., from water applied during firefighting.

Aluminium Alloy
Aluminium alloy is often used as a building material, especially for cladding. The advantages of
using aluminium alloy in buildings are a reduction in the weight of the structure, resistance to
corrosion, ease of handling and working, and the high strength to weight ratio. The disadvantages
are the very rapid loss of strength in fire, i.e., stability is affected at 100°C to 225°C, the high
expansion rate (approx. twice that of steel.), the high thermal conductivity (over three times that of
steel), and its very low melting point (pure aluminium melts at 660°C).

Plaster
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Plaster is made from gypsum, which has good fire resistance properties. Plaster is used either to
line walls or as plasterboard to line steel frame or timber stud partitions. Plaster lined walls and
plasterboard lined partitions may be used to achieve a fire-resistant partition of 30 minutes or
higher. Structural members supporting plasterboard partitions should be fire resistant.

Plastics
Plastics, or polymers, are formed by joining molecules of organic hydrocarbon together into long
molecular linear or branched chains.

In general, plastics have specific properties that vary from those of metals, e.g., lower electrical
conductivity, lower thermal conductivity, and higher coefficients of expansion. These are used for many
applications, including pipe work of various types, coatings to windows and doors, and various forms of
internal finish, etc.

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Thermosetting plastics are normally hard, rigid, sometimes fragile, and can be subjected to high
temperatures. Thermosets will not soften and melt in a fire but will decompose. The process of making
thermosetting plastics hard is called curing, which can also be accomplished by applied heat or
chemical means. Once cured the plastic is no longer soft nor can it be re-softened through heating.

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Thermoplastics set only when cool and can be softened many times by re-heating. Linear chain
thermoplastics tend to be high-density soft materials. Branched chain thermoplastics tend to produce
harder plastics.

Thermoplastic materials soften with heat and will melt so in a fire may form burning droplets, which
could help the fire to spread. Much depends on the type of plastic as to the effect, e.g., if plastics only
contain the elements carbon and hydrogen, or carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the main toxic gas to be
expected is carbon monoxide.

Plastics that contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen such as polyurethane foams
will produce hydrogen cyanide and nitrogen oxide, which are toxic.

Chlorine is present in polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Neoprene and some self-extinguishing plastics emit
hydrogen chloride gas, which is both toxic and corrosive and forms a corrosive solution with water
(hydrochloric acid).

Glass
Glass is non-combustible so will not contribute to a fire; however, it constitutes a weakness in any wall,
screen or door because of its heat transmission properties and the risk of failure. Fire resistant glazing
can be used to give periods of fire resistance of up to 90 minutes, depending upon its nature and
dimensions.

Glazing fit for fire resistance purposes includes:

x Wired glass
x Copper light glazing, 6mm glass set in copper frames
x Borosilicate glass, a pre-stressed heat resisting glass with low thermal expansion
x Laminated glass, 3 to 5 layers of glass with inter layers of intumescent material, which reacts
at 1,200oC to form an opaque liquid
x Ceramic glass, optically imperfect but resistant to thermal shock

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Behaviour of Common Building Contents in Fire

Many buildings contain solid materials which are flammable. If these materials are stored or used in

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unsuitable conditions a serious fire hazard may be created.

Fire loading generally refers to the quantity (mass) of flammable materials in an area and is measured in
kg/m2. This parameter, however, does not consider the flammable nature of the material.

Some of the most common 'fuels' found in workplaces are:

x Flammable liquid-based products such as paints, varnish, thinners and adhesives
x Flammable liquids and solvents such as petrol, white spirit, mentholated spirit and paraffin
x Flammable chemicals
x Wood
x Paper and card
x Plastics, rubber and foam such as polystyrene and polyurethane, e.g., the foam used in
upholstered furniture
x Flammable gases such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and acetylene
x Furniture, including fixtures and fittings
x Textiles
x Loose packaging material; and
x Waste materials, finely divided materials such as wood shavings, off-cuts, dust
x Paper and textiles
x You should also consider the construction of your workplace and how this might contribute to
x The spread of fire. Does the internal construction include large areas of?
x Hardboard, chipboard, block-board walls or ceilings; or
x Synthetic ceiling or wall coverings, such as polystyrene tiles?

Fire Spread Due to Solid Materials

The rate of temperature rise and amount of smoke produced during combustion of materials will influence
the fire risk and ease of use of a means of escape.

A common test method for assessing the fire hazard of flammable solids is a room-corridor configuration test
rig. The test is used to determine the maximum rate of rise of temperature, and the total quantity of smoke
produced.

The test is used to categorise the test material in terms of a temperature rise hazard and a smoke hazard.
Materials may be divided into two categories: high or normal risk.
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Table 4: Examples of ‘Temperature Rise Hazard’ Materials

High Normal

Acrylic fibre Mohair (kid, adult)

Cotton waste Newspaper (folded)
Expanded polystyrene Oakwood sticks
Woodwool Pinewood sticks
Polypropylene, silver Polyester raw

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Table 5: Examples of ‘Smoke Hazard’ Materials

High Normal

Acrylic fibre Cotton waste

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Expanded polystyrene Mohair (kid, adult)

Flexible polyether PU foam Newspaper (folded)
Polyisocyanurate foam Oakwood sticks
Polyproylene, silver Pinewood sticks
Rigid PU foam (low density) Woodwool

Surface Spread of Flame

BS 476 ‘Fire tests on building materials and structures’ specifies tests for materials used for surface
linings to walls and ceilings for their tendency to spread flame across their surface. The materials are
classified in terms of the rate and distance of flame spread over the surface. Combustibility is graded
from Class 0 (incombustible) to Class 3 (rapid for surface spread of flame).

Class 0 materials (lowest flame spread) are acceptable in all locations, including circulation spaces and
escape routes. Example Class 0 materials are bricks, blocks, concrete, plasterboard, ceramic tiles,
plaster finishes (including rendering on wood or metal laths), woodwool slabs, thin vinyl and paper
coverings on inorganic surfaces (other than heavy flock wallpapers) and certain thermosetting plastics
that have been flame-retardant treated to achieve a Class 0 standard.

Class 1(very low flame spread) materials are acceptable in all rooms but are not acceptable on escape
routes, e.g., stairways, corridors, entrance halls. Example Class 1 materials are timber, hardboard,
chipboard, heavy flock wallpapers and thermosetting plastics that have been flame-retardant treated to
achieve a Class 1 standard.

Class 3 materials are acceptable in small rooms (not exceeding 30 m2) and on parts of the walls of other
rooms if the total area of those parts does not exceed an area equivalent to one half of the floor area,
subject to a maximum of 60 m2. Class 3 materials are not acceptable on escape routes e.g., stairways,
corridors, entrance halls, or in rooms other than as specified above. Example Class 3 materials are
timber, hardboard, chipboard, some heavy flock wallpapers, thermosetting plastics, e.g., expanded
polystyrene wall and ceiling linings.

Fire and Explosion Prevention and Protection

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Structural Fire Protection

Structural elements were discussed earlier in this Element. Examples of structural elements that can aid
fire protection include:

x Compartmentation systems, including fire doors, automatic release and closing mechanisms
x Structural fire protection measures, e.g., enclosure in concrete or fire-resistant panels or
insulation and treating timber with a fire-resistant coating
x Void or cavity barriers
x Protected, or fire resistant, means of escape
x Protection measures provided for lifts and stairways protected from fire
x Penetration seals, e.g., fire stopping of cables and pipes and intumescent door seals
x Fire-resisting glazing

Intumescent seals become relatively soft and plastic at 600oC. Between 1,000oC and 1,500oC water from
hydration of the seal becomes trapped within the material, boils and forms steam blisters. On increased

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temperatures the steam blisters expand, up to 7-fold where space allows, forming a fine non-combustible
expanded cellular foam seal.

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Compartmentation
A fire compartment is a building or part of a building, comprising one or more rooms, spaces or storeys,
constructed to prevent the spread of fire to or from another part of the same building or an adjoining building.
Compartment fire resistance generally varies from 30 minutes to a maximum of 4 hours, depending upon the
fire risk.

Compartmentation is the sub-division of a building into separate ‘protected’ areas by walls and / or floors
made of fire-resisting materials. This restricts the spread of fire and smoke within a building. The aim is to:
x Limit fire loss
x Achieve a greater escape time to ensure safe evacuation of all occupants
x Achieve a protected escape route within the required travel distances to a final exit

Compartmentation can also limit business losses by protecting assets. Rapid fire development and lack of
compartmentation have been found to be significant factors in multiple fatality fires.

The degree of compartmentation and fire resistance required depends upon the:
x Use of the building
x Building height
x Floor area
x Compartment volume

Often in tall multi-storey buildings each storey is a separate compartment capable of resisting fire spread.
This can protect occupants who might have to exit past the storey when a fire is well developed and can
also protect fire-fighters who might have to work on storeys immediately above or below a fire.

The size and fire resistance of each compartment should generally be at least one-hour protection.
However, it is important to consider the type and quantities of materials and their flammability characteristics
and of any fixed firefighting measures, such as sprinklers. In general, the size of the compartment can be
doubled if a sprinkler system is installed.

Vertical Shafts
A fire occurring anywhere within a compartment of a building should be regarded as a hazard to all
occupants within that compartment. There is also likely to be a risk to persons in other parts of the building,
as even with fire-resisting construction combustion gases can be driven out of a space. If the gases
penetrate a vertical shaft, e.g., a stairwell, lift well or duct, they will rise rapidly reaching the top of the shaft
and, if there are any openings in the shaft, spread out. If an airflow reaches the fire through any opening, ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
e.g., a window or door, the vertical shaft can act as a chimney, which can accelerate fire growth.

Fire Stopping
To stop fire spreading effective compartmentation is necessary to prevent fire, smoke and gases from
travelling further than the area they originated from. Fire stopping products ensure that cables, pipes,
trunking, or ductwork, or the voids that they pass through, do not provide gaps through which the fire can
spread

Fire stopping barriers are often manufactured from high density rock wool with a white endothermic, ablative
coating designed to stop the spread of fire through openings in fire resistant walls or floors.

Fire compounds are gypsum-based products with thermal and acoustic properties.

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Walls, Doors and Openings

Compartment walls, doors and glazing should be constructed of the same fire resistance. The floors of a
multi-storey building are usually connected only by stairs and lift shafts. To maintain compartmentation
these should either be fire resistant or protected by a lobby with fire resisting doors.
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Access openings between compartments in a building should be protected by fire doors that either are
self-closing or fitted with hold-open devices that close automatically in the event of a fire to maintain the
integrity of the compartment and to prevent the spread of fire and smoke, especially in protected lobbies
and stairways.

Fire doors generally provide a minimum of 30 minutes’ protection and should be fitted with brushed nylon
smoke seals and intumescent seals, fire resistant furniture and glazing and self-closing devices.

Ventilation Ducts
Fire spread between compartments within ventilation ducts, etc. can be prevented using intumescent
sealants or automatic shutters or dampers operated either by fusible links, which melt when hot, or by a
signal from the fire alarm.
Ventilation ducts passing through fire resistant walls should be fitted with intumescent seals, baffles or fire
dampers.

Cavities and Voids

Compartmentation is often breached by building modifications and by the failure to seal cable voids and
other gaps. Ceiling and floor voids should be clear of debris and protected to prevent the spread of fire
from one compartment to another. Where a cavity occurs over or under a fire-resistant wall it should be
separated by a fire-resistant partition. Gaps around services, e.g., pipes, cables, etc. passing through a
fire-resistant wall should be ‘fire stopped’ with a material, e.g., plaster, filler, etc. of the same fire
resistance as the wall.

Key Features of Plant Design and Process Control

Plant Design
In many cases economics demand the use of large plant units. Consideration should be given to dividing
plant units in such a way that one part can be isolated from the other to prevent the transmission of flame
or explosion. Good layout can do much to prevent the spread of fire from one plant unit to another and
provide easy access for inspection and maintenance. Sumps, or drains may be required to handle
spillages of materials. Where necessary, small plant units can be separated from each other by placing
them in cubicles. Extra hazardous processes can be carried out in rooms which are open on one side
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and the effects of an explosion can be held in check by suitably placed blast walls. Large-scale or extra
hazardous processes can be carried out in open-air plant automatically controlled from an instrument
room that may require pressurisation.

Plant should be designed to prevent the escape of flammable liquids, gases or dusts. Plant can be
instrumented to give warning of dangerous rises in temperature, liquid level or pressure. Other
instruments can detect leaks, excess flow, or stoppage of flow in pipeline and cooling coils. Fixed
explosimeters can be employed in buildings or on plant to detect dangerous concentrations of flammable
vapour.

Fail-safe and interlocking of processes can be arranged so that before a critical operation is started up
certain safeguarding operations are already in progress. For example, plant may be designed not to
operate until the ventilation has been functioning for a specified time. Similarly, if a process should start
to deviate from its prescribed course, then safety features can be brought into action. For example, a
runaway temperature rise in a reaction mixture can be detected at an early stage and the reaction
stopped by cooling the reaction vessel. The number of interlocks will depend on the complexity of the
plant. As operations become more automated, the need for such measures will become greater.

Control rooms should be located remotely for process operations, however in hazardous locations control
rooms should be pressurised with uncontaminated air to prevent the ingress of flammable atmospheres.

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Process Control
Process control measures should be applied in the following order of priority, where this is appropriate to the

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nature of the activity or operation and supports the findings of the risk assessment:
x Reduce the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum
x Avoid or minimise releases by containment and separation
x Control releases at source by provision of adequate means of isolation and ventilation
x Prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including the application of appropriate
mechanical ventilation with interlocked monitoring equipment and / or inerting
x Collect, contain and remove any releases to a safe place
x Avoid ignition sources
x Avoid adverse operating conditions (e.g., exceeding the limits of temperature or other control
settings) that could lead to danger
x Keep incompatible substances apart

General ventilation must be adequate to prevent the accumulation of flammable gases and vapours
throughout the working space. Where necessary, local ventilation and extraction should be provided.
Drying ovens should be provided with a sufficient throughput of air to keep the concentration of solvent or
other flammable vapours well below the lower explosive limit.

Hot water and steam are the safest media for process heating systems. If the system should employ gas,
electricity or oil, careful design and selection is required. Where open flame heating is, necessary automatic
protection should be provided against ignition failure or flame failure and thermostatic controls should be
provided to keep the temperature within the heated vessel at a safe level.

The risk of fire is inevitably higher when reactions are being developed and new process methods are being
investigated. Thorough laboratory investigation is required to determine which variations in the operating
conditions can be tolerated without a dangerous situation arising. The preliminary investigation should also
therefore indicate the effects of possible contaminants and plant materials that may interact dangerously
with the reactants or products.

Materials used in packing, jointing and insulating reaction vessels should be both non-combustible and non-
reactive considering both the reactants involved and the materials of which the vessels are made. Similar
remarks apply to lubricants and the possibility of preventing contact between lubricants and materials in
process, if hazardous, should be given special attention at the design stage. Oxygen is a case calling for
care.

Care is required in labelling containers of process materials, to avoid the possibility of fire and explosion
incidents arising from the use of the wrong materials.

In dust processing, a common hazard in milling combustible materials is the inclusion of tramp metal and
other objects that may produce sparks. Raw material and product feeds should therefore be fitted with
magnetic separators. Other objects may be removed by sieves and screens. Sometimes it is possible to ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
carry out milling in an inert atmosphere.

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Segregation and Storage of Flammable,

Combustible, and Incompatible Materials
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Special precautions are required for the storage of flammable, combustible and incompatible materials.
Flammable substances should ideally be stored in an external area, either in the open air or a separate
building. Bulk storage requirements are discussed in later chapter.
The requirements for safe storage of flammable substances include:
x Safe containment
x Separation from buildings
x Segregation from incompatible materials
x Ventilation
x Identification and marking
x Control of ignition sources

Only in exceptional cases should tanks for flammable liquids be located inside buildings, but it is
permissible to hold liquids in ‘day tanks’ where any process conditions demand it. Such tanks should be
bunded, totally enclosed, and vented to a safe area outside the building, with adequate natural or
mechanical ventilation provided.

Internal storerooms should be provided with 1-hour fire-resistant separation. The storeroom should have
an impervious floor and be well ventilated. All sources of ignition and access to the store controlled.
Suitable signage should be displayed. Use and Storage of Flammable Liquid Containers

Precautions that should be considered when storing and handling flammable liquids in small containers
include:
x Selecting containers that are suitable for the purpose
x Labelling the containers clearly with information about their contents
x Marking the storage area in which they are held
x Ensuring empty containers are tightly closed and stored outside the building or in a store
constructed of fire resisting materials
x Taking measures to prevent vapour build-up, e.g., by ventilation
x Taking measures to prevent or reduce the impact of spillages by using non-spill caps or bunding
the area where containers are held
x Removing likely sources of ignition
x Limiting the quantities stored and the amounts used
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Flammable liquid containers should be compatible with the fluid they are intended to contain so that the
liquid does not affect the integrity of the container or cause a static charge. They should be strong
enough to withstand being dropped. The containers should be enclosed and provided with pouring and /
or filling apertures fitted with flame arresters and sealed with self-closing caps. Containers should not be

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overfilled to allow for expansion.

When not in use or being conveyed, all flammable liquids should be stored in well ventilated area away
from sources of ignition. Flammable liquid containers should be stored in a metal cabinet with suitable
warning signs attached. The contents of which should be limited, e.g., to 50 litres.

Illustration 7: Storage of Flammable Liquid Containers

Kits containing equipment and materials to deal with spillages should be provided. Solid materials, e.g.,
rags, granules, containing flammable waste should be disposed into a metal container fitted with a self-
closing lid and a warning label.

The viscosity of the liquid is significant as it determines how far any spilt material will spread. Solvents
generally have a low viscosity and when split will spread quickly. Some forms of liquid, e.g., paints and
resins may have a high viscosity and will spread and produce vapours more slowly when spilt. Liquid
flammable waste should be stored in suitably labelled drums fitted with flame arresters.

Dispensing and decanting of flammable liquids should be carried out in well ventilated areas in a manner
that reduces spills and dangerous releases of flammable vapours. Means to contain spillages should be
provided when decanting. A funnel should be used for pouring from and to small containers. Containers
should not be overfilled to allow for expansion. All containers should be earth bonded.

Decanting and dispensing from drums should be carried out in a well-ventilated area over a suitable bund.
The drum should be fitted with a dispensing tap or suitable pump. Drum taps should be made of a non- ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
combustible material and be self-closing. Safety vents should be fitted to prevent an excess pressure or
vacuum building up inside the drum and any ignition source flashing back into the drum. Pumps should fit
closely into the drum to prevent vapour liberation. All the equipment should be earthed, and flexible hoses
should be electrically conductive to prevent static build up.

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Storage of Cylinders
Fuel gas cylinders should be stored:
x 3 metres, minimum, away from any other gas cylinder type
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x In well ventilated areas, preferably the open air, or, where this is not reasonably practicable, in a
storeroom constructed of non-combustible material, having adequate ventilation, being in a safe
position, of fire-resisting structure, and being used solely for the storage of LPG and / or acetylene
cylinders
x Upright, on a firm, level, well drained surface, and secured to prevent them falling. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated within the store
x Away from sources of ignition. Nothing else should be stored in the storage area, especially oil,
paint or corrosive or flammable liquids. Cylinders containing oxygen or oxidising gases must be
separated from cylinders containing flammable gases by a minimum of 3m or by a fire-resistant
partition; and
x Kept in the store until they are required for use, with any empty or part used cylinder returned to
store as soon as is reasonably practicable. This should ensure that only the minimum amount of
LPG is kept in any workplace

The storage area should be provided with dry powder extinguishers, or water hoses for larger stores, and be
suitably marked with warning signs in prominent positions. Cylinders containing inert gases may be stored
with cylinders containing oxygen or oxidising gases. Toxic or corrosive gas cylinders must be stored
separately from all other gas cylinders.

Hazardous Area Zoning

Hazardous areas are classified in terms of zones based on the frequency and duration of the occurrence of
the explosive atmosphere and is commonly referred to as zoning or hazardous area classification.
Equipment that is placed in, or entering, a hazardous zone should not be a source of ignition capable of
causing an explosion.

Equipment and protective systems for all places in which explosive atmospheres may occur must be
selected based on the requirements set out within country specific legislation and standards, unless the risk
assessment finds otherwise.

The use of electrical or electronic apparatus in a hazardous area increases the risk of fire or explosion. The
ideal control measure would be to eliminate these sources of ignition in any hazardous area. This solution is
not however, always possible in a practical sense. Various methods of protection exist, each method more
suitable to some situations than others.
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Gases and Vapours

Zone 0: A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture with air of dangerous
substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is present continuously or for long periods or frequently.

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Zone 1: A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture with air of dangerous
substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.

Zone 2: A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture with air of dangerous
substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is not likely to occur in normal operation but, if it does occur,
will persist for a short period only.

Part 15 of the ‘Area classification code for installations handling flammable liquids’, issued by The Institute
of Petroleum, suggests the following timescales:
x Zone 0, hazard present for > 1000 hours per year
x Zone 1, hazard present between 10 and 1000 hours per year; and
x Zone 2, hazard present for < 10 hours per year

Should none of the definitions of the zones apply then the area is non-hazardous.

BS EN 60079 Part 10 ‘Classification of hazardous areas’ identifies preferred symbols for hazardous area
zones 0, 1 and 2.

Illustration 8: Preferred Symbols for Hazardous Area Zones 0, 1 and 2

Dusts
Zone 20: A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is
present continuously, or for long periods or frequently.
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Zone 21: A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is
likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.

Zone 22: A place in which an explosive atmosphere in the form of a cloud of combustible dust in air is not
likely to occur in normal operation but, if it does occur, will persist for a short period only.

Layers, deposits and heaps of combustible dust must be considered as a source that can form an
explosive atmosphere. ‘Normal operation’ means the situation when installations are used within their
design parameters.

Should none of the definitions of the zones apply then the area is non-hazardous.

BS EN 61241 Part 10 ‘Classification of areas where combustible dusts are or may be

present’ identifies preferred symbols for hazardous area zones 20, 21 and 22.

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Illustration 9: Preferred Symbols for Hazardous Area Zones 20, 21 and 22

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Likelihood of an Explosive Atmosphere

Hazardous area classification is intended to identify places where controls over sources of ignition are
required due to the potential for an explosive atmosphere.

The zoning exercise should consider the likelihood of explosive atmospheres existing at the same time as
an ignition source. Employers should consider the possible releases of explosive atmospheres as well as
the potential quantity of such releases when considering area classification. If a release is extremely
unlikely to occur and / or if the quantities released are small, it may not be necessary to classify the area as
hazardous.

Additional information relating to the process rather than the substance should also be considered, including
the temperatures and pressures used in the facility, as this will influence the nature and extent of any
release of dangerous substances, and hence the extent of any subsequent hazardous areas. Some
substances do not form explosive atmospheres unless they are heated, and some liquids if released under
pressure will form a fine mist that can explode even if there is insufficient vapour.

Source of Release
In establishing the type of hazardous zone, it is necessary to identify the source of release and the grade of
release. Each item of process equipment should be considered. If the dangerous substance cannot be
released into the atmosphere, for example from an all-welded pipeline, then the surrounding area would be
non-hazardous. When considering the possible formation of potentially explosive atmospheres, it is
important to consider all dangerous substances that may be present at the workplace, including waste
products, residues, materials used for cleaning or maintenance, and any used only as a fuel.
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Grade of Release
If there is a likelihood of release of a dangerous substance then the grade of release (continuous, primary or
secondary) should be established by considering the likely frequency and duration of the release. Opening
parts of an enclosed process, e.g., during filter changing, should be considered.

A continuous grade release is a release that is continuous or is expected to occur frequently or for long
periods. This normally leads to a zone 0 or a zone 20.

A primary grade release is a release that can be expected to occur periodically or occasionally during
normal operation. This normally leads to a zone 1 or a zone 21.

A secondary grade release is a release that is not expected to occur in normal operation and, if it does
occur, is likely to do so only infrequently & for short periods. This normally leads to a zone 2 or zone 22.

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Extent of the Zone

Using published standards or codes the extent of the zone can be estimated or calculated. The extent of
the zone is the distance in any direction from the edge of a source of release to the point where the

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hazard associated with the release is considered to exist no longer.

The extent of the zone can be limited by physical barriers, by maintaining positive pressures to prevent
ingress and by increased ventilation. An assessment needs to identify areas within the workplace that are
connected to places where an explosive atmosphere may occur. This will provide information on any
areas away from the source of the hazard to which an explosive atmosphere may spread, e.g., through
ducts.

Illustration 10: Zoning of a Flammable Liquid Vessel Vented to Atmosphere

Illustration 11: Zoning of a Powder Hopper with LEV

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Exclusion of Ignition Sources

Ignition sources are often controlled by using zoning to illustrate the likely presence of explosive
atmospheres. By using this information, and for example, the ATEX marking scheme for electrical
equipment, verification can be made that ignition sources related to electrical equipment are approved for
use in the explosive atmospheres that are present.

Ignition sources may be excluded from areas where flammable atmospheres may be present.

Other sources of ignition can include friction causing hot surfaces, vehicles, heat sources, hot pipework,
welding equipment, and grinding equipment.

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Selection of Equipment within Zoned Areas

The following categories of equipment must be used in the zones indicated, provided they are suitable for
gases, vapours, mists, dusts or mists and dusts, as appropriate:
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x Category 1 equipment in zone 0 or zone 20

x Category 1 or 2 equipment in zone 1 or zone 21
x Category 1, 2 or 3 equipment in zone 2 or zone 22

The criteria determining the classification into categories are:

Category 1 comprises equipment designed to be capable of functioning in conformity with the operational
parameters established by the manufacturer and ensuring a very high level of protection.

Equipment in this category is intended for use in places in which explosive atmospheres caused by mixtures
of air and gases, vapours or mists or by air / dust mixtures are present continuously, for long periods or
frequently.

Equipment in this category shall ensure the requisite level of protection even in the event of rare incidents
relating to equipment, and is characterised by means of protection such that:
x Either, in the event of failure of one means of protection, at least an independent second means
provides the requisite level of protection
x The requisite level of protection is assured in the event of two faults occurring independently of
each other

Category 2 comprises equipment designed to be capable of functioning in conformity with the operational
parameters established by the manufacturer and of ensuring a high level of protection. Equipment in this
category is intended for use in places where explosive atmospheres caused by gases, vapours, mists or air /
dust mixtures are likely to occur. The means of protection relating to equipment in this category ensure the
requisite level of protection, even in the event of frequently occurring disturbances or equipment faults,
which normally must be taken into account.

Category 3 comprises equipment designed to be capable of functioning in conformity with the operational
parameters established by the manufacturer and ensuring a normal level of protection. Equipment in this
category is intended for use in places where explosive atmospheres caused by gases, vapours, mists or air /
dust mixtures are unlikely to occur or, if they do occur, are likely to do so only infrequently and for a short
period only. Equipment in this category ensures the requisite level of protection during normal operation.

Inerting
The replacement of oxygen with inert gases in enclosed flammable liquid and dust process operations
significantly reduces the risk of fire and the extent of a hazardous zone. Inert gases, e.g., nitrogen, argon
and carbon dioxide, do not contain sufficient oxygen to support the combustion process. Typically, oxygen
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free nitrogen (OFN) is used due to cost and availability reasons. Flammable liquids are processed above
their upper flammable limit (UFL) therefore the risk of ignition is eliminated if operations continue above the
flammable range.

During the 1970s there were several incidents of oil tanker ship explosions, which led to the installation of
inerting systems using engine or boiler exhaust gases cleaned via a scrubber unit.

Sufficiently low oxygen concentrations can cause unconsciousness without warning or an inability for an
individual to sense symptoms, such as dizziness. The use of inerting systems increases the risk of
asphyxiation fatality.

Substitution
This involves replacing a dangerous substance with a substance or process that eliminates the risk. In
practice this is difficult to achieve, and it is more likely that it will be more practicable to replace the
dangerous substance with one that is less hazardous (e.g., by replacing a low-flashpoint solvent with a high-
flashpoint solvent). An alternative is to design the process so that it is less dangerous.

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This might include for example, changing from a batch production to a continuous production process; or
changing the manner or sequence in which the dangerous substance is added. However, care must be
taken when carrying out these steps to ensure no other safety or health risks are created or increased.
Employers should identify possible alternatives, evaluate and compare them, and consider risks, benefits,

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costs, and effectiveness when deciding whether it is possible to use alternative substances or work
processes.

Where the dangerous substance is handled, or stored for use as a fuel, there is often no scope for
elimination and very little chance to reduce the quantities handled. Control and mitigation measures
should be implemented to reduce risk where risk cannot entirely be eliminated.

Workplace and Work Processes

Measures should be taken to ensure that the workplace is designed constructed and maintained to reduce
risk by:
x Designing, constructing, assembling, installing, providing and using suitable work processes to
reduce risk
x Maintaining work processes in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair
x Ensuring that equipment and protective systems meet the following requirements
x Where power failure can give rise to the spread of additional risk, equipment and protective
systems must be able to be maintained in a safe state of operation independently of the rest of
the plant in the event of power failure
x Means for manual override must be possible, operated by employees competent to do so, for
shutting down equipment and protective systems incorporated within automatic processes which
deviate from the intended operating conditions, provided that the provision or use of such means
does not compromise safety
x On operation of emergency shutdown, accumulated energy must be dissipated as quickly and as
safely as possible or isolated so that it no longer constitutes a hazard
x Necessary measures must be taken to prevent confusion between connecting devices

Explosion Relief/Mitigation
Application of mitigation measures must be consistent with the risk assessment and appropriate to the
nature of the activity or operation.

Reducing the Number of Employees Exposed to a

Minimum
Workplaces where dangerous substances are manufactured or processed should be separated from the
rest of the building by physical barriers that are fire-resistant. Occupancy should be restricted to a
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minimum of authorised personnel.

Avoidance of the Propagation of Fires or Explosions

For flammable solids, the provision of explosion suppression, rotary isolation valves, chokes and baffles.

Illustration 12: Rotary Valve

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Baffles and Chokes

Chokes and baffles reduce the volume of a space and offer a physical barrier to the passage of the
explosion. They prevent the propagation of the flame through the restricted gap. This approach can be
used in many ways but two of the more commonly adopted methods include the use of rotary valves and the
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insertion of baffle plates in screw conveyors.

The narrow gap between the vane and the valve casing prevents the flame font from propagating through
the valve.

Illustration 13: Choke Within a Screw Transfer

The baffle plate provides a restriction and narrow gap that prevents the flame propagating through the screw
conveyor. For flammable gases and liquids, the provision of explosion suppression, flame arresters and fast
acting isolation valves.

Explosion Suppression
Suppressing an explosion before dangerous pressures can build up reduces the risk of damage to plant,
processes and individuals. Explosion suppression systems rapidly detect a fire or explosion via sensitive
ultra-violet and pressure sensors, which in turn activate a fixed ‘flood’ quenching system. The quenching
media includes inert gases, e.g., nitrogen or carbon dioxide, and fine water mist sprays delivered by piped
systems. The extinguishing efficiency of the water is greatly increased as it is delivered as a mist. The water
quench pressure is delivered from an explosive charge set within storage cylinders.

Typically, explosion suppression systems are fitted to ductwork, transfer and processing systems. No
process activities should be undertaken when explosion suppression systems are impaired. Care should be
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taken during maintenance operations near live explosion suppression systems. False activation can occur
by unintended operation of the sensitive detectors, e.g., impacts upon pressure detectors and ultra-violet
from welding operations are often sufficient for them to operate. Serious accidents can occur if the system
discharges directly onto anyone at close range.

Illustration 14: Explosion Suppression System

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Fast Acting Valves

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High-speed isolation valves can also be used to prevent flame transfer and passage of material between
two sections of a plant. These valves are connected to sensors that detect a fire or explosion, causing the
valve to slam shut in a matter of milliseconds.

Another means of protection is to employ high speed dumping facilities by which large quantities of
flammable liquid can be transferred
to a safe place.

Illustration 15: Fast Acting Isolation Valve

Flame Arresters
Flame arresters allow the free passage of vapours and gases from one portion of the plant to another but
prevent the passage of flame by quenching the flame front. Flame arresters usually take the form of wire
gauze or rolls of crimped metal ribbon, but other effective types exist. Typical applications of flame
arresters are at the exits of vent pipes of flammable liquid tanks, within ducts carrying flammable gases, in
the entrance to sumps, in interconnecting pipework between tanks to flammable liquids, and in fact, in any
place where flame can be carried through pipework. The type of flame arrester must be chosen and
positioned carefully, for the flame may break through an arrester if its velocity is sufficiently high.

Methods of Explosion Relief

The plant should be designed to withstand the pressure of an explosion. Relief of explosion or over-
pressure can be employed to prevent damage to plant and buildings. The position and size of relief areas ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
will depend on circumstances, but as a rough guide 1 m2 of vent area should be allowed for 32 m3 of
plant. For very hazardous materials such as magnesium powder the vent area should be 1 m2 for 16 m3
of plant. The relief should be positioned in such a manner as to vent the explosion products into a safe
place so that life and property are not endangered. Where venting is by means of a duct, this should be
kept as short and straight as possible.

Pressure relief can be achieved by provision of weak ‘blow out’ panels, weighted or spring-loaded vents or
bursting discs. Blow out panels are held in place by fixings designed to fail at a set pressure. Secure
chains, to prevent injury upon release, anchor the panel. Weighted and spring-loaded vents open at a
predetermined set pressure. Once the overpressure is relieved the vent will close. A bursting disc is
designed to burst or rupture at a predetermined pressure, thus relieving a dangerous build-up of pressure
(or vacuum). Once they rupture, they do not re-seal.

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Illustration 16: Explosion Relief Vents & Bursting

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Pressure relief systems should be fitted to:

x Ovens and dryers operating below 25% LEL, but without sufficient process control to prevent
deviations to 25% LEL
x Ovens and dryers operating above 25% LEL
x Reactors where there is a risk of a runaway reaction
x Dust handling plant where there is risk of ignition
x Spray dryers producing combustible dusts
x Silos storing combustible dusts
x Aerosol filling rooms using liquefied flammable gases
x Plant where explosive atmospheres can occur, and ignition sources cannot be eliminated
x Storerooms of highly flammable and extremely flammable liquids
x Storage of LPG and compressed natural gas in buildings

Safe Operation
Plant operators must be trained to take immediate action to correct faulty conditions not only to maintain
plant efficiency but also to correct hazardous situations. Effective action can be taken automatically if the
plant is provided with its own built-in compensating control system. Plant, equipment and control systems
should be maintained in an efficient state, efficient working order and good repair. Appropriate
maintenance and inspection regimes should be implemented and carried out by competent persons.

Where the work is carried out in hazardous places or involves hazardous activities measures taken to
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achieve the elimination or the reduction of risk should include the application of appropriate systems of
work, which may include:
x The issuing of written instructions for the carrying out of the work, including a description of the
task and a method statement.
x Application of the control and rescue measures.
x A system of permits to work with such permits being issued by a person with responsibility for
this function prior to the commencement of the work concerned.
x Inerting and ventilation.
x Isolation of plant and equipment from dangerous substances and mechanical, electrical etc.
isolation, including the use of locks, spades (slip blinds), blank flanges and labels.
x Control of ignition sources and additional hazards created by the work.
x Establishing acceptable concentration levels for work activities.
x Monitoring concentration levels.
x Provision of appropriate emergency equipment and arrangements.

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Safe Storage, Handling, Use, Transport and Disposal

Dangerous substances and waste containing dangerous substances should be carried in closed vessels

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or conveyed in a totally closed system. The risks arising from storage, treatment and disposal of waste
materials and any by-product should be controlled by the provision of suitable containers, labelling,
segregation of incompatibles, storage in a well-ventilated area preferably in an external compound,
control of sources of ignition and safe systems of work. All disposal activities should take account of
relevant environmental legislation.

Provision of Information, Instruction, Training and

Supervision
All employees should be informed of the hazards and risks they face, the precautions necessary to be
taken and the emergency arrangements. Training should take account of the competence of individuals,
including managers, the plant, equipment, and processes involved. Information, instruction, training &
supervision should extend to other persons depending upon the nature of the risks.

Provision of Suitable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

This includes the provision of anti-static clothing and footwear. As this is electrically conductive it
prevents the build-up of electrostatic charges, however anti-static footwear would not provide an
insulating barrier for any live electrical work.

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10.4 Workplace Fire Risk Assessment

Fire Risk Assessment

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Fire precautions are physical, procedural, and managerial measures taken to minimise the risk of a fire
occurring and to mitigate the effects of any fire that does occur, and include:

x Fire prevention: Techniques to prevent a fire; and

x Fire protection: Systems, equipment or structural measures designed to minimise the danger to
people and property by detecting, extinguishing, or containing fires.

Anyone who has control of premises or anyone who has a degree of control over certain areas or systems
may have responsibilities for fire safety management, e.g., it could be:

x The employer for those parts of premises staff may go to

x The managing agent or owner for shared parts of premises or shared fire safety equipment such as
fire-warning systems or sprinklers
x The occupier, such as self-employed people or voluntary organisations if they have any control; or
x Any other person who has some control over a part of the premises

Although in many premises the responsible person will be obvious, there may be times when a number of
people have some responsibility.

The responsible person should:

x Ensure a fire-risk assessment is carried out. In practice the assessment may be carried out by an
employee or an external expert. The responsible person will still be responsible for fire safety,
irrespective of whoever carries out the assessment
x Take such general fire precautions as will ensure the safety of any of his employees
x In relation to relevant persons who are not his employees, take such general fire precautions as
may reasonably be required in the circumstances of the case to ensure that the premises are safe

It is also expected that employers make reasonable adjustments to their premises to ensure that no
employee is at a disadvantage. This includes ensuring that emergency plans take account of disabled
persons.
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The Identification of Hazards and the Assessment

of Risk from Fire

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The principles of fire risk assessment are the same as for general risk assessment. In order to
understand the process, it is necessary to first define the following key terms:
x Fire hazard: Something with the potential to cause fire (i.e., the source of the fire). A fire
hazard could arise from any side of the fire triangle
x Fire risk: The likelihood that fire will occur and the extent and severity of the damage that may
be caused (the harm potential)

The objectives of a fire risk assessment are to:

x Prevent a fire from occurring
x Minimise the consequences of fire

The consequences of fire are the most likely outcome of a fire in a building, taking into account the
building, its occupants, the work activities, the substances stored and used and the range of fire scenarios
that it is reasonable to anticipate. The outcomes of workplace fire incidents include:
x Injury or ill-health of employees and non-employees, e.g., the fire and rescue service, visitors,
customers, and members of public
x Damage to, or loss of, property
x Loss of business and / or job security
x Damage to the environment

Wherever possible, fire hazards should be eliminated by keeping the sides of the fire triangle apart. If
hazards cannot be eliminated, fire risks will need to be minimised by physical controls, e.g., use of fire
detection and warning systems, fixed fire-fighting equipment, etc. Systems of work, or personal protective
equipment, should be used as a last resort because these depend upon people to use them, and use
them correctly.

5 Steps to Fire Risk Assessment

How a risk assessment is carried out will depend on relevant standards and best practice requirements,
the nature of the building and work activities and the types of hazards and risks. The risk assessment
process should be systematic, practical, and take account of the views of employees, who will be able to
contribute practical knowledge. The British Home Office has published a 5-step checklist guidance to
carry out a fire safety risk assessment.

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A 5-step approach to fire safety risk assessment is often advocated:

Step 1: Identify fire hazards

Step 2: Identify people at risk
Step 3: Evaluate, remove, or reduce, and protect from risk
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Step 4: Record, plan, inform, instruct, and train

Step 5: Review

The Risk Assessment Process

Risk assessment is a systematic process of collecting information and making judgements against
standards.

The fire risk assessment and management process involve the:

x Identification of unwanted and uncertain future events

x Devising alternative strategies and evaluating their cost / risk
x Taking action to avoid or minimise fire risks

Risk assessors will need to be competent to carry out an effective fire risk assessment. Competence does
not necessarily depend on the possession of specific qualifications, although such qualifications might
contribute to the demonstration of competence.

The first steps in the risk assessment process are to identify the fire hazards and the people at risk. This
may require use of a combination of the following:
x Workplace division: Sub-division can be by storey level, by fire alarm zone or by department, etc.;
however, each chosen area should be a fire compartment or several compartments
x Workplace plan: A simple drawing of each storey of the premises, drawn roughly to scale, which
shows any relevant structural features, such as staircases and how particular areas are used, e.g.,
production, storage or sleeping areas can assist the risk assessment process
x Workplace inspection
x Consideration of standards and best practice
x Consultation with employees and experts
x Document and manufacturers’ information review
x Incident data review
x Job / task analysis

Step 1: Identify Fire Hazards

The first step in the fire risk assessment process is to identify:
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x Sources of ignition
x Sources of fuel
x Sources of oxygen

Sources of Ignition
What is there within the premises that could start a fire?

Possible ignition sources include heaters, boilers, engines, smoking materials, hot processes (e.g., welding
or grinding), electrical apparatus, static electricity, friction, chemicals, direct sunlight & arson.

Sources of heat or combustible material may be introduced during periods of maintenance or refurbishment.
Such work should be carefully controlled by safe systems of work, including permit-to-work systems
wherever necessary. Should the work be undertaken by a third party, e.g., a contractor, then appropriate
procedures for the selection and monitoring of contractors and co-operation / co-ordination between client
and contractor will be essential. Ignition sources can be removed, relocated, replaced or controlled.

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Combustible Materials
All workplaces will contain some combustible materials. The workplace may contain features that could
promote the rapid spread of fire, heat or smoke, e.g., ducts, flues, openings in floors and walls, and

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combustible wall and ceiling finishes.

Some of the most common fuels found in the workplace are:

x Flammable liquids, e.g., petrol, white spirit, paraffin

x Flammable liquid-based products such as paints, thinners and adhesives
x Flammable chemicals
x Flammable gases, e.g. LPG
x Timber
x Paper and card products
x Packaging materials
x Upholstery, furniture and soft furnishings
x Waste materials
x Aspects of the construction, e.g., ceiling or wall coverings

The presence of normal stock in trade need not cause undue concern provided that materials are used
properly and stored away from sources of ignition. The number of combustible materials in the workplace
should be kept as low as possible. Materials should not be stored in gangways, corridors, or stairways or
where they may obstruct exit doors.

Explosive and flammable materials are a particular cause of concern as are combustible plastic foams
and other materials that ignite readily and produce large quantities of heat and / or dense smoke. Levels
of combustible materials can be reduced by improved stock control and housekeeping. Special storage
arrangements are required for flammables and explosives.

Sources of Oxygen
Oxygen is essential for combustion to occur and the main source of oxygen in a fire is the air. Other
sources include mechanical air conditioning or air moving equipment, oxidising materials and oxygen
supplies from cylinder storage or piped systems, e.g., for medical use, or welding operations.

Step 2: Identify People at Risk

If there is a fire the main priority is to ensure that everyone reaches a place of safety (outdoors or a fire
protected stairway) quickly. As part of the fire risk assessment, consideration should be given to who is at
risk (employees and non-employees), including vulnerable persons, in and around the premises, how they
will be warned, and how they will escape.
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This will require the identification of where people are working, either at permanent workstations or at
occasional locations around the premises, and consideration of who else may be at risk, such as
customers, visiting contractors, etc., and where these people are likely to be found. The fire risk
assessment should consider all the people who use the premises, paying particular attention to people
who may be especially at risk, for example:

x Employees who work alone and / or in isolated areas, e.g., cleaners, security staff
x People who are unfamiliar with the premises, e.g., seasonal workers, contractors, visitors and
customers
x People with disabilities or those who may have some other reason for not being able to leave
the premises quickly, e.g., elderly customers or parents with children
x Other persons in the immediate vicinity of the premises
x People with language difficulties

Groups of people may be more vulnerable due to working near to fire dangers, working alone or in
isolated areas (such as in roof spaces or storerooms), impaired mobility, mental illness, ageing, being less
able bodied, having impaired vision or hearing and being parents with babies, children or young persons.
Young people should not be employed unless a fire risk assessment has been conducted or, if necessary,

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reviewed. Contractors, visitors, etc. may also be at greater risk due to unfamiliarity with the premises.
Every effort should be made to identify any people who might have difficulty in evacuating and / or might
need assistance.

Most disabled persons should be able to reach the safety of a protected escape route or final exit
independently. Some disabled people, however, will not be able to use stairways without assistance.
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Appropriate procedures should be put in place to assist disabled people in the event of a fire. Assistance
may also be necessary for those who are less able to get about during an emergency, e.g., pregnant
women and those with impaired vision, heart conditions or using crutches. Doors can be opened, and
routes cleared for their easier egress from the building.

Step 3: Evaluate, Remove or Reduce and Protect from Risk

The fire risk in premises should be assessed.

Wherever possible, fire hazards should be eliminated by keeping the sides of the fire triangle apart.

If hazards cannot be removed, fire risks will need to be minimised by physical controls, e.g., use of fire
detection and warning systems, fixed fire-fighting equipment, etc. Systems of work, or personal protective
equipment, should be used as a last resort because these depend upon people to use them, and use them
correctly.

Evaluate, Remove and Reduce

In order to evaluate the risk, i.e., the likelihood of harm and probable severity of harm occurring, the
following should be considered:

1. The existing fire hazards, i.e., sources of fuel, oxygen and ignition.
2. The adequacy and effectiveness of the existing fire precautions.
3. An estimation of the risk (likelihood and severity) and the need for further precautions.
4. Remove and reduce

1. Existing Fire Hazards

The components of the fire triangle, i.e., sources of fuel, oxygen and ignition, should be considered to
identify significant fire hazards.

Anything that burns is fuel for a fire. The fire risk assessment should identify things that will burn reasonably
easily and are in enough quantity to provide fuel for a fire or cause it to spread to another fuel source.

In general, fires start from sources of ignition in one of three ways:

x Accidentally, e.g., when smoking materials are not properly extinguished or when lighting displays
are knocked over
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x By act or omission, e.g., when electrical equipment is not properly maintained, or when waste
packaging is allowed to accumulate near to a heat source, or by storing LPG next to an electric fire
or other source of heat; or
x Deliberately, e.g., an arson attack involving setting fire to external rubbish bins placed too close to
the building

Arson is the deliberate and malicious destruction or damaging of property by fire.

2. Existing Fire Precautions

The adequacy or otherwise precautions will clearly influence the degree of risks present in premises.
Therefore, it should be considered during the risk assessment process to ensure that persons are warned in
case of fire and can evacuate.

The following should be considered in the fire risk assessment process:

x Control of ignition sources (including arson) and sources of fuel and oxygen
x Fire detection systems and alarm (warning) systems
x Means of escape, e.g., doors, routes, emergency lighting, signs, etc.
x Fire-fighting equipment, i.e., fixed and portable fire-fighting equipment

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x The emergency plan

x Staff training
x Maintenance and testing of equipment, e.g., fire detection, warning and fighting, electrical and gas

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equipment
x Compartmentation and the risk of fire spread
x Smoke venting
x Housekeeping
x Ownership / awareness of policy and procedures.

Aspects of the building and occupancy that have a major impact on fire risk include:

x Height of the building, e.g., single storey or multi-storey, low or high rise, the presence of
basements.
x Construction of the building, e.g., mainly combustible or non-combustible.
x Complexity of the building, e.g., simple or complex escape routes.
x Floor area of each storey and basement.
x Nature of the occupants, e.g., young or old, infirm or able bodied.
x Familiarity of the occupants with the building, e.g., fully, slightly or totally unfamiliar.
x State (or likely state) of the occupants, e.g., awake or asleep, alert or under the influence of alcohol
or drugs.
x Activities and processes carried out in the building, e.g., handling of highly flammable materials,
creation of combustible wastes, and use of ignition sources.
x History of fires in the building.

Although the above aspects cannot, or cannot readily, be changed, their effect on fire risk should be taken
into account in the fire risk assessment.

In considering the effectiveness of existing physical and organisational controls it is important to consider the
reliability of the various measures; they may be effective now but are they likely to remain so? It will be
important to comment where controls are provided, but are not adequately used, or are used incorrectly.

For example, when evaluating the risk to people from fire spread the following should be considered:

x Fire starting on a lower floor affecting the only escape route for people on upper floors or the only
escape route for people with disabilities
x Fire starting in a service room and affecting hazardous materials (such as pyrotechnics or gas
cylinders)
x Fire developing in an unoccupied space that people have to pass by to escape from the building.
Fire spreading rapidly through the building because of combustible structural elements and / or
large quantities of combustible goods ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x Rapid vertical fire spread in high rack storage
x Fire or smoke spreading through a building via routes such as vertical shafts, service ducts,
ventilation systems, poorly installed, poorly maintained or damaged, walls, partitions and ceilings
x Fire and smoke spreading through a building due to poor installation of fire precautions, e.g.,
incorrectly installed fire doors or incorrectly installed services penetrating fire walls
x Fire and smoke spreading through the building due to poorly maintained and damaged fire doors or
fire doors being wedged open

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3. Risk Estimation and Further Controls

The primary purpose of risk assessment is to enable decisions to be made on the need for action and on the
priority of action, e.g., a hazard assessed as high risk will require immediate action and perhaps
considerable expenditure whereas a low or negligible risk can be given a less pressing timescale for action
and costs expended may be limited.
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Where employees of different employers work in the same workplace, their respective employers would
have to consider risks to their own employees and to the other employers’ employees and may have to co-
operate to produce an overall risk assessment.

Qualitative risk assessments are those that record the detail and judgements about hazards and controls
against standards. The detail is required to establish what further precautions are required to satisfy legal
standards. Qualitative risk assessments can also include an element of relative risk ranking to make them
semi-quantitative. Semi-quantitative or quantitative risk assessments include numerical data, which allows
the risks to be ranked. The risk ranking can help to prioritise the order in which actions should be taken, as
illustrated in Tables 6 and 7.

Table 6: Risk Ranking Matrix

Likelihood of Harm
Unlikely Possible Quite Possible Likely Very Likely
Severity of harm 1 2 3 4 5
Negligible 1 1 2 3 4 5
Slight 2 2 4 6 8 10
Moderate 3 3 6 9 12 15
Severe 4 4 8 12 16 20
Very Severe 5 5 10 15 20 25

These numbers provide an indication of the risk and therefore the priority.

Risk ranking methods only provide an indication of relative risk, based on subjective judgement. They should
be used to prioritise action, not to decide what further control measures to introduce. Occupiers of premises
must satisfy themselves that the risk assessment and the actions taken to deal with the hazards are
adequate.

Table 7: Risk Ranking Conclusions

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Hardly any risk from fire.

Few combustible materials.
Low 1–2
No highly flammables.
Virtually no sources of heat.

Sufficient combustibles and heat sources to pose a risk.

Normal 3 – 15
Fire likely to be confined or to spread slowly.

Serious risk to life.

High 16 – 25 Substantial quantities of combustibles or any highly flammables

where there is likelihood of fire occurring and rapid fire, heat and
smoke spread.

Now a judgement must be made about whether the existing control measures are adequate and effective
to minimise the level of risk, or whether additional measures are required. The following risk control
hierarchy is recommended:

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x Avoiding risks.
x Evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided.
x Combating the risks at source.

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x Adapting to technical progress.
x Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or less dangerous.
x Developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organisation of work
and the influence of factors relating to the working environment.
x Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures.
x Giving appropriate instructions to employees.

Remove or Reduce
All workplaces will contain some combustible materials. The number of combustible materials in the
workplace should be kept as low as possible. Materials should not be stored in gangways, corridors, or
stairways or where they may obstruct exist doors. The presence of normal stock in trade need not cause
undue concern if materials are used properly and stored away from sources of ignition.

Explosive and flammable materials are a particular cause of concern as are combustible plastic foams and
other materials that ignite readily and produce large quantities of heat and/or toxic smoke. Levels of
combustible materials can be reduced by improved stock control and housekeeping. Specific storage
arrangements are required for flammables and explosives.

There are various ways that the risk caused by materials and substances can be reduced, e.g.

x Minimise stocks of flammable materials, liquids and gases in open areas. Keep remaining stock in
dedicated storerooms or storage areas, preferably outside, where only the appropriate staff are
allowed to go, and keep the minimum required for the operation of the business
x Do not keep flammable solids, liquids and gases together
x Keep areas containing flammable gases ventilated, e.g., fork-lift truck charging units
x Ensure flammable materials, liquids and gases, are kept to a minimum, and are stored properly
with adequate separation distances between them
x Ensure adequate aisle is maintained - separation between stacks of stored goods
x Separate fuel into fire-resistant enclosures, e.g., store raw materials and finished goods separately
x Use non-combustible building materials for building modifications
x Remove, or treat large areas of highly combustible wall and ceiling linings, e.g., polystyrene or
carpet tiles, to reduce the rate of flame spread across the surface
x Develop a formal system for the control of combustible waste by ensuring that waste materials and
rubbish are not allowed to build up and are carefully stored until properly disposed of, particularly at
the end of the day
x Take action to avoid any parts of the premises, and in particular storage areas, being vulnerable to ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
arson or vandalism
x Check all areas where hot work (e.g., welding) has been carried out to ensure that no ignition has
taken place and no smouldering or hot materials remain that may cause a fire later

Oxygen is essential for combustion to occur and the main source of oxygen in a fire is the air. Other sources
include mechanical air conditioning or air moving equipment, oxidising materials and oxygen supplies from
cylinder storage or piped systems, e.g., for medical use or welding operations. Where possible, sources of
oxygen should be controlled. Potential source of oxygen supplied to a fire can be reduced by:

x Closing all doors, windows and other openings not required for ventilation, particularly out of
working hours
x Shutting down ventilation systems which are not essential to the function of the premises
x Not storing oxidising materials near or within any heat source or flammable materials
x Controlling the use and storage of oxygen cylinders, ensuring that they are not leaking and that
they are in an adequately ventilated area

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Sources of heat or combustible materials may be introduced during periods of maintenance or

refurbishment. Such work should be carefully controlled by safe systems of work, including permit-to-work
systems wherever necessary. Should the work be undertaken by a third party, e.g., a contractor, then
appropriate procedures for the selection and monitoring of contractors and co-operation / co-ordination
between client and contractor will be essential. Ignition sources can be removed, relocated, replaced, or
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

controlled. There are various ways that the risk caused by potential sources of ignition can be reduced, e.g.:

x Wherever possible replace a potential source by a safer alternative

x Operate a safe smoking policy in designated smoking areas and prohibit smoking elsewhere
x Replace naked flame and radiant heaters with fixed convector heaters or a central heating system.
Restrict the movement of and guard portable heating appliances
x Separate ignition hazards and combustibles, e.g., ensure sufficient clear space between lights and
combustibles, build fire-resistant enclosures for hot processes, and incinerate rubbish off site
x Inspect and monitor ignition hazards so that preventative corrective actions can be undertaken,
e.g., sample temperature on ducts and in oil baths, inspect for hot spots in electrical systems and
mechanical systems
x Ensure electrical, mechanical and gas equipment is installed, used, maintained, and protected in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
x Strictly control hot processes / hot work by operating permit-to-work schemes
x Check all areas where hot work, e.g., welding, has been carried out to ensure that no ignition has
taken place and no smouldering or hot materials remain that may cause a fire
x Ensure that no one carrying out work on gas fittings which involves exposing pipes that contain or
have contained flammable gas uses any source of ignition such as blow-lamps or hot-air guns
x Ensure that no one uses any source of ignition while searching for an escape of gas
x Take precautions to avoid arson i.e., CCTV

Step 4: Record, Plan, Inform, Instruct and Train

Record
The responsible person should record the fire risk assessment where:

x A licence in relation to the use of the premises is required; or

x Risk assessments should be available or retrievable for use by management

The assessments may cross-reference other documents and records, e.g., safe systems of work,
monitoring arrangements. Where further action is required following the assessment then reference to, or
the inclusion of, an action plan based on priorities and set to timescales should also be included.

It can be helpful to include a simple line drawing to illustrate the fire precautions. This can also help when
checking the precautions as part of an ongoing review.
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Plan
In the event of a fire occupants of a building will need to know what to do. Employers should prepare
evacuation procedures (an emergency plan) and ensure employees are trained in the procedures. In small
premises the procedures required may be relatively simple, whereas in larger premises and more complex
situation, they will be more comprehensive.

The emergency plan will need to take account of all persons likely to be in the premises at any time.

Where more than one employer occupies a workplace, they should consult in devising the emergency plan
and co-operate with each other when putting it into effect. Evacuation procedures should be tested on a
regular basis, e.g., twice a year.

Inform and Instruct

Where two or more responsible persons share a workplace, they should co-operate and co-ordinate their
fire safety measures, this will normally require the sharing of information.

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All staff, including staff who work outside normal working hours, such as contract cleaners or maintenance
staff, should be given information and instruction as soon as possible after they are appointed and regularly
after that. The information and instructions must be in a form that can be used and understood. Account
should be taken of those with disabilities such as hearing or sight impairment, and those with learning

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difficulties.

The information and instruction given should be based on the emergency plan and should include:

x The significant findings from the fire risk assessment

x The measures put in place to reduce the risk
x What staff should do if there is a fire
x The identity of nominated persons with responsibilities for fire safety
x Any special arrangements for serious and imminent danger to persons from fire

Training
Adequate fire safety training should be provided for staff. The type of training should be based on the
features of the premises and should:

x Take account of the findings of the fire risk assessment

x Explain the emergency procedures
x Take account of the work activity and explain the duties and responsibilities of staff
x Take place during normal working hours and be repeated periodically where appropriate
x Be easily understandable by your staff and other people who may be present
x Be tested by fire drills

In small premises this may be no more than showing new staff the fire exits and giving basic training on
what to do if there is a fire. In larger premises, such as a supermarket with a high staff turnover and many
shift patterns, the organisation of fire safety training will need to be planned.

Step 5: Review
Risk assessments will need to be reviewed if there is any reason to suspect that it is no longer valid, or if
there is a significant change, resulting from:

x A fire incident, injury, dangerous occurrence, etc.

x Changes to the premises
x Changes to special, technical and organisational measures
x Changes to the organisation of the work
x The introduction of new equipment
x Changes to equipment, plant and processes ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x Changes in personnel
x Changes in relevant standards
x Monitoring or audit findings
x Advice or action by an insurance company
x New information becoming available
x Improved control measures becoming available
x The involvement of young or disabled persons; or
x The passage of a specific period, as indicated in the risk assessment

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Fire Detection and Alarm Systems and Procedures

Design and Application of Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The main factors which need to be considered include:

x The height and volume of the area to be protected

x Air movements
x False alarms
x Alarm response time required
x Nature of the work activities carried out
x Nature of gases or soot which may be liberated from the fire
x The number and type of occupants
x The setting/location
x The operation of automatic fire suppression
x New developments in technology

Means of Raising the Alarm

In order to safeguard the safety of relevant persons, the responsible person should ensure that the premises
are, to the extent that it is appropriate, equipped with fire detectors and alarms. Appropriate is to be
determined having regard to the dimensions and use of the premises, the equipment contained on the
premises, the physical and chemical properties of the substances likely to be present and the maximum
number of persons who may be present at any one time.

To ensure the early warning of occupants, workplaces should be equipped with a means of raising the alarm
and systems to establish contact with external emergency services regarding rescue work and firefighting.

The design of the fire alarm system is influenced by the nature of risk and whether the aim is the protection
of persons and/or the protection of property.

Automatic System – Detection and Alarms

Automatic fire detectors provide an alarm signal for the fire alarm panel when initiated on reaching a pre-
determined threshold and/or by a rate-of-change of a fire characteristic.

The three main types of detectors are:

x Smoke detectors
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x Flame detectors
x Heat detectors

Smoke Detectors
Smoke is usually the first detectable sign of any carbonaceous fire; therefore, smoke detectors are most
frequently used unless there are problems with steam or dust, etc. which may trigger false alarms.

Once activated, smoke detectors provide a signal to activate the alarm.

There are two types of smoke detector:

x Ionising detectors; and

x Optical detectors

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Ionising Detectors
Alpha particle emitters in smoke detectors are contained in a sealed, encapsulated source so that the
energy is released but the material is not. Smoke passing into the smoke detector is ionised, which is then

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detected by an electronic sensor. They are designed to operate, sounding the alarm, when the pre-set flow
of electrical current is reduced as smoke enters the detector.

These devices are very sensitive to small smoke particles liberated in the early stage of a fire; therefore,
they may be triggered inadvertently. Their use is widespread, however it is preferred for fires where near
complete combustion (without dense smoke liberation) is a risk and in areas free of airborne dust.

Optical Detectors
These are designed to operate by the scattering (refraction) or absorption of light by smoke particles
(obscuration) passing through them. Their use is preferred for fires where large particles forming dense
smoke are expected. Optical detectors may also be used as zone sampling devices, whereby air samples
are drawn over the detector via tubing (aspirating type).

Lasers may also be used as optical detectors, operating when the laser beam is deflected. As laser beams
travel over large distances without divergence, they are suitable for large compartments and long cable
ducts or voids.

A relatively innovation for smoke detection is the use of video techniques, in which closed circuit television
cameras monitor the protected space. The signals from each camera are electronically analysed to detect
obscuration of part of the camera’s field of view by the presence of smoke.

Flame Detectors
Flame detectors are designed to operate when infra-red or ultra-violet radiated light is detected either
directly or through built in lenses or reflections. Infra-red radiation will pass through smoke more readily than
ultra-violet, so where dense smoke is liberated, ultra-violet detectors may not operate. Flame-cutting and
welding activities will cause false activation.

Large areas, e.g., storage areas and warehouses can be covered by the provision of a sufficient number of
flame detectors.

For flame detectors to operate it is essential that they are able to view the fire, therefore they should not be
obscured by fixtures, fittings or stacked goods. Optical lenses must be regularly cleaned as any obscuration
from dirt or fume will reduce their efficiency.

Infra-Red Flame Detectors

Infra-red (IR) detectors offer a rapid-fire detection response. IR flame detectors are usually designed to
respond to flame characteristics such as flicker, size or radiation frequency. Detectors offer a wide field of
view, however the installation of several IR detectors may be necessary as infra-red radiation is absorbed in
the atmosphere. Scanning-type detectors are available to increase the area covered. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Ultra-Violet Flame Detectors
Ultra-violet detectors do not normally respond to sunlight and may generally be used outdoors. Ultra-violet
detectors also offer a rapid-fire detection response and a wide field of view. In the case of explosion
detection extraneous UV from lightning, hot work or flash photography may cause false activation.

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Heat Detectors
These detect a rise in temperature within a compartment. Two types of detectors are available:
x Self-resetting
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

x Fusible

Self-Resetting

These detectors are either:

x Fixed temperature; or
x Rate of rise

Fixed heat detectors operate when a fixed, set, temperature is reached. Rate of rise detectors operate when
either the temperature rises at more than a certain rate, or when its fixed temperature is reached.

There will be a time delay for heat dissipation to the detector from the initial outbreak of fire, however heat
detectors are reliable, and the risk of false activation is low. Their use may not be suitable where hot
processes are carried out or where the escape of hot vapours, e.g., steam, is likely.

Fusible

Fusible metal heat detectors rely on the melting of an alloy at a known temperature to either make or break
an electrical circuit, which provides a signal to activate the alarm. They are particularly suitable for areas
where other types of detectors may cause false alarms.

Automatic Fire Alarm Signals

A signal to activate the fire alarm may be generated by equipment other than detectors, e.g., from:

x Sprinkler systems.
x Water deluge systems.
x Gas flood systems.

Planned Preventative Maintenance

(PPM)
PPM is a system of maintenance whereby a series of planned
interventions are considered to prolong the useful life of
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individual components. Intervention is usually by way of

inspection, routine servicing and replacement of safety critical
components at set intervals. For the successful operation of a
PPM program the intervention criteria must be determined
based on reliability data.

Selection of Detectors
As no one type of detector is suitable for all applications, the choice will depend upon:

x The speed of fire detection required, based on an assessment of fire risk

x The need to minimise false alarms
x The nature and quantity of the combustible materials present, including ease of ignition, heat
release
x The likely form of combustion, e.g., smouldering or flaming, and propensity for smoke production
x The probable rate of fire growth and spread
x The nature of the environment, e.g., humidity, temperature, cleanliness, extent of pollutants and
nature of work processes

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x The proposed fire evacuation strategy

x The height and geometry of the protected area

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Therefore, a combination of detectors may be appropriate in an installation. The suitability of detectors is
shown in Table 8.

Table 8: Suitability of Automatic Fire Detectors

Detector Applications Advantages Limitations

Type
Smoke – Areas free from airborne Sensitive, rapidly responding Sensitivity reduces as particle
Ionising. dust, e.g., computer suites to smoke containing small size increases. Prone to false
and high value equipment. particles, such as are activation by dust liberated
produced in rapidly burning during cleaning maintenance
flaming fires. activities, smoke liberated in
kitchens areas and or fume,
e.g., from diesel engine
exhaust. May not detect clean
burning flammable liquid fires,
e.g., alcohol.
Smoke – Areas likely to give rise to Sensitive to large smoke Normally used as point
Optical, light dense smoke such as can particles. Suitable for detectors. Not suitable for
obscuration. result from smouldering escape routes where visible ‘clean’ burning fires.
fires, including those smoke is detected before
involving polyurethane foam, the route becomes
or overheated PVC. impassable.
Smoke – Aspirating samplers are Sensitive to large smoke Not suitable for ‘clean’ burning
Optical, light suitable for critical electrical particles. Aspirating fires.
obscuration, or electronic equipment samplers are suitable for
aspirating rooms, cold stores, and inaccessible areas or harsh Maintenance requirements and
samplers, and areas difficult to access for environments. integrity of sampling lines.
video types. maintenance.
Video smoke detection
systems should be capable
of detecting smoke reliably
in the absence of the normal
lighting in the building.
Smoke – Laser scatter type is suitable Sensitive to light coloured Not sensitive to very ‘dark’
Optical, light for large compartments and smoke. smoke as the smoke absorbs
scatter long cable ducts or voids. light rather than scattering it.
Must be resistant to ambient
temperatures and loads to
prevent misalignment. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Flame – IR Should not be considered as Several detectors can cover Relatively high cost. Not
general-purpose detectors. or scan a large area. IR suitable for fires that produce
Used for specialised penetrated smoke well. The smoke without significant
purposes, e.g., to protect detectors do not need to be flame. Should not be used
very high spaces, such as ceiling mounted. They can where storage of material
warehouses, cathedrals, or be mounted at relatively low would obstruct their line of
atria. levels on walls around a sight.
very high protected space,
within which only a very
large fire could be detected
by ceiling mounted heat or
smoke detectors.
Flame- UV Should not be considered as Several detectors can cover Relatively high cost. UV is
general-purpose detectors. a large area. Rapid attenuated by smoke. Should
Suitable for high-risk special response to explosions. not be used as the sole means
applications such as of fire detection in areas within
explosion detection in plants buildings in which a fire can

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Detector Applications Advantages Limitations

Type
handling or storing highly produce significant quantities
flammable liquids or gases. of smoke before flaming
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

occurs. Not suitable for high

spaces. False activation of
explosion detectors due to arc
welding Operations, lighting,
and flash photography
Heat – Self- Areas where smoke or flame May be point or line. Can Relatively slow to respond.
resetting. detectors are unsuitable. detect very clean burning Not suitable for:
Fixed and Rate fires, e.g., involving certain
of rise. flammable liquids (e.g., Areas where a small fire, e.g.,
alcohol) before a smoke smouldering has the potential
detector. Better at resisting to cause unacceptable
environmental conditions. damage.
Escape routes.
Areas where smoke production
could threaten life, e.g., those
used for sleeping and
Areas prone to false activation
due to ambient temperatures
of escape of hot vapours, e.g.,
foundries.
Heat – Fusible Normal risk areas where Relatively low cost. Only suitable for fixed
metal. vapour particles are locations. Need to be replaced
normally present. on activation.

Multi-sensor fire detectors containing more than one sensor, thus monitoring more than one fire
characteristic, e.g., heat and smoke, are available. By analysis of the signals received from the sensors,
potential response to phenomena other than fire can be reduced while still providing an adequate response
to fire.

Combustion gas detectors, responding to carbon monoxide, are also available and should only be used for
special applications as the detector is most sensitive to smouldering fires and fires in which the rate of
burning is controlled by the supply of air. Such detectors can be relatively insensitive to free burning fires
supported by a plentiful supply of oxygen. Carbon monoxide detectors can be immune to certain
environmental influences that can result in false alarms from other smoke detection systems, such as dust,
steam, and cigarette smoke, while responding to many types of fire appreciably faster than heat detectors.
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In summary, in a slow smouldering fire a smoke or combustion gas detector will operate before a heat
detector. A fire that evolves heat and flame rapidly and with very little smoke could operate a heat or flame
detector before a smoke or combustion detector. With a flammable liquid fire, a flame detector could operate
first.

Where speed of response is important in an environment in which false alarms might result from the type of
fire detection that is desirable, multi-sensor fire detectors or a system incorporating a voting system
(coincidence detection) can enable early detection of fire without an unacceptable rate of false alarms.

A voting system is designed either to:

x Require more than one detector to sense a fire situation before a signal is passed to the alarm
system. These systems can prevent false activation and allow a warning to be given to occupants
in an area covered by a fixed fire-fighting system, e.g., in a computer suite provided with an
asphyxiant gas flood media. The detectors, which may be of the same type, are normally
connected in series. The limitation of this arrangement is that the reliability of this sub-system of
detectors is less than the reliability of each component, therefore highly reliable detectors are
required with the number of detectors limited; or

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x Compare the general area ambient temperature rise against the rise in temperature of specific rate
of rise detectors. These programmable systems are used where releases of hot vapour may cause
false activation of a rate of rise detector

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To improve the reliability of in line series detectors active redundancy can be utilised, especially where many
detectors are required. For active redundancy systems, the detectors are arranged in parallel.

Both voting and active redundant systems should only be used in addressable systems, where failure of an
individual detector will be identified as a fault.

Where the risk of false activation of a detector may cause a risk to life, e.g., by activating a CO2 extinguisher
flood system, then two detectors are often required to operate before releasing the extinguishing media. In
this case, activation of the first detector should give warning to the persons in the area.

Maintenance
Where necessary in order to safeguard the safety of relevant persons, the responsible person should ensure
that the premises and any facilities, equipment and devices provided are subject to a suitable system of
maintenance and are maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair.
Testing of alarm systems should conform to relevant standards. General testing and inspection
requirements are shown in Table 9.

Table 9: Fire Alarm Testing Schedules

User Testing
A manual call point should be operated during normal working hours. It should be confirmed
that the control equipment is capable of processing a fire alarm signal and providing an output
to fire alarm sounders, and to ensure that the fire alarm signal is correctly received at any alarm
receiving centre to which fire alarm signals are transmitted.
Weekly The weekly test should be carried out at approximately the same time each week.
A different manual call point should be used at the time of every weekly test, so that all manual
call points in the building are tested in rotation over a prolonged period.
Voice alarm systems should be tested.
In premises in which some employees only work during hours other than that at which the fire
alarm system is normally tested, an additional test should be carried out at least once a month
to ensure familiarity of these employees with the fire alarm signal.
If an automatically started emergency generator is used as part of the standby power supply, it
Monthly should be started up once each month by simulation of failure of the normal power supply and
operated on-load for at least one hour. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
If vented batteries are used as a standby power supply, a visual inspection of the batteries and
their connections should be made to ensure that they are in good condition. Action should be
taken to rectify any defect, including low electrolyte level.

Competent Person Testing

All vented batteries and their connections should be examined by a person competent in
battery installation and maintenance technology. Electrolyte levels should be checked and
topped up as necessary.
As determined by risk assessment. The recommended period between successive inspection
Quarterly and servicing visits should not exceed six months.
The system logbook should be examined. It should be ensured that any faults recorded have
received appropriate attention.
Test the alarm functions of the control and indicating equipment for each zone.

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Competent Person Testing

Test all standby batteries for their rated duration and Capacity.
Visually inspect all equipment.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Check for any occupancy / structural changes that may have affected the adequacy of the
system.
The switch mechanism of every manual call point should be tested.
All automatic fire detectors should be examined, as far as practicable, to ensure that they have
not been damaged, painted, or otherwise adversely affected. Thereafter, every detector
should be functionally tested.
All fire alarm devices should be checked for correct operation.
Annually All unmonitored, permanently illuminated filament lamp indicators at control and indicating
equipment should be replaced.
A visual inspection should be made to confirm that all readily accessible cable fixings are
secure and undamaged.
The standby power supply capacity should be checked to establish it remains suitable for
continued service.

BSI plays an important role in setting standards in relation to fire safety management. For example, BSI
standard AS 1670-1: 2004 sets out requirements for the design, installation and commissioning of fire
detection and alarm systems comprising components complying with the requirements of Australian
Standards.

Manual and Automatic Systems

Manual Systems
These may be manual or automatic, or a combination of both.

Manual fire alarm systems are often sufficient in workplaces in which no one sleeps. Automatic fire detection
is usually required to supplement the manual system in premises in which people sleep. Automatic fire
detection may also be necessary under the following circumstances:

x Where the automatic fire detection forms part of fixed fire-fighting equipment
x Where fire protection systems, e.g., door closing facilities or smoke control systems, are to be
operated automatically in the event of fire
x Where a fire may remain undetected in a building, or part of a building, creating a risk to the
occupants
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x Where there are occupants at special risk (including sleeping occupants), inadequate structural fire
protection or the probability of very rapid-fire development
x In premises in which people cannot readily be evacuated immediately in the event of fire, e.g.,
hospitals
x To protect property by ensuring the early attendance of the fire and rescue service

Automatic fire detection systems might, therefore, be required or recommended by the property insurers.

Categories of System
Various fire detection and fire alarm systems for buildings are available. The main types are identified below:

x Manual systems, with no automatic fire detectors

x Automatic fire detection systems intended for the protection of life
x Automatic fire detection systems intended for the protection of property

Whether there is a need for automatic fire detection and, if so, the extent to which it needs to be provided
should be determined by a fire risk assessment.

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Manual Alarms
Reliance is placed upon persons discovering and giving warning of a fire where manual alarm systems
alone are used. Manual fire alarm systems can be divided into three main groups:

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x Hand operated systems, e.g., gongs, whistles, rotary gongs or hand operated sirens
x Public address systems
x Manually operated electrical systems, e.g., break glass and alarms

A manual system might suffice if the objective is to protect the occupants of a building in which no one
sleeps, and fire is likely to be detected by people before smoke seriously reduces visibility in escape routes.
In small premises such as a small office or shop, subject to fire authority approval, a hand operated system,
or a public-address system or even simply shouting might be adequate.

A manually operated electrical system should be satisfactory for most premises. The method of operation is
usually manual break glass switches (manual call points), which activate the alarm when the glass is broken.
Electrical supplies to fire alarm systems should be arranged to ensure continuity of supply. To achieve this,
it is necessary to have two power supplies, a normal mains supply and a battery backup.

Secondary batteries should have at least 24 hours duration and be capable of providing 30 minutes of
warning at the end of the 24-hour period following a mains supply failure. All electrical wiring should be
undertaken in accordance with relevant standards. Wiring providing power to the alarm system, linking fire
alarm sounders and at times, transmission of the alarm to the emergency services, should continue to
function and be of a design that it is capable of prolonged operation in a fire. Wiring to detectors, manual call
points and ancillary devices, e.g., automatic door releases, must be designed to offer sufficient fire
resistance before failure for them to have served their purpose in a fire.

Manual Call Points

Manual call points should be:

x Located at a convenient, safe position on exit routes, stairwells and at final exits
x Fixed at an appropriate height above the floor in sufficient numbers that no person needs to travel
more than 45 m to reach one (25 m where highly flammable materials are processed or in premises
occupied by persons with limited mobility)
x Conspicuous, well illuminated (day and night)
x Kept free from obstruction
x Indicated by signage

The method of operation of all manual call points in an installation should be identical unless there are
special circumstances for differentiation, e.g., those located in potentially flammable atmospheres. Where a
hammer is required to break the glass, it should be provided adjacent to the manual call point.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Automatic Alarms
The earlier a fire can be detected, the more time there is for occupants to escape and the better are the
chances of extinguishing or at least containing the fire. Reliance placed upon persons discovering and giving
warning of a fire may not suffice in parts of buildings that are visited occasionally or in buildings left
unattended.

If there is significant probability that a fire in the building, or part of the building, could threaten escape by
occupants before it is detected by people in the building, a manual system is unlikely to be adequate, and
the provision of an automatic fire detection system will be necessary.

A combination of manual call points and multi-functional automatic detectors is used in automatic alarm
systems. A wide range of devices exists for detecting heat, smoke or flame.

As well as merely giving the alarm the system may also:

x Close down ventilation systems.

x Open vents for the removal of smoke.

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x Operate pressurisation systems for escape routes.

x Release automatic fire doors, i.e., self-closing fire doors normally held open by electro-magnets.
x Release door security systems.
x Operate fixed fire-fighting equipment.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

x Signal the fire and rescue service; or

x Signal an alarm receiving centre, who contacts the fire and rescue service, e.g., when the building
is unoccupied or where automatic fire alarm systems intended for the protection of property are
used.

Zones
Where a fire signal is given, it is important that there is no confusion, particularly for the fire and rescue
service, as to its point of origin. To achieve this, it may be necessary to sub-divide a building into zones,
each zone small enough for a fire to be located quickly.

The size and number of zones should be determined by:

x The floor area; and

x A search distance to visually determine the position of a fire not exceeding 60 m.

The maximum zone area should normally be 2,000 m2, except in the case of a zone comprising mainly of a
single, open plan area, e.g., a warehouse, which should not exceed 10,000 m2 in area. If the total floor area
of a building is greater than 300 m2 each zone should be restricted to a single storey. If the total floor area is
less 300 m2 a zone may cover more than one storey.

Where possible, zone boundaries should be fire compartment boundaries. In multiple occupancy buildings,
no zone should include areas more than one occupancy.

The zone activated by a manual call point or automatic detector should be indicated on a fire alarm panel.
The fire alarm system will be either:

x A conventional zone type, in which the fire alarm panel will identify the zone in which a detection
device, manual or automatic, is activated; or
x An addressable type, in which the fire alarm panel will identify the zone and the individual detector
activated

Means of contacting the fire services in the event of alarm activation is usually achieved by either a direct
link from the alarm system or by physically telephoning the emergency number.

Two-Stage Alarms
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In office premises, whether single or multiple occupation, consideration may be given to the provision of a
phased evacuation system consisting of two different kinds of alarm signal:

x An ‘alert’ or ‘first-stage’ signal (usually intermittent) for warning occupants of a fire situation
x An ‘evacuation’ or ‘second-stage’ signal (usually continuous) for the zone of origin of the alarm

In large or high-rise buildings, it may be desirable to evacuate first those areas of the premises at greatest
risk, e.g., those closest to the fire or immediately above it. In such cases a two-stage alarm may be used in
which the evacuation signal is given in a restricted area, together with an alert signal in other areas.

In large shops, places of public entertainment and catering establishments an initial general alarm may be
undesirable because of the number of members of public present. Restricted alarms by means of sounders
or paging systems supplemented by visual signals for staff recognition may be preferred. The staff should be
trained to put into effect pre-planned procedures for safe evacuation. The evacuation plan and staff training
should emphasise the importance of efficient communication between staff members. Provision should be
made for activation of the general alarm for evacuation by sounders or public address system with the
evacuation alarm under the control of a nominated responsible person. The alarm system should not cause
unnecessary delay in warning the public.

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Warning Signals
The fire alarm evacuation signal normally consists of a continuous signal by means of bells, sirens, hooters,
etc., which indicates that all persons are required to evacuate the premises immediately.

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In premises where a staged alarm system is used, the staff should be instructed, on being alerted, to take up
their pre-arranged emergency positions before the general alert is given. Where a phased evacuation is
being implemented, staff with specific responsibilities, e.g., fire marshals / fire wardens, should proceed to
their allotted duties to supervise the evacuation procedure.

At least one fire alarm sounder should be provided in each compartment. The warning signal should be
distinctive with sounders positioned so that they are clearly audible in all parts of the building. Sounders
should be suitably distributed throughout a building having regard for the attenuation of sound caused by
walls, floors, ceilings and partitions. Particular attention should be paid to sound attenuation in corridors
where sounders are expected to serve surrounding areas. The minimum recommended alarm sound level
should be:

x 65 dB(A) (60 dB(A)) in small, enclosed rooms, e.g., cellars and stairways; or
x 5 dB(A) above any background noise that is likely to last more than 30 seconds; or
x 75 dB(A) at the bedhead to arouse sleeping persons

In areas where a normal type of sounder may be ineffective, e.g., where the background noise is excessive,
where the occupants are deaf or where hearing protection is likely to be worn, visual signals should also be
used. In these circumstances, visual signals should supplement audible alarms. Visual signals forming part
of the fire alarm system should be clearly distinguishable from any other visual signal on the premises. The
intensity of light should be sufficient to draw the attention of persons in the vicinity, but not so high as to
cause difficulty of vision due to glare.

Where voice alarms or other forms of communication, such as visual display screens are available, more
informative messages may be provided. In some buildings consideration needs to be given to the selection
of additional languages that might be appropriate. Whatever system is used it should be clear and
unambiguous.

People with impaired hearing may have trouble in hearing a fire alarm. Induction loop systems for audio
communication with people using hearing aids can be used to supplement the alarm. Pagers, which vibrate
on the fire alarm activation, can be issued to those with impaired hearing to alert them to a fire situation.

Alarm Receiving Centres

Alarm receiving centres are normally continuously manned premises operated on a commercial basis,
remote from those in which the fire alarm system is fitted, where the information concerning the state of the
fire alarm system is displayed and / or recorded, so that the fire and rescue service can be summoned. The
function can also be fulfilled by a fire service control room or a continuously manned security control room
on the same site as the protected premises.
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In occupied buildings, the primary means for summoning the fire and rescue service is by telephone.
Automatic means for transmission is only likely to be of benefit, as a secondary means of summoning the
emergency services, if factors such as the size or complexity of the building, or low level of occupancy,
could result in a significant delay between discovery of fire and summoning of the brigade, thereby
warranting the duplication of the call to the fire service, i.e., with calls made manually from the premises and
automatically via an alarm receiving centre.

If the services of a commercially operated alarm receiving centre are used, it needs to be ensured that the
alarm receiving centre has a formal arrangement with the fire services in whose area the protected premises
are situated for rapid communication with the fire service by reliable means.

Suitable transmission equipment to an alarm receiving centre should be used to ensure an alarm or fault
signal is received.

In buildings that are not continuously occupied, siting of indicating equipment in a location that will be visible
to the fire and rescue service from outside the building can be of benefit, particularly if there is a facility for
transmission of alarms to an alarm receiving centre. On arrival at the building, at a time when the building is
unoccupied, the number of zones indicating a fire signal may assist the officer in charge in making a
decision as to whether to force entry to the building or await the attendance of a keyholder.

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Selection of Fire Alarm System

The choice of the fire alarm system will depend upon:

x The risk to life

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x The risk to the process, building or its contents

Manual fire alarm systems are often sufficient in workplaces in which no one sleeps. They rely upon a
person discovering a fire raising the alarm. Therefore, whilst the workplace is unoccupied there will be no
protection from the system.

Where the fire risk is significant to people or property an automatic fire alarm system is preferred. When
selecting a fire alarm system and its components, consideration should be given to relevant codes of
practice and:

x Whether people are familiar with the building, alarm system and signal, e.g., employees or visitors
x Social behaviour and the response time taken to react to an alarm, e.g., well informed and trained
employees often react quicker than members of the public
x Whether people are sleeping
x Disabled occupants e.g., impaired hearing
x The risk of malicious alarms
x Minimising false alarms
x The size of the building and zoning requirements
x The compartmentation of the building
x How the fire and rescue service will be contacted
x The risk caused by process operations, e.g., flammable and explosive substances
x The risk to building contents

Fixed and Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

To safeguard the safety of relevant persons, the responsible person should ensure that the premises are, to
the extent that it is appropriate, equipped with appropriate fire-fighting equipment. Appropriate is to be
determined having regard to the dimensions and use of the premises, the equipment contained on the
premises, the physical and chemical properties of the substances likely to be present and the maximum
number of persons who may be present at any one time. Any non-automatic fire-fighting equipment provided
should be easily accessible, simple to use and indicated by signs.

Fire-fighting equipment forms part of the measures to secure a means of escape.

Automatic or Fixed Fire-Fighting Equipment (FFFE), e.g., automatic sprinklers, flood, drench and deluge
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systems are discussed later in this Element.

Design and Application of Fixed Fire-Fighting Systems and Equipment

Factors to consider in the design and application of fixed fire-fighting systems and equipment include:

x Accessibility
x Water supply
x Are there arrangements for alternative water supplies if there is a temporary unavailability of mains
supply water caused by damage or routine maintenance?
x Protection from frost and freezing

Classification of Fires
In the European Union, fires are categorised into four classes according to BS EN 2 ‘Classification of Fires’
1992. The classification categories take into account the type of substance that forms the fuel or the source
of ignition and extinguishing media.

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Table 10: Fire Categories BS EN 2

Class Type of Fuel / Ignition Source Example Fuels

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A Combustible solids Coal, cardboard, cloth, paper, wood
B Flammable liquids or liquefied solids Alcohol, acetone, petrol, waxes
Butane, hydrogen, natural gas,
C Flammable gases
propane
D Flammable metals Aluminium, magnesium, titanium
F Combustible cooking media Vegetable or animal oils and fats
Electrical Fixed installations, static and
Fires involving electrical equipment
Fires portable electrical appliances

Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment (PFFE)

Fire Extinguishers

Portable extinguishers enable suitably trained persons to tackle a fire in its early stages and are provided to
assist escape. Portable extinguishers are designed to be carried and operated by hand and which in
working order has a weight of not more than 20 kg.

Table 11: Extinguishing Media

Class Type of Extinguisher

A Water applied as a jet or spray.

Smothering effects of agents that exclude oxygen, e.g., foam, carbon dioxide (CO2) and
B
vaporising liquids.

Powder types of extinguishers should be used, however this may lead to a dangerous
C
accumulation of gas therefore the isolation of the gas supply is preferred.

Specialist powders and dry sand may be used. Selection should be made on a case-
D by-case basis with expert advice. The use of an inappropriate media can make a fire
situation worse.
The first action should be to cut off the power input to the cooking container, if this can ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
be done in safety. CO2, dry powder and aqueous solutions of potassium acetate,
F
potassium carbonate, potassium citrate or combinations of these materials are
preferred, however a fire blanket may be used.

CO2 and dry powder are the preferred. Some foams may be suitable for low voltages;
Electrical Fires
however, the recommendations of the manufacturer should be sought.

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Types of Extinguishers
Water

Water is used to cool a fire, however the liberation of steam formed acts as a smothering
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agent. Water extinguishers are available in two types, gas cartridge and stored pressure.
In the gas cartridge type activation of the handle punctures a gas cartridge within the
extinguisher, which provides the discharge pressure. Stored pressure extinguishers
contain water under pressure, which is typically shown on an external pressure indicator
(the pointer should be in the green region). The extinguisher handle may allow partial or
total discharge once operated.

Foam
Foam is used to smother a fire, extinguishing it by removing access to oxygen. The foam
also acts as a cooling agent. Foam extinguishers contain a foam solution and are available
as gas cartridge and stored pressure types. The foam is formed at a small branch pipe at
the end of the discharge nozzle on activation of the handle. The use of synthetic foam is
becoming more commonplace, replacing previously used protein-based foam. Various
grades of expansion foam are available to accommodate a range of fire risks.

Foam may not have sufficient surface tension therefore it breaks down leaving areas on
the surface of a liquid that may auto-ignite. In order to reduce this risk AFFF should be
used.

Dry Powder

Dry powder is used to smother the fire. Various types of powder are available including:

xFinely ground potassium bicarbonate and sodium bicarbonate, which are very
effective on organic, oil and gas fires
xPotassium carbonate (trade name monnex), which smothers and breaks down
dramatically increasing the area of surface absorbing combustion gases thus
interrupting the combustion chemical reaction, acting as a negative catalyst or
inhibitor
xSalt for flammable metal fires, which must be very dry
xTernary eutectic chloride, which is very toxic, for flammable metal fires. It melts to
form a solid crust so must be applied evenly
xSoda ash (sodium carbonate) for flammable metal fires, which fuses to seal over
the burning metal
xSand for class flammable metal fires, which smothers the fire
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Dry powder extinguishers are available in two types, gas cartridge and stored pressure. Stored pressure
extinguishers may contain high (primary sealed type) or low pressures. The powder is released upon
activation of the handle. Powder extinguishers, used on flammable metal fires, have long discharge tubes
with a low velocity discharge to protect the user. Most powders are treated to avoid water retention,
however they may be susceptible to the effects of humidity and settling so powder for recharging should be
sealed with recharging activities undertaken in a dry atmosphere. Any moisture will explosively decompose
if used on a metal fire, releasing hydrogen and oxygen, which will increase the burning
rate.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is used to displace oxygen supporting a fire. It has little cooling
effect so there is a risk of re-ignition. The CO2 is stored as a liquid under pressure and
is discharged on operation of the handle. CO2 extinguishers are readily identifiable by
their discharge horns where the liquid expands changing state into a gas. This
expansion is an endothermic reaction and will cause localised cooling so the discharge
horn should not be held. CO2 is non-toxic, however it creates an asphyxiation risk if
used or leaks when stored in limited spaces.

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Inert Gases

These consist of complex mixtures of non-halogen gases and are classified as clean agents. Possible
decomposition products are likely to be hazardous to persons in enclosed spaces with restricted ventilation.

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Such extinguishers cause little hazard when used in the open air, large rooms and other well-ventilated places
inside buildings.

Extinguisher Colour Coding

Colour coding to indicate the extinguishing media contained in portable fire extinguishers’ is recommended.
The suggested colour coding of extinguishers is as follows:

x Red for water extinguishers

x Cream for foam extinguishers
x Black for CO2 extinguishers
x Blue for dry powder extinguishers
x Canary yellow for inert gases

Siting of Extinguishers

Wherever possible, fire-fighting equipment, e.g., fire blankets, extinguishers, should be grouped to form fire
points. Fire extinguishers should normally be in conspicuous positions on escape routes, preferably near exit
doors. Other suitable locations include corridors, stairwells, and lobbies. They should not be located behind
doors, in cupboards or in deep recesses. It is also necessary to avoid extremes of heat or cold and corrosive
environments to prevent damage to extinguishers.

They should be distributed so that it should not be necessary to travel more than 30 metres to reach an
extinguisher. They should be securely mounted on wall brackets or similar structural feature. To assist in
lifting the carrying handle of larger, heavier extinguishers should be mounted with the handle no more than 1
metre from the floor. Smaller and more easily handled extinguishers may be mounted with the handle 1.5
metres from the floor. It is acceptable to site extinguishers on a dedicated fibreglass plinth.

Extinguishers should be clearly visible, and their location clearly indicated by signage. Where workplaces are
uniform in layout, extinguishers should normally be located at similar positions on each storey.

Extinguisher Ratings

In the European Union, the suitability of extinguishers for dealing with the different classes of fire, defined in
BS EN 2, is indicated by a figure, class letter and a pictogram marked on the extinguisher in accordance with
BS EN 3. Extinguisher types are rated following laboratory testing by skilled technicians, on wooden cribs of ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
varying lengths or on trays containing flammable liquid, for example:

x 13A means a class A (e.g., water) extinguisher that it will extinguish a wooden crib fire (1.3 m long
x 0.56 m high x 0.5 m wide). The figure 13 relates to the 1.3 m crib length.
x 55B means a class B (e.g., foam) extinguisher that will extinguish a fire in a metal tray containing
55 litres of fuel, usually heptane. The figure 55 relates to the volume of fuel in the tray.

Some extinguishers have a dual A and B rating, but in all cases a de-rating factor has been applied to allow
for an inexperienced operator using the extinguisher.

The most useful form of fire-fighting equipment for general fire risks is the water type extinguisher
(or hose reel).

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Fire Blankets

Fire blankets extinguish fires by smothering the flame thus excluding oxygen. Fire blankets should be in the
vicinity of the fire hazard they are to be used on, but in a position that can be safely accessed in the event of
a fire. They are classified as either light duty or heavy duty. Light duty fire blankets are suitable for dealing
with small fires in containers of cooking oils or fats and fires involving clothing. Heavy duty fire blankets are
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

for industrial use where there is a need for the blanket to resist penetration by molten metals.

Maintenance

Every extinguisher should be inspected weekly to determine if they are properly located, there are any signs
of damage or corrosion and whether there are any indications of discharge. The pressure indicator of stored
pressure extinguishers should be checked to ensure it is still in the ‘green’ zone. These examinations should
be suitably recorded.

A competent person, checking for signs of rust, damage, pressure loss, decreased weight, damaged seals,
etc., should conduct annual inspections. Once again, suitable records should be kept, including recording
the weight and date of the last test on the paper panels on the extinguishers themselves. Rejected
extinguishers should be replaced by a suitable spare, until such time that the old one is repaired or a new
one obtained. Extinguishers should be discharge tested at regular intervals, synchronised with annual
inspections, as detailed in Table 12.

A reporting mechanism should be established for persons discharging extinguishers or identifying faults.

Table 12: Discharge Intervals for the Extinguishers

Type Discharge Test Intervals

Water (all types) Every 5 years

Foam (all types) Every 5 years

Dry powder (gas cartridge) Every 5 years

Dry powder (stored pressure other than primary

Every 5 years
sealed type)

Carbon Dioxide Every 10 years

Dry powder (stored pressure primary sealed type) Every 10 years

Training Requirements
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The responsible person should, where necessary:

x Take measures for fire-fighting in the premises, adapted to the nature of the activities carried on
there and the size of the undertaking and of the premises concerned
x Nominate competent persons to implement those measures and ensure that the number of such
persons, their training and the equipment available to them are adequate, taking into account the
size of, and the specific hazards involved in, the premises concerned
x Arrange any necessary contacts with external emergency services, particularly as regards fire-
fighting, rescue work, first-aid and emergency medical care

Training of ‘fire-fighting teams’ may be desirable in some situations, but care must be taken not to put
employees at risk. Formal training should include the purpose, techniques of use, hazards and limitations of
fire extinguishers.

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Fixed Fire-Fighting Equipment (FFFE)

This involves a system that releases an extinguishing medium when upon activation, either manually or
automatically by the warning / alarm system. Types of system include:

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x Water sprinkler installations
x Foam installations
x Dry powder installations
x Gas flood installations

Fixed fire-fighting systems require weekly inspections, supported by a more thorough inspection conducted
by a competent engineer, often under a service contract.

Water Sprinkler Installations

Sprinkler systems are designed to provide an automatic means of detecting and extinguishing, or controlling,
a fire by water in its earlier stages. There are four main types of sprinkler system:

x Wet-pipe – only used in premises not subject to frost or ambient temperatures above 70°C
x Dry-pipe – only used in premises below 0°C or above 70°C and on water deluge systems
x Alternate – which enables wet or dry operation in premises subjected to freezing in cold weather
x Pre-action – consisting of a separate heat or smoke detector which allows water into the pipework
before the first sprinkler head operates. Only to be used when none of the other methods is
suitable

A sprinkler system consists of sprinkler heads, control valves, gauges, meters, alarm devices, pipework,
pumps and a water supply.

Each sprinkler head is a combined water valve and deflector plate. The valve is sealed by a heat-sensitive
element, e.g., a fusible solder link or quartzoid bulb, designed to rupture at a specific temperature or range.
Advantages include that their operation is:

x Automatic
x Not impaired by smoke
x Not hindered by blocked access routes
x Only in the immediate vicinity of the fire

Illustration 17: Fusible Solder Link Sprinkler Heads

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Table 13: Fusible Solder Link

Sprinkler Head Colour Codes

Temperature oC
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Colour of Yoke Arm

68 – 74 Uncoloured
93 – 100 White
141 Blue
182 Yellow
227 Red

Illustration 18: Quartzoid Bulb

Sprinkler Heads

Table 14: Quartzoid Bulb Sprinkler Head Colour Codes

Temperature oC Colour of Bulb Liquid

57 Orange
68 Red
79 Yellow
93 Green
141 Blue
182 Mauve
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204 - 260 Black

The spacing of sprinkler heads and density of discharge should be determined in proportion to the nature of
fire hazard, e.g.:

Flammable storage and process areas:

x 1 sprinkler head per 5 m2 covering 10 mm.min-1.

Restaurants, garages, engineering workshops:

x 1 sprinkler head per 10 m2 covering 5 mm.min-1.

Hospitals, hotels, offices and nursing homes:

x 1 sprinkler head per 20 m2 covering 2.5 mm.min-1.

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Wet Pipe System

Water within the system is held at design pressure. In a large installation, the sprinkler heads are grouped
into zones. The pressure drops on activation of a head, or heads, with a rise in temperature in a fire situation

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within a zone. This causes a reduction in pressure in the zone, the zone valve to lift and the system pressure
to drop. Pressure switches detect a drop-in pressure and activate the system pump, or pumps, and fire
alarm sounders. The zone that operates also has a pressure switch to enable location of the fire. The zone
normally incorporates a water alarm gong.

Illustration 19: Wet Pipe Sprinkler Zone

Installation

Typically, two pumps, electric and diesel, are

installed to ensure system reliability in the case
of either electric supply failure or a major fire to
maintain system pressure. The water supply
can either be from a storage tank or from the
mains supply. An adequate supply of water
should be ensured. The disadvantage of a
mains supply installation is that any impairment
to the mains supply will render the whole
system inoperable.

The valves on an installation should be

secured in their correct position, e.g., by lock
and chain. The installation should be regularly
inspected to ensure valves are locked in their
correct position, for minor leaks and that the
system pressure is maintained.

Dry Pipe System

In a dry pipe system, the water is held within a building to prevent freezing e.g., on external covered
warehouse loading bays or in cold stores. Sprinkler heads are located in the risk area pipework, which is
usually filled with compressed air. In a fire situation, the failure of a sprinkler head causes the compressed
air pressure to drop. This air pressure drop allows water in the zone valve, normally held back by the air
pressure, to be released into the dry pipework.

Illustration 20: Deluge System

A deluge installation is an installation or tail-end

extension fitted with open sprayers and either a
deluge valve or a multiple control arrangement
so that an entire area is sprayed with water on
operation of the installation. Deluge systems ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
usually incorporate the dry pipe principle,
however a separate sensing line with sprinkler
heads fitted, usually filled with compressed air,
is used. The water spray heads are open
spray heads; thus, all of the heads will deluge
on failure of any sensing head. Deluge
systems are normally provided to protect
external facilities, e.g., flammable bulk storage
and off-loading areas as illustrated in
Illustration 20.

Whenever compressed air is used it is

essential that the air supply is dried to prevent
freezing, which may block the sprinkler / deluge
pipework, or cause false activation upon
thawing, due to sprinkler head damage during
the expansion of water as it freezes.

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The risk of loss of electrical supply to the compressor should be considered to prevent false activation. This
normally is achieved by the provision of a back-up cylinder facility.

A modern cheaper alternative to using sensor heads and solid compressed air pipework in deluge systems
is to provide UV resistant plastic pipework that will melt and release the air pressure at a determined
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temperature.

Alternate Wet and Dry System

These installations may be of both wet and dry pipe, e.g., on an external covered warehouse loading bay.
The installation is normally provided as a wet pipe system during summer months and a dry system during
winter months, requiring manual change over and draining. To ensure effective draining, it is essential that
the installation is designed with a ‘fall’ back towards the drain. It is essential that the system is fully drained
on change over to a dry system and that the air supply is dried to prevent freezing.

Water Drench System

A drencher system is a sprayer used to distribute water over a surface to provide protection against fire
exposure. These systems may be fitted to structures to prevent the effects from radiated heat. A drencher
system comprises of sprinkler heads connected either by a wet or a dry pipework system.

Illustration 21: Water Drench System

Fixed Foam Installations

This type of system is provided where there is a risk of flammable liquid fires. In particular, in storage tanks
and bunds, in confined spaces with difficult access, and also for the total flooding of high-risk areas.
There are two stages to the forming of foam, mixing the foam concentrate with water and aerating the
solution. Commonly, the concentrate is mixed with water through an in-line inductor. Foam can be formed
either by using a foam branch pipe or a foam generator. HX foam requires large quantities of air to be blown
into the unit by fans before the concentrate is introduced.
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Dry Powder Installations

This type of system is provided where there is a risk of flammable liquid fires, electrical equipment fires or
where water damage is a concern. These systems are not suitable where there is a risk of re-ignition.

Gas Flood Installations

Carbon Dioxide

This type of system can be used to extinguish all classes of fire where the risk of fire re-ignition is low. It is
ideal for extinguishing fires involving live electrical equipment.

There are health implications from the use of carbon dioxide, as its workplace exposure limit is well below
the level required for successfully extinguishing a fire. Also, during operation the gas rapidly expands to fill
an area, and its temperature drops to freezing.

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Two types of system are available:

x Total flood automatic systems for surface fires, such as flammable solids, liquids or gases, deep-
seated fires involving smouldering solids, fires in live electrical installations and computer areas.

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x Local application systems typical applications are dip tanks, printing presses, process and textile
machinery, and food processing.

These systems normally can be operated automatically or manually. For the safety of individuals working in
areas covered by total flood systems the automatic operation may require two detectors to operate before
the carbon dioxide is released.

Halocarbon Gas Systems

These systems are used as an alternative to environmentally damaging halon. During discharge these
gases are invisible, odourless and relatively quiet compared to operating equipment. Hence, for safety
reasons an odorising agent may be added to alert staff to leakage or discharge. Examples include:

Although they exhibit excellent fire extinguishing characteristics, halocarbons have an unacceptable long-
term global warming potential. They contribute to the ‘greenhouse gases’, to which many governments are
committed to reducing.

Inert Gas Systems

These gases are used in concentrations of 40-55% by volume. When they are discharged into a closed
area, the oxygen concentration is reduced by 10-14%. Combustion is not supported when oxygen
concentrations fall below 12-14%.

Hose Reels
Hose reels are permanently connected to a main water supply and usually comprise a 30 metre (maximum
45 metre) hose, complete with nozzle, wound onto a drum. The water supply on automatic hose reels is
opened as the hose reel is wound out of the drum, whereas on manual hose reels the nozzle is used to
open the water supply. The water pressure should be sufficient to provide a 6-metre jet of water.

Where hose reels are required, they should be located so that no part of the building is no more than 6
metres from the nozzle when the hose is fully run out. Hose reels have the advantage over portable
extinguishers of giving an unlimited supply of water.

Where hose reels are provided, they should be located where they are conspicuous, always accessible, and
so that the user is placed between the fire and an escape route, e.g., in corridors, adjacent to an exit or at
the top of a staircase. Wherever possible, they should be in recesses to prevent obstruction of an escape
route. An additional factor that may need to be considered is the siting of hose reels in positions where they
are less prone to vandalism and misuse.

Hose reels should be checked for leaks and nozzle blockage weekly and given an annual operational test.
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Rising Mains
Rising mains, either wet (charged) or dry, pass upwards through a
building and have an outlet valve on each storey for the Fire Services to
attach their hoses to. They offer the advantages of offering a quicker
response and the avoidance of long lengths of trailing hoses that breach
compartments and cause a fall in water pressure.

Rising mains should be checked for leaks or blockages monthly and given
an annual operational test.

Environmental Considerations
Fire not only poses a risk to life and property it also has a significant
impact on the environment. Environmental damage from fires can be both short and long term and, in the
case of pollutants from fires affecting groundwater supplies, may persist for decades or even longer.

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Rivers, sewers, culverts, drains, water distribution systems and other services all present routes for the
conveyance of pollutants off-site and the effects of a discharge may be evident some distance away.

In many cases, major pollution incidents can be prevented if appropriate pollution prevention measures are
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

in place or immediately available.

Contingency planning is the key to success, therefore preventive and protective measures and incident
response strategies should be carefully considered and implemented.

Fire-fighting Water/Foam Run-Off

Water used for fighting fires is likely to be contaminated to an extent with all of the above contaminants. In
addition, if the Fire and Rescue Service use foam to fight a fire, for example in a boiler room, the foam itself
is likely to contain perfluoro octane sulfonate (PFOS).

PFOS is an organic compound which does not break down in the environment, and that makes foam spread
rapidly at high temperatures, cutting the time it takes to put out a fire. Any concentration above three
micrograms per litre of water is considered to be detrimental to human health. If PFOS is released into the
environment, it can remain present for years. In water courses, it accumulates rapidly in fish. There are
moves to make its use illegal in the UK in the future.

Pre-Planning the Minimization of Environmental Impact

Sites should consider the polluting effects of fire in their emergency plans. If afire occurs, the mostly likely
sources of pollution of groundwater, freshwater or coastal waters are:

x Atmospheric deposition of smoke/vapours

x Escape of contaminated fire water:
- Directly to surface run-off into rivers and the ground
- Via the site's surface water drainage system
- Via the foul sewage system and out unaltered through the treatment works

To mitigate the effects of an incident containment methods must be pre-planned, and containment depends
on:
x The hazardous nature of substances on site
x The risk of fire
x Sensitivity of the receiving environment
x The reasonable practicability of the solution, such as dimensions of the site and the cost involved

Permanent Remote Containment Systems:

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"Built-in" permanent remote containment systems for a site include:

x Lagoons - earth-banked containment basins which are effective at containing fire water run-off
provided they are impermeable and incorporate some sort of isolation from the drainage system
x Purpose-built tanks - to intercept run-off:
- Can be placed below or above ground
- Include as a last resort the possibility of using storm tanks at the sewage treatment works
x Shut-off valves - to isolate part of a site's drainage system

Emergency Remote Containment Systems:

Emergency remote containment systems (used when permanent solutions are not practicable) include:

x Sacrificial areas - run-off is directed to a designated "sacrificial" area. This involves use of
permeable soil or porous media with an impermeable lining
x Temporary bunding of impermeable car parks, etc. - using, for example, sandbags

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x Portable tanks and tankers - blocking of the site drainage system to set up a temporary sump from
which the run-off can be pumped into the tank; also allows the possibility of reuse of the run-off as
fire- fighting water

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Site and Damaged Area Clean Up Considerations

Having contained the fire-fighting water run-off, the last stage in minimizing the environmental impact of fire
and fire-fighting operations is to make sure that the area is cleaned up satisfactorily. This will principally rely
on ensuring that collected contaminated run-off is disposed of properly, in accordance with the appropriate
waste regulations.

Pathways by which pollutants from the site of a fire can enter the water ecosystem:

x The surface water drainage system on site

x Through the foul drainage system contaminating the sewage works beds
x By water run-off to ground and into brooks, streams and rivers
x By airborne contaminants deposited in the precipitation

Methods of containment for fire-fighting water run-off produced at the site of a fire:

x Bunds
x Drain covers
x Mats and sandbags
x Interceptors
x Provision of a sacrificial area and/or trenches
x Diverting and directing the flow of water taking advantage of the lie of the land
x Secondary containment reservoir or lagoon
x Portable containers or tanks

Means of Escape
Factors to be Considered and General Requirements for Means of
Escape
Where necessary, to safeguard the safety of relevant persons, the responsible person must ensure that
routes to emergency exits from premises and the exits themselves are always kept clear.

The following recommendations should be followed in respect of premises where necessary (whether due to
the features of the premises, the activity carried on there, any hazard present or any other relevant ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
circumstances) to safeguard the safety of relevant persons:

x Emergency routes and exits must lead as directly as possible to a place of safety
x In the event of danger, it must be possible for persons to evacuate the premises as quickly and as
safely as possible
x The number, distribution and dimensions of emergency routes and exits must be adequate having
regard to the use, equipment and dimensions of the premises and the maximum number of
persons who may be present there at any one time
x Emergency doors must open in the direction of escape
x Sliding or revolving doors must not be used for exits specifically intended as emergency exits
x Emergency doors must not be so locked or fastened that they cannot be easily and immediately
opened by any person who may require using them in an emergency
x Emergency routes and exits must be indicated by signs
x Emergency routes and exits requiring illumination must be provided with emergency lighting of
adequate intensity in the case of failure of their normal lighting

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A means of escape in the event of fire is a structural means of fire-resistant construction whereby a safe
route or routes are provided for persons to travel unaided from any point in a building to a place of safety.

A place of safety is a place in which persons are in no immediate danger from the effects of fire. The route
may include a space, room, corridor, staircase, doorway, etc. An alternative means of escape is a second
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

route, usually in the opposite direction, but which may join the first means of escape at some point.

General Requirements
Means of escape should be designed so that:

x There should be alternative means of escape from most situations

x Where direct escape to a place of safety is not possible, it should be possible to reach a place of
relative safety, such as a protected stairway, which is on a route to an exit, within a reasonable
travel distance

The following are not acceptable as means of escape from buildings:

x Lifts, except for a suitably designed and installed evacuation lift that may be used for the
evacuation of disabled people in a fire
x Portable, fold down or throw-out ladders
x Chutes

Issues to be considered in planning and maintaining a means of escape, depending on the use, size and
height of a building, include escape routes that are:

x Sufficient in number and capacity

x Suitably located to enable persons to escape to a place of safety in the event of fire
x Protected from the effects of fire and ingress of smoke
x Adequately lit
x Suitably signed
x Kept free from obstructions

Place of Safety
There are generally three stages of travel during escape:

x Within unprotected areas

x From unprotected areas to a protected corridor / stairway or final exit
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x Within protected stairways to a final exit

A final exit is the end of an escape route, ideally in the open air, where dispersal away from the building to a
place of total (ultimate) safety can be achieved.

Place of Total Safety

The place of total or ultimate safety is the open air clear of the effects of the fire. Escape routes should
never finally discharge to enclosed areas or yards unless the dispersal area is large enough to allow all
occupants to proceed to a safe distance away. Total dispersal to a place beyond the building where there is
no longer danger from a fire therefore constitutes total safety.

Place of Reasonable Safety

It is often necessary to devise a place of safety where escape to the open air cannot be achieved in a
suitable time, e.g., when evacuating tall buildings, or where external evacuation is not the desired primary
response, e.g., hospitals and nursing homes.

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A place of reasonable or relative safety includes any place, which puts up an effective barrier, e.g., 30-
minute fire resistance, between the person escaping and the fire. Protected lobbies, corridors and stairways
can usually be considered as places of reasonable safety as can refuges for the disabled.

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Illustration 22: Place of Safety

Occupancy
The occupancy of a building relates to all the people likely to be in the premises at any time, such as
employees, visitors, contractors and members of the public, e.g., customers. The aim from the time the fire
alarm is raised is for building occupants to be able to reach a place of relative safety, then ultimate safety.
When planning a means of escape it is important to consider the occupancy of a building, which will
influence:

x The time taken to evacuate

x Maximum travel distances allowed
x The width of exit routes and doors

The less likely a building is to burn then the longer the occupants will have to escape. Evacuation times
generally accepted by the fire and rescue service to reach a place of safety are illustrated in Table 15.

Table 15: Escape Times

Type of Construction Time to Escape

Main fabric of the building is completely non-combustible. 3 minutes
Main fabric of the building is partially combustible, i.e., non-combustible
walls with combustible floors. 2.5 minutes
Main fabric of the building is combustible, i.e., timber floors and walls. 2 minutes

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The time taken for people to escape from a building will depend upon:

x The occupant capacity

x The occupant type, e.g., sensory or mobility impaired
x Their distribution
x Their reaction time

Occupant Capacity
The occupant capacity of a room, storey, building or part of a building is:

x The maximum number of persons it is designed to hold; or

x The density factor

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The number of people in a building with a reasonably fixed population can be ascertained, e.g., by numbers
of seats provided in cinema, or by staff numbers. Where the number of occupants varies, it may be
necessary to calculate the maximum number of persons using a density factor.

Density Factor
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This is the available floor space per person and is calculated by dividing the area (m2) of a room, storey,
building or part of a building (compartment) by a floor space factor (m2 per person).

Allowable number of persons = area of compartment

floor space factor

Note, ‘area’ excludes stair enclosures, lifts, sanitary accommodation and any other fixed part of the building
structure, however counters and display units, etc. should not be excluded.

The floor space factors in the following table (Table 16) are examples of good practice that can be used to
calculate the occupancy of a room, storey, building or part of a building.

Table 16: Floor Space Factors

Floor Space
Type of Accommodation
Factor (m2/person)
Standing spectator areas, bars without seating and similar
1
refreshment areas 0.3
Amusement arcade, assembly hall (including a general-purpose place
2 of assembly), bingo hall, club, crush hall, dance floor or hall, venue for
pop concert and similar events 0.5

3 Concourse, queuing area or shopping mall* 0.7

Committee room, common room, conference room, dining room,
licensed betting office (public area), lounge or bar (other than in 1
4
above), meeting room, reading room, restaurant, staff room or waiting
room 1
5 Exhibition hall or studio (film, radio, television, recording) 1
6 Skating rink 2
7 Shop sales area 2
8 Art gallery, dormitory, factory production area, museum or workshop 5
9 Office 6
10 Shop sales are 7
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11 Kitchen or library 7
12 Bedroom or study-bedroom 8
13 Bed-sitting room, billiards or snooker room or hall 10
14 Storage and warehousing 30
2 persons per parking
15 Car park
space

Example

Calculate the maximum allowable number of persons in a factory production area of area 500m2.

Answer

Allowable number of persons = area of compartment

floor space factor

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From Table 16, the floor space factor for a factory production area is 5.

Therefore:

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Allowable number of persons = 500
5

So, the maximum permitted occupancy is 100 persons.

Reaction Time
The time taken for people to react will vary, therefore the travel distances required to reach a place of safety,
reasonable or total, vary. This can depend upon a number of factors including:

x Their role, e.g., a fire warden may have to encourage evacuation

x What they are likely to be doing when the alarm is raised, e.g., sleeping, having a meal, etc.
x Their knowledge of a fire situation, e.g., if people expect a false alarm, they may not react to an
unseen fire that sets off an alarm
x Their need for assistance, e.g., those with physical or mental disability
x What they have to do before they start to escape, e.g., turn off machinery, help with other people
x Their knowledge of the building and the training they have received about the routine to be
followed in the event of a fire

Travel Distances
Travel distance is measured by way of the shortest route to a place of safety, which if:

x There is fixed seating or other fixed obstructions, is along the centre line of the seating and
gangways.
x It includes a stair, is along the pitch line on the centre line of travel.

The distance should be measured from all parts of the premises to the nearest place of reasonable safety,
which is:

x A protected stairway enclosure (storey exit).

x A separate fire compartment from which there is a final exit to a place of total safety; or
x The nearest available final exit.

Each escape route should be independent of each other and arranged so that people can move away from a
fire to escape. ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Routes that provide means of escape in one direction only, e.g., from a dead-end, should be avoided
wherever possible as this means that people may have to move towards a fire in order to escape.

Escape routes should always lead to a place of safety. This should be wide enough for the number of
occupants and should not normally reduce in width.

For the purpose of assessing the means of escape most workplaces are categorised as high, normal or low
risk. Example workplaces likely to fall into these categories are illustrated in Table 17.

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Table 17: Example Fire Risk Categories

Where highly flammable or explosive materials are stored or used, other than in
small quantities.
Where unsatisfactory structural features are present, e.g., lack of fire-resistant
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

surfaces or partitions.
Where permanent or temporary wok activities are carried out which have the
potential for fires to start and spread, e.g., paint spraying with flammable liquids,
High risk.
processes involving the use of a naked flame, or producing excessive heat.
Where there is significant risk to life in case of fire, e.g., sleeping accommodation
and isolated parts of the premises such as basements and roof spaces.
Where occupants rely on the actions of limited numbers of staff for their safe
evacuation, e.g., treatment or care homes, places of entertainment and sports
events.
Where any outbreak of fire is likely to remain confined or only spread slowly,
allowing people to escape to a place of safety.
Where the number of people present is small and the layout of the workplace
Normal risk. means they are likely to be able to escape to a place of safety without assistance.
Where the workplace has an effective automatic warning system, or an effective
automatic fire extinguishing, suppression or containment system, which may
reduce the risk classification from high risk.
Where there is minimal risk to people’s lives and where the risk of fire occurring is
Low risk.
low or the potential for fire, heat and smoke spreading is negligible.

Other than in small workplaces, or from some rooms of low or normal fire risk, there should normally be an
alternative means of escape.

The distribution of people within a building should be considered in the provision of travel distances to fire
resistant places of safety.

In many cases, there will not be an alternative at the beginning of the route. For example, there may be only
one exit from a room to a corridor, from which point escape is possible in two directions.

Where an escape route leading to a storey exit begins with a single escape route and leads onto an
alternative route the total distance should not exceed the distance for more than one route, and the single
escape portion should not exceed the distance given for the single escape route.

Illustration 23: Means of Escape from a Dead End

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The travel distance is taken as the shortest route to an exit. If the internal layout of partitions, fittings, etc. is
not known when plans are deposited, direct distances may be used for assessment. The direct distance is
the straight-line route from the furthest point in a room, storey or building to the exit.

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Illustration 24: Direct Distance

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The distance D in Illustration 24
represents the direct distance
across the room to a place of
safety (protected escape route).

Alternative Means of Escape

Fire and smoke may render a single means of escape impassable. Occupants should be able to turn their
backs on a fire wherever it occurs and travel away from it to a final exit or protected escape route.

In small, single storey buildings, where travel distances are short, the time taken for people to escape on
discovering a fire is short, e.g., in seconds, so single exit routes will be sufficient in a fire emergency. In
larger more complex premises, where travel distances are greater and there is a risk of impairment of a
single route, an alternative means of escape will normally be necessary.

The minimum number of escape routes and exits from a room, tier or storey depends upon the number of
occupants, as illustrated in Table 18.

Table 18: Minimum Numbers of Escape Routes / Exits

Maximum Number of Persons Minimum Number of Escape Routes / Exits

60 1
600 2
More than 600 3

This number is likely to be increased by the need to observe travel distances, and by other practical
considerations, e.g., dead ends and obstacles affecting escape.

Distribution of Exits
The distribution of alternative exits is important to ensure they can be effectively used in the event of one ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
being unavailable in the event of fire. A choice of escape routes is of little value if they are all likely to be
disabled simultaneously. Alternative escape routes should be in directions 45° or more apart.

Illustration 25: Distribution of Exits Greater Than 45°

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Where this is not possible directions less than 45° apart are acceptable if the alternative routes are
separated from each other by fire-resisting construction, if not then maximum travel distance for a single
escape route applies, even though more than one exit is provided.

Illustration 26: Distribution of Exits Less Than 45°

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Dead Ends
In certain conditions a single direction of escape, e.g., from a dead end, can be accepted as providing
reasonable safety. In many cases, there will not be an alternative at the beginning of the escape route.
For example, there may be only one exit from a dead end, from which escape is possible in two directions.

Illustration 27: Alternative Exits from a Dead End

The greater the distance CB, then the greater the

angle ABD should be. This takes account of the
travel time required from the dead end, potentially
towards a fire.

Distance CBA or CBD, whichever is less, should be

no more than the maximum distance of travel given
for alternative routes, and distance CB should be
no more than the maximum distance for travel
where there are no alternative routes.

Angle ABD should be at least 45° plus 2.5° for each

metre travelled in one direction from point C
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(minimum angle ABD = 45° + 2.5° x distance CB).

Exits in a Central Core

In buildings with more than one exit in a central core the storey exits should be remote from one another. In
these circumstances, no two exits should be approached from, or linked by, the same lift hall, common lobby
or undivided corridor.

Access to Storey Exits

Where a storey has more than one escape stair the means of escape should not be through one stairway to
reach another. It is acceptable, however, to pass through the protected lobby of one stairway to reach
another stairway.

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Inner Rooms
Illustration 28: Inner Room

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A room from which the only escape route is through another room (access room) is called an inner room.
There is a risk to occupants of the inner room if a fire starts in the access room. In the case of inner rooms:

x The occupant capacity should not normally exceed 60

x It should not be a bedroom
x It should be entered directly off the access room
x The escape route should not pass through more than one access room
x The travel distance to the exit/s from the access room should not exceed the appropriate limit. The
access room should not be a place of special fire hazard and should be in the control of the same
occupier
x Either (see Illustration 28):
- The enclosures walls or partitions of the inner room should be stopped below the ceiling; or
- A vision panel should be located in the door or walls of the inner room; or
- The access room should be fitted with an automatic fire detection and alarm system

Width of Exits
There should be sufficient exits, of adequate width, from every room, storey or building. All escape routes
should have clear headroom of not less than 2m, except in doorways. The width of:

x A door (or doorway) is the clear width when the door is open
x An escape route is the width at 1,500 mm above floor level when defined by walls or, elsewhere,
the minimum width of passage available between any fixed obstructions
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x A stair is the clear width between the walls or balustrades

The width of escape routes and exits depends on the number of persons needing to use them. Except for
disabled access, they should not be less than the dimensions given in Table 19.

Table 19: Width of Escape Routes and Exits

Widths of Escape Routes and Exits

Maximum Number of Persons Minimum Width (mm)
50 750
110 850
220 1,050
More than 220 5 mm per person

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Access for Disabled People

The recommended minimum width of doors in new buildings for wheelchair users to be 800 mm. This
minimum dimension is increased to 825 mm for right angled access to an access route of 1,200 mm width
and to 1,000 mm for external doors used for public access.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Corridors and passageways should have an unobstructed width (excluding any projections into the space)
along their length of at least 1,200 mm. Also, where they have an unobstructed width of less than 1,800
mm, they should have passing places at least 1,800 mm long with an unobstructed width of at least 1,800
mm at reasonable intervals, e.g., at corridor junctions.

Exit Capacity
If a storey has two or more storeys exits it must be assumed that a fire might prevent the occupants from
using one of them. The remaining exit/s should be wide enough to allow all the occupants to leave quickly.
The total number of persons which two or more available exits can accommodate is determined by adding
the maximum number of persons for each exit width. However, the largest exit should be discounted when
deciding the total width of exits necessary according to Table 19. This may have implications for the width
of stairs.

Example

A storey has 3 exits each 850-mm wide, what is the capacity of the exits?

Answer

Using Table 19, a door width of 850 mm will accommodate maximum of 110 persons. Assuming one of the
exits is lost to a fire, the remaining two exits will accommodate: 2 x 110 = 220 persons. Therefore, the
number of persons on the storey should not exceed 220.

Protected Corridors
Protected corridors should be at least 1 m wide and at least 1.2 m for wheelchair users. Corridors leading in
one direction of more than 30 m, 45 m in offices and factories, should be subdivided into approximately
equal parts by fire resisting self-closing fire doors and partitions. A corridor acting as a means of escape
should be a protected corridor, especially where it serves:

x Bedrooms
x A dead-end; or
x Two or more different occupancies

Protected corridors serving two or more storeys exits of more than 12 m long should be sub-divided into
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approximately equal parts by fire resisting self-closing fire doors and partitions.

Where an external escape route (other than a stair) is beside an external wall of a building, the part of the
external wall within 1,800 mm of the escape route should be of fire-resisting construction, up to a height of
1,100 mm above the paving level of the route. The following should not be located in protected routes, or in
a corridor and stairway that serves as a sole means of escape from the workplace, or part of it:

x Portable heaters of any type

x Heaters which have unprotected naked flames or radiant bars
x Fixed heaters using a gas supply cylinder, where the cylinder is within the escape route
x Oil-fuelled boilers or heaters
x Cooking appliances
x Upholstered furniture
x Coat racks
x Temporarily stored items including items in transit, e.g., furniture, beds, laundry, waste bins, etc.
x Lighting using naked flames

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x Gas boilers, pipes, meters or other fittings (except those permitted in the standards supporting the
Building Regulations)
x Gaming or vending machines
x

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Electrical equipment (other than normal lighting, emergency escape lighting, fire alarm systems, or
equipment associated with a security system), e.g., photocopiers

Permanent or semi-permanent displays on escape routes, including wall displays should ideally be behind
glass. Notice boards should be kept as small as possible and should be securely fixed in position. They
should not be continuous along the length of a wall, sited above heaters or contain an excessive amount of
paper, e.g., multi-sheet notices.

Stairways
Stairways should be of sufficient width for the number of people who are likely to use them in an emergency
and should not normally be less than 1 metre wide. A single stairway may be suitable in low or normal fire
risk workplaces where:

x It can be reached within the travel required distances

x It is a protected stairway linking no more than three floors above and one floor below ground level
x Is of sufficient width for the occupancy
x Leads directly to a final exit

Where more than one stairway is provided, it is normally assumed that the largest may be unavailable in the
event of fire, therefore the remaining stairway should be large enough for evacuation of all occupants.
However, the largest stairway is not normally discounted in the event of a fire where all access points to
each stairway are provided with a protected lobby or are protected by other means, e.g., sprinkler or smoke
control systems.

There is no need to provide protected lobbies in low fire risk workplaces or normal fire risk workplaces where
all areas leading directly to the protected stairway are provided with automatic fire detection or sprinkler
systems that are linked to the fire alarm system.

People should not have to pass through a protected stairway to reach an alternative. A stairway may be by-
passed through doors in adjacent rooms, which must be always unobstructed and available for use.

Stairways should be protected by fire resisting partitions and fire resisting self-closing doors (except toilet
doors) and lead directly to a way out of the building. Exceptions to this are:

For low-risk buildings where:

x The stairway links no more than 2 floors and those floors are not linked to another floor by an
unprotected stairway
x It is additional to that required for escape purposes ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x No escape route from a dead-end on an upper floor passes the access to such a stairway

In small workplaces of low or normal risk where:

x The stairway only provides access between ground and first floor or ground and basement, and an
exit can be reached within the distances given for a single escape route from any part of either
floor.
x The access to the stairway is clearly visible from any part of either floor or it leads directly to a final
exit within 6 metres travel distance from a storey exit.

External Stairs
Where an external stairway is provided any door or window (other than toilet widows) opening onto the
stairway or within 1.8 metres horizontally (both sides) or 9 metres vertically of it must be fire resisting. Doors
should be self-closing and the windows not capable of being opened.

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Escape Doors
Doors on escape routes should open in the direction of travel where:

x More than 50 people must use the door

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

x The door is at or near the foot of a stairway

x The door serves a high-risk fire area; or
x The door is on an exit route from a building used for public assembly

People escaping should be able to open any door on an escape route easily and immediately. Outward
opening doors which must be fastened whilst people are in the building should be fitted with a single form of
release mechanism, such as a push bar or pad. Where a door needs to be fastened for security purposes
staff must know how it works and a notice explaining the method of operation and, if necessary, a suitable
tool should be supplied. These devices are not normally suitable for use by members of public.

Fire Doors
The term fire door refers to a fire resisting door set (door-leaf, glazing, frame and furniture). Fire doors are
required to act as a barrier to the passage of smoke and fire. Fire door integrity is maintained as the door-
leaf is designed not to warp in the frame under the effects of fire. Secondary restraint is then provided by the
clamping action of intumescent seals. Fire doors should be fitted with effective self-closing devices and
labelled ‘Fire Door Keep Shut’.

Self-closing doors may be held open with automatic door release mechanisms linked to the fire alarm
system or activated by independent smoke detectors (not domestic types) either side of the door. The
release mechanism should operate on power failure, on fire alarm activation or operation of one of the
independent smoke detectors. Timed release mechanisms are normally fitted to automatic hold open
devices in nursing homes, etc. during night hours. Such doors should be labelled with ‘Automatic Fire Door
Keep Clear’ signs.

Fire doors to cupboards and service ducts need not be self-closing provided they are kept locked shut and
labelled ‘Fire Door Keep Locked Shut’.

Escape Signs
Emergency escape routes and final exit doors should be
indicated by suitably located signs. All signs should
conform to the requirements of country specific
legislation and standards which often requires at least a
pictogram. If the route to be taken is not obvious the
signs may incorporate a directional arrow.
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On staircases and ramps the arrow should leave no

doubt as to whether the route is up or down. Signage
can also be supplemented by words such as ‘Fire Exit’.
Where possible signs should be placed above doors and
openings to which they relate, not less than 2 metres
above floor level. Curtains should not obscure signs
above doors and when using suspended signs, it may
be necessary for the sign to read from both sides and
not be obscured by light fittings, changes in ceiling
levels or other signs.

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Emergency Lighting
All escape routes, including external ones, must have sufficient lighting for people to safely evacuate.
Emergency lighting should clearly indicate the entire escape route and provide illumination of fire alarm call

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points and fire-fighting equipment. Emergency lighting can be battery powered or supplied from a central
emergency power source. Maintained emergency lighting where the luminaires are in operation at all times
are normally required in public areas, e.g., cinemas, theatres, etc. Emergency lighting luminaires should be
positioned:

x Near each intersection of corridors

x At each exit door
x Near each change of direction (except on a stairway)
x Near each stairway so each flight receives direct light
x Near any other change of floor level
x Outside each final exit
x Near to each fire alarm call point
x Near to fire-fighting equipment
x To illuminate exit and fire safety signs
x Within lift cars
x On escalators
x In toilets and lobbies in excess of 8m2
x Plant rooms
x Covered car parks

N.B. Near means within 2 metres horizontally.

Each emergency lighting system should be subject to a regular test and maintenance regime.

Table 20: Emergency Lighting Testing Schedules

Ensure faults identified previous day have been remedied.

Check every lamp in maintained system is lit.
Daily checks
Ensure control panel indicated normal operation.
Record any identified faults.

Simulated failure of normal lighting.

Self-contained units
Central battery systems
Monthly checks
Engine driven generator
After re-instatement check all luminaires and illuminated signs for normal ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
operation and check generator lamps, signs and back up batteries.

Simulated failure of normal lighting.

3hr self-contained luminaires and central systems (run for 1 hour).
1hr self-contained luminaires and central systems (run for 15 mins).
6 Monthly checks
As above for generator systems.
After re-instatement check all luminaires and illuminated signs for normal
operation and check generator lamps, signs and back up batteries.

Simulated failure of normal lighting.

Full duration test of self-contained luminaires and central systems.
3 yearly
Verify correct functioning of central system battery charger.
Test generator back-up batteries for their full duration.
For self-contained units with sealed batteries the three yearly test procedures
Subsequent annually
should be repeated annually after the first 3 yearly tests.

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Maintaining Fire Safety in Communal Areas

Fire safety in communal areas can be maintained by placing signs detailing actions to be taken in the event
of a fire. To ensure that all residents can understand any instruction provided.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Residents’ meetings can also be held to discuss fire safety issues as well as other items and concerns. All
alarms that are fitted, including smoke detectors, should be regularly maintained, and tested to ensure they
are working.

Landlords should ensure that all outside doors can be easily always opened from the inside. The landlord
will need to ensure that there are regular electrical installation safety checks. The landlord should ensure all
passages and corridors (escape routes) are kept clear.

All doors that lead out onto the escape route (i.e., a front door of an apartment in a block) are required to be
a fire door, 30-minute (FD30) resistance. The entry to the premises must be secure to prevent arson. All
outdoor bin areas must be tidy and free from combustible materials.

Emergency Evacuation Procedures

The responsible person should:

x Establish and, where necessary, give effect to appropriate procedures, including safety drills, to be
followed in the event of serious and imminent danger to relevant persons
x Nominate a sufficient number of competent persons to implement those procedures in so far as they
relate to the evacuation of relevant persons from the premises
x Ensure that no relevant person has access to any area to which it is necessary to restrict access on
grounds of safety unless the person concerned has received adequate safety instruction

It is essential for the safety of occupants of a building that appropriate procedures, including fire drills, to be
followed in the event of a fire are provided. The purpose of the procedures is to ensure the safe evacuation
of building occupants to a place of total or reasonable safety.

The risk of injuries and fatalities in a fire increase if the rate of fire growth exceeds the time taken for
evacuation. It is usual to plan for an evacuation time of between 2 to 3 minutes to a place of safety. The
principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that the time available for escape is greater than
the time needed for escape. All persons exposed to the risk of fire should be given information on the risk
and the steps to be taken in the event of fire. Depending upon the risk and those exposed this may range
from the placement of ‘Fire Action’ notices to providing information and / or training.

Employee fire safety training should be provided at induction and on them being exposed to new or
increased risk, e.g., changes to evacuation procedures during maintenance and construction work, and be
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repeated periodically.

Occupiers should provide the employer of persons working on their premises and any non-employee
working on their premises with relevant fire safety information. Where employers share a site, they should
ensure the co-ordination and co-operation of fire safety measures. The arrangements should be reviewed in
the light of any significant changes to premises, processes or personnel, which could lead to new hazards or
increased risk.

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Emergency Plan
In the event of a fire occupants of a building will need to know what to do. Employers should have adequate
pre-planned evacuation procedures (an emergency plan) in place and ensure employees are trained in

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those procedures. The procedures should be regularly tested as fire drills, e.g., at least twice a year. In
small premises the procedures required may be relatively simple, whereas in a larger, more complex
situation they will be more comprehensive.

The emergency plan will need to take account of all persons likely to be in the premises at any time. Where
more than one employer occupies a workplace, they should consult in devising the emergency plan and co-
operate with each other when putting it into effect.

Essential requirements for evacuation procedures include ensuring:

x The alarm is recognised and responded to

x Escape is made via designated escape routes
x People do not put themselves at risk, e.g., by using lifts or unduly delaying their escape
x Actions of persons with specific responsibilities
x The emergency services are contacted
x Any communications during the evacuation, e.g., between those assisting the evacuation, those
assisting evacuation and the evacuees and the person controlling the incident and the fire and
rescue service
x Safe assembly to a point clear of the building
x All persons are accounted for, either by roll call or by nominated persons checking the building
during the evacuation
x Nobody re-enters the building until it is safe to do so

In certain circumstances the procedures may require consideration of:

x Use of evacuation lifts

x Evacuation procedures for disabled people, e.g., use of refuges and places of relative safety.
x Overnight occupancy, e.g.,
- Care for evacuees, including provisions for accommodation, blankets and similar for night time
or bad weather evacuations
- Reuniting family groups
- Notifying relatives and providing transport home

Other issues to consider may include:

x Preventing or minimising business interruption
x Environmental protection ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x Security / salvage and damage control
x Protecting the building and its contents
x Recording lessons learned

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The emergency plan should provide clear instructions on:

x The action to be taken on discovering a fire
x Arrangements for warning people in the event of a fire
x How the evacuation of the premises will be conducted
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x The location of assembly points

x Arrangements for checking the effectiveness and efficiency of the evacuation
x Identification of key escape routes, primary and alternatives
x Fire-fighting equipment provided
x Duties of employees with specific responsibilities in case of fire, e.g., fire wardens or marshals
x Arrangements for evacuation of vulnerable persons, e.g., visitors, contractors, people with
disabilities, etc.
x Details for isolating machinery or equipment in the case of fire
x Special arrangements for high-risk areas
x Access for the emergency services
x Arrangements for contacting emergency services
x Arrangements for on-site liaison with emergency services
x Arrangements for staff training

Fire Action notices should be displayed prominently on exit routes informing people of the action they should
take on either hearing the alarm or discovering a fire. All instructions should be given in a way that is readily
understood, taking account of those with hearing, sight or learning disabilities.

Evacuation Procedures and Drills

Two-Stage Evacuation
In large shops, places of public entertainment and catering establishments an initial general alarm may be
undesirable because of the number of members of public present. Restricted alarms by means of sounders
or paging systems supplemented by visual signals for staff recognition may be preferred, so that trained staff
can put pre-planned procedures for safe evacuation into effect.

The evacuation plan and staff training should emphasise the importance of efficient communication between
staff members. Provision should be made for activation of the general alarm for evacuation by sounders or
public address system with the evacuation alarm under the control of a nominated responsible person. The
alarm system should not cause unnecessary delay in warning the public.

Progressive Horizontal Evacuation

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This allows horizontal escape to be made progressively by evacuating into adjoining compartments, or sub-
divisions of compartments, in residential homes or those areas used for inpatient care. The object is to
provide a place of reasonable (relative) safety within a short distance, from which further evacuation can be
made if necessary but under less time pressure. Typically, one fire resisting compartment should be
between the fire and the occupants.

For progressive horizontal evacuation:

x Adjoining compartments into which horizontal evacuation may take place should each have a floor
area sufficient to accommodate not only their own occupants but also the occupants from the
adjoining compartment. This should be calculated on the basis of the design occupancy of the
compartments; and
x Each compartment should have at least one other escape route, independent of the route into the
adjoining compartment. This other route may be by way of a third compartment, provided the exit
from that compartment is independent of the exits from the other compartments

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Progressive Vertical Evacuation

In tall buildings, it may be desirable to evacuate first those areas of the premises at greatest risk, e.g., those
closest to the fire or immediately above it. In such cases a two-stage alarm may be used in which the

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evacuation signal is given in a restricted area, together with an alert signal in other areas. In tall buildings,
where progressive evacuation is necessary, the normal sequence of evacuation should be:

1. The floor of origin of the fire and the floor immediately above.
2. The next two floors above.
3. The remaining floors in groups of two working up the building.
4. Floors in groups of two below the floor of origin working downwards.

The decision to evacuate the remainder of the occupants then rests with local management and / or the fire
and rescue service.

Alarm Evacuation and Roll Call

The object of a fire evacuation procedure is to practise good evacuation behaviour, so that people do not
experience or develop serious health effects associated with being exposed to the effects of fire. In order to
test evacuation procedures, it is important to achieve as much realism as possible. The procedure will not be
fully tested if people think that the actual emergency escape routes cannot be used.

Confirming the Building is Clear

In the event of a fire in a building the fire service will need to know, among other things, whether or not there
are still people left in the building. It is important to provide the fire service with clear information regarding
the situation relating to people in the building. If the fire service officer on the scene has any doubt as to
whether there are persons in a building their first priority becomes the rescue of those people. This will
involve committing fire fighters into the building to conduct search and rescue operations and is very likely to
delay an attack on the main seat of the fire.

In order to be confident when reporting to the fire service, the fire incident controller will need to know that
everyone has either left the building or, if people are still in the building, where they are likely to be found.
The two methods used by a fire incident controller are the ‘sweep’ and ‘roll-call’.

‘SWEEP’
The sweep technique is simply the application of a systematic and progressive checking of all the areas
within a building or within the area of responsibility of a fire warden/marshal. When conducting a sweep of
an area it is important to ensure that all areas that may be occupied are swept. This includes any plant
rooms where contractors may be working, any walk-in cupboards or storerooms and any toilets or rest
facilities.
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During a sweep of an area the fire warden/marshal should also ensure that where possible and without
causing undue delay any doors or windows are closed, any heat generating equipment is turned off and any
signs of fire are noted and, if appropriate, dealt with. To ensure that an effective sweep is made of a building
at the time of an emergency evacuation it is necessary for the fire safety manager or fire incident controller
to allocate specific areas of the building to specific fire wardens/marshals.

In the case of multi-storey offices this is often achieved by nominating two to three fire wardens per floor,
whereas, in the case of an open plan factory, fire wardens may be allocated to production areas.
When planning the division of a large building to be swept by fire wardens it is important to bear in mind that
the area to be swept by one individual must be of a size and nature that will allow the sweep to be
conducted and the warden to evacuate within 2½ and 3 minutes of the alarm sounding.

Assembly Point/Roll Call

An assembly point is a safe place away from the immediate danger where persons can be accounted for,
e.g., a roll call can be taken. There may be more than one assembly point for staff and visitors, depending
upon the number of people involved. Assembly points should be indicated by signage.

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In addition to a sweep of the premises it is often the case that some form of rollcall will be taken at the fire
assembly point. The level and nature of the rollcall will be determined by the fire risk assessment and be
dependent upon factors such as:

x The size and nature of the workforce

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x The number and nature of any visitors that may be present in the building
x The resources required to maintain an accurate rollcall of persons in the building

Organisations often adopt a minimalist approach to rollcalls, particularly where they have effective
arrangements for conducting a sweep of the building.

An example of this is where the reception desk of a building will merely record details of visitors, e.g.,
contractors and clients, to the building and take this roll to the assembly point to ensure that those people
not normally in the building have evacuated. When combined with an effective sweep technique this type of
rollcall is seen to provide the necessary level of care for those who are less familiar with the building.

Allocation of Responsibility
Nominated Persons
Sufficient nominated competent persons should be appointed to assist with the evacuation. This will include
someone (an evacuation co-ordinator) to take charge of the situation and to call the fire and rescue service
and depending upon the risk may also include fire wardens or marshals to ensure the building has been
evacuated and someone to record the event for post incident analysis and record keeping. Persons with
special responsibilities in the event of fire should receive specific training as to their expected role.

Training of employees in the correct use of fire extinguishers is important in so far as extinguishers may be
needed to assist their escape. Additional training of fire-fighting teams may be very desirable in some
situations, but care must be taken not to put employees at risk. Dedicated fire marshals or wardens should
be given annual practical training on the use of the relevant portable appliances for their site. Additional
personnel may be identified to undergo the same training, e.g., maintenance engineers, confined space
workers, chemical handlers, and security guards. Where kitchen staff is involved, they should also be
trained to use a fire blanket.

Evacuation Co-ordinator and Fire Wardens/Marshals

Specific fire duties that should be allocated to trained individuals include:

x Supervising the evacuation from each storey, ensuring that all people have left each area and
reporting to that effect to the person in charge
x Ensuring that doors are closed as each storey or compartment is cleared
x Ensuring that everyone assembles at a place of safety and is accounted for, so that if anyone is
missing the fire and rescue service can be informed on their arrival
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x Meeting the fire and rescue service on its arrival and giving all relevant information
x Ensuring that people do not re-enter the building until authorised to do so
x Instructing people not to move cars which are parked within or near the building, because of the
risk of impeding access to the emergency services

Attempts may be made to fight the fire with the equipment provided, if:
x Trained staff are available for the purpose
x They deem it safe to do so
x Such action would contain or extinguish the fire
x It is likely to have a direct and immediate effect in protecting life

It is essential that a person in charge is available at the point of arrival of the fire service to be able to direct
the fire-fighters to the affected area and be ready with any necessary keys, information about the building
and other relevant help.

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Re-Entry
Re-entry to the building should not take place until a competent person, e.g., the fire safety manager or
senior fire and rescue officer, confirms that:

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x The building is structurally safe
x The building is free of contaminants
x The necessary plant and building services are fully operational
x The fire safety systems are fully operational

After the Incident

Fire incidents and false alarms can provide useful lessons. Whenever an evacuation occurs, the opportunity
should be taken to record the lessons learned in a fire safety manual and to review fire safety arrangements.
Information should be obtained from as many sources as possible to maximise the lessons learned.

Records should include the:

x Date of training or drill.

x Duration of training.
x Evacuation time form the building.
x Person in charge or giving instruction.
x Persons receiving instruction, e.g., employees, visitors, etc.
x Nature of drill or instruction, e.g., fire incident or false alarm.
x Observations / remedial actions.

Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP)

Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEPs) are recommended for those people requiring assistance to
leave the building. PEEPs explain the method of escape to be used in each area of the building on a case-
by-case basis, and when agreed are kept by the relevant parties.

PEEPs are written by competent persons, and where possible, e.g., for employees, in conjunction with the
individuals concerned and are based on knowledge of the structural provisions within the building. As part
of the consultation exercise the matter of personal dignity will need to be considered.

Where a building has many visitors, some of whom might be disabled, an acceptable option would be to
provide standard plans that are available on request. If members of the public use the building, then a range
of standard PEEPs, which can be provided on request to a disabled person or others with special needs,
may need to be developed.

Through the recording of PEEPs, the management team should be made aware of the amount of staff ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
support required for each evacuation.

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Evacuating Members of Public

Competent people should be appointed to assist the evacuation procedure. In premises open to the public
the staff should be easily identifiable, preferably uniformed, and should have the training necessary to give
instruction and assistance with authority to ensure prompt compliance with any public-address
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announcements.
Staff whose duties include assisting members of the public should receive information in facilitating
evacuation, which might also require specific training in helping persons who need assistance to evacuate to
a safe part of the building or exit the building to a place of safety. All staff should be informed of the location
of evacuation lifts and escape routes for people who might need assistance from the building.

Where escalators are provided in shops, the staff drill should include provision for nominated members of
the staff to move to the entry of each escalator on the sounding of the fire alarm or escalator alarm to
prevent the use of the escalator.

Where the premises include separate areas, such as residential accommodation or private apartments,
these should be included in these duties.

Training and Fire Drill

Fire drills form an important part of ensuring the safety of employees and others at a workplace. The
purpose and benefits of carrying out these drills include:

x Testing the effectiveness of the evacuation procedures both generally or in relation to specific
requirements, e.g., ensuring the safety of disabled employees and visitors
x Testing management arrangements
x Providing instruction to employees on the actions to be taken in emergency situations
x Checking that the alarm can be heard in all parts of the premises
x Identifying weaknesses in emergency communications procedures and systems
x Familiarising employees, particularly those new to the undertaking, with the alarms, evacuation
procedures, escape routes and assembly points so that, in the case of a real emergency, they
would know the actions to take
x Assessing the reliability of equipment
x Providing the opportunity for fire wardens and others with specific functions to practise their
designated roles
x Rehearsing joint action with the fire service / other occupiers

Fire drills in public places, e.g., hospitals, cinemas, etc. usually do not involve the evacuation of members of
the public but require trained members of staff to practice their response.

In these circumstances, all employees are given more frequent fire evacuation refresher training. If members
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of the public are to be on the premises during the test evacuation, the fire and rescue service should be
informed of the intention to carry out the evacuation and asked to co-operate in the exercise.

Crowds
Experiences of fires in crowded places (places of assembly) have highlighted the importance of ensuring
that exit doors can be easily and immediately opened, that exit routes are free from obstruction and
adequately lit and that combustible waste has been removed.

Accidents have occurred whereby people are not able to make good their escape due to, e.g., falling, the
volume flow of people, restricted space causing a bottleneck and asphyxiation from the crushing effect of the
crowd.

Certain functions, e.g., pop concerts, can present additional risks, largely from the effects of over-excitement
and irrational behaviour. These dangers are further exacerbated if overcrowding is permitted. Precautions
should be taken on such occasions to reduce the dangers and minimise the risk.

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Crowd Management
To achieve the desired evacuation times for crowds it is important to consider the following factors in the

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assessment and production of an emergency plan:

x The design and layout of the premises, especially the flooring type and whether slopes, dead ends,
convergence points, cross flows, steps, and barriers are present
x The provision of information, e.g., signage, phased evacuations, public address systems and
alarms
x The crowd type, e.g., size, familiarity with the premises, employees, visitors or members of public,
impaired mobility or hearing; and
x The influence of others, e.g., a reluctance to react, the onset of panic and the number and
effectiveness of incident controllers, fire wardens or marshals

At the planning stage, the number and the width of exits should be taken into account to determine the
maximum number of persons to be accommodated.

Before the public are admitted to any performance or function, the fire safety manager should ensure that:

x All necessary fire safety features are available and in effective working order
x All exit doors are unlocked and readily available for use
x Any doors, gates or shutters that are required to be locked in the open position are so locked
x All exit routes and exit doors, both internally and externally, are free from obstruction
x Fire doors are not wedged or propped open
x Exit routes and exit signs are adequately illuminated
x There are no obvious fire hazards, such as accumulated waste
x The appropriate number of staff / attendants, including those trained to assist disabled people, are
present
x Any equipment provided to assist the evacuation of disabled people, including evacuation lifts,
evacuation chairs and vibrating pagers, is operative

At the start of any function, such as a pop concert, a public announcement explaining the fire routine, the
means of raising the alarm and the location of exits should be made.

At the end of the function, after all members of the public have left, the building should be inspected to
ensure that there are no smouldering fires or other potential fire risks.

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10.5 Dangerous Substance

Industrial Chemical Processes

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Since the dawn of time man has used his intellectual ability to manipulate his environment and materials
within his environment for his benefit. From the early stone age Neanderthal who produced rudimentary
tools through the iron ages and the extraction of minerals and metal ores leading to the manipulation of
materials to produce weapons and useful utensils.

As technological progress allows the more complex manipulation of materials, even at an atomic level, so
the inherent hazards associated with processing activities are increased. The hazards which may be
present during the chemical process may be broadly categorised as:

x Hazards that are characteristic of the materials and chemistry used

x Hazards that are characteristic of the process variables and process plant

In the modern world of complex chemical processing the industrial chemist will use a number of
techniques to provide an improved reaction / process performance, such as control of temperature,
pressure or the use of catalysts. In this element the areas of chemical process hazards, storage of
dangerous substances and the transport of dangerous goods will be considered.

A chemical process, before becoming a full-scale manufacturing

process, goes through various stages of evolution. These stages
are known as life cycle stages. The life cycle of a process begins
with its initial concept for example, its discovery at the research
stage. Then the process grows through stages of process
development, design, and construction, and matures with
operations, maintenance, and modification and finally ends with
decommissioning. Usually, the process will operate as a small-
scale pilot and then be scaled up to full production quantities.

Much of the traditional approach to process safety is based on

controlling the hazards associated with chemical processes and
plants. This is done through improving procedures, installing
additional safety interlocks and systems, and improving emergency
response, with the aim of reducing the risks of a major accident.

Chemical processing will involve broadly four main hazards, namely:

x Hazards associated with the chemical reaction

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x Hazards associated with fire and explosion

x Health hazards arising from exposure to the chemicals
x Environmental hazards

Preventive or protective measures to reduce the risks can be classified into three types:

Passive: These minimise the hazard by process and equipment design features. They reduce either the
frequency or consequence of the hazard without the active functioning of any device. Examples include
firewalls, orifice plates or narrow bore piping to control flow, etc.

Active: These use engineering controls, safety interlocks and emergency shutdown systems to detect
process deviations and take appropriate corrective or remedial action.

Procedural: These uses operating procedures, emergency response and other management approaches
to prevent incidents or to minimise the effects of an incident.

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Effects of Temperature, Pressure and Catalysts on Rates of

Chemical Reactions

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For a chemical reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide, consequently increasing the temperature of
a reaction which increases the rate of that reaction. At a higher temperature, reactant particles move faster
and collide more often and more violently.

Increasing the concentration of reactants

increases the rate of a reaction. This is
because there are more particles in the
same volume so more collisions are
Organic and Inorganic
possible every second. Catalysts are used in Industry
Breaking up solids into smaller pieces
Examples of organic catalysts are the enzymes
increases reaction rate because this
amylase and pepsin. These are both used in food
increases the total surface area.
processing. Amylase is used in the starch processing
Increasing the surface area must increase
industry, and in the paper industry, to break down
the number of particles of the solid in
complex carbohydrates into smaller saccharide
contact with other reactants in solution.
molecules.
Using a catalyst may increase the rate of a
reaction.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) are
inorganic catalysts used in the cracking of crude oil.
A catalyst is a substance that increases or
The liquid hydrocarbons that need to be cracked are
decreases (inhibits) the rate of a chemical
mixed with Al2O3 and SiO2 powder. This mixture is
reaction without being consumed in the
then passed through a reaction chamber at a
reaction or a substance that lowers the
temperature of 500°C. In the reactions that take
activation energy for a chemical reaction
place, the hydrocarbons are broken into random
by providing an alternate pathway for the
chains of variable lengths. These can then be
reaction.
separated out by fractional distillation into various
distillates such as paraffin, kerosene and diesel.

During the chemical manufacturing process, raw

materials react together to produce products or
reactants. Such a chemical process often releases
energy, in the form of heat, and the reaction is
described as exothermic. A reaction may be
exothermic even if the mass of the raw materials must
be heated to initiate the reaction.

Exothermic: A reaction is called exothermic if energy

(heat) is released during the reaction.

Conversely a chemical reaction may draw heat

energy from the environment with a consequent ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
cooling effect, which may give rise to freezing of
components in the process hardware, raw materials,
or crystallisation of materials leading to obstruction of
the process. Where the reaction draws energy in this
manner from the environment then it is said to be
endothermic.

Endothermic: A reaction is called endothermic if

energy (heat) is absorbed during the reaction.

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Heat of Reaction

Endothermic Reactions – Reactions Which Take in Heat Energy

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Example of endothermic reactions:

x Reacting ethanoic acid with sodium carbonate

x Photosynthesis (chlorophyll is used to react carbon dioxide plus water plus energy to make
glucose and oxygen)
x Dissolving ammonium chloride in water
x Mixing water and ammonium nitrate
x Mixing water with potassium chloride

Exothermic Reactions – Reactions Which Give Out Heat Energy

Burning of Propane in Oxygen

Examples of exothermic reactions:

ͻ Combustion reactions of fuels

ͻ Neutralization reactions such as direct reaction of acid and base
ͻ Adding concentrated acid to water
ͻ Burning of a substance such as propane
ͻ Setting of cement and concrete
ͻ Many corrosion reactions such as oxidation of metals
ͻ Most polymerisation reactions- In chemistry, polymerisation is a process of bonding monomers
through a variety of reaction mechanisms to form longer chains called polymers
ͻ Burning of natural gas
ͻ Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost

Runaway Reactions
An exothermic reaction can lead to a reaction which is out of control and is known as thermal runaway,
which begins when the heat produced by the reaction exceeds the heat removed.

The excess heat produced raises the temperature of the reaction mass (the raw ingredients present),
which causes the rate or speed of the reaction to increase. This in turn accelerates the rate of heat
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production. An approximate rule of thumb suggests that reaction rate, and hence the rate of heat
generation, doubles with every 10°C rise in temperature. Thermal runaway can occur because, as the
temperature increases, the rate at which heat is removed increases linearly but the rate at which heat is
produced increases exponentially. Once control of the reaction is lost, temperature can rise rapidly
leaving little or no time for correction.

During runaway, the reaction vessel may be at risk from over-pressurisation due to violent boiling or
rapid gas generation. The elevated temperatures may initiate secondary, more hazardous runaway
reactions or decompositions of chemical ingredients.

Runaway: A reaction that is out of control because the rate of heat generation by an exothermic
chemical reaction exceeds the rate of cooling available.

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Effects of Thermal Runaway

A runaway exothermic reaction can have a range of results from the boiling over of the reaction mass, to

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large increases in temperature and pressure that could lead to an explosion causing blast and missile
damage from flying plant debris. If flammable materials are released, fires or secondary explosions may
result. Hot liquors and toxic materials may contaminate the workplace or generate a toxic cloud release that
may spread off-site affecting surrounding communities. There can be serious risk of injuries, even death, to
plant operators, and the general public and the local environment may be harmed. At best, a runaway
reaction is likely to cause significant loss and disruption of production. At worst, it has the potential for a
major accident, as the incidents at Seveso and Bhopal have shown.

Union Carbide India Ltd, Bhopal, India 3rd December 1984

Accident Summary
In the early hours of 3rd December 1984, a relief valve on a storage tank containing highly toxic methyl
isocyanate (MIC) lifted. A cloud of MIC gas was released which drifted onto nearby housing.

Prior to this, at 23.00 hrs on 2nd December, an operator noticed the pressure inside the storage tank to be
higher than normal but not outside the working pressure of the tank. At the same time a MIC leak was
reported near the vent gas scrubber (VGS). At 00.15hrs a MIC release in the process area was reported.
The pressure inside the storage tank was rising rapidly so the operator went outside to the tank. Rumbling
sounds were heard from the tank and a screeching noise from the safety valve. Radiated heat could also be
felt from the tank.

Attempts were made to switch on the VGS, but this was not in operational mode. Approximately 2,000
people died within a short period and tens of thousands were injured, overwhelming the emergency
services. This was further compounded by the fact that the hospitals were unaware as to which gas was
involved or what its effects were. The exact numbers of dead and injured are uncertain, as people have
continued to die of the effects over a period of years.

The severity of this accident makes it the worst recorded within the chemical industry.

Failings in Technical Measures

x The flare system was a critical element within the plant’s protection system. However, this fact
was not recognised as it was out of commission for some three months prior to the accident.
x Hazards associated with runaway reactions in a chemical reactor are generally understood.
However, such an occurrence within a storage tank had received little research.
x The ingress of water caused an exothermic reaction with the process fluid. The exact point of
ingress is uncertain, though poor modification / maintenance practices may have contributed.
x The decommissioning of the refrigeration system was one plant modification that contributed to ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
the accident. Without this system, the temperature within the tank was higher than the design
temperature of 0°C. The emergency response from the company to the incident and from the local
authority suggests that the emergency plan was ineffective. During the emergency, operators
hesitated when to use the siren system. No information was available regarding the hazardous
nature of MIC and what medical actions should be taken.

Icmesa Chemical Company, Seveso, Italy 9th July 1976

Accident Summary
At approximately 12:37 on Saturday 9th July 1976 a bursting disc on a chemical reactor ruptured.
Maintenance staff heard a whistling sound, and a cloud of vapour was seen to issue from a vent on the roof.
A dense white cloud, of considerable altitude drifted offsite. The release lasted for some twenty minutes.
About an hour after the release the operators were able to admit cooling water to the reactor.

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Among the substances of the white cloud released was a small deposit of TCDD (2, 3, 7, 8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), a highly toxic material. The nearby town of Seveso, located 15 miles from
Milan, had some 17,000 inhabitants.

Over the next few days following the release there was much confusion due to the lack of communication
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between the company and the authorities in dealing with this type of situation.

No human deaths were attributed to TCDD, but many individuals fell ill. A number of pregnant women who
had been exposed to the release had abortions. In the contaminated area, many animals died.

Failings in Technical Measures

x The production cycle was interrupted, without any agitation or cooling, allowing a prolonged
holding of the reaction mass. Also, the conduct of the final batch involved a series of failures to
adhere to the operating procedures. The original method of distillation patent specified that the
charge was acidified before distillation. However, in the plant procedures the order of these steps
was reversed
x The bursting disc was set at 3.5 bar and was to guard against excessive pressure in the
compressed air that was used to transfer the materials to the reactor. Had a bursting disc with a
lower set pressure been installed, venting would have occurred at a lower and less hazardous
temperature
x The reactor control systems were inadequate both in terms of the measuring equipment for
several fundamental parameters and also in the absence of any automatic control system
x The company was aware of the hazardous characteristics of the principal exotherm. However,
studies showed that weaker exotherms existed that could lead to a runaway reaction
x There was no device to collect or destroy the toxic materials as they vented. The manufacturer of
the bursting disc recommended the use of a second receiver to recover toxic materials. No such
vessel was fitted; and
x Information on the chemicals released and their associated hazards was not available from the
company. Communication was poor and failed both between the company and the local
authorities and within the regulatory authorities

The scale on which reactions are carried out can have a significant effect on the likelihood of runaway and
the reaction rate generally. The heat produced during the reaction increases with the volume of the reaction
mixture, whereas the heat removed from the reaction depends on the surface area available for heat
transfer.

As scale and the ratio of volume to surface area increases, cooling may become inadequate. This has
important implications for scale-up of processes from the laboratory to production. When modifying a
process to increase the reaction quantities, a similar effect of reducing the ability to cool may be
experienced. The balance of heat in the reaction can affect the reaction rate. Conversely the reaction rate
can affect the presence of heat.
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If all the reactants are present in the reactor vessel and the reaction has started (e.g., by heating); then this
is termed a batch reaction.

The main disadvantage of batch reactions is that because if all the reactants are present, should something
go wrong (e.g., failure of cooling) then nothing can be done to control the reaction, only the presence of
protective measures can mitigate the consequences of the runaway.
Where one or more reactants are added gradually during the reaction then the process is known as a semi-
batch reaction and the rate of reaction is controllable by several factors, in particular the addition rate of the
reactants and temperature.

Batch process: An operation in which all the reactants including any solvent are added to a reactor at the
start of a reaction.

Batch reactor: Reactor in which all reactants and solvents are introduced before setting the reaction
conditions. Products are only taken from the reactor upon conclusion of the reaction process.

Semi-batch process: An operation in which some materials are added to the reactor at the start, with one
or more other reactants added in a controlled manner during the reaction.

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Semi-batch reactor: A type of reactor that is characterised by the supply, in a controlled manner, of one or
more key reactants during the reaction. Products are only taken from the reactor upon conclusion of the
reaction process.

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Continuous reactors: Reactors that are characterised by a continuous flow of reactants into, and products
from, the reactor system.

If there is a process malfunction, e.g., loss of agitation that may result in runaway, systems should be in
place to detect this. Stopping the addition prevents an increase in the accumulation of un-reacted material
and the possibility of a runaway. In some cases, although complete control may not be possible, a reduced
accumulation can reduce the level of protection required.

Methods of Controlling Exothermic and Runaway Reactions

Automatic safety control systems such as valves and vents have the advantage that high levels of safety
integrity are achievable. Great care, however, should be taken in designing the system to ensure a failure to
danger does not affect safety integrity. The critical sequences of failures should be considered that can give
rise to the particular hazard. This should be carried out in a systematic way and in accordance with the
requirements for a suitable and sufficient risk assessment. There are many techniques available for this
type of detailed analysis, e.g., hazard and operability study (HAZOP), fault tree analysis, etc.

The preventive measures could rely upon operator intervention. This allows the operator to apply their
judgment and the measures taken to control the reaction can be very flexible. However, a number of factors
can affect the reliability of this type of approach and include:

ͻ The complexity of the tasks

ͻ The system design
ͻ The time available for a response
ͻ Operator availability
ͻ Operator training

Process Control
Process control includes the use of sensors such as temperature or pressure, alarms, trips and other
control systems that either take automatic action or indicate conditions which require manual intervention to
prevent the conditions for uncontrolled reaction occurring. Specifying such measures requires a thorough
understanding of the chemical process involved especially the limits of safe operation.

Where controls are specified which include several components then system reliability in terms of ensuring
the operation of the control system should be considered. Critical failure of components can be significantly
reduced by ensuring redundancy within the control process.
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Protective Measures
Protective measures do not prevent a runaway but reduce the consequences should one occur. They are
rarely used on their own as some preventive measures are normally required to reduce the demand upon
them. As they operate once a runaway has started, a detailed knowledge of the reaction under runaway
conditions is needed for their effective specification.

Options available include the following:

x Design the plant to contain the maximum pressure

x Fit emergency relief vents and ensure vented material goes to a safe place such as
atmosphere or treatment mechanism (such as scrubber or flare stack, dependant on materials
to be vented)
x Rapidly cool the reaction mixture if it moves outside the set parameters of a stable reaction
x Add a reaction inhibitor to slow or stop the reaction process and prevent runaway
x Dump the reacting ingredients into a quenching fluid

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Major Accidents
Common causes of large-scale accidents include the following:
x Inadequate understanding of the process chemistry and thermo-chemistry
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x Inadequate design for heat removal

x Inadequate control systems and safety systems
x Inadequate management control
x Inadequate maintenance of plant and control systems
x Inadequate operational procedures, including training

See major accidents for reference to:

x Flixborough
x Piper Alpha
x Three Mile Island
x Chernobyl

The Storage, Handling and Transport of

Dangerous Substances
Identification of Dangerous Substances
In general terms, to determine whether dangerous substances are present in the workplace, employers will
need to carry out the following three steps:

Step 1 - Establish whether the substance or preparation has been classified as dangerous. Reference will
need to be made to the relevant classification system, such as that used within the EU or UN numbers.
Dangerous substances may include substances classed as: explosive, oxidising, extremely flammable,
highly flammable or flammable. All dangerous substances which are supplied for use should be
accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

Step 2 – The employer should assess the physical and chemical properties of the substance or preparation
and the work processes involved to determine whether the work activity creates a potential for fire, explosion
or similar energetic (energy releasing) event. The processing may produce a flammable intermediate
substance or produce a reaction which may be subject to thermal runaway or unstable substances such as
certain peroxides.

Step 3 – Explosive dusts can also be a significant risk, so the employer should determine whether the work
activity involves the creation or handling of potentially combustible or explosive dusts. A detailed knowledge
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of the process and the materials and by products produced is required in order to make a suitable and
sufficient assessment of the risks.

Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of

Chemicals
The new system, which is called "Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
(GHS)", addresses classification of chemicals by types of hazards and proposes harmonized hazard
communication elements, including labels and safety data sheets. It aims at ensuring that information on
physical hazards and toxicity from chemicals is available in order to enhance the protection of human health
and the environment during the handling, transport and use of these chemicals. The GHS also provides a
basis for harmonisation of rules and regulations on chemicals at national, regional and worldwide level, an
important factor also for trade facilitation.

The first edition of the GHS, which was intended to serve as the initial basis for the global implementation of
the system, was approved by the Committee of Experts at its first session and published in 2003.

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While governments, regional institutions and international organisations are the primary audiences for the
GHS, it also contains sufficient context and guidance for those in industry who will ultimately be
implementing the requirements which have been adopted.

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In respect to labelling, GHS requires the following information:

a) Allocation of label elements g) Product and supplier information

b) Reproduction of the symbol h) Multiple hazards and precedence of
c) Reproduction of the hazard pictogram information
d) Signal words i) Arrangements for presenting the GHS
label elements
e) Hazard statements
j) Special labelling arrangement
f) Precautionary statements and pictograms

The Safety Data Sheet is also an important aspect of GHS.

STORAGE METHODS AND QUANTITIES

Manufacturing and processing will normally involve storage, in some physical form, of raw materials,
intermediates, finished products and wastes, where storage is normally classified as:

x Bulk tanks, e.g., large cone roof tanks, horizontal tanks with dished ends, spheres or torpedo
shaped tanks for pressurised gases
x Packages, e.g., drums, kegs, bags, gas cylinders; or
x Hoppers for solids, e.g., silos, tote bins

General Storage Considerations

Containment
Storage may be above or below ground in bulk containers, in
discrete buildings in drums or packages or in separate
compounds in containers. All substances which are stored
must be contained in vessels which are constructed to the
appropriate agreed international or national standard.

Substances, which are stored above ground, should be

prevented from leaking or spreading to other parts of the site
or off site. Containment would normally be by way of bund
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wall or interceptor drainage for running liquids.

Underground storage should include a means of detecting

leaks from the storage facility before a hazardous situation
can arise.

Vessels containing liquefied gases should allow for leaks to

escape away from the storage facility and vulnerable areas,
both on and off site, where they can disperse safely.

Closed vessels such as hoppers or silos should be used for the storage of solid hazardous substances,
which are manufactured to an appropriate agreed national or international standard.

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Separation
Adequate separation distances should be provided between storage areas, occupied buildings, ignition
sources, other dangerous substances, and site boundaries. The distance should be sufficient to allow
escape of personnel in case of fire and reduce the likelihood of spread of fire or protect the store from fires
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

occurring elsewhere.
It may be appropriate in some circumstances where space is limited to provide separation by way of a fire
resisting structure such as a wall, provided that adequate resistance is provided without impeding access or
egress.

In determining what adequate separation is, employers should take into account all relevant factors when
assessing the installation, including:

x The properties of the dangerous substance

x Information provided by the supplier; the quantities being stored or used
x The method of storage, e.g., in bulk tanks or in containers
x The type of activities and operations using dangerous substances
x The location of the facility storing or handling the dangerous substance in relation to other features
including: the site boundaries, occupied buildings, heat sources, fixed sources of ignition, other
dangerous substances, and vehicle thoroughfares
x The design standards for the installation
x Activities on adjacent premises
x Foreseeable incidents and emergencies
x Structures or natural features that could hinder ventilation, or adversely prolong the time, or extend
the distance, that any escape of a dangerous substance remains flammable
x Security
x The scale of the anticipated effects

Specific guidance exists for particular substances in relation to storage requirements and separation
distances. See later in this Element.

Segregation
Where there is a likelihood of the storage of incompatible materials then, adequate segregation should be
maintained to ensure that the materials do not interact, e.g., a risk arises where corrosive materials are
stored if a release of the corrosive material could cause the containers of dangerous substances to fail.

Ventilation
Good ventilation should be provided in areas where flammable liquids or gases are stored in order to ensure
that any such gases or vapours given off from a spill, leak or release are rapidly dispersed. Preferably,
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storage areas should be located in well-ventilated positions, in the open air. If a storage area is located
within a building, adequate natural or mechanical ventilation should be provided.

Where underground storage facilities are used, no part of the facility where a flammable accumulation could
occur should be under any occupied building or other susceptible area such as a dangerous goods store.

Identification of Storerooms, Tanks, Vessels and Containers

The contents of any vessels including tanks or drums should be clearly marked on the container to make
any person aware of the contents.

Material Transfer
The transfer of materials around a workplace or within a storage facility should be completed by way of a
totally enclosed system. Where this is not practicable then closed containers to reduce the risk of spillage
should be used.
Unloading facilities should be operated to prevent spillage and ensure that incompatible materials cannot be
accidentally off-loaded, e.g., by using specific complex manifold couplings and clear labelling.

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Other security measures could include:

Control of Ignition Sources
x Lockable containers
Areas around dangerous storage facilities should
x Lockable covers to filling and

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be classified according to the likely presence of a
flammable atmosphere, i.e., zone 0, 1 or 2. discharge connections
x Locked storerooms
Storage in Process Areas and x Intruder alarms
Workrooms x Patrols

Quantities should be kept to a minimum with Maintenance

respect to the operations being carried out and
requiring the use of the substance. The process A competent person should inspect and report
should also be designed to ensure that the regularly on the condition of the storage
quantity of the substance kept within the process facilities to ensure that they remain in a safe
is as low as possible. condition and fit for purpose. The inspection
should:
For flammable liquids that have a flashpoint above
the maximum ambient temperature (normally x Check for leaks.
taken as 32°C), only a small quantity may be x Check valve operation, gauges and
stored in the workroom and is generally other safety or protective equipment.
considered to be an amount up to 250 litres. For
x Check the integrity of containment
extremely and highly flammable liquids and those
systems.
flammable liquids with a flashpoint below the
maximum ambient temperature the quantity is x Check electrical integrity of equipment.
considered to be up to 50 litres. x Housekeeping standards.
All containers, which are nominally empty, should
Appropriate systems for checking integrity of
be stored and treated in the same manner as full
non-visual nature should also be included on a
containers as they can pose a similar or in some
regular basis, e.g., leak testing of underground
cases, a greater risk as the ullage space will be
facilities.
vapour rich.

Security Disposal of Waste Materials

Adequate arrangements should be provided such Assessment should be made of the likely
as security fencing, to prevent any unauthorised occurrence of waste or by products associated
access to storage facilities. The level of security with the handling, storage and processing of
will depend on the general security measures dangerous substances. Waste storage and
existing on site and the likely consequences of disposal is strictly controlled and subject to
arson or vandalism. numerous legal standards.

Illustration 29: Typical Storage Facility

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Storage of Dangerous Solids

Dangerous solids include:

x Ammonium nitrate, used as a fertiliser. As a weak oxidising agent, it will assist a fire and if
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confined it could explode on exposure to heat

x Sodium chlorate, used as a weed killer may explode when involved in a fire
x Sodium nitrate, used as an annealing agent in molten baths which can explode if overheated or if
water gets into the bath
x Organic peroxides which can explode violently if involved in fire

General requirements for safe storage of solids include suitably constructed storage facilities, which are not
used for processing, fitted with:

x Impermeable floors
x Adequate ventilation
x Fire resistant walls
x Fire and explosion vents
x Suitable electrical equipment
x Non-hazardous heating equipment

Illustration 30: Solid Dangerous Substances Storage Facility

Incompatible materials should be segregated, e.g.,

fuels and oxidising agents. All potential sources of
ignition, including smoking, should be eliminated.
The storage areas should be segregated by at least
9 metres from the ignition sources. The accumulation
of waste materials should be avoided by good
housekeeping measures. Fire detection and fixed
firefighting equipment should also be considered.

Quantities within storage facilities should be limited,

possible necessitating several storage buildings.
Wherever possible the quantities of flammable solids
in a workplace should be kept to a minimum.

Storage Design
Dangerous substances should be stored in closed vessels, cylinders or containers constructed to an
appropriate national or international standard. Passive fire protective coatings should be applied. By using
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correctly engineered storage, which is adequately maintained and operated, the risk of incidents is
minimised. Structural supports should be capable of supporting the fully laden tank and be treated for fire
resistance to provide up to 2 hours protection.

Each tank container should have a suitable means of measuring the contents of the container. Automatic
reading mechanisms such as gauges are preferable to manual dipping methods. Clearly this operation can
increase the risk of sparks and therefore fire or explosion. Automatic gauging should be based on:

x Height
x Mass
x Temperature
x Density
x Pressure

Arrangements should be made to ensure that the temperature of the storage facility is not affected by solar
heating or from adjacent fire. Water-cooling can be provided at a rate relative to the size of the storage
vessel to negate these heating effects.

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In order to reduce the risk of static generation the entire facility should be earthed via an earth strap and
earth spike, providing an extremely low impedance path to earth.

The tank should be marked with an indication of its contents and at least stating that the contents are

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flammable. Lighting should be provided within the storage facility at a level not below 50 lux and up to 150
lux where gauges are required to be read.

Bulk Storage
Bulk Storage of Powders
Safe storage and handling of combustible dusts requires preventive and protective measures.

Prevention involves:

x Control over sources of ignition

x Inerting
x Control over dust cloud formation, e.g., reduced velocity transfer, such as the use of screw
conveyors, housekeeping, etc.
x Plant controls, e.g., temperature, pressure, interlocking any LEV with the plant so that the process
cannot operate without LEV, monitoring grinding operations for sparks or glowing materials and
high-level alarms on storage silos, bins and hoppers

Protection involves:
x Explosion relief venting, to a safe place.
x Explosion suppression
x Explosion containment, e.g., chokes, baffles, and fast acting valves
x Plant location and construction, e.g., earthing, magnetic traps, speed sensors on conveyors to
detect seizure, etc.

Dangerous substances that are powders should be stored in closed vessels, e.g., hoppers, bins and silos or
in the containers used for supply, e.g., large bags and sacks.

Illustration 31: Filling External Powder Product Bins

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Off-Loading
Safe systems of work are required for processing powders and dust, e.g., off-loading bulk powder from a
road tanker into a storage silo may involve:
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x Ensuring the silo has sufficient capacity

x High level alarms, explosion relief and a filter unit fitted to the silo
x Use of designated couplings
x Locking valves to prevent unsupervised discharge
x Earthing the road tanker
x Use of conductive hoses; and
x Safe use of nitrogen to blow the powder

Illustration 32: Powder Off-Loading

Bulk Storage of Liquids and Gases

The storage of material in bulk is preferable to that of containers of the same quantity since spillage during
handling is likely to be reduced and therefore more easily controlled.

Bulk storage may be in the open air at ground level or stored below ground level in underground tanks.
Each system has its benefits, although above ground storage is preferable.

Underground:

x Better fire protection

x
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Save space

Above ground:

x Leak detection is easier

x Containment of liquid spillages
x Ventilation
x Inspection is more easily facilitated

All storage systems should be located in well ventilated open areas to enable any spillage or leakage to
disperse safely. Adequate security arrangements should be provided to prevent unauthorised access.

Storage areas should be adequately separated from site boundaries, occupied buildings, process areas,
fixed sources of ignition and other dangerous substances. Incompatible dangerous substances should be
segregated and adequately separated to minimise the risk of interaction.

Storage of highly flammable liquids and LPG should not be located under buildings, on roofs, inside
buildings, high above ground level, above tunnels, culverts or sewers or on top of one another.

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Bulk Storage of Liquids

Storage facilities should be well ventilated, preferably by natural means. In order to achieve adequate
circulation of air, access, egress and fire protection adequate separation distances must be maintained. The

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distances between storage facilities, occupied buildings and boundary walls are set out in tables in the UK
HSE Guidance Document HSG 176 (The Storage of Flammable Liquids in Tanks) and vary depending on
the size of the storage vessel, see Table 21.

Illustration 33: General Layout of Storage Facilities

Table 21: Separation Distances for Tanks Storing Flammable Liquids

Minimum separation distance from

Tank Capacity
any part of a tank
From building, boundary, From a
3 Total for a group*
Single tanks: m source of ignition, filing bund wall:
(maximum): m3
point or process unit: m m
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Up to 1 3 1** 1
1 to 5 15 4 1
5 to 33 100 6 1
33 to 100 300 8 1
100 to 250 750 10 2
Above 250 - 15 2

* A tank should be considered as part of a group if the distance from the tank to any other tank is less than
the appropriate distance in column 3.

** But at least 2 m from doors, plain-glazed windows, ventilation or other openings of means of escape.
Also, not below any opening (including building eaves and means of escape) from an upper floor regardless
of vertical distance.

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Bulk Storage of LPG

Many new installations, particularly for LPG, are now being designed as underground, or covered
(mounded), systems. These methods minimise the fire protection requirements, the area of land required as
a safety zone, and are also considered to be environmentally more acceptable. However, if this method is
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considered, the suitability of the location should be confirmed by a geotechnical survey. The storage design
must also take account of any potential corrosion problems that could arise.

The storage of LPG requires special considerations as the nature of these materials require them to be
stored in suitable pressure vessels designed to withstand the pressures involved and be resistant to brittle
fracture. LPG storage vessels should be located in an area remote from, buildings, process activities,
culverts, drains and ignition sources.

The dished ends of each storage vessel should point away from adjacent buildings. One supporting ‘foot’ of
each storage vessel should not be fixed (sliding) to allow for the effects of expansion and contraction.
Pipework should also allow for movement.

Each LPG storage vessel should be marked with warning signage and suitably spaced in a securely fenced
compound. The compound and surrounding areas should be kept clear of vegetation that may ignite in hot
weather. Low walls should be fitted to three sides of the compound boundary so that leaks can be directed
away from the vessel and other vulnerable locations to an area where the vapours evaporating from the leak
can readily and safely disperse.

Self re-setting excess flow valves should be fitted directly to LPG storage vessels inside pipework before
each manual isolating valve, except in the case of the pressure relief valves. Remotely operated isolating
valves should then be fitted after each vessel main manual isolating valve.

Illustration 34: Storage of Liquefied Gases

Typically, two isolation points are

required for LPG systems to allow for
manual isolation should the
downstream valve become ‘frozen’
open due to the endothermic reaction
of any leak. Each ‘leg’ of pipework
between isolation points should be
fitted with pressure relief valves to
prevent excessive pressure build up in
hot weather.

A water spray system, with an

adequate supply of pumped water,
should be fitted to each LPG storage
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vessel, with the spray nozzles located

to deluge all surfaces of the vessel.

Bulk Storage of LPG Cylinders

The risk with liquefied petroleum gas in cylinders may be significantly greater than with a highly flammable
liquid in drums because of the potential for rapid release of heavy flammable gas. In a fire around a cylinder
there is a potential BLEVE hazard and possible domino effects.

The following precautions should be followed when storing LPG:

x Store in the open in a well-ventilated area at ground level

x Avoid stacking near other materials restricting natural ventilation
x Avoid cylinders impeding or endangering means of escape from premises, or from adjoining
premises

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x The store floor should be level. A load-bearing surface (concrete, paved or compacted) is required
where cylinders are to be stacked
x Security arrangements should be such as to prevent tampering or vandalism
x

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Fencing should be of robust wire mesh which does not obstruct ventilation
x The area should be at the separation distance from the property boundary, any building or fixed
source of ignition as quoted in Table 22
x To give additional protection from thermal radiation from any cylinder stack fire the minimum
separation distance to any nearby building housing a vulnerable population should, for quantities
>400 kg, be 8 m or as in Table 22 column 3, whichever is the greater. This may be reduced to
those in Table 22, column 4 by the installation of fire-resisting separation or a firewall
x Prohibit all sources of ignition, including smoking, within a store or within the separation distance.
(Exclude motor vehicles other than suitably protected fork-lift trucks)
x Avoid openings into buildings, cellars, or pits within 2 m or the separation distances, whichever is
greater. (Any gully or drain unavoidably within 2 m should have the opening securely covered or
fitted with a water seal to prevent vapour ingress.)
x Electrical equipment suitable for a zone 2 area and constructed to a recognised standard should be
installed within the store and separation distance
x Clearly mark the area with notices indicating an LPG storage area, flammable contents, prohibition
of ignition sources and procedures to follow in case of fire
x Avoid accumulation of rubbish, small bushes, dry leaves, etc. within the separation distance.
Remove weeds and long grass within the separation distance and up to 3 m from cylinders
x Cylinders should be stored upright with the valves closed with any protective cover, cap or plug in
place. Cartridges without valves may be stored on their sides
x Cylinders on a vehicle or trailer parked overnight rate as a single stack so that the separation
distance in Table 22, column 3 is applicable
x Cylinders received into store, and taken out for delivery, should be checked for damage or leakage.
Stacks should be inspected daily for stability and that they contain no damaged / leaking cylinders
x Cylinders should be handled carefully to avoid personal injury or damage to them

Table 22: Recommended Minimum Separation Distances for Total Storage of LPG in Cylinders or
Size of Maximum Stack (the greater of the two distances is advised)

Minimum separation distance Minimum separation

to boundary building or fixed distance to boundary
Total quantity Size of largest
ignition sources. Sources building or fixed ignition
LPG store. stack.
from the nearest cylinder source from fire wall
(where no fire wall provided). (where provided).* **
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Kilograms Kilograms Metres Metres ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
From 15 to 400 11 Nil
From 400 to
Up to 1,000 3 1
1,000
From 1,000 to
4 1
4,000
From 4,000 to
From 1,000 to 3,000 5 1.5
6,000

* The distance from the nearest cylinder to a boundary, building, etc. should be not less than in column 3
when measured around the firewall.

** Minimum distance from nearest cylinder to fire wall should normally be 1.5 m except as qualified.
1No separation distance is required for these quantities where boundary walls and buildings are of suitable
construction.

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Drum Storage
Drums containing flammable liquids are best stored outside, so that any flammable vapour can readily
disperse. Similar considerations may apply to the dispersion of any vapour / fumes from drums of toxic
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liquids or solids. In some cases, weather protection is provided by a roof. The following precautions should
be in place:

x Secure the area to prevent tampering or trespassing

x Label each drum, affix appropriate warning
x Provide suitable absorbent materials to deal with spillages
x Limit stack heights, e.g., 4.5 m for 200 litre drums, 5 high for drums stored on end or 4 high on
pallets, 4 high for drums on their sides
x Segregate highly flammable liquids and mark the stack
x Classify the area as zone 2. Place material >15 m from any working building, amenity building or
plant and >7.5 m from plant boundary and boundary fence
x Space combustible material stacks > 7.5 m from buildings and >4 m from plant boundary fences
x Limit areas for any stack of drums to 250 m2 with generally a maximum length of 18.5 m. (A
reduced area applies to particularly hazardous chemicals)
x Restrict number of 180 litre drums to 1,500
x Ground should be impervious, sloped and drained, with marked demarcation lines
x Spillages from this area should be contained in a bund, or similar arrangement
x Provide >5m clearance between adjacent stacks with access on three sides for firefighting etc
x Provide an adequate number of fire hydrants for fixed monitors for drenching the stacks with water.
Stack drums 2 m from any hydrants and leave clear access
x Leave space for possible hose runs for a fire in any stack and provide dry powder extinguishers
around the area

Illustration 35: Typical Drum Storage Facility

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Specific Locations
If possible, containers should be stored at ground level and in the open air. This is because leaks can be
more readily seen, and any vapour produced will be dissipated by natural ventilation. Containers should not
normally be stored on the roof of a building. If for reasons of space the use of roof-top storage is considered
essential, the enforcing authority and the fire authority should be consulted.

Where it is not possible to store containers in the open air, they may be kept in suitable storerooms –
preferably separate buildings used for this purpose. Other materials should not be kept in stores intended
only for flammable liquids. Small quantities of flammable liquid may be stored in workrooms in a fire-
resistant cupboard or bin.

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All containers should be stacked in a safe manner, which:

x Minimises the amount of handling required to find and remove any one of them.
x Allows any leaks to be readily identified and dealt with

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Drums of 200 litres and similar containers should not normally be stacked more than four high and
preferably on pallets. If drums are stored on their sides, they should be firmly chocked to prevent movement.
All containers should be stacked so as not to obstruct ventilation openings or means of escapes.

If containers of flammable liquid are stored near other combustible, toxic, corrosive or oxidising materials, or
compressed gases, an assessment of the relative hazards should be carried out, using specialist advice
where necessary.

Highly flammable liquids (HFLs) and LPGs should be stored in suitable fixed storage tanks, in suitable
closed vessels kept in a safe position in the open air, or in suitable closed vessels in workrooms which are
either safe by position or are of a fire-resistant structure. Small quantities of liquid may be kept in ordinary
workrooms provided they are contained in closed, fire-resisting vessels. In the case of LPG, all such tanks,
cupboards and bins should be appropriately marked.

Storage of Chemicals in Packages

The design of any building, or outside compound, for the storage of chemicals in packages (e.g., drums,
cylinders, sacks) will depend upon their hazardous characteristics.

For storage buildings the considerations will include:

ͻ Siting to minimise risk to nearby premises on and off-site in a fire

ͻ Access for delivery and transfer of chemicals and for emergency purposes
ͻ Fire-proof construction
ͻ Security, i.e., control of access by staff and means to prevent entry by vandals or trespassers
ͻ General ventilation provisions, particularly if volatile toxic or highly flammable liquids or toxic or
flammable pressurised gases are stored
ͻ Lighting, and emergency lighting, provisions
ͻ Correct selection of heating equipment and zoning of electrical equipment to reduce the chance of
an ignition source arising
ͻ Provision of fire detection and extinguishment equipment
The same factors arise if storage is in a dedicated compartment of a building. In either case, identification
and warning notices need to be provided. Operation of the store then needs to account for:

ͻ A system for checking that all packages going into the store have identifiable labels which indicate
their contents and any hazardous characteristics
ͻ A system for inspecting all packages received, and routinely in-store, for leaks, damage, external ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
corrosion, etc.
ͻ A system for the segregation of chemicals
ͻ In-store handling of packages. Manual handling is preferably eliminated or reduced so far as
possible. Fork-lift trucks should be regularly maintained, be provided with adequate access-ways;
driving should be restricted to fully trained personnel
ͻ A system for stock control, e.g., using a first-in first-out basis and possibly time limits for storage
ͻ Safe stacking practice
ͻ Good housekeeping
ͻ Fire precautions including:
- Control of ignition sources, e.g., smoking, maintenance activities, vehicular access
- Limitation of combustible materials, e.g., packaging
ͻ Emergency procedures
ͻ Training of staff

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Storage of Incompatible Materials, Segregation

Requirements and Access
The aim in segregating stored chemicals should be:
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ͻ To facilitate emergency access and escape in the event of fire or another emergency
ͻ To separate incompatible chemicals to prevent their mixture, e.g., by spillage, or wetting during
cleaning activities
ͻ To separate process areas, which normally contain relatively small quantities, from storage areas
containing larger amounts
ͻ To prevent rapid fire spread, or the evolution of smoke and gases, which can be produced in a fire
ͻ To isolate oxidising agents which, when heated, will enhance a fire, perhaps to explosive condition
ͻ To isolate those substances which decompose explosively when heated
ͻ To minimise toxic hazards arising from loss of containment through spillage, seepage or package
deterioration
ͻ To minimise risk of physical damage, e.g. By forklift trucks, to containers; and
ͻ To separate materials where the appropriate fire-fighting medium for one may be ineffective for, or
cause an adverse reaction with, another

Structural Requirements
Chemical storage may take two forms, viz. an open area or a purpose-built store. Open storage is not
recommended but, when it is unavoidable, it should comprise a secure area fenced to a height of 2 metres
with a lockable access point. Purpose-built stores should be of the detached single-storey brick-built type or
constructed in other suitable materials, e.g. concrete panels, with a sloping roof of weather-proof
construction, the structure to have a notional period of fire resistance of at least 1 hour.

Other features include:

x Permanent ventilation by high- and low-level air bricks set in all elevations, except in those forming
a boundary wall; low-level air bricks should be sited above door sill level
x Access doors constructed from material with at least 1 hour notional period of fire resistance;
doorways should provide access for forklift trucks, with ramps on each side of the door sill;
separate pedestrian access, which also serves as a secondary means of escape, should be
provided
x An impervious chemical-resistant finish to walls, floors, and other parts; and
x Artificial lighting by sealed bulkhead or fluorescent fittings, to provide an overall illuminance level of
300 lux. General requirements
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In the cases of both open and closed storage, the following are required:

x Provision of adequate space, with physical separation and containment of incompatible

substances, each area to be marked with the permitted contents, the hazards, and the necessary
precautions, and incorporating an area for the storage of empty containers
x Fire separation of individual areas sufficient to prevent fire spreading
x Provision of the following equipment in a protected area outside the store
- Fire appliances – dry powder and/or foam extinguishers;
- Fixed hose reel appliance
- Emergency shower and eyewash station with water-heating facility to prevent freezing
- Personal protective equipment, i.e., Safety helmet with visor, impervious gloves, disposable
chemical-resistant overall, with storage facilities for same; and respirator and breathing
apparatus in a marked enclosure
x A total prohibition on the use of naked flames and smoking – appropriate warning signs should be
displayed
x Prohibition on the use of the store for storage of other goods or for any other purpose; and
x Provision of racking or pallets to enable goods to be sorted clear of the floor

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Storage system
The system for storage must be simple to operate and compatible with existing legal requirements for
classification and labelling.

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Access and egress
Access to the premises; Ensure access to the premises and all work areas by having:
x Routes kept clear at all times
x External access routes kept clear for vehicular access, including emergency vehicles
x Doors and gates unlocked when they may be required as exit points; and
x Outward-opening doors, where appropriate

Access should be readily available to the emergency services authority personnel.

Access to safety equipment

Clear access should be provided at all times to equipment used to contain and clean up incidents and
firefighting equipment.

Storage of Toxic and Corrosive Substances

Toxic
The main risk from toxic substances during
storage is failure of containment. Appropriate pre-
planning can minimise the consequences of
isolated punctured drums or burst packages.
However, in the event of fire, such protection is
likely to be compromised by the failure of many
containers due to the effects of flame and heat.

As well as posing an immediate threat to anybody

in the vicinity, for example fire fighters, the toxic
substance can also spread large distances in the
plume of smoke, or they may be washed into
watercourses by fire-fighting operations.

The precautions necessary to minimise these risks depend on the quantities of toxic substances involved,
their degree of toxicity, and their persistence in the environment. Toxic substances vary widely in the hazard ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
they create.

During storage, the acute hazards arising from short-term exposure, due to for example drum failure are
more likely to arise than the chronic effects from low-level long-term exposure.

Corrosive
Dangerous substances are being classified as corrosive because they destroy tissue on contact. Many
corrosive substances will also react with incompatible unsuitable packaging or metals, for example storage
racking. Leaking corrosive substances may damage the packaging of other dangerous substances, creating
further leaks.

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Leakage and Spillage Containment

Bunding
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For liquids stored above ground

there should be a means to contain
leaks (bund) and prevent them
spreading. The capacity of the
enclosed bund should be not less
than 110% of the capacity of the
largest vessel within the bund or
25% of total storage. The ground
beneath storage vessels should be
impervious to liquid and be so
sloped that any minor spillage will
not remain beneath the vessels but
will drain away to the sides of the
enclosure. Each storage vessel
within a bund should be securely
anchored to withstand the
hydrostatic pressures of any major
spillage or rainwater. The bund wall would usually not be more than a maximum of 1.5 metres high and
should be protected in strategic locations from impact damage, e.g., at loading areas.

Provision is required for controlled drainage of rainwater from the bund, usually by way of a pump or a drain.
It is essential that where a drain system is used for removing excess water that the system in place ensures
that the drain is closed during normal operating conditions. Housekeeping within the bund should be well
controlled, although oxidising weed killers should not be used in close proximity to the storage tank, due to
the increased risk of fire.

Sources of Ignition
All sources of ignition should be controlled, e.g., no smoking, suitable hazardous area, electrical equipment,
earth bonding to prevent the build-up of static electricity, etc.

Pipework
All pipework associated with the container will be either above or below ground level. As with the storage
tank itself there are various advantages and disadvantages to both. One of the main considerations of
pipework associated with this type of installation is that the length and bore of the pipe is kept to a minimum
to ensure that the charged volume of the pipe is kept to a minimum.
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All pipework should be earth bonded to prevent build-up of a static charge. Wherever possible the pipe
should be constructed from metal and in any case with a substance that does not react with the material
being transported. Joints should be kept to a minimum, since the fluid within the system may be subject to
expansion, e.g., during normal operating conditions or because of thermal expansion. The pipework should
be properly supported to prevent the pipe from sagging and weakening joints or runs.

Any pipework leading to or from the container is a potential source of spill for the facility and should
therefore be protected with quick closure isolating valves fitted with fire-resistant seals which are operable
automatically by electrical or pneumatic signal and at ground level manually. Such a valve is often referred
to as a remotely operated shut off valve (ROSOV).

Flexible hoses should be avoided wherever possible since due to their flexibility they are more likely to fail
than fixed pipework. However, flexible fittings may be suitable for filling areas. The material used for
construction should be compatible with the fluid being transported and not subject to corrosion. The hose
should be protected from physical damage and corrosion, e.g., sunlight exposure. Furthermore, electrical
continuity should be maintained along the hose, even where rubber is used to prevent the build-up of a static
charge.

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Vents
Vents fitted with flame arresters should be incorporated into non-pressurised containers to allow for the

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release of pressure. The main venting requirements are:

ͻ Normal pressure relief

ͻ Normal vacuum relief
ͻ Emergency venting

During filling the pressure in the container is increased as the volume of liquid is increased in the fixed
volume of the container. Pressure may also be increased as a result of heating of the contents, e.g., through
solar heating or as the result of fire. Pressure may be reduced, or a vacuum may be created in the container
when the content is drawn off. In order to prevent the container collapsing in on itself a vacuum relief valve
should be incorporated in the container. Vents should be a minimum of 3 m from any source of ignition to
allow the vapour to dissipate, since the vapour may be flammable.

Filling and Transfer

Filling of the containers through the filling points should be protected from physical damage and be at least 4
m from any ignition source. Shut off valves should be provided.

At the unloading point a level surface should be present, although a slight gradient to assist drainage is
acceptable. Unloading of tankers should normally be done using a preset flow meter, which delivers a
predetermined amount to the container. An independent high-level alarm should also be present on the
storage tank to ensure that overfilling / pressurisation does not occur. Prior to unloading a check should be
made of adequate ullage space (i.e., the space between the surface of the liquid and the top or crown of the
tank), to accept the intended volume of delivery and allow for further expansion of the contents where
necessary.

In order to prevent spillage and damage to connections breakaway, self-sealing couplings can be used, and
physical barriers placed around the tanker during offloading. In addition to automatic shut off devices on the
tanker and the container a manually operated emergency stop control should be provided in order that in the
event of a problem arising, the operator can stop the delivery. During unloading operations, the tanker
should be earth bonded and conductive flexible hoses used.

Examples of Problems Encountered during Filling and

Transfer
Texas City 2005
At approximately 1:20 p.m. on March 23, 2005, a series of explosions occurred at the BP Texas City refinery ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
during the restarting of a hydrocarbon isomerization unit. Fifteen workers were killed, and 180 others were
injured. According to a report a raffinate splitter was overfilled with hydrocarbon which overheated and led to
subsequent over-pressurization and pressure relief, with the liquids flowing down the stack, accumulating on
the ground, and causing a vapor cloud; the cloud was ignited by the running engine of a contractor's pickup
truck.

Buncefield Fire 2005

At around 6am on the 11th of December 2005 an initial large explosion and subsequent explosions occurred at
the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited West site located in Buncefield in Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire.

The most likely cause of the explosion was an overfilled storage vessel. The explosions engulfed the site in
fire and caused widespread damage to both commercial and domestic properties. There were no fatalities,
however over 40 people were injured.

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Signage
The contents of vessels and containers should be clearly identified along with any other relevant information,
such as specific precautions to be taken, e.g., PPE.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Illustration 36: Typical Vertical Storage Tank

Illustration 37: Typical Underground Storage Tank

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Handling of Dangerous Substances

Flow Through Pipelines

A line of piping and the associated pumps, valves, and equipment necessary for the transportation of fluid.
Major uses of pipelines are for the transportation of petroleum, water (including sewage), chemicals,
foodstuffs, pulverised coal, and gases such as natural gas, steam, and compressed air.

Pipelines must be leak-proof and must permit the application of whatever pressure is required to force
conveyed substances through the lines. The pipe is made of a variety of materials and in diameters from a
fraction of an inch up to 30 ft (9m). Principal materials are steel, wrought and cast iron, concrete, clay
products, aluminium, copper, brass, cement and asbestos (called cement-asbestos), plastics, and wood.

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The pipe is described as pressure and non-pressure pipe. In numerous pressure lines, such as long oil and
gas lines, pumps force substances through the pipelines at designed speeds. Pressure might be developed
likewise by gravity head when it comes to the example in city water pipe fed from elevated tanks or tanks.

NEBOSH International Diploma

The non-pressure pipe is utilized for gravity circulation where the gradient is small and without major
abnormalities, as in sewer lines, culverts, and particular kinds of irrigation distribution systems. The design
of pipelines considers such factors as needed capability, external and internal pressures, water- or air-
tightness, and expansion qualities of the pipe product, chemical activity of the liquid or gas being conveyed,
and rust.

Pipework
All parts of piping systems, including valve seals and flange gaskets, should be made from a material
compatible with the liquids being handled. Where possible, welded joints should be used rather than flanges
to minimise the risk of leakage although piping with a diameter of 50 mm or less may have screwed joints.
Joints and connections should be kept to a minimum and should not be positioned where they might leak
onto electrical equipment, hot surfaces or other sources of ignition, or where they might prevent the use of
an escape route. Pressure from thermal expansion of liquids can build up in pipework in which liquids may
be trapped, for example, between shut-off valves.

Prevent damage to pipework and dangerous releases of flammable liquids as a result of over pressurisation
by assessing the likelihood and consequences of thermal expansion and designing the system to withstand
the pressure rises. Alternatively, fit hydrostatic relief valves. Relief valves should normally discharge back to
the storage tank, but they may also discharge via a line to a safe place such as a sump or other vessel
designed for the recovery or disposal of flammable liquids. Ideally, pipe runs should be in the open air rather
than inside buildings.

Image: Labelled pipelines

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Principles in Dispensing, Spraying and Disposal of Flammable

Liquids
Dispensing and Decanting
Dispensing and decanting should be carried out in a way
which reduces spills and dangerous releases of flammable
vapours. The need for these operations should be assessed
and, where possible, minimised using enclosed transfer
systems. If an enclosed system cannot be used, the
containers should be designed to minimise spillage, release
of vapour and the effects of fire.

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Small safety containers are available which incorporate the following features:

ͻ Metal or heavy-duty plastic construction

ͻ Pouring and / or filling apertures sealed with self-closing spring-loaded caps
ͻ Pouring and / or filling apertures fitted with flame arresters
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ͻ Hoses or other aids when dispensing into small openings

ͻ Carrying handles for containers with a capacity greater than approximately 2.5 litres

Containers should be able to resist wear and tear in normal use and corrosion by the specific liquid being
used. They should be strong enough to withstand being dropped. Plastic containers need to be compatible
with the fluid that they are intended to contain. They should incorporate anti-static features so that any metal
components in the transfer system, such as flame arresters or funnels, cannot build up incendive
electrostatic charges. The use of containers approved by a recognised testing and approval organisation is
recommended.

Open-topped cans and buckets are not suitable for handling or storing flammable liquids as they increase
the risk of spillage and the release of vapours. Drums should be provided with secure closures that can
withstand the expected handling conditions without leaking. Drums with large removable ends are not
normally suitable for flammable liquids. Open-ended drums or receptacles with fitting lids or covers may be
adequate for viscous liquids such as paints, provided the container is not easily tipped over. Drums and
cans should always be opened so that they can easily be closed again, not by punching holes in the cap or
in the drum wall.

Decanting or transfer from one container to another should normally be carried out away from the area
where the liquid is stored, and preferably in the open air or in a separate, well-ventilated room, so that any
spillage and possible fire cannot involve the stored materials.

When pouring manually from or into small containers, a funnel should be used to minimise spillage. Spill
trays, drip cans or other means to contain spillages should be provided where decanting or dispensing is
carried out, and containers should be bonded together or earthed. Also flame arresters should be provided
in the container vent to reduce evaporation and to prevent an explosion inside the container in case of an
external fire.

Where flammable liquids are routinely dispensed from 205 litre drums the following alternative methods are
recommended:

ͻ Using drum safety taps in conjunction with safety vents. Drum taps should be made of non-
combustible material and be self-closing. Safety vents prevent excess pressure or vacuum
building up inside the drum and stop any ignition source from flashing back into the drum. A safety
vent also reduces the likelihood of a drum exploding if it is engulfed by fire. When dispensing into
containers with small apertures, use a funnel or taps fitted with small-diameter hoses to minimise
spillage; or
ͻ Using small portable drum pumps. Pumps ought to fit closely into the drum to minimise release of
vapours, but they also need to be able to relieve pressure in the event of a fire. Flexible hoses
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need to be electrically conducting. If an electric pump is used, the electrical equipment should be
constructed to a suitable explosion-protection standard

Spraying
Spraying is the most widely used method in industry of applying paints, varnishes, lacquers and other
coatings. Many of these coatings are flammable liquids which, when sprayed, may create a flammable
atmosphere leading to the risk of fire or explosion.

Control Measures
Substitution: Substitution simply means using a less hazardous substance. Flammable liquids may be
substituted by less flammable or non-flammable liquids. Water-based coatings are increasingly available
and are suitable for many purposes.

Containment and Separation: The usual way to control the flammable vapours arising from spraying
processes is to use a ventilated spray booth or enclosure. Its purpose is to:

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x Prevent the escape of vapours into the workplace

x Prevent contamination of the workplace by overspray
x Protect the health of workers

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x Provide separation from sources of ignition and to prevent the spread of fire
x Prevent contamination of the work piece by dust and grease from the work environment

Ventilation: The ventilation should be sufficient to prevent the formation of dangerous concentrations of
flammable vapours. The purpose of ventilation is to:

x Draw overspray away from the operator

x Control flammable and hazardous vapours
x Collect vapours, droplets and solid particles
x Filter or wash the air before it is discharged

Control of Ignition Sources: It is impossible to avoid flammable atmospheres during spraying of flammable
liquids and so control of ignition sources is essential. Even when spraying is not taking place, flammable
residues, contaminated materials, drying and cleaning operations may still present a fire risk. Ignition
sources include:

x Unprotected electrical equipment

x Heating appliances
x Smoking materials
x Welding and other similar hot work activities
x Sparks generated by the discharge of static electricity
x Internal combustion engines

Disposal of Flammable Liquids

Waste liquids will generally need to be stored and handled according to the same standards as the
flammable liquids from which they were derived. They will also be subject to the same legislation unless
their physical properties have been significantly altered by the processing.

Waste liquids should be disposed of safely, taking account of the need to prevent pollution. Never put waste
liquid into public drains or watercourses. When in doubt, consult the local waste disposal authority.

Waste materials collected from different processes should not be mixed before disposal unless the various
components are known to be compatible, and only after considering the eventual disposal technique to be
used. Any drums used for waste materials should be sound and not contain any incompatible residues. If a
drum is being used as a collecting station for waste liquids, a funnel that fits securely into the drum opening
should be used, to reduce the possibility of spillage.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Funnels with lids and flame arresters, should be used, to stop any external ignition from flashing back into
the drum or to prevent the drum becoming dangerously pressurised if it is engulfed by fire. When not in use
containers of waste liquids should be securely closed to prevent leakage and returned to storage areas or
cabinets. Do not add anything to waste liquid containers in storage areas but bring the can or drum out to a
designated work area.

Recovering waste liquid by distillation or other means may be feasible, particularly where large amounts are
involved. Proprietary batch stills with a capacity of a few hundred litres are available, and larger amounts
can be sent to a specialist firm for recovery. Seek specialist advice if the solvents to be recovered contain
unstable residues such as nitro-cellulose.

Drums and other containers that have been used to hold flammable liquids but have not been thoroughly
cleaned should be closed and stored in a safe place before disposal or re-use. The standard of storage
should be the same as that for full containers.

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Dangers of Electricity in Hazardous Areas

Electricity, and its associated uses, are acknowledged sources of ignition in the workplace and, as such
needs to be controlled. The risks include electrocution and ignition of flammable process materials, such as
dusts, gases or vapours and using inappropriate electrical equipment that is not flame proof or intrinsically
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

safe.

Static electricity may be a source of ignition. The operator involved in such processes should be wearing
electrically conductive boots and be standing on a conductive plate connected to the reactor into which they
are charging a flammable chemical

Transport of Dangerous Substances

The national and international carriage of dangerous goods presents several risks in association with the
goods being transported and their method of transport. As a result, various standards and international
agreements exist to maintain safety in respect to the transport of dangerous goods.

UN Model Regulations for the Transport of Dangerous Goods

The United Nations Model Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods provide a basis for
development of harmonised regulations for all modes of transport, in order to facilitate trade and the safe,
efficient transport of hazardous materials.

The UN Model Regulations were first published in 1957 establishing minimum requirements applicable to
the transport of hazardous materials by all modes of transport. Since then, the UN Model Regulations have
gained global acceptance through adoption as the basis for most international, regional, and national
transportation regulations.
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Safety is enhanced primarily because harmonized requirements simplify the complexity of the regulations,
simplify training efforts, and decrease the likelihood of non-compliance. The UN Model Regulations facilitate
compatibility between modal requirements so that a consignment may be transported by more than one
mode without intermediate reclassification, marking, labelling, or repackaging.

The UN Model Regulations cover all aspects of transportation necessary to provide international uniformity.
They include a comprehensive criterion-based classification system for substances that pose a significant
hazard in transportation. Hazards addressed include explosiveness, flammability, toxicity (oral, dermal and
inhalation), corrosivity to human tissue and metal, reactivity (e.g., oxidizing materials, self-reactive materials,
pyrophoric substances, substances that react with water), radioactivity, infectious substance hazards and
environmental hazards.

They prescribe standards for packaging and tanks used to transport hazardous materials. They also include
a system of communicating the hazards of substances in transport through hazard communication
requirements which cover labelling and marking of packages, placarding of tanks, freight containers and
vehicles, and documentation and emergency response information that is required to accompany each
shipment.

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The Model Regulations include specific requirements relating to the following areas:

ͻ General provisions – scope of application of the regulations, transport of radioactive materials and

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dangerous goods forbidden from transport
ͻ Definitions and units of measurement
ͻ Training
ͻ Security provisions – including training and provisions for high consequence dangerous goods
ͻ Classification – responsibilities, classes (9 classes of dangerous substances), divisions, packaging
groups, UN numbers and proper shipping names, precedence of hazard characteristics and
transport of samples
ͻ Dangerous Goods List and limited quantities exceptions
ͻ Packing and tank provisions
ͻ Consignment procedures
ͻ Requirements for the construction and testing of packaging, intermediate bulk containers (IBCs),
large packaging, portable tanks, multiple-element gas containers (MEGCs) and bulk containers
ͻ Provisions concerning transport operations

Classes of Dangerous Substances

The United Nations maintains a list of all dangerous substances that are likely to be transported. Each
substance is allocated a United Nations Substance Identification Number (U.N.S.I.N.), which is most
commonly referred to as the UN number. Dangerous goods must be classified prior to being consigned for
carriage by road and assigned a class number based on the properties they exhibit. The classes are:

Class 1 Explosive substances and articles

Class 2 Gases

Class 3 Flammable liquids

Flammable solids, self-reactive substances and solid desensitised
Class 4.1
explosives
Class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Class 4.3 Substances, which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases

Class 5.1 Oxidising substances

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Class 5.2 Organic peroxides

Class 6.1 Toxic substances

Class 6.2 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive material

Class 8 Corrosive substances

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles

Contained within the Model Regulations is the Dangerous Goods List (DGL), which lists all dangerous goods
in UN classification number order (a unique referencing system) and contains further information regarding
packing requirements subsidiary risks, etc.

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Table 23: Danger Signs

Classification Code Classification Danger Sign

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

2.1 Flammable gas.

2.2 Non-flammable Non-toxic gas.

2.3 Toxic gas.

3 Flammable liquid.

4.1 Flammable solid.

Spontaneously combustible
4.2
substance.

Substance which in contact with

4.3
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water emits flammable gas.

5.1 Oxidising substance.

5.2 Organic peroxide.

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Classification Code Classification Danger Sign

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6.1 Toxic Substance

6.2 Infectious substance.

8 Corrosive substance.

9 Miscellaneous dangerous goods.

Key Safety Principles in Loading and Unloading of Tankers and

Tank Containers
We are all familiar with the sight of tankers on our roads – typically carrying petrol. Tankers are sometimes
referred to as 'fixed tanks' or road tank vehicles; the tank is permanently fixed to the vehicle chassis. Tank
containers (sometimes called 'ISO tanks' or 'portable tanks') are held in the boxed-steel framework.

The framework is locked to the vehicle chassis but can be unloaded from the vehicle – this is particularly
suited to the transfer of tanks between say road vehicle and train, or road vehicle and ship.

Drivers of tankers must be fully informed of dangers of the materials carried and the emergency action that
needs to be taken. The Transport Emergency card (TREM card) is a four page instruction which, amongst
other things, describes the nature of the hazardous load and action to be taken in an emergency.

The TREM card must be kept in the vehicle cab so that it can be easily located by the emergency services in
the event of an accident. The driver and the recipient of materials should have written procedures that set
out the precautions that need to be taken during loading and unloading.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Fire extinguishers should be carried on all vehicles. If substances are flammable or explosive, earth
connections should be used during loading and unloading to prevent the possibility of a static spark, and no
other sources of ignition, such as smoking materials should be allowed in the vicinity.

Where bulk storage tanks are used for different substances, there is always the possibility of cross-
contamination – a substance being unloaded from a tanker into the wrong bulk tank at a factory. This can be
prevented by strict operating procedures and the use of couplings of a different design for each substance. It
is also important to ensure that tanks to be filled have enough space so as to prevent spillage through
overfilling.

ADR
The agreements known as L’Accord Européen relatif au Transport International des Marchandises
Dangereuses par Route (ADR) and Règlemant Concernant le Transport International Ferroviaire des
Marchandises Dangereuses (RID) set out the requirements in relation to the transport of dangerous
substances by road and rail, within the European Union. The main purpose of these agreements is to allow
the carriage of dangerous goods freely throughout the countries that subscribe to them.

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Drivers of vehicles carrying dangerous goods on ADR operations should be in possession of the following
documents:

x A transport document which gives details of the dangerous substance. There is no laid down form
x Information in writing about the nature of the dangers of the substance being carried and the
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emergency action to be taken (normally in the form of a Tremcard – Illustration 38). This
information must be available in the languages of all countries of transit
x A certificate of approval for vehicles carrying dangerous substances and explosives. Where a
vehicle is carrying a tank container the vehicle’s domestic test certificate is sufficient
x A Vocational Training Certificate (often referred to as the ADR Certificate) covering the class of
goods that are being carried

It should be noted that similar requirements for dangerous goods transport documentation are included
within the UN Model Regulations.

Illustration 38: Tremcard

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Packages - Marking and Labelling

The Model Regulations also include requirements for the marking and labelling of dangerous goods. Unless

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provided otherwise in the Model Regulations, the proper shipping name for the dangerous goods and the
corresponding UN Number preceded by the letters "UN” should be displayed on each package.
In the case of unpackaged articles, the marking shall be displayed on the article, on its cradle or on its
handling, storage or launching device.

A typical package marking is:

Corrosive liquid, acidic, organic, n.o.s. (Caprylyl chloride) UN 3265.

All package markings should:

a) Be readily visible and legible

b) Be able to withstand open weather exposure without a substantial reduction in effectiveness
c) Be displayed on a background of contrasting colour on the external surface of the package
d) Not be located with other package markings that could substantially reduce their effectiveness

Vehicles - Marking and Placarding

Every person or organisation whose activities include the loading, consigning or carriage of dangerous
goods by road, or filling of dangerous goods into specified equipment for carriage by road has to make sure
that transport units have appropriate marking and placarding. Transport units comprise road transport tank
and freight vehicles, railway transport tank and freight wagons, and multimodal freight containers and
portable tanks.

Placards should be affixed to the exterior surface of transport units to provide a warning that the contents of
the unit are dangerous goods and present risks. Placards should also correspond to the primary risk of the
goods contained in the transport unit; however, there are exceptions in relation to explosives, radioactive
materials, and dangerous goods in limited quantities.

Placards should be displayed for those subsidiary risks of substances or articles specified in the Dangerous
Goods List. However, transport units containing goods of more than one class need not bear a subsidiary
risk placard if the hazard represented by that placard is already indicated by a primary risk placard.
Transport units carrying dangerous goods or the residue of dangerous goods in unpurged tanks or empty
uncleaned bulk containers should display placards clearly visible on at least two opposing sides of the units
and in any case in such a position as may be seen by all those involved in the loading or unloading process.

Where the transport unit has a multiple compartment tank which is carrying two or more dangerous goods
and/or the residues of dangerous goods, appropriate placards should be displayed along each side at the
position of the relevant compartments.

The placard should be not less than 250 mm by 250 mm, with a line the same colour as the dangerous ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
goods symbol running 12.5 mm inside the edge and parallel with it. The placard should also correspond to
the label for the class of the dangerous goods in question with respect to the colour and symbol.

The UN number should be displayed on all consignments, excluding goods of Class 1, in black digits not
less than 65 mm high either:

ͻ Against a white background in the lower half of each placard, or

ͻ On an orange rectangular panel not less than 120 mm high and 300 mm wide with a 10 mm black
border, to be placed immediately adjacent to each placard

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Hazchem placard
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International Operations (ADR)

The ADR Hazard Identification Number (HIN, also known as the Kemler Code) is usually found on vehicles

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which are on international journeys. The HIN differs in its approach from the EAC, giving advice on the
nature of the hazard presented by the goods as opposed to the actions to be taken when dealing with them

The Hazard Identification Number (HIN)

Hazard identification number consists of two or three figures. In general, the figures indicate the following
hazards:
x Emission of gas due to pressure or to chemical reaction
x Flammability of liquids
x Flammability of solid or self-heating liquid
x Oxidising (fire-intensifying) effect
x Toxic or risk of infection
x Radioactivity
x Corrosivity
x Risk of spontaneous violent reaction

HIN (kemler code) - does not require a telephone number

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Mark for Elevated Temperature Substances

Transport units containing a substance that is transported or offered for transport in a liquid state at a
temperature equal to or exceeding 100oC, or in a solid state at a temperature equal to or exceeding 240oC
shall bear on each side and on each end the mark shown in Illustration 39. The triangular shaped mark
should have sides of at least 250mm and should be shown in red.

Illustration 39: Warning Mark for Elevated Temperature

Substances

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Training
Organisations involved in the transport of dangerous goods should also provide specific training for persons
involved in the consignment and carriage process. This training should include:
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x Awareness training, covering the general requirements of international standards and agreements
x Function-specific training, covering the detailed requirements of relevant standards and (where
relevant) other modes of transport
x Safety training, covering the hazards and dangers presented by dangerous goods, awareness of
safe handling and emergency response procedures commensurate with the degree of risk of injury
or exposure arising from an incident involving carriage of dangerous goods

The main objectives of training (which must include theoretical aspects, individual practical exercises and
appropriate refresher and specialist training) are to:

x Make drivers aware of hazards arising in the carriage of dangerous goods

x Give them basic information to minimise the likelihood of an incident taking place
x Enable them to take the necessary measures for their own safety and that of the public and the
environment, to limit the effects if an incident does occur

It is recommended that organisations involved in the transportation of dangerous goods appoint one or more
Dangerous Goods Safety Advisors (DGSAs), whose role is to ensure compliance with the requirements and
that the systems operate in the safest possible way.

They advise on, and ensure compliance with requirements for:

x Identification of dangerous goods

x Equipment used in connection with carriage and loading
x Training of employees and maintenance of training records
x Emergency procedures to be taken in the event of any accident or incident that may affect safety

DGSAs are also responsible for preparing for management an annual report on relevant aspects of the
carriage of dangerous goods by the organisation, and for ensuring that an accident report is prepared
whenever an incident involving the carriage of dangerous goods affects people, property or the environment.

Hazardous Environments
Principles of Resistance to Mechanical Damage, Protection against Solid Bodies, Objects and Dusts,
Protection against Liquids and Gases
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Precautions include the use of suitable enclosures.

An internationally recognised system exists which classifies the degree of protection afforded by enclosures
against the ingress of solid objects and water (including humidity), and the protection afforded against
contact with any live parts within the enclosure for all types of electrical equipment, commonly known as the
IP Code (IP = International Protection). The greater the numeric value, the greater the degree of protection.

External equipment should be designed, placed and sealed, to provide protection against damage by flora or
fauna root systems, gnawing rodents and the effects of mould growth.

Electrical equipment should be provided, where necessary, with means of dissipating heat e.g., cooling fins,
heat sinks and cooling fans. If cooling fans are used, then the air should be filtered. If the heat cannot be
dissipated it may be necessary to insulate, or reduce the current carrying capacity of, the equipment.
Electrical equipment should not degrade by the effects of solar radiation either by the selection of suitable
materials or by shielding. To prevent a fire risk, an accumulation of detritus should preferably be prevented
from occurring by design.

Where external pressure is applied to electrical equipment it should be sufficiently robust to withstand that
pressure.

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Electrical equipment designed to detect and give warning of a fire should be suitably designed and selected
e.g., use of mineral insulated metal sheath (MIMS) cables.

Wet Environments Including Corrosion and Degradation of Installation and Damage to Electrical

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Systems

Precautions include containment in enclosures to a suitable IP rating, provision of unventilated air-tight

enclosures and corrosion resistant enclosures. In the case of corrosive and wet environments it may be
necessary to purge the enclosure. It is important that the equipment selected is suitable for the environment.

Principles of Selection of Electrical Equipment for Use

in Flammable Atmosphere

Classification of Hazardous Areas, Zoning

If there is a likelihood of release of a dangerous substance then the grade of release (continuous, primary or
secondary) is established by considering the likely frequency and duration of the release. For example, if a
source of release is continuous this normally leads to a zone 0 or zone 20.

Locating Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Areas

Equipment and protective systems for all places in which explosive atmospheres may occur must be
selected in accordance with relevant standards unless the risk assessment finds otherwise. In particular,
the following categories of equipment for surface industries (not mining) should be used in the zones
indicated, provided they are suitable for gases, vapours, mists, dusts or mists and dusts, as appropriate:

x In zone 0 or zone 20, category 1 equipment;

x In zone 1 or zone 21, category 1 or 2 equipment; and
x In zone 2 or zone 22, category 1, 2 or 3 equipment.

Gases and Vapours

Various methods of protection exist. Apparatus suitable for zone 0 is suitable for zones 1 and 2. Any
apparatus suitable for zone 1 is also suitable for zone 2.

Table 24: Methods of Protection for Electrical Equipment for Use in Flammable Atmospheres

Zone Type of Protection Code Letter Assigned

Intrinsic Safety “a”. Ex ia
0 ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
Special Protection certified for Zone 0 Ex s

Any type of protection suitable for zone 0

Ex d
Flameproof enclosure
Ex p
Pressurised
Ex q
Powder filling (sand)
1 Ex o
Oil immersion
Ex ib
Intrinsic safety “b”
Ex e
Increased safety
Ex m
Encapsulation

Any type of protection suitable for zone 0 or zone 1

2 Ex n
N type (N type)

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x For Ex n one of the following code letters are assigned

x A for non-sparking
x L for energy limited
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x P for simplified pressurised

x R for restricted breathing; and
x C for sparking equipment otherwise protected

Dust Protection
Electrical equipment used in dust atmospheres requires consideration of:

x The ignition temperature of a 5-mm dust layer

x The maximum surface temperature of apparatus measured under dust free conditions
x The maximum permissible surface temperature of apparatus in the presence of a dust cloud
x The construction of the enclosure and its dust tightness, as classified in the IP Code; and
x The hazard zones

ATEX Directive is an invaluable source of reference here as it requires special consideration for apparatus
in zone 20 and for surface temperature requirements as shown in table 25.

Table 25: Methods of Protection for Electrical Equipment for Use in Combustible Dust
Atmospheres Marking of Hazardous Area Electrical Apparatus

Type of Protection
Zone Conductive. Non-conductive.
(Electrical resistivity <10 Ωm).

Category 1 D. Category 1 D.

20 Temperature limitations due to Temperature limitations due to

the presence of uncontrollable the presence of uncontrollable
and excessive thickness. and excessive thickness.
Any type of protection suitable Any type of protection suitable
21 for zone 20 or for zone 20 or
Category 2D e.g., IP6X. Category 2D e.g., IP6X.
Any type of protection suitable Any type of protection suitable
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22 for zone 20 or zone 21. for zone 20 or zone 21 or

Category 3D e.g., IP5X.

Illustration 40: Example Test House Marks

CENELEC mark EECS (formerly BASEEFA) mark

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All apparatus must bear the marking and be supported by an apparatus certificate of the test house. The
marking, which must appear on the apparatus, and the certificate, is designed to give the user
information on where and how the apparatus may be used.

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Illustration 41: Example Hazardous Area Equipment Marking

The “Atex Class” uses the denotation G for gas, vapour or mist or D for dust hazards.

Use of Permits-To-Work
Permit-to-Work can form an essential part of safe systems of work for many maintenance activities.
They allow work to start only after safe procedures have been defined and they provide a clear record
that all foreseeable hazards have been considered.

A Permit-to-Work is a document that specifies the work to be done and the precautions to be taken to
ensure the safety of a particular activity when safety critical functions are needed. Some organisations
use one form to cover all situations for which a permit is issued; others have specific permits for
electrical, mechanical, hot work, confined space entry etc.

Restrictions on live working, safe systems of work, working space and competence for work on
electrical systems, are all essential aspects of electrical safety. They are all applicable to high voltage
work. The isolation of electrical systems prior to maintenance activities is important. Permits to work are
important for work on high voltage systems. The permit to work should be clearly and legibly written and
contain:

x The identity of the persons issuing the permit and supervising the work
x

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A signature from the person proving the circuit is dead
x Sufficient detail to identify the equipment made dead and its location, a diagram may suffice
x The location of the points of isolation
x The location of temporary earth connections
x The location of warning notices, including live equipment notices, and temporary locks
x A description of the work to be carried out
x Any other hazards that may arise; and
x Any further precautions

Compliance with the safe system of work, including any permit to work where issued, should be
monitored.

Isolation should be by means of a device that has a safe isolating gap between live parts and those that
have been made dead. Sometimes work on electrical equipment will require more than one point of
isolation e.g., the primary and secondary sides of transformers. Earthing of conductors at the point of
disconnection of the supply is essential and additional earths may be necessary at the place of work.

Access to high voltage areas should be restricted to authorised persons. Physical barriers should be
more substantial than those used for low voltage systems.

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Principles of Pressurisation and Purging

This method of protection relies on creating a non-hazardous (safe) area inside the enclosure with a
protective gas so that simple (non-certificated) apparatus may be used inside the enclosure with few
restrictions.
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In order to achieve the required degree of safety it is necessary first to purge the enclosure by opening
a vent and passing clean air or inert gas through the enclosure, then closing the vent and creating a
pressure higher than the surrounding atmosphere within the enclosure. The overpressure is maintained
with or without the continuous flow of the protective gas. The enclosure has monitoring electronics to
ensure the procedure has been successfully carried out before the apparatus can be powered up, and
to shut off the power should the pressure within the enclosure drop. An alarm should indicate failure.

The materials used for the installation, including ducts and connecting parts should not be adversely
affected by the protective gas. The points at which the protective gas enters the supply ducts should be
situated in a non-hazardous area, except for cylinder supplied gas. Ducts for exhausting the protective
gas should preferably have their outlets in a non-hazardous area, otherwise spark and particle barriers
should be fitted.

The technique is often used for control panels that are to be located in the hazardous area and for
locating equipment that cannot be certified e.g., VDUs.

Types of Equipment
Intrinsic Safety Ex ia and Ex ib.

Ex ia is suitable for zones 0, 1 and 2.

Ex ib is suitable for zones 1 and 2.

Intrinsic safety is the only method of protection that does not rely on mechanical integrity to ensure
safety from causing ignition. The concept in the design and construction of the apparatus is that the
electrical energy available from the circuit will be less than the minimum ignition energy of the
hazardous gas into which it will be placed.

Most fixed Ex ia intrinsic safety circuits comprise of apparatus in the safe (non-hazardous) area and
some in the hazardous area. This allows placement in the hazardous area of low power instrumentation
or control circuits, which are connected to some other equipment in the non-hazardous area. No special
containment of intrinsically safe electrical equipment in the hazardous area is necessary as its power is
not incendive, allowing for the use of standard “simple” electrical equipment.

The electrical incendive energy is dependent upon the circuit voltage and current. When voltages (V)
are plotted against current (mA) each gas group presents a minimum ignition current curve. Rather
than work on these limits a safety factor of 1.5 is included in design for power requirements.

Since the concept of intrinsic safety is that there is insufficient energy in the circuit to cause ignition then
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some form of safeguard is required to ensure this is maintained even under fault conditions. The worst-
case fault is that the “mains” power breaks through from the safe area to the hazardous area.

The principle used for intrinsic safety is that a network of components (zener safety barrier) arranged in
the safe area prevents any excessive electrical energy being transferred from the safe area to the
hazardous area. The zener safety barrier is a network of components designed to limit both the current
and voltage to predetermined levels. Electrical apparatus of category ia should be incapable of causing
ignition in normal operation, with a single fault and with a combination of two faults applied with the
following safety factors:

x 1.5 in normal operation and with one fault; and

x with two faults.

Electrical apparatus of category Ex ib is incapable of causing ignition in normal operation and with a
single fault applied with the following safety factors:

x 1.5 in normal operation and with one fault; and

x With one fault if the apparatus contains no unprotected switch contacts in parts likely to be
exposed to potentially explosive atmospheres and the fault is self-revealing.

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Thus, in essence category Ex ia considers two faults whereas category Ex ib considers only one fault.
Further safety factors are included for tolerances and short-term surges in zener circuits.

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Illustration 42: Ex ia Installation

Non-hazardous (safe) area Hazardous area

SAFE AREA HAZARDOUS

ZENER
APPARATUS AREA APPARATUS
SAFETY
BARRIE
R

Supply cables

Safety barriers

Cables to
Earthing bar hazardous area
(normally blue)

The Zener barrier alone does not make a circuit intrinsically safe as other incendive effects, e.g.,
capacitance and inductance, must be taken into account. A circuit or equipment that does not meet
the requirements for intrinsic safety will not be made safe by the introduction of a zener barrier into the
circuit.
Associated safe area apparatus is marked with brackets [ ], for example [E Ex ia] IIC. This indicates
that the apparatus should only be placed in the safe area. There is no need for the T classification as
the surface temperature is not an issue in the safe area.
A typical example of intrinsic safety Ex ib equipment is portable battery-operated equipment, not

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

suitable for zone 0 as the power source (battery) is integral with the equipment, which should not be
taken into a zone 0 area. Safety in zones 1 and 2 for Ex ib relies upon the integrity of the power
source remaining intact

Emergency Planning
In all cases where there is potential for serious harm to people at work and affected by work,
emergency preparedness by way of proper planning and testing will reduce the consequences of on-
site emergencies and help to mitigate the effects of the same.
An emergency plan should address the response required during each aspect of the emergency from
the immediate requirements to the longer-term recovery. The early stages of an emergency are often
the most critical when important decisions are required to be taken under circumstances of extreme
pressure. A careful consideration of the possible scenarios to be tackled through planning can greatly
assist this decision-making process.

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The Need for Emergency Preparedness

Emergencies can take many forms and can occur on different scales. Organisations need procedures I
place to cope with emergencies. Typical emergency procedures that a company might need to
consider include:
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Emergency preparedness includes the immediate response to emergencies as opposed to disasters.

Essentially, emergency response personnel are appointed and trained to cater for the normally
anticipated problems - like chemical spillages and water flooding. In typical organisations, there are
categories of emergency that may be accommodated. They are Bomb, Chemical, Fire, Medical, Plant
and Flooding.

Emergency situations can occur at any time. How an organisation deals with that emergency,
however, can dictate whether the emergency turns into a disaster or not. Historically, there have been
a number of disasters that could easily have been prevented or where the consequence could have
been much less if appropriate safeguards or emergency planning had been in place. Therefore, the
purpose of emergency planning is:
x To envisage the most probable loss factors
x To consider which areas of the site/business could be the scene of a serious incident and
what could be the cause
x To estimate to what extent any foreseeable incident could escalate
x To assess what the likely impact on the surrounding area and the environment would be
x To estimate how long disruption can be expected to continue
x To establish resources and systems to control the event
x To define the degree and timescale for the provision of outside help

There are three main areas of consideration in the planning process namely:
x Identification - recognition and assessment of key disaster potential such as personal injury,
fire, explosive devices, uncontrolled release of substances.
x Prevention and control - through assessment and identification of adequate controls the
consequences of disaster can be minimised.
x Mitigation - reducing the effects if the controls and prevention systems fail, emergency
planning is one of the principal steps to achieving this.

Responsibility for emergency planning rests principally with the operator of the site in developing the
appropriate response for any on site emergency event. For establishments with major off-site disaster
potential specific requirements apply and off-site actions as well as on site procedures must be
addressed in conjunction with the local authorities and communities.

Consequence Minimisation Via Emergency Procedures

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Bomb Emergencies
These could take the form of telephoned bomb threats, warnings of possible campaigns by the police,
or involve handling suspicious packages. Unfortunately, it is one of the realities of modern times, that
terrorist organisations or animal rights activists try to get their way by way of destruction of life and
property.
Telephone operators and receptionists need to be schooled in the best ways to handle bomb threats -
including how to remain calm and tease out as much information from the caller as possible.
Most organisations have developed appropriate bomb threat forms, to act as a reminder to the receiver
of ‘tell-tale’ clues. Occasional drills help to bring the message home to the relevant personnel.

Chemical Emergencies
These situations could be handled in a two-part response - by the chemical handler or operator, and
by a dedicated emergency response team. Typical scenarios are chemical leaks and spills of a
relatively small nature, which could be handled locally with spill kits. Major situations involving damage
to large tanks of stored chemicals, or even road tankers involved in an accident are more the province
of the professional. Emergency response teams could deal with everything in the middle of these two
extremes.

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Suitable training would be provided to cover large, scaled spill kits, use of relevant personal protective
equipment such as breathing apparatus, and conducting an emergency risk assessment. Regular
practice drills are an absolute necessity for team personnel, frequency twice per year minimum.

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Fire Emergencies
Apart from the regular practice evacuations required on the workforce, fire emergency response teams
need their own practice drills. Worst case scenarios should be brainstormed by the team and other
relevant personnel, and then structured into imaginary situations for them to tackle.

It's also essential to provide a proper critique of each practice, preferably by independent witnesses, to
feedback improvements.

Back in the workplace, it helps considerably if a ‘buddy’ is provided for everyone that is less able to get
out during an emergency, e.g., pregnant women, those with heart conditions, disabled personnel, those
in plaster and using crutches. Doors can be opened, and routes cleared for easier egress from the
building.

Security guards are an essential part of the total fire safety scene and should be included in any special
practise drills - even if they only notify the local fire authority regarding practise telephone calls and
alarms. Remember to keep detailed records of such practise drills and critique reports.

Medical Emergencies

Nowadays, with the relatively high incidence of Hepatitis B and HIV, it is very important for first and
secondary aid workers to take precautions during treatment of patients. Many organisations provide
special cleaning kits for dealing with the release of body fluids and blood borne pathogens. Even in a
fire burns treatment situation, these dangers are ever present.

Sometimes, in order to get to the patient, other emergency response teams may need to fulfil their roles
first in order to make the area safe to enter. For example, with a chemical spillage or leak, it needs to be
controlled and made safe, before the patient can be properly approached. A good rule is ‘don’t make
two patients out of one.’
Secondary aid may be taught to the medical emergency response team, in order to effectively deal with
the situation, before ambulance workers arrived on the site.

Equipment such as collapsible wheelchairs, lightweight stretchers, and expanded first aid kits may need
to be purchased, and conveniently located around the buildings.

Sometimes, drench showers and face and eyewash fountains may have to be installed, to wash off
contaminant liquids from the patient's body.

Plant Emergencies

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These cover such items as utility outage (gas/water/electricity), water flooding from damaged sprinkler
heads, and windstorm damage.

Loss of electricity can affect the operation of sprinkler system pumps, unless sufficient emergency
planning has catered for it.

Water outage affects the whole concept of an automatic sprinkler system and will then provide real
concern for the fire insurers. Stand by generators and uninterrupted power supplies (UPS) may need to
be installed, to ensure that essential services are maintained.

Once again, such emergency personnel require regular practice drills, with an independent witness to
critique the team's effectiveness. Often, combined drills are called for between the different emergency
teams, to co-ordinate the response to a complex situation.

Flooding

If the business is in a potential flood area, then the emergency flood plan should include issues such as
evacuation of personnel to safer areas, minimising damage to property and business by moving critical
stock and items to higher floor levels, and sealing doors and windows, wherever possible.

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Any flood water affecting the property may have been contaminated with sewerage and other
contaminants; therefore, appropriate welfare arrangements for staff that enter the property after the flood
clean-up will be necessary.

As always, business continuity is also a consideration and backup critical computer files and maintaining
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

critical documentation in alternative premises should be part of a business continuity plan.

Development of Emergency Plans

Contingency Plans

Most organisations from time to time are faced with situations where basic requirements fall short. Typical
examples of these are a loss of utilities (power failures, electricity, gas, etc.) and more commonly failures
in the supply chain (raw materials, packaging, imported goods, etc.). Not all of these situations will give
rise to safety or health issues, but they can often create emergencies. Plans are therefore required to
enable any organisation to predict the likely contingencies that they may face and to be ready to respond.

Some of these will inevitably result from safety-related failures but more often they arise from other
factors.
A terrorist threat, for example, may shut down postal communications locally and require a business to
instigate alternative arrangements.

Recovery Plans

These plans are initiated once the preliminary stages of the emergency are dealt with. They are designed
to deal with all the arrangements required to ensure the business and premises can recover.

This includes such matters as:

x Limiting and containing water damage (from firefighting or flooding)
x Undertaking structural assessment and control of buildings
x Recovery of IT hardware and software
x Important files and documents

Business Continuity Plans

Since the terrorist attack in the United States on 11 September 2001, much more attention has been
focussed on business continuity, the ability of a business or organisation to not only recover from the
immediate effects of any emergency but to be able to sustain itself in the short and longer term.

The essential factors in achieving business continuity are addressed in a British Standards Institute Public
Available Specification PAS 56, based on the British Continuity Institute's Good Practice Guidelines.

This guide sets out the requirement for achieving an approach to establishing the ability to continue in
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business after any emergency, including one resulting from health and safety-related incidents.

The approach falls short of being a complete disaster management system but is considered here as an
essential element in ensuring an organisation can recover from an emergency situation.

Crisis Management

These are plans or procedures put in place to deal with the most strategic issues facing organisations in
times of emergency or disaster.

They can range from arrangements for dealing with product recall (often safety-related) through to dealing
with reputational risk arising from a major incident/public inquiry.

As such, they are generally plans that concern the upper levels of management and so naturally interact
with the other plans, such as contingency plans and emergency plans that are designed to get things
done.

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The Role of External Emergency Services and Local

Authorities in Emergency Planning and Control

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The emergency services are required to deal with many different types of emergencies and the offsite
emergency plan will provide the services with any additional information that would be required in
dealing with a foreseeable emergency.

The local authority has an obligation to prepare an emergency plan for their area including the
implications of major hazard installations and their effect on the surrounding community. The local
authority emergency planning officers maintain responsibilities for dealing with broad based
emergencies with effect on the community and potential for a domino effect by other major hazard
installations which may be affected by another emergency.

Depending on the type and extent of the emergency, the local authorities’ role may include:

ͻ Provision of emergency feeding

ͻ Provision of emergency transport
ͻ Provision of plant and equipment
ͻ Provision of temporary shelter
ͻ Provision of counselling and support to victims, their relatives and friends
ͻ Dealing with the media

Plans for Major Emergency Scenarios in Order to Meet

Regulatory Requirements
The international Labour Organisation Conventions C 174 entitled Prevention of Major Industrial
Accidents Convention 1993, sets out recommendations to prevent major industrial accidents by
ensuring that appropriate measures are taken by both governments and employers to:

x Prevent major accidents

x Minimise the risk of major accidents
x Minimise the effects of major accidents

To support the ILO Convention there is an ILO Code of Practice entitled ‘Prevention of Major Industrial
Accidents' 1991. This code of Practice details the precautions required by employers to prevent major
industrial accidents. It requires employers to use sound engineering practise to ensure that:

There is good plant design, operation, and maintenance arrangements in place and that there is a
formal safety management structure in place. These safety management systems should include:

x Organisational arrangements
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
x Competency in training
x Formal mechanism for hazard identification and evaluation
x Detailed operating controls
x Procedure to change management
x Emergency arrangements and monitoring and review

Additionally, emergency arrangements are detailed to include both on and off-site arrangements to
protect both people and the environment.

Planning for Major Incidents

These are incidents where the risk to people, property, and the environment are substantial. The risk
may involve loss of life, serious injury or environmental impact.

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Major Accident Prevention Policy

It is advised internationally that all operators should prepare and keep a major accident prevention policy
(MAPP). In the UK for example under the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999 (S.I. 1999,
No. 743), reg. 5, requires organisations of certain establishments to set out their policy with respect to
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major hazard prevention and mitigation.

In the case of lower-tier establishments, the policy that must be implemented can either be a stand-alone
document or one included with the general health and safety policy prepared under the UK Health and
Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. In the latter case, the MAPP should be specific to major accident hazards
and include environmental risks. The MAPP document should be a concise statement of the operator's
general intent and outline the aims and principles to be adopted to prevent major accidents and mitigate
their consequences.

The policy must be reviewed and revised as necessary if there are any changes to the establishment that
could affect major accident prevention procedures. These include changes to the nature or quantities of
dangerous substances, the processes, and operating conditions.

Top-tier establishments do not have to prepare a separate document, but they should incorporate a MAPP
in their safety report.

Preparation of On-Site and Off-Site Emergency Plans

On Site Emergency Plans

The on-site plan should detail the potential for major accidents and how the employer prepares employees
for dealing with developing emergency and how the assistance of other outside agencies will be called and
utilised.

The plan should identify key personnel, along with contact details. It is likely that the personnel will be
identified by name and job title along with the relevant contact information. Key personnel would include
those authorised to set the emergency plan into action as well as those identified below:

Site Incident Controller: this person would assume control at the scene and will need to assess whether
the event is a major incident requiring the action of the emergency plan (on site and off site), direct
operations at the scene.

Site Main Controller: this person has overall responsibility and would usually be a senior manager/director
of the site with a good knowledge of activities carried on, he/she would control activities from the
emergency control centre as it is established and ensure, along with the site incident controller that the
actions required by the plan have in fact been initiated including contact with external services.

Off Site Emergency Plans

The offsite emergency plan should be based around the identified major accident hazard potential which
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will have a likely effect on the community around the installation and the environment. The plan would need
to identify those major accident hazard events which are most likely to occur, and which will require the
assistance of the emergency services and the local authority.

The operator is required to produce the offsite plan and communicate with the local authority and the
emergency services any specific information as required by the authority in the development of the plans.

Where a ‘domino’ installation exists then clearly detailed co-operation between neighbouring sites are an
important element of on- site and offsite emergency planning.

Contents of an Offsite Emergency Plan

Information to be including in an offsite emergency plan would include the following key points:

ͻ Names or positions of authorised persons

ͻ Arrangements for early warning and call out procedures
ͻ Arrangements for co-ordinating resources
ͻ Arrangements for providing assistance with on-site mitigatory action

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ͻ Arrangements for providing the public with specific information relating to the accident and the
behaviour which it should adopt
ͻ Arrangements for the provision of information to the emergency services of neighbouring

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countries or states in the event of a major accident with possible trans-boundary consequences

Strategically the coordinating group which contains the representatives of the police, fire service,
ambulance, health authorities, environment agency, etc. would convene at an offsite emergency control
centre. The strategic co-ordinating group, once convened, would take over the management of the
offsite elements of the emergency from the emergency control centre, including media liaison.

Those key personnel then based at the on-site emergency control centre can co-ordinate their efforts to
bring the incident, disaster under control.

Emergency Control Centre

From here the tactical and command functions of the plan will be co-ordinated. It would house the SMC
and other key personnel as appropriate and would need to contain the following:

x External communications equipment.

x Internal communications equipment.
x Site plans and maps clearly showing the location of hazardous materials.
x Location of transport facilities.
x Location of facilities to assist emergency services.
x Topography.
x Geology.
x Assembly points and casualty treatments areas.
x Utilities.
x Relative position of the outlying community.
x Message facilities.
x Ability to update on actions taken.

Careful consideration should be given to the location and structure of the ECC as it may itself be
affected by the emergency.

Post Incident Recovery

Following initial response to a disaster, the long-term recovery needs to commence as soon as
possible.

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Post Incident recovery actions may include arrangements for clean-up operation, issuing press
statement and letting other businesses know when they may return to their premises.

Business Continuity Plans are also extremely important in order to maximize the company's ability to
continue to operate in the wake of a disaster.

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Public Health and Training and Testing

Environmental Aspects of The ILO Convention requires that operators
Major Accidents provide evidence of safety management systems
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which include arrangements for specific training

including on-going and refresher training on key
The main aim of the ILO Code of Practice is to personnel involved in the emergency process.
prevent and mitigate the effects of a major incident The safety management system should extend
on the surrounding community and the training cover to the other members of staff
environment. Clearly many events will include the contractors and visitors to the installation. The
use of substances and chemicals which may be training should be kept up to date as appropriate
released in an uncontrolled manner. and the effectiveness should be reviewed and
evaluated when necessary.
For many chemicals, little or no information is
available regarding their effects on human health All emergency plans prepared should be tested
or their effects on the environment both in the on-site and offsite at least every three years.
short term (acute) or the long term (chronic). Testing is required to provide a degree of
confidence in the appropriateness and workability
In preparing both public health and environmental of the emergency plan. For the most part, the test
components of both onsite and offsite emergency should be based on an emergency scenario
plans the expertise of the relevant responsible which has previously been identified in the
body will need to be considered. The aim will be to assessments of likelihood of the occurrence of
achieve an integrated emergency plan capable of such emergencies on the installation.
being managed on and offsite. The consultees in
relation to the public health implications and Exercises to test emergency plans may take
environmental implications in a major emergency several different forms and will test various
would include the health authorities, the local aspects of the plan, these include:
authority’s emergency planning officers, the local
public health departments and any other relevant
organisation. x Drills
x Testing a specific aspect in isolation,
Due to the lack of information currently available e.g., alarm testing
for both acute and chronic exposure to many x Seminar exercises
dangerous substances in the event of uncontrolled x Facilitate discussion about the
release then an epidemiological follow up study organisational roles and responses in
should be incorporated into the long-term strategy the various circumstances of an
of the emergency plan to ascertain the long-term emergency
implications and effects on the community.
x Walk through exercises, the response is
When assessing the environmental effects of walked through including visiting specific
accidents, regard should be given to the inventory aspects of the plan, e.g., emergency
of substances and processes present at the control centres
establishment, the likely pathways of x Tabletop exercises, exchanging
contamination from the storage and processing of information between organisations
substances to the environment, the proximity of involved in the emergency plan together
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the establishment to specific environment features with decision making to be tested

such as, site of special scientific interest, ground x Controlled post exercises, testing the
water, areas of outstanding natural beauty, listed communication arrangements during an
buildings, ancient monuments, trees protected by emergency
tree preservation orders, etc. x Live exercises, fully testing some or all
aspects of both on and offsite responses
The emergency plans should also contain
provision for the clean-up and restoration of the Whatever method of testing the emergency plan
environment following a major release. Such is used, it is likely to be a combination of testing
remediation may include removing contaminated methods over a period of time, there must be
soil and debris, restricting food stuffs, restricting some evaluation of the effectiveness of the plan
access to specific areas, restocking water in the test in order to identify failings and improve
courses, lakes, woods, etc and remedial action on performance.
service and ground water supplies.
Evaluation criteria maybe quantitative such as
speed of response or qualitative in terms of a
subjective assessment of the quality of response
provided.

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Initiation of Emergency Plan

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The person who prepared the emergency plans should have systems in place to ensure the plan is initiated or
put into effect without delay in the event of the occurrence of a major accident or an uncontrolled release
which could foreseeably escalate into a major accident.

This responsibility rests on the author of the emergency plans, which includes both the site operator and the
local authorities.

Informing and Warning the Public

The operator of the site should provide appropriate information to the community which falls within an area
which is likely to be affected by a major accident.

The effective communication of relevant information should take into account specific groups such as the
elderly, the young, ethnic groups whereby translation of the information into other languages maybe required.
Communication of this information can take various forms including the use of local liaison groups with
community representatives.

There needs to be in place an effective method for warning members of the public regarding the initiation of
the emergency plans due to the presence of an escalating situation leading to a major accident scenario.

Working with the Media

The media carry out two key functions in the
event of a major accident.

x Gathering information for the news.

x Broadcasting important information to
those who may be affected.

The emergency plan should identify a key

individual to act as co-ordinator for dealing with
media enquiries in the event of a major accident
scenario.

It is imperative that any information that is passed

to the media in the event of a major accident is
accurate and consistent and is in no way based

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on speculation. A steady stream of accurate
information can be released to the media over a
period of time to ensure that a steady stream of
information flows.

The broadcasting media including television and

local radio stations have an important role to play
in broadcasting emergency information to the
members of public, e.g., information such as stay
indoors, close all windows and to tune into
specific broadcasters to receive further
information bulletins.

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10.6 Work Equipment and Machinery

Maintenance
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Maintenance, Inspection and Testing

Maintenance

Maintenance work is required in all sectors of industry. Individual operations may take a relatively short
time or be intermittent, yet most people will come into contact with maintenance activities at work or
elsewhere. Inevitably, it is important that equipment is maintained so that its performance does not
deteriorate to the extent that it puts people at risk. Despite this, a lot of maintenance related accidents
occur because of a lack of planning and the failure to implement a safe system of work.

Some safety critical parts of equipment such as guards, ventilation equipment, and emergency shutdown
systems have to be maintained in order that they do their job at all times. The need to maintain other parts
may not be as obvious, for example, to lubricate bearings or replace clogged filters.

The frequency at which maintenance activities are carried out should also take into account the:

ͻ Intensity of use – frequency and maximum working limits

ͻ Operating environment – for example, outdoors, etc.
ͻ Variety of operations – is the equipment performing the same task all the time or does this
change?
ͻ Risk – to health and safety from failure or malfunction
All maintenance operations should be carried out without exposing the person carrying them out to a risk
to his or her health and safety. Appropriate measures should be taken for the protection of any person
carrying out maintenance operations that involve a risk to their health and safety. Furthermore, the
workplace, and the equipment and devices should be maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working
order and in good repair.

Efficient in this context means efficient from the view of health, safety and welfare (not productivity or
economy). If a potentially dangerous defect is discovered, the defect should be rectified immediately or
steps should be taken to protect anyone who might be put at risk, for example, by preventing access until
the work can be carried out or the equipment replaced. Where the defect does not pose a danger, but
makes the equipment unsuitable for use, for example, a sanitary convenience with a defective flushing
mechanism, it may be taken out of service until it is repaired or replaced, but if this would result in the
number of facilities being less than that required then the defect should be rectified without delay.

Equipment and devices which may require more formalised regular systems of maintenance include
emergency lighting, fencing, fixed equipment used for window cleaning, anchorage points for safety
harnesses, devices to limit the opening of windows, powered doors, escalators and moving walkways.
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Maintenance Hazards
During maintenance work, conditions can be very different from those normally encountered and new
hazards may be introduced. It is essential that everyone concerned is aware of the hazards and of the
correct precautions. For jobs that involve risk of serious personal injury then a written “permit to work”
system should be used, for example when carrying out:

ͻ Entry into vessels, confined spaces or machines

ͻ Hot work that may cause explosion or fire
ͻ Construction work or employment of contractors
ͻ Cutting into pipe-work carrying hazardous substances
ͻ Mechanical or electrical work requiring isolation of power or fuel supplies
ͻ Work on roofs or in excavations
ͻ Work on plant, mixers, boilers, etc., which must be effectively cut off from the possible entry of
fumes, gas, liquids or steam
ͻ Lone working and working in unfamiliar circumstances

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Maintenance Workers
Maintenance work should only be done by those who are competent to do the work, in accordance with

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written instructions. This can include the information provided by manufacturers or suppliers of work
equipment such as instruction sheets or manuals, instruction placards, warning labels and training
manuals. It can also include in-house instructions and instructions from training courses. There are duties
on manufacturers and suppliers to provide sufficient information, including drawings, to enable the correct
installation, safe operation and maintenance of the work equipment.

Frequency of Maintenance
Equipment may need to be checked frequently to ensure that safety-related features are functioning
correctly. A fault, which affects production, is normally apparent within a short time. However, a fault in a
safety-critical system could remain undetected unless appropriate safety checks are included in
maintenance activities.

The frequency at which maintenance activities are carried out should also take into account the:

ͻ Intensity of use - frequency and maximum working limits

ͻ Operating environment, e.g., marine, outdoors
ͻ Variety of operations - is the equipment performing the same task all the time or does this
change?
ͻ Risk to health and safety from malfunction or failure

Machinery Maintenance
Whilst undertaking routine maintenance of machinery the hazards can include:

x Unintentional starting of machinery

x Release of stored energy e.g., fluid or air pressure, electricity
x Movements due to gravity
x Residual high or low pressure
x Restricted access/egress
x Residues e.g., chemicals, flammables, corrosives
x Mechanical hazards
x Heat or cold
x Biological hazards
x Confined spaces
x Working at height

Prior to undertaking maintenance on machinery, the factors to be considered include:

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x The location of the equipment.
x Is it capable of being isolated/locked off?
x Can stored energy be dissipated or released?
x Can the work area be segregated from other areas?
x Are there safe means of access and egress?
x Is PPE required, and available?
x Are personnel trained and competent?
x Are there heat or cold problems?
x Are there chemical residues and biological hazards?

The practical precautions when undertaking maintenance of machinery could be:

x Isolate electrical power

x To adopt a permit to work system
x Isolation of any services or pipelines to the machinery
x Allow hot machinery to cool
x Release loads
x Segregation, by providing barriers and warning signs

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x Provision of safe means of access.

x Provide adequate lighting
x Ensuring availability and suitability of PPE
x Ventilate work area
x Provide adequate supervision
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x Ensure that only skilled & competent staff are used

Maintenance Strategies and Options

The extent and complexity of maintenance can vary substantially from simple checks on basic equipment
to integrated programmes for complex plant. In all circumstances, for maintenance to be effective it needs
to be targeted at the parts of work equipment where failure or deterioration could lead to health and safety
risks. Maintenance should address those parts which have failed or are likely to deteriorate and lead to
health and safety risks.

A number of maintenance management techniques could be used:

ͻ Planned preventive
ͻ Condition-based; and
ͻ Breakdown
Simple hand tools usually require minimal maintenance but could require repair or replacement at
intervals. More complex powered equipment will normally be accompanied by a manufacturer’s
maintenance manual, which specifies routine and special maintenance procedures to be carried out at
particular intervals. This may be supplied as part of the conformity requirement of the manufacturer.
Some of the procedures will be necessary to keep the equipment in working order; others will be required
for safety reasons.

Where safety-critical parts could fail and cause the equipment, guards or other protection devices to fail
and lead to immediate or hidden potential risks, a formal system of planned preventative or condition-
based maintenance is likely to be needed.

Some equipment may not be owned by the user since many items of plant and equipment are hired. It is
important for both the hire company and the person responsible for hiring equipment to establish which
party will carry out safety-related maintenance. This is particularly important for equipment on long-term
hire. The terms of the agreement should be set out and recorded in writing.

In many cases, safety-related maintenance work is not carried out by the person with ultimate
responsibility for the work equipment, in the mistaken belief that the other party will do it. If the hire
company is some distance from the user site, it would be uneconomical for their staff to carry out simple
checks and make minor adjustments, so the user may agree to carry them out. However, both parties
should agree exactly what they are responsible for.

The Pattern of Failures with Time

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There are three basic ways in which the pattern of failures can change with time. The failure rate may be
constant, increasing or decreasing. A constant failure rate is characteristic of failures which are caused by
the application of loads in excess of the design strength, at a constant average rate. An increasing failure
rate is characteristic of failures which are caused by material fatigue brought about by strength
deterioration due to cyclic loading.

Decreasing failure rates are observed in items which become less likely to fail as their survival time
increases. This is often observed in electronic equipment and parts. “Burn-in” of electronic parts is a good
example of the way in which knowledge of a decreasing failure rate is used to generate an improvement in
reliability. The parts are operated under failure-provoking stress conditions for a time before delivery. As
substandard parts fail and are rejected the failure rate decreases and the surviving parts are more
reliable.

The effect of these three combined generates the so-called “bathtub” curve. This shows an initial
decreasing hazard rate or infant mortality period, an intermediate useful life period and a final wear-out
period. Death is a good analogy to failure of a non-repairable system, and the bathtub curve model is
similar to actuarial statistical models.

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Graph 1: The Bathtub Curve

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The types of maintenance can be divided into two basic categories of:

Planned Preventative Maintenance

Such as:
x Servicing (replacement of consumables).
x Shutdown maintenance; and
x Making working adjustments.

Breakdown Only Maintenance

x Breakdown maintenance (interrupted production).
x Running repairs (without loss of time).

Table 26: Advantages / Disadvantages of the Various Types of Maintenance Regimes

Type of Maintenance Advantages Disadvantages

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Its purpose is to reduce failures
and stoppages, thus reducing Direct Costs of the planned
Planned Maintenance.
risk of accidents and downtime maintenance.
of plant and machinery.

No planned downtime. Planned Loss of production if breakdown

maintenance may introduce occurs.
Breakdown Only Maintenance. unreliability.
Possible shortened life of
No direct maintenance costs. machinery.

If a planned preventative maintenance regime is selected then the choice of the best regular maintenance
interval presents a difficult problem, with two opposite extremes to be avoided:
x Too frequent maintenance wastes production time and increases the risk of trouble arising from
human errors in re-assembly, on the other hand.
x Too long an interval resulting in an unacceptable number of machine failures during operation.

A compromise between these two extremes can be established by experience; but machine failures may
continue to occur.

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Condition Based Maintenance

A better method is to carry out preventive maintenance at what may be irregular intervals but to determine
these by the actual condition of the machine. A main function of condition monitoring is to provide the
knowledge of machine condition, and of its rate of change, which is essential to the operation of this
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method.

The knowledge may be obtained by selecting a suitable parameter for measuring deterioration and
recording its value at intervals.

Trend Monitoring
Assessing the trend of this measurement can give a useful lead-time in warning of incipient machine
failure.

Condition Checking – Alarms

Where considerable experience of a machine and its failure characteristic has been gained, a single
check reading of its condition can provide sufficient data for determining a safe period of further running.
Alternatively, an alarm indicator may be set to give warning when the safe running period has fallen to a
critical level.

Machine Comparison – Defect Diagnosis

Condition checking can also be used to compare the condition of similar machines. The readings taken
may also be analysed in detail to indicate the most likely cause of the problem.

Table 27 lists the benefits that may be obtainable by industry, which can be derived from monitoring the
condition of plant and machinery.

Table 27: Benefits which can be derived from Condition Monitoring

Benefits which can be derived

from monitoring the condition of How these benefits arise
plant and machinery
Machine running time can be increased by maximising the
Increased plant availability resulting in time between overhauls.
greater output from the capital invested. Overhaul time can be reduced because the nature of the
Reduced maintenance costs. problem is known, and the spares and men can be ready.
Consequential damage can be reduced or eliminated.
The lead time given by condition monitoring enables
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Improved operator and passenger safety. machines to be stopped before they reach a critical
condition, especially if instant shut-down is not permitted.
More efficient plant operation, and more The operating load and speed on some machines can be
consistent quality, obtained by matching varied to obtain a better compromise between output, and
the rate of output to the plant condition. operating life to the next overhaul.
More effective negotiations with plant Measurements of plant when new, at the end of the
manufacturers of repairers, backed up by guarantee period, and after overhaul, give useful
systematic measurements of plant comparative values.
condition.
Better customer relations following from The lead time given by condition monitoring enables such
the avoidance of inconvenient breakdowns breakdowns to be avoided.
which would otherwise have occurred.
The recorded experience of the operation of the present
The opportunity to specify and design machinery is used for this purpose.
better plant in the future.

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Factors Affecting Industrial Application

Overall economic benefit is usually the most important consideration affecting a company’s decision to

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apply condition monitoring, and in particular the benefits arising from the reduction of output losses and
maintenance costs.

There are, however, a number of other factors or conditions, which may also be important for particular
users. Most of these favours the use of condition monitoring, but a few may be unfavourable e.g.:

Favourable:
Where a safety risk is particularly likely to arise from the breakdown of machinery, such as where
equipment is handling dangerous materials, and machines for the transport of people.

Unfavourable:
Where an industry is operating at a low level of activity so that plant and machinery is often idle, such as if
the plant is only operating part of the time, there is generally plenty of opportunity for inspection and
maintenance during idle periods.

Reporting:
It is important to have a maintenance reporting system in order to create the data for maintenance
decision-taking and ultimately as a feedback mechanism to the designers.

It follows logically from the concepts of planned maintenance and reliability theory that plant and
equipment should be inspected at predetermined, regular intervals.

Factors to Be Considered in Developing a Planned

Maintenance Program
Whatever be the chosen maintenance strategy, it needs to consider a number of factors that may at times
be in conflict with each other. However, weighing up the factors will help management decided the best
strategy to choose.

The following are some of the factors that must be identified and assessed in relation to the equipment
under consideration:

x Manufacturer/Supplier information
x Risk to health and safety

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x Frequency of use
x Competency availability
x Maintainability
x Importance in the process
x Running in failures
x Complexity of the machine
x Linkages with other machines
x Availability of spares
x Availability of back-up equipment
x Safety criticality of the equipment/component
x Environmental factors
x Other factors

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Maintenance Log
It is good practice to ensure that a written record of maintenance for high-risk equipment is kept. A
detailed maintenance log can provide information for future planning of maintenance activities and inform
maintenance personnel and others of previous action taken. As with other safety records, the
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maintenance log should be kept up to date.

Maintenance procedures should be carried out in accordance with any manufacturer’s recommendations,
which relate to the equipment, for example periodic lubrication, replacement and adjustment of parts.
However, additional maintenance measures may be required if particularly damaging conditions of use
are foreseen or have been experienced in use. There may be times when these additional measures need
to be reviewed and revised in the light of ongoing operating experiences.

Inspection Regimes
In addition to the importance of maintaining work equipment, work equipment should be inspected where
its safety depends on how it is installed, re-installed or where the conditions at the installation could cause
deterioration. In addition, more specific Statutory Examinations may be carried out in some countries.
Inspection should be carried out on work equipment:

x After installation and before being put into service for the first time; or
x After assembly at a new site or in a new location

Inspection may be required where the safety of work equipment depends upon the installation conditions,
to ensure that it has been correctly installed and it is safe to operate.

Inspections should also take place where work equipment is exposed to conditions causing deterioration
which is liable to result in dangerous situations. The inspections should take place:

x At suitable intervals; and

x Each time that exceptional circumstances which are liable to jeopardise the safety of the work
equipment have occurred

To ensure that safe and healthy conditions are maintained and that any deterioration can be detected and
remedied in good time.

Appropriate inspection methods (visual inspection – borescope, drones, NDT etc.) should be adopted.

The currently trending approach is inspections by a drone. These days, drone inspections are being
performed in almost every industry that requires visual inspections as part of its maintenance procedures.

By using a drone to collect visual data on the condition of an asset, drone inspections help inspectors
avoid having to place themselves in dangerous situations.
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Instead of climbing several stories in the air on a tower to take a close look at a guy-wire, or on scaffolding
within a boiler to look at a weld, an inspector can send a drone instead.

While it’s true that most drone inspections are visual inspections, with the drone simply taking the place of
the inspector’s eyes, drones can also be equipped with special sensors that allow them to perform other
kinds of inspections. E.g., in HVAC inspections, some inspectors are putting a thermal camera on their
drone to identify where heat is leaking out of a building.

The benefits of this method are:

ͻ Reduced risk
ͻ Savings – temporary structure
ͻ Savings – downtime
ͻ Savings – legal liability
ͻ Increased safety through increased frequency of inspections
ͻ Accessibility of the inaccessible area

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Disadvantages are:

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ͻ Range – lack of GPS, magnetic interferences, and structure complexity
ͻ Legislative uncertainty
ͻ Safety of the device
ͻ Software malfunction
ͻ Quality of visual data
ͻ Competence required

The Need for Functional Testing of Safety Related Parts

There is a need for employer to ensure that there are procedures in place to regularly check and test the
functionality of safety related parts. Interlocks, emergency stop buttons are examples of safety related
parts of machines.

Interlocks, protection devices, controls and emergency controls are safety related parts that are placed in
work equipment systems to ensure the safety of those using, cleaning and maintaining equipment.
Employers should have procedures in place that ensure all safety related parts of systems are periodically
checked and their functionality confirmed.

For example, thermal energy may be supplied by circulation of preheated fluid, such as water or steam, in
such cases; isolating valves should be fitted into the supply pipework

Competent Persons
The persons who determine the nature of the inspections required and who carry out inspections must be
competent to do so. That means they must possess the necessary knowledge and experience to
determine such issues as what the inspection should include, when it should be carried out, what needs to
be inspected, what to look for and how faults need to be reported.

The term competent person and the degree of competence, in terms of qualifications, experience,
specialist services available and structure of the competent person’s organisation, is specified according
to the type of work undertaken, i.e., on minor systems, intermediate systems or major systems, as
defined.

Generally, however, it is used in connection with three distinct terms:

x Advising the user on the scope of the written scheme

x Drawing up or certifying schemes of examination; and

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x Undertaking examinations under the scheme

Notification and Record Keeping

In general, inspections and examinations must be recorded in order to show compliance and to confirm
the state of the equipment at a given time. Records can be kept electronically however you should be able
to produce them upon request from interested parties, for example insurance companies.

In general, the requirement to keep records indicates that you should retain records until the next
inspection or examination is carried out, however it is good practice to keep records for at least 3 years, in
case an adverse event takes place, and the work equipment is called into question.

Table 28 gives a brief summary of some common work equipment with recommended inspection
frequencies detailed.

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Table 28: Summary of Inspections and Frequencies

Equipment Inspections Frequencies

Cranes and lifting All equipment used for lifting people and 6 months
equipment lifting accessories
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Other lifting equipment 12 months

Hoists and lifts People 6 months

Materials 12 months
Simple pressure Steam plant 14 months
systems
Steam receivers 26-38 months
Air receivers (Dependant on the competent 24-48 months
people’s written scheme)
Power presses Fixed guards 12 months
Other guards 6 months
Inspection of guards and protective devices 4 hourly
during work

Setting, Cleaning and Maintaining

Safe Systems of Work
A permit to work may be required as part of the safe system of work for high-risk activities such as
maintenance work, hot work, working at height.
A permit is needed when maintenance work can only be carried out if normal safeguards are removed or
when new hazards are introduced by the work.

The Features of a PERMIT-TO-WORK system

Format of the PERMIT SYSTEM

The most important guideline is that any permit form should be as simple as possible to avoid confusion
and time-consuming bureaucracy and yet must include the essential elements as follows:

Issue
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x All persons involved must be aware of the hazards and precautions relating to the activity
x Each permit issued should have a unique identification number or code
x The permit must be clearly limited to a specific place, activity, piece of equipment, etc. Unique
plant identification numbers should be used wherever possible. The nature of the work must be
clearly specified
x There must be a date/time limit for the permit
x Any restrictions on types of activity, equipment, etc. while carrying out the work for which the
permit is issued must be clearly defined. (There may be reference to a different type of permit
being required for other work.).
x The precautions that have been taken must be clearly defined, e.g., isolation, locking off, test of
atmosphere, etc.
x Any further monitoring etc. that will be required during or after the work must also be clearly
defined, e.g., regular or continuous air monitoring
x Any further actions required during the work must be defined. Many accidents happen when
individuals decide to carry out some additional work

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Receipt

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x The individuals who carried out the actions above should personally sign the permit. Some
permit systems allow for supervisors etc. to sign on their behalf. This is only acceptable where
the individual signing has confirmed beyond any doubt that the actions have been completed as
stated
x The individual issuing the permit must sign to confirm that all necessary isolation, testing etc. has
been carried out and that it is safe for the work or entry to commence
x The individuals who will be carrying out the work must sign to confirm that they fully understand
the work required, restrictions and the precautions to be taken and the P.P.E to be worn

Clearance/Return to Service
x When the work is completed, the individuals must sign to that effect and to confirm that the plant
may be returned to service

Cancellation
x The ‘owner’ of the plant must sign to accept the plant back into service

Extensions
x Should the work not be completed by the end of the shift, some permit systems are provided for
extensions. Since this might involve other employees in the work, many systems insist on a new
permit being issued

Isolation
Lockout is the use of a lock to render machinery or equipment inoperable or to isolate an energy source.
The purpose is to establish 'zero energy'. This is where all sources of energy including electrical,
pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical and stored energy are isolated so that they pose no danger to the
release of an energy source that could activate moving parts on equipment or machinery. Isolation should
also have considered stored energy which needs to be dissipated before working on the equipment. Static
electricity can be dissipated via an earth to the ground.

Procedures for Working at Unguarded Machinery

Safe System of Work for Unguarded Areas

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In cases where guarding of any moving part does not eliminate the risk of entanglement or where it is not
practicable to guard it, the law requires workplaces to ensure that people do not operate or pass close to
the moving part unless a safe system of work is in place to reduce the risks as far as practicable.

Setting

From time to time, machines may need the cutting blades, drill bits etc to be replaced or adjusted. This
type of work may require the temporary removal of guards. At times the operator may be tempted to
operate the machinery without properly refitting the machine guard, thus exposing the operator to risk of
injury. Guards must always be replaced prior to operating machinery.

Cleaning

Material wastes build up may need to be removed during machinery operation e.g., metal swarfs, saw
dust and timber offcut wastes. Depending on the machinery and the process of work, the machinery may
be operational during cleaning. Operators should use various pick-up sticks and appliances to remove the
wastes ensuring they are not exposed to mechanical hazards such as entanglement or cuts.

The machinery must be designed and constructed in such a way that it is possible to clean internal parts
which have contained dangerous substances or preparations without entering them; any necessary
unblocking must also be possible from the outside. If it is impossible to avoid entering the machinery, it
must be designed and constructed in such a way as to allow cleaning to take place safely.

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Maintenance

A permit to work may be required as part of the safe system of work for high-risk activities such as
maintenance work. An important requirement is to ensure that all energy sources are isolated and stored
energy purged.
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The Means by which Machines are isolated from all Energy

Sources
There is a wide range of devices available for locking out energy sources and other hazards that could
pose a risk to people working on equipment. These include switches with a built-in lock and lockouts for
circuit breakers, fuses and all types of valves.

Only devices that incorporate a lock or can accommodate one or more padlocks are suitable lockout
devices. If more than one person is working on the same equipment, each person must attach their own
lock to prevent the isolator being opened before all locks have been removed or opened. The isolation
procedure should identify common lock out points to ensure energy cannot be restored while someone is
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still working on the equipment. Whatever locking device is used, it must function properly in the
environment in which the work is undertaken.

During cleaning, repairs, maintenance or adjustment of equipment, the one key to each person’s lock
must be held only by that person, who is responsible for both locking and unlocking the lockout device.

A personal danger tag should accompany each lock used in an isolation procedure and identify the person
who put the tag and lock in place, the time and date this occurred and the item of equipment being
isolated. It provides a warning that the equipment is in an unsafe condition and that operation of that
equipment may endanger the person who attached the tag. All disposable personal danger tags should
be destroyed after use.

Shutting off electricity is usually achieved by opening a switch to produce an air gap too wide for electricity
to cross. Care must be taken to ensure all electricity sources are identified and isolated as some
equipment will have several control stations and sections which could have independent electricity
sources. If programmable logic devices are used to control the equipment, then it is essential to use local
isolating switches as the means to achieve secure and safe isolation. It is not acceptable to rely on the
controls of the programmable logic devices for the isolation of equipment.

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Isolating programs with step-by-step instructions must be developed and implemented wherever there is a
danger of the equipment being operated during periods of maintenance.

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Isolating the electricity supply to the equipment must include checking that the electrical supply has been
isolated, not just the control circuit, and disconnected, if necessary, by an electrician. There should be no
possibility of the equipment being inadvertently energised via another source or control system.

Emergency stop buttons, lanyards and similar quick-stop devices on their own will not necessarily achieve
isolation. it is dangerous to rely solely on emergency stopping devices as they are not designed for
frequent use and cannot be locked out in all cases. Emergency stopping devices may allow energy to be
inadvertently re-activated and may also allow control circuits to remain live. Remote control rooms and
process computers should be considered when identifying isolation points

Fluid, steam and pneumatic energy

Isolation of fluid, steam and pneumatic energy sources is usually achieved by closing a valve. Care needs
to be taken to ensure that isolation is effectively achieved as some valves may be automatically or
remotely controlled by computers. Blanking or the use of spades may be the safest approach. Some
examples of fluids that may be encountered include caustic or acid solutions, gas, solvents, mineral
slurries or water at varying pressure or temperature.

It may be necessary to drain pipes and lines leading to the plant, to prevent workers being exposed to
hazardous gases, liquids or covered by small solids e.g., sand or grain.

After equipment has been locked out and tagged, all isolated power sources should be tested first with
appropriate instruments before work begin.

Mechanisms of Mechanical Failure that Lead to a Loss

of Containment
Forces on Material
Any force imposed on an item made from any material is resisted by the internal structure of that material,
and this internal force is equal and opposite to the force applied.

x Pulling (stretching) a material is called tensile force

x Pushing a material is known as compressive force
x A force not applied in line is called shearing force
x External forced can be bending force
x Twisting forces are knows as axial/torsional force

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The pressure in a boiler or other pressure vessels results in longitudinal and circumferential tensile
stresses. Other stresses may also be present, such as residual stresses resulting from welding, thermal
stresses from heating/cooling and restraint stresses from fixings holding the vessel in place.

Main causes of failure of pressure systems are vibration, external corrosion, inadequate temporary
supports, blocked-in liquids, water hammer, steam hammer, cavitation and pressure surge. The failure
results in longitudinal and circumferential tensile stresses.

The root causes are activities such as error in design, operation and maintenance.

Excessive Stress/Ductile Failure

Ductile fractures in metal usually occur when the yield stress of a material has been exceeded over a
large area, i.e., forces applied beyond the elastic limit of the material. The metal, having moved into the
plastic region of the stress / strain curve loses its strength, so that failure by a ductile fracture occurs.
Pressure system could fail if the material used is unable to withstand the normal operating limits.
Excessive stress could also occur due to corrosion and erosion.

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General Causes of Ductile Fracture

Bending a metal creates much higher stresses within its structure than would be created by similar forces
acting in tension and compression. Where a system is subjected to a bending moment, the possibility of
an overload leading to a ductile failure must not be overlooked. Cranes are constructed to be used with
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the ground horizontal across their tracks (or wheels), and for the load to hang vertically from, and in line
with, the jib. Operating with their bodies at an angle, or dragging heavy loads sideways, are ideal recipes
for introducing un-designed bending moments into the jib structure that could lead to a collapse.

Incorporating bent scaffold tubes, or creating offset compressive loads, is another method of introducing
bending moments into a structure. It is important to appreciate that the bending moments in a bent
scaffold tube generates an increasing bending stress for a given load.

High Temperature

The yield stress of metals is decreased with increase in temperature. This is related to the molecular
bonding and the lattice space between each molecule. The more excited the molecules become the
greater the gap in the lattice which in turn reduces the strength of the bonding allowing plastic deformation
to take place under less stress. If a series of tensile tests were carried out on specimens of a metal at
gradually increasing temperatures, the ultimate tensile stress plotted against temperature would give a
curve similar to that illustrated in Graph 2.

As a general rule a metal should not be used at temperatures higher than half its melting temperature in
degrees Kelvin, e.g., mild steel has a melting temperature of 1,700°K.
Therefore, the maximum working temperature should be about 850°K or (850-273) = 577°C. As a
structural material, mild steel loses its bearing strength at around 600°C, a fact of importance in the
structural weakening of a building on fire.

Graph 2: Graph of Tensile Stress against Temperature Showing Stress Decreasing with Increased
Temperature
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Abnormal External Loading

The complexity and demands placed on the material of pressure system construction are not based on a
single material property, but on a combination of a number of properties to meet the requirements of the
specified design. These properties could be the tensile strength, the yield strength, elongation, and so on.

Abnormal external loading such as an impact from a moving vehicle could create concentrated additional
stress that may be beyond the tensile strength, causing the vessel to fail.

Over Pressure
Over pressure can occur due to defective relief valve/s, which cause the pressure level to rise beyond
safe working and design limits, resulting in ductile failure. This could lead to complete loss of containment
of the fluid under pressure.

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Over Heating

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As with over pressure, over heating could undermine the integrity of the pressure vessels. In general,
pressure vessels are manufactured to withstand 3 times their safe working pressure. Overheating could
occur if safety devices such as alarms and controls fail to detect and alert the rise in temperature. Failure
of safety devices could be due to lack of maintenance or incorrect fitting.

Mechanical Fatigue and Shock

Pressure causes tensile stress in all directions. If stresses are greater than material can cope with, it will
lead to ductile or brittle failure.

Mechanical fatigue may be caused by pressure variations, flow variations, expansion effects, water
hammer, etc. Mechanical fatigue usually progresses over a period of time with minor cracks which
continues to grow under the action of the fluctuating stress.

Fatigue failure could also be triggered by surface interruption such as grinding marks, weld defects,
notches etc.

Mechanical shock on the other hand is usually caused by hammer blow or liquid slugs. It occurs with a
sudden increase or decrease in applied stresses e.g., sudden build-up of pressure in the system.

Thermal Fatigue and Shock

Thermal fatigue is caused by repeated heating and cooling. It is where some heating or cooling takes
place each time a power setting is changed, resulting in vessel cracks, leaking tubes, etc.

Thermal shock is caused when a hot liquid is suddenly displaced by fluid with substantially different
temperatures which causes rapid expansion or contraction material and equipment such as tubes,
pressure vessel plate, pipes, valves etc.

Creep
Creep is a slowly progressing, permanent deformation that results from steady force acting on a material.
This force can be the weight of the material itself such as an overhang on a structural beam. Since
elevated temperatures promote creep, it is important to consider at the design stage when looking at
applications such as high pressure, high temperature pipelines. It is also important to remember any
fabrication or modification that requires any welding of the material should be completed using special
electrodes containing molybdenum in the coating. Molybdenum increases strength and creep resistance
at elevated temperatures. Materials subjected to high temperatures are especially susceptible to this type

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of deformation. The gradual loosening of bolts, the sagging of long span cables and the deformation of
components of machines and engines are all noticeable examples of creep.

Below the elastic limit of a metal, Hooke’s Law states strain is proportional to stress. Therefore, for a given
stress, the strain will remain constant. Unfortunately, this is not completely true, for when a metal is put
under a constant stress near its elastic limit, a kind of plastic deformation occurs. This is called creep.
Generally, the temperatures are high, e.g., in turbines or furnaces, but low temperature creep can occur,
e.g., lead sheet will creep under its own weight, and thicken at the bottom edge.

Investigation into creep has shown that it occurs in three general stages after the initial extension caused
by the load. The three stages are shown below.

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Graph 3: Graph Showing the Three Stages of Creep

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Section 1 is called primary creep: it has been shown to be nearly independent of temperature, occurring,
to some extent, at all temperatures. Deformation is very rapid at first, and then slows down to Section 2
which is called secondary creep. This occurs at a near-constant rate with time - over a very, very long
period. It is extremely sensitive to temperature and can be accelerated with temperature rise. In Section 3,
the tertiary stage, creep rapidly accelerates to fracture.

Creep Prevention

Control of creep in structures can be achieved by:

ͻ Design - i.e., use of adequate safety factors and materials that have been shown to have good
anti-creep qualities - e.g., chrome-molybdenum steels.
ͻ Construction - pipes used in boilers are often ‘pulled up’ in the cold state, so that the stress is
relieved when they are heated; and
ͻ Maintenance - heated pressure systems can be checked for bulging, or turbine blades for
clearance

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fractures occur very suddenly and without warning, allowing a rapid release of energy, e.g., a boiler
or pressure vessel explosion, or a load that plummets from its support. In simple terms, brittle fractures
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occur because the structure of the material does not slip, owing either to the material structure or because
it does not have sufficient time, and small cracks that are inherent in all metals spread through the
material so quickly that a massive fracture is produced. Brittle fractures can occur with applied stresses
below the yield stress. This type of fracture can be recognised due to the lack of deformation and no loss
of cross-sectional area. The surface of the material should have a clean appearance with no corrosion.

Corrosion
Corrosion of metals can occur by two general mechanisms:

x Aqueous corrosion - either by direct chemical attack or by electrochemical (galvanic) corrosion;

or
x High temperature oxidation.

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Aqueous Corrosion
Direct chemical attack is easy to appreciate, and it involves

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contact of the metal with chemical solution (or damp solids).
This produces a reaction which converts the metal into a
compound, leaving the metal structure deficient in structural
material.

Electrochemical or galvanic corrosion can be explained as the

reverse process to electrolysis (the passage of electricity
through a substance which is molten or in an aqueous solution
resulting in chemical reactions at the electrodes. Areas on the
metal surfaces form anode and cathode regions, the body of
the metal forms the external circuit with the aqueous solution
on the surface of the metal, the electrolyte, completing the
electrical circuit. Metal around the cathode region dissolves
(corrodes) away into solution.

Corrosion can cause a general thinning of material, hence,

reduced strength. Pitting from corrosion breaks down surface
finish and leads to flaws that can result in a fatigue failure.
Where corrosion causes a high-stress area in the metal
surface, stress corrosion, the design stress can be exceeded
by the addition of normal working stress, and a failure occurs.

High Temperature Oxidation

At high temperatures, the reaction of metals with oxygen from the air is accelerated. If precautions are not
taken, the metal structure will become ‘eaten away’ by the reaction, resulting in dangerously weakened
structures.

Hydrogen Cracking
The phenomenon known as hydrogen cracking requires both a corrosive environment and tensile stresses
to be present.

Cracking can occur in two ways:

The hydrogen generated at the surface of tensile loaded high strength steel can enter the material lattice
and embrittle the steel; increasing its susceptibility to failure by dynamic loading (shock loading) - this is
known as hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Alternatively, hydrogen can migrate and congregate in tensile
stressed regions and induce progressive crack growth - this is sometimes referred to as hydrogen

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assisted cracking (HAC).

Both these actions can take place in high strength steels without any appreciable visual change to the
material surface. To reduce hydrogen cracking lifting chains are case hardened. The case hardening
process produces residual surface compressive stresses in the link and these coupled with relatively low
operating tensile stress render the links less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. It should be noted
however that case-hardened chain is susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement but to a lesser extent. An
effective inspection regime will be necessary to detect surface defects.

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Violent rupture caused by hydrogen embrittlement

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-destructive testing employs physical testing methods to detect discontinuities in a material,
component or structure without in anyway harming that material, component or structure.

The boundaries of NDT as a technology are

difficult to define. Visual inspection plays a very
important part in any non-destructive test but is
not an NDT method. Yet penetrant testing and
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magnetic particle inspection, the two most

common NDT methods, are really used only to
improve visual inspection by increasing the
visibility of surface defects.

There are six principal methods. These are:

x Visual Examination.
x Magnetic particle inspection.
x Penetrants.
x Radiography.
x Ultrasonic NDT; and
x Electrical Methods.

The objective of a non-destructive test is to detect defects in the material or component in such a way that
the test does not harm the material or component.

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The Fundamental NDT Methods

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Visual Examination
Careful examination, both externally and internally, can reveal many flaws. Microscopes, periscopes and
boroscopes (fibre optic probes) can all be used to extend the detail of the examination. Certain types of
pressure vessels only need to be visually inspected.

Magnetic Particle Test

The specimen is magnetised using a low voltage transformer and two probes for making contact with the
material under test. Discontinuities show up in the magnetic field where there are defects. A magnetic
powder is applied that tends to concentrate in such locations and using fluorescent additives may
enhance the sensitivity. It is usual to test in two different planes to ensure that any defects break the
magnetic flux.

Penetrant Testing
The surface of the test area is cleaned, and the penetrant fluid is painted or sprayed on the area to be
examined. The fluid is allowed to penetrate any defects such as cracks and crevices and the surplus is
removed by wiping or washing. A developing powder is sprayed on to the surface and soaks up the
penetrant leaving a stain indicating the location of the defect.

Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission sensors can reliably pick up transient stress waves generated by discontinuities,
defects and corrosion processes through either controlled stimulation of the structure, or on-line
monitoring and can detect active corrosion processes, leaks, creep in steam lines, or strand failure in
cable bundles.

Acoustic Resonance Testing

After an impact, a specimen will vibrate in certain characteristic modes and frequencies that can be
measured by a microphone or laser vibrometer. Acoustic sonic and ultrasonic resonance analysis is a
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non-destructive testing technique. Typical detecting faults are cracks, cavities, detached layers, material
inconsistencies, hardness deviation in materials.

Radiography
Specific pressure vessels are required to be inspected by radiography or ultrasonic techniques. X-ray
machines are used to identify sub-surface defects in parent metal especially welds. They are capable of
accurate resolution, but the radiographs must be interpreted by a skilled operator and the equipment is
expensive and rather immobile. A high level of protection from the radiation is also required.

An alternative is to use more portable gamma-ray sources (e.g., Cobalt - 60) which do not require a power
supply. The resolution is not so sharp due to the size of the sources employed which makes interpretation
more difficult. Radiation protection is still needed.

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Ultrasonic Echo Sounding

Ultrasonic testing employs waves above the frequency limit of the human audibility. This method of testing
is very accurate and will detect a very small defect within a material or component. A pulse consisting of
several waves is projected into the specimen under test. If a flaw exists in the specimen an echo is
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reflected from it and from the type of echo the kind of flaw that exists can be deduced.

These methods can be used for thickness gauging and would be appropriate for assessing, for example,
the plate thickness of a boiler (this tends to waste in service due to corrosion and overheating).

Electrical Methods
ƒ Current flow. A means of locating and sizing surface or sub-surface flaws, or estimating wall
thickness, by passing a small current between two prods and measuring the varying resistance
to its passage as the prods explore the surface of the workpiece.
ƒ Eddy-current. A means of flaw detection, size or thickness measurement or materials evaluation
(i.e., mechanical, electrical or metallurgical characteristics). Whereby a fluctuating magnetic field
is used to induce eddy-currents in the workpiece, the condition of which is either inferred or
directly determined from the nature of the reactions between the primary fluctuating field and the
secondary field appearing in the workpiece.

Pressure Testing
On completion or repair of pressure vessels, an over pressure or proof test is performed in which pressure
is raised progressively in stages up to the full test pressure. Stretch or distortion are measured by devices
such as strain gauges and strain indicating coatings. NB that where possible, hydraulic pressure is to be
preferred to pneumatic because the energy stored in a liquid is only about 0.5% of that stored in a gas,
and catastrophic explosion cannot occur.
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Table 29: Comparison: Six Main Branches of Non-Destructive Testing

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Method Surface Flaws Subsurface Limiting Factors Comments
Flaws e.g., Geometry
Lighting is very
Low cost increasing
important.
Efficiency rapidly if high
depends on An appropriate magnification is used.
Visual. degree of Not detectable etches aid flaw
Capital investment can be
surface detection as it does
high if sophisticated aids
preparation. magnification from
such as television are
about x7 to about
used.
x30.

Debatable – Trained operators, low

Special Defect orientation. skill level.
Magnetic Very sensitive
technique Magnetisation in Can be semi-automated,
particle ferro-magnetic
advisable (e.g., two directions consumables inexpensive,
inspection. materials.
pulsed DC or preferred. capital dependent on
rectified AC). system of magnetisation.
No geometrical Low cost, trained
Can be very
influences other operators, low skill level,
Penetrants sensitive,
than the length and can be semi-automated.
(dye and regardless of Not detectable.
width of the defect. Magnetic particle method
fluorescent). material under
Cleanliness and preferred where
test.
surface condition. applicable.
Easily Radiation is best
detectable but High capital cost, high
Low in directed through running costs
there are maximum
sensitivity (consumables).
Radiography limitations on dimension of defect,
depending
(x or size and e.g., along the Trained skilled operators.
upon depth of
gamma). orientation of plane of a crack.
surface Health hazard.
flaw and
discontinuity. Beam angle to
thickness of Permanent record.
material. defect is critical.

Generally, beam of
ultrasound is best
directed at optimum
Easily angle for reflection.
detectable but Capital cost low, highly
Surface waves However, diffuse trained and skilled
limitation on
Ultrasonic find some reflection, (as

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size, orientation operators of integrity.
application. distinct from
and/or Readily automated.
specular) often aids
grouping.
detection.
Material surface
condition.
Very much
Very sensitive,
influenced by shape
can be applied Low cost, readily
of work-piece.
Eddy- to both ferrous Largely automated specific
Scanning probe
currents. and non- insensitive. training to application
must be applied at
ferrous required, skilled operator.
the actual site of
materials.
the flaw.

Maintenance activities are an on-cost to production and thus need to be planned with the objective of
preventing downtime at minimum cost. Thus, a strategy that identifies the critical components which are
likely to fail and scheduling their replacement at the most convenient time may prove to be the best option.

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10.7 Work Equipment and Pressure Systems

Why Risk Assessment Must Be Conducted on Work
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Equipment
The requirement to undertake risk assessments with reference to work equipment is now included in the
legislation of several countries. The risk assessment for such work activities applies equally to the
maintenance and use of work equipment.

As the general risk assessment requirements in the UK Management of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations apply, there is no specific regulation requiring a risk assessment within the UK Provision and
Use of Work Equipment Regulations.

Due to both the mechanical and non-mechanical hazards associated with machinery, it is important that
risk assessments are undertaken to determine effective risk reduction strategies.

The procedure illustrated in Flowchart 1 defines a series of logical steps for the systematic examination of
the hazards associated with machinery.

Flowchart 1: Machinery Risk Assessment Process

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Means to Supply Energy or Substances

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The means by which all forms of energy used or produced, and all substances used or produced should
be supplied and/or removed in a safe manner.

Another factor to consider when determining the suitability of work equipment is the possibility that energy
used or produced by the equipment - such as electrical or mechanical energy - may present a risk to
safety or health.

Similarly, any substances used or produced by the equipment - such as fuels or process materials - may
introduce similar risks. Where fluids are used, the machinery should be designed and constructed to
prevent risks from filling, use, recovery and draining.

There must be suitable provisions to isolate all energies in a safe manner, by design.

Table 30: Typical energy sources and isolation methods

Form of energy Typical isolation techniques

Electrical energy Isolator locks out/tag out; removal of supply fuses.

Dual locked valves: with bleed facility to test valve not passing.
Liquids, gases, steam
Supply lines capped or spaded to physically prevent undesired flow.

Coiled spring Safe discharge of stored energy.

Disconnect drive from device, for example, drive shaft disconnected from a
Motive energy
gear box.

Ergonomic, Anthropometric and Human Reliability

Considerations
In selecting work equipment, the suitability of its use by employees must be considered. Factors will
include:

Ergonomics

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The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) has defined ergonomics as:

“The scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other
elements of a system.”

It considers that a holistic approach, considering physical, cognitive, social, organisational, environmental
and other relevant factors, is essential in safety and health management.

Consideration of ergonomic principles will be critical in selecting the suitability of work equipment.
Manufacturers should always take account of ergonomic principles to reduce mental or physical stress
and strain of the operator. These principles shall be considered when allocating functions to operator and
machine (degree of automation) in the basic design.

Account should be taken of body sizes likely to be found in the intended user population, strengths and
postures, range of movement, frequency of cyclic actions, etc.

All elements of the “operator-machine” interface such as controls, signalling or data display elements
should be designed to be easily understood so that clear and unambiguous interaction between the
operator and the machine is possible. These principles should be followed in selecting the appropriate
work equipment.

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Ergonomically Designed Control Systems

As well as the anthropometry factors, employers need to select upon the basis of the ergonomics of the
control systems. The following factors need to be considered in the application of these controls:
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Man - Machine Interface:

Inherent in this interaction process is the transfer of either energy (power) or information between the
worker and machine. This exchange takes place via an imaginary plane known as “the man-machine
interface”. This information passes from the machine to the worker through display elements of the
interface and from the worker to the machine through control elements of the interface. Here the worker
and machine are combined in a closed loop feedback system.
This is shown systematically in Flowchart 2.

Flowchart 2: The Man-Machine Interface, Emphasising the Performance of the Human Information
Processing System
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NB The broken lines underline that the displays and controls are linked between the operator and the
machine.

Design considerations:

ͻ Information on the status of machine/ process must be compatible with human sensory organs
(reception).
ͻ Information must be organised to be easily interpreted.
ͻ Quality and quantity of information to enable decision making; and
ͻ Requires controls to be organised to allow logical and sequential actions to be taken based on
decisions made.

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Layout and Operation of Controls and Emergency Controls

When deciding on how controls and displays should be arranged in front of the operator, the overriding

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considerations are that they should be capable of being used quickly, accurately and without fatigue.

For this reason, an attempt is normally made to ensure that complementary sets of components are
arranged so that they suggest to the operator how they should be used. Groups of displays and controls
should be arranged, therefore, in terms of the sequence in which they would normally be used, their
frequency of use, and their importance.

Allocation of Function
This term refers to those parts of a system that will be performed by the machine and the role played by
the person. The solution is not a simple one of separating functions appropriate to one or other, but must
be seen in the light of social, economic and political arguments. Decisions can be based on the relative
capabilities and limitations of both components. Paul Fitts, a psychologist, attempted such an approach; in
drawing up his list itemising the relative advantages of men and machines. This was later updated by
‘Singleton’ and shown in Table 31: heat, cold, noise and vibration.

Table 31: List of the Relative Advantages of Men and Machines the Fitts List (From Singleton)

Property Machine Performance Human Performance

Lag one second

Much superior
2 horsepower for about ten seconds
Consistent at any level
Speed 0.5 horsepower for a few minutes
Large constant standard forces and
0.2 horsepower for continuous work over a
power available
day

Ideal for – routine, repetition and Not reliable – should be monitored

Consistency
precision Subject to learning and fatigue

Single channel
Complex activities Multi-channel
Low information throughout

Best for literal reproduction and Large store multiple access

Memory
short-term storage Better for principles and strategies

Good deductive Good inductive

Reasoning
Tedious to re-programme Easy to re-programme

Slow
Fast, accurate

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Computation Subject to error
Poor at error correction
Good at error correction
Wide range (1012) and variety of stimuli
Can detect features outside range dealt with by one unit, e.g., eye deals with
of human abilities relative location, movement and colour
Input
Insensitive to extraneous stimuli Affected by heat, cold, noise and vibration
Poor pattern detection Can detect very low signals
Can detect signal in high noise levels
Overload reliability Sudden breakdown Gradual degradation

Can deal with unpredicted and

None
unpredictable situations
Intelligence Incapable of goal switching or
Can anticipate
strategy switching without direction
Can adapt

Manipulative abilities Specific Great versatility and mobility

The usual engineering approach to allocation of function is one of: as much as possible being done by a
machine at a reasonable cost and letting the human operator do the rest.

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Functional Characteristics of Controls and Displays

The selection and positioning of controls and displays are essential to ensure ergonomic harmony. The
choice of the most appropriate control for a specific task is determined by the type of control function
desired, which depends largely upon consideration of functional anatomy, e.g., fingers and hands are best
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for precision and speed, whilst arms and feet are best to control movements requiring force.

Problems arise when the choice of display is inappropriate to the operator’s task, where there are
difficulties with the legibility, misreading and misinterpretation of instrumentation and incorrect activation of
controls could result in considerable consequences of failure.

Table 32: Functional Characteristics of the Main Types of Display based upon Grandjean

Display Type Functional Characteristics

QUALITATIVE
For attracting immediate attention. Annunciators (an audible and visual
Auditory
signalling device) as warning devices.
For representing three or more status conditions using colour, shape, size
Visual
or location coding.
Provides operator with a model of the system. Good for showing spatial
Representational (temporal) relationships between variables. Static (maps). Dynamic
(process control – signal boxes).
Ease of Detecting Rate of Setting to a
QUANTITATIVE Precision
Reading Change Reading
Analogue (dials and
meters)
Moving pointer Acceptable Acceptable Very good Very good
Moving scale Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable
Digital Very good Very good Poor Acceptable

Design of Controls

Controls should be designed according to the changes which are possible, and the amount of effort
required operating them. Controls can be discrete having a set number of conditions, for example on / off /
standby; or continuous where the condition varies along a scale, for example temperature.

Control operation can require large muscular effort such as cranks, hand wheels and pedals, or minimal
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muscular effort such as light switches. Understanding the range of operation and the effort required will
enable the control to be designed to suit its purpose.

Labelling and / or colour will also improve the understanding and use of the control. There are a range of
controls that need to be suitably considered, including those:

x To start the equipment or change operating conditions, such as speed

x The employer must ensure that a deliberate action using these controls is required to carry out
these functions
x To bring equipment to a safe condition or complete stop if necessary for health and safety
reasons
x The stop control may also need to switch off all sources of energy if required for health and
safety
x The stop control shall override any start or controls that change operating conditions
x For emergency stop where appropriate

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The functions of each of the controls need to be easily identifiable and that in operating the control a
person is not exposed to risk. The operator of any control should be able to ensure that the operation of
the control does not put anyone at risk or if this is not practicable, that safe systems of work are in place,

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or audible or visible warning is given when work equipment is about to start.

Anyone in a place of risk should have time and the means to avoid the risk before equipment starts or
stops. Employers should ensure that it is not possible for other personnel to be at risk when equipment is
started up by the operator due to the operator being unaware of their presence in a hazardous area on the
equipment.

Lighting Levels
Lighting should be adequate for the operations being carried out in any place where work equipment is
being used. The level of lighting required will depend on the work being carried out. Close observation of
detail, for example, would require a high level of illumination without shadows.

Location of lighting will also need to be considered, for example, maintenance or repair of equipment may
require additional lighting to be provided where only ambient lighting was normally sufficient.

Layout of Plant and Equipment

Poor design or layout of work areas can give rise to difficulties in achieving safe working practice. It often
results due to changes in workplace layout, which has not taken account of the requirements of new
processes or new activities.

It may also result in conflicting activities taking place at the same time.

Reducing need for access (automation, remote systems)

Remote-controlled mobile work equipment is operated by controls which are not physically connected to it,
for example radio control.

People must be provided with safe access that is suitable for the work they perform in, on and around
machinery and equipment. A stable work platform suited to the nature of the work that allows for good
posture relative to the work performed, sure footing, safe environment and fall prevention (if a fall may
occur) is a basic requirement.

As an example, cooling towers on building roofs may have poor access, yet must be attended by a service
person at predictable times for water treatment, chemical dosing or monitoring of automated dosing
equipment.

People performing these tasks must be provided with the means to get themselves and any equipment

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they require onto the roof with no risk or minimal risk of fall or injury.

Access needs can be predicted, and access planning must occur in advance. People need access to
machinery and equipment in the workplace (either continually or occasionally) for tasks such as operation,
maintenance, repair, installation, service or cleaning. These tasks are examples of access that can be
predicted.

Techniques for the elimination or reduction of hazards include:

x Changing process material for something less hazardous

x Modifying the process
x Reducing the operating limits of speed, pressure, temperature, power etc.
x Automating the production or handling process
x Controlling the process from a remote safe position

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The importance of the size of openings; height of barriers; and

distance from danger
Anthropometry
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Anthropometry is the study and measurement of body dimensions, and the subsequent use of the data in
the design of equipment and workplace layout.

Anthropometry has also been successfully applied in the design of physical guarding to machinery,
particularly regarding specifying the distances at which physical barriers should be erected from danger
points and openings in fixed guards. As human beings come in different shapes, sizes and nationalities
(which affect the characteristics of shape) specific Transposed Harmonised Standards are used in the
European Union to give anthropomorphic (dimension) data which manufacturers will be required to
consider. Examples are listed in Table 33:

Table 33: Relevant Transposed Harmonised Standards to Human Performance and Anthropometry

BS EN 547-2 Safety of Machinery – Human body measurements – Part 2: Principles for

1996 determining the dimensions required for access openings.

BS EN 547-3 Safety of Machinery – Human body measurements – Part 3: Anthropometric

1996 data.

BS EN 811 Safety of Machinery – Safe distances to prevent danger zones being

1996 reached by the lower limbs.

BS EN 999 Safety of Machinery – The positioning of protective equipment in respect of

1998 approach speeds of parts of the human body.

BS EN 1005-1 Safety of Machinery – Human physical performance – Part 1: Terms and

2001 definitions.

BS EN ISO Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric
15537 aspects of industrial products and designs.

BS EN 1005-3 Safety of Machinery – Human physical performance – Part 3:

2002 Recommended force limits for machinery operation.

This information will provide for such issues as size of openings, height of barriers etc.

Illustration 43: Example of Anthropometric Data Given in BS EN 547-2:1997

Safety of Machinery- Human Body Measurements Part 2. Principles for Determining the
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Dimensions Required for Access Openings, for Hand Access into a Gap

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Importance of Size of Openings and Distance from Danger

Where it is necessary to provide an opening in a guard, it should be at a sufficient distance to prevent any

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person from reaching the danger point. The effectiveness of a guard with an opening should be calculated
using the distances laid down in ISO 13857:2008.

In establishing the safe size of an opening, two dimensions are of interest:

x The size of the opening.

x The distance to the dangerous part.

Opening Safety distance

Part of body Illustration mm
(gap b) mm (sd)

Slot Square Round

Fingertip b d4 t2 t2 t2

4 < b d6 t10 t5 t5

Anthropometric data for small openings

The figure above corresponds with ISO 13857:2008: ‘Safety of machinery: Safety distances to prevent
hazard zones being reached by upper and lower limbs’; takes account of anthropometric data and gives
the dimensions in millimetres for a regular shaped small opening in respect of the fingertip of a person
aged 14 years or over.

ISO 13857:2008 ‘Safety of machinery: Safety distances to prevent hazard zones being reached by upper
and lower limbs’ also contains similar data in respect of people of 3 years of age and above including:

x The arm (with various limitations of movement - for example, only at shoulder and armpit)
x The finger up to the knuckle joint
x The hand
x The leg (both up to the knee and up to the crotch)
x The foot

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x The toe
x The toe and the toe tip

Importance of Height of Barriers and Distance from Danger

When employing a distance guard or fence it is important that the height of the fence and its distance from
the dangerous parts are sufficient to ensure the dangerous parts cannot be reached over the top of the
guard. Information on the safe distance and heights is given in two BS EN standards:

x BS EN 294 (ISO 13852), Safety of machinery – Safety distances to prevent danger zones being
reached by upper limbs, BSI, London (1992); and
x BS EN 811 (ISO 13853), Safety of machinery – Safety distances to prevent danger zones being
reached by lower limbs, BSI, London (1997).

If the dangerous parts of a machine cannot be reached, then it may be considered safe by position and
where there is a low risk of a friction or abrasion hazard it may be protected by a combination of height of
barrier and distance to the danger zone.

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Height of protective structure Distance from danger zone mm

(barrier) mm
1,000 1,100
1,200 1,200
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1,400 900
1,600 900
1,800 600

These distances must be increased if there is risk, for example, of entanglement.

The Risks Associated with Using Work Equipment

Assessment of Machinery
The assessment of machinery requires a “cradle to the grave” analysis during all phases of machinery life.
x Construction
x Transport, assembly and installation. (Installed safety with sufficient ventilation and space for
moving parts of machine)
x Commissioning
x Use (including setting, teaching/ programming or process changeover, operation, cleaning, fault
finding and maintenance); and
x Decommissioning, dismantling, and disposal

It further, requires consideration of:

x Initial Integrity – Equipment should be suitable, by design, construction and adaptation, for the
actual work it is provided for to do. When first providing work equipment for use in the workplace,
the employer should make sure that it has been made to the requirements of any prescribed
standards. Adequate operating instructions should be provided with the equipment, as should
adequate information about residual hazards such as noise and vibration. The equipment should
also be checked for obvious faults.

x Location of use – the location in which the work equipment is to be used should be assessed, to
take account of any risks that may arise from the circumstances. Such factors can invalidate the
use of work equipment in a particular place. For example, electrically powered equipment is not
suitable for use in wet or flammable atmospheres, unless it is designed for this purpose. As
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mentioned previously, in such circumstances suitably protected electrical equipment or

alternative pneumatically – or hydraulically powered equipment would be a better choice.

- In addition, work equipment itself can sometimes cause risks to health and safety in
particular locations which would otherwise be safe. A petrol engine generator
discharging exhaust fumes into an enclosed space is an example of this.

x Purpose of use - the requirement concerns each particular process for which the work
equipment is to be used and the conditions under which it will be used. The equipment should be
suitable for the process and conditions of use.

x Installation and re-installation - Incorrect installation is a chronic source of downtime, poor

product quality, reduced capacity and high operating costs. While installation requirements vary
depending on the type of machine and its function, there are basic best practices that must be
followed, commissioning procedures, inspections, risk assessments, testing, stability of
foundation, load factor etc.

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x Deterioration of the Equipment - There may be circumstances where deterioration of the

equipment could lead to a dangerous situation developing. These should be removed to a
secure place and tagged for repaired or be replaced.

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x Exceptional Circumstances which could Affect Safe Operation – All work equipment and
work structures should be inspected following exceptional circumstances either caused by
weather conditions such as high wind, snow, extreme of temperature, heavy flooding or
accidental conditions such as collision, dropping of machinery during use or transportation,
extended period of unused or excessive use, including major repair work or modifications.

x The limits of machinery including the intended use (correct use and reasonably foreseeable
misuse or malfunction) and all foreseeable uses of the machinery (e.g., industrial, non-industrial
and domestic).

x Potential users of the machinery identified by gender, age, dominant hand usage and limiting
physical abilities (e.g., visual or hearing impairment, size and strength); and

x The anticipated level of competence of foreseeable users and others who may be exposed to
the hazards of the machinery.

Hazard Identification
All hazards, hazardous situations and hazardous events associated with the machinery need to be
identified at each phase of life. This includes mechanical and non-mechanical hazards as discussed
earlier in this element and a range of operational considerations including failure of control systems and
safety devices.

Risk Estimation
The level of risk is determined from a combination of the severity of harm and the probability of
occurrence of that harm, which is a function of:

ƒ The frequency and duration of the exposure to the hazard.

ƒ The probability of occurrence of a hazardous event; and
ƒ The technical and human possibilities to avoid or limit the harm (e.g., reduced speed, emergency
stop equipment, enabling device, awareness of risks). (See Flowchart 3).

Flowchart 3: Elements of Risk

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Severity (Degree of Possible Harm)

Considers potential harm to persons, property and environment and grades the severity of harm from
slight, reversible effects to death, and the extent of harm (for each machine), i.e., is one person, several
people, or many people likely to be affected?
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Probability of Occurrence of Harm

Considers frequency and duration of exposure, including:

x The need for access to the danger zone (e.g., for normal operation, maintenance or repair) and
the nature of that access (e.g., manual feed of materials) are important factors; and
x The number of persons requiring access to the danger zone, the frequency of access and the
time spent in the danger zone should also be considered

Probability of Occurrence of a Hazardous Event

The probability of occurrence may be determined through consideration of reliability and other statistical
data, accident and ill-health histories, and risk comparisons.

Possibilities of Avoiding or Limiting Harm

The skill level of operators, their practical experience and knowledge of the machinery and their
awareness of risk (via information, observation or warning devices) may enable the avoidance or limitation
of harm.

The speed of appearance of the hazardous event and the possibility of the operator avoiding or limiting
harm (through reflex or agility, possibility of escape) also requires consideration.

Aspects to be Considered When Establishing Elements of Risk

Persons exposed:
x All persons who may be exposed to the hazards should be considered not just operators but also
cleaners, maintenance staff and passer-by

Type, frequency and duration of exposure:

x All modes of operation and methods of working including setting, teaching, process changeover
or correction, cleaning, fault finding, and maintenance should be considered; and
x The need for safe access and the suspension of safety functions during maintenance operations
should also be addressed
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Relationship between exposure and effects:

x The effects of accumulated exposure and combinations of effects should be considered

Human factors:

x The psychological aspects and ergonomic effects of interactions between persons and
machinery are essential considerations in delivering safe machinery
x The individual’s general ability, risk awareness/ risk perception, and potential to deviate from
standard operating procedures/ safe working practices should be considered during the design of
machinery; and
x Although training, experience and ability can affect risk they are not a substitute for hazard
elimination, risk reduction by design or safeguarding where these measures are available

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Reliability of safety functions:

The potential for component failure, power failure or electrical disturbances to result in harm should be

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considered. Components and systems providing safety critical functions require special consideration.

NB proven technical safety measures are much more reliable than procedural or behavioural measures.

Possibility to defeat or circumvent safety measures:

x The possibility of workers defeating, or circumventing safety measures requires careful
consideration as do any possible incentives to defeat or circumvent said safety measures (e.g.,
interferes with production or user preferences, is difficult to use, involves other persons, or is not
accepted as suitable for its function)
x The effectiveness of a safety measure depends on both the type of safety measure (e.g.,
adjustable guard, programmable trip device) and its design details; and
x The use of programmable electronic systems (PES – see later) introduces an additional
possibility of defeat or circumvention if access to safety-related software is not properly designed
and monitored

Ability to maintain safety measures:

x Can the safety measures be maintained in the condition necessary to provide the required level
of protection?

Information for use:

x Easy to understand information, derived from the manufacturers’ instruction for safe use should
be made available to all relevant employees

Risk Evaluation
The risk evaluation determines whether safety has been achieved or if further risk reduction is required.

The machine may be considered “safe” if the hazard has been eliminated or the risk reduced by design or
by the substitution for less hazardous materials and substances, or by safeguarding.

Safeguards should provide a safe situation for the intended use (evidenced by experience) and be
appropriate for the application in terms of probability of defeat or circumvention; potential severity of harm;
and hindrance to operations.

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Clear information on the intended use of the machinery should be provided including operating
procedures and safe working practices.

Sufficient information and training about residual risks and precautions including PPE (if specified) should
be provided.

Risk comparisons may be used as part of the risk evaluation process, providing the machines are
sufficiently similar (of intended use, technical specification and hazards presented) and is safe.

The use of risk comparisons does not eliminate the need to follow the risk assessment process (e.g.,
when a band saw used for cutting meat is compared with a similar/ same band saw, used for cutting
timber, the risks associated with the different material require assessment).

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Elimination of Hazards or Reduction of Risk by Protective Measures

A number of methods can be implemented to ensure the elimination of hazards or risk reduction by
reducing the probability of occurrence of harm and/ or potential severity of harm:
x Inherently safe design measures
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NB eliminating the hazard at the design stage avoids the need for additional protective measures such as
safeguarding and complementary measures. Safe design measures are discussed later in this Element.

x Safeguarding and complementary protective measures (e.g., emergency stop controls); and
x Information for use about the residual risk

This is not a substitute for the correct application of inherently safe design measures or safeguarding and
complementary protective measures.

The Risk Control Hierarchy

Risk control measures follow the same principle as for all risk control strategies. For work equipment, a
hierarchy of control measures exists:

x Remove all risk by design, i.e., introduce intrinsic safety

x Use fixed enclosed guards; fixed guards have no moving parts which can fail or be abused
x Use other guards, including movable guards, adjustable guards, automatic guards and fixed
guards which are not fully enclosing
x Use protection devices which do not prevent access but do prevent motion of the work
equipment when close, e.g., pressure mats, infra-red beams
x Use protection appliances which hold or manipulate the workpiece, keeping the operator away
from danger, e.g., a push stick on a circular saw
x Use Personal Protective Equipment
x Provide information, instruction, training and supervision

‘Software’ measures: Information, Instruction, Training and

Supervision
Information, instruction, training and supervision are always important, even if the hazard is protected by
hardware measures. However, they are especially important when the risk cannot be adequately
eliminated by hardware measures alone. Training should be based on the level of risk associated with the
equipment.
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Procedures are required to define what information, instruction, training and supervision is necessary.
Use of machinery should be restricted to those who have received all necessary instruction and
information or are being trained under an appropriate level of supervision.

Pressure Systems
Definition of a Pressure System
A Pressure System Generally Means:

x A system comprising one or more pressure vessels of rigid construction, and associated
pipework and protective devices;
x The pipework with its protective devices to which a transportable gas container (TGC) is, or
is intended to be connected; and
x A pipeline and its protective devices

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A pressure vessel is generally taken to mean: a closed vessel which operates at a pressure greater
than atmospheric pressure, and within this definition are included steam boilers, steam receivers, and
air receivers.

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All of the above must contain (or be liable to contain) what is sometimes called a 'relevant fluid' (e.9.
steam) what is considered relevant fluid for the purposes of any local regulations is likely to vary in
detail. However, as an example here is what is considered within the scope of the term in the UK
Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000.Examples of pressure systems and equipment are:

x Boilers and steam heating systems

x Pressurised process plant and piping
x Compressed air systems (fixed and portable)
x Pressure cookers, autoclaves, and reports
x Heat exchangers and refrigeration plant
x Valves, steam traps, and filters
x Pipework and hoses; and
x Pressure gauges and level indicators

Relevant Fluid Means:

x Steam at Any Pressure - Steam at any pressure greater than 0.5 bar above atmospheric
pressure when in equilibrium with its vapour at either the actual temperature of the liquid or
17.5°C.
x Any fluid or mixture of fluids (include gases, liquids or vapours - for example compressed air,
nitrogen, oxygen, acetylene, pressurised hot water), that is at a pressure greater than 0.5
bar above atmospheric pressure, which is:
- A gas or
- A liquid having a vapour pressure greater than 0.5 bar above atmospheric pressure
when in equilibrium with its vapour at either the actual temperature of the liquid or
17.5°C
x A gas dissolved under pressure in a solvent contained in a porous substance at ambient
temperature and that could be released from the solvent without the application of heat.

Types of Inspection and Frequencies

User Checks
Users have other duties under PUWER, such as maintaining and inspecting the equipment to ensure

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it remains safe and that protective devices are in place and in good working order.

Maintenance
Users and owners of pressure systems should ensure that the pressure system is properly
maintained and in good repair, to prevent danger. Schedule of maintenance should be available and
maintenance work to be carried out by competent personnel.

Competent Person

The competent person shall:

x Carry out the examination properly and in accordance with the scheme
x Produce a written report, sign or authenticate and send the report to the user or owner as soon
as possible after completing examination, or before the date specified in the report for any
repairs or modifications to be made

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Action in Case of Imminent Danger

Where a competent person is of the opinion that the system will give rise to imminent danger unless
certain repairs or modification have been carried out or unless suitable changes to the operating
conditions have been made, then, they shall make a written report to that effect straight away, identifying
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the system and specifying the repairs, modifications or changes concerned.

Where a report is given in accordance with this regulation, the user or owner shall ensure that the system
is not operated until the necessary repairs, have been carried out or made.

Frequencies and Statutory Basis for Examination of Simple

Pressure Systems
Pressure System Safety Regulations 2000, Provision and use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 and
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 requires a written scheme of periodic examination by a
competent person. The frequency of examination will also depend on the other factors such as the
condition of the pressure system.

Prevention and Testing Strategy

Design, Construction, Repair and Modification

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Pressure systems should be properly designed and properly constructed from suitable material.

The employer of a person who modifies or repairs a pressure system at work shall ensure that nothing
about the way this work is done gives rise to danger or otherwise impairs the operation of any
protective device or inspection facility.

Design and Construction

The Pressure Systems Safety Regulations (PSSR) 2000 requires any person who designs,
manufactures, imports or supplies any pressure system or any article which is intended to be a
component part of any pressure system shall ensure that:

x The pressure system or article shall be properly designed and properly constructed from suitable
material, to prevent danger
x The pressure system or article shall be so designed and constructed that all necessary
examinations for preventing danger can be carried out

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x Where the pressure system has any means of access to its interior, it shall be so designed and
constructed as to ensure, so far as practicable, that access can be gained without danger
x The pressure system shall be provided with such protective devices as may be necessary for

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preventing danger; and any such device designed to release contents shall do so safely, so far
as is practicable

The manufacturer must, when designing the vessel, define the use to which it will be put, and select:

x The minimum working temperature

x The maximum working temperature; and
x The maximum working pressure

However, should a minimum working temperature higher than minus 10° C be selected, the properties
required of the materials must be satisfied at minus 10° C. The manufacturer must also take account
of the following requirements:

x It must be possible to inspect the inside of the vessels

x It must be possible to drain the vessels
x The mechanical qualities must be maintained throughout the period of use of the vessel for its
intended purpose

The vessels must, bearing in mind their envisaged use, be adequately protected against corrosion,
and of the fact that under the conditions of use envisaged:

x The vessels will not be subjected to stresses likely to impair their safety in use; and
x The internal pressure will not permanently exceed the maximum working pressure; however, it
may momentarily do so by up to 10%. Circular and longitudinal seams must be made using full
penetration welds or welds of equivalent effectiveness. Dished ends other than hemispherical
ones must have a cylindrical edge.

Repair and Modification

The employer of any person undertaking modification or repair of a pressure system at work shall ensure
nothing they do shall give rise to danger.

The following factors should be taken into consideration when carrying out repairs or modifications to
pressurised system:

x The original design specification

x The system to be used after the repair or modification

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x Any change in relevant fluid
x The effects any such work may have on the integrity of the pressure system
x Adequacy of protective equipment

Information and Marking

Designers and suppliers should provide sufficient written information concerning the design, construction,
examination, operation and maintenance. Similar requirements apply to employers of those who modify or
repair pressure systems.

Manufacturers should mark pressure systems with specified information including:

x The manufacturer’s name, the serial number that identifies the vessel
x The date of manufacture
x The standard to which the vessel was built (if applicable)
x The maximum design pressure of vessel
x The maximum design pressure, where it is other than atmospheric; and
x The design temperature

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Safe Operating Limits

The users of installed systems and owners of mobile systems should not operate the system or allow it to
be operated unless they establish the safe operating limits of the system.
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The user or owner shall provide for anyone operating the system adequate and suitable instructions for:

x The safe operation of the system; and

x The action to be taken in the event of an emergency

The user of the system must ensure that it is not operated except in accordance with instructions provided
in respect of the system.

Written Scheme of Examination

All pressure systems that contain steam or any other relevant fluid above a 250 bar-litre capacity must not
be used unless they are subject to an individual written scheme of examination. The scheme enables a
periodic and systematic inspection of the main safety hazards of the specific equipment - it is a
maintenance handbook for the system concerned.

The written scheme will identify which parts are to be examined, what is required and how often it is
required. It will deal with the first examination before being put into service and subsequent examinations
throughout the system’s working life.

The user/owner is responsible for ensuring the suitability of the scope of the written scheme and that it
covers all the pressure vessels, protective devices and pipework.

Frequency of Examination

Examination periods will vary depending on the type of system, its age and its use. Periods can vary
between 12 and 144 months.

The user of installed systems and owner of mobile systems should not operate or allow operation of the
system unless they have a written scheme for periodic examination, by a competent person.

The user or owner should ensure that:

x The scheme is drawn up, or certified as being suitable, by a competent person

x The content of the scheme is reviewed at appropriate intervals by a competent person to
determine whether or not it is suitable in the current conditions of use of the system; and
x The content of the scheme is modified in accordance with any recommendations made by the
competent person arising from the review
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Examinations in Accordance with the Written Scheme

Examinations should be made in accordance with a written scheme. The main points are as follows:

The user or owner of the system shall:

x Ensure that parts of the system included in the scheme are examined by the competent person
within specified intervals and, where appropriate, before the system is used for the first time
x Before examination, take all appropriate safety measures to prepare the system for examination,
including measures specified in the scheme

The typical contents of a written scheme of examination would include:

x Identification number of the item of plant or equipment
x Those parts to be examined
x Nature of the examination required
x Any necessary preparatory work to enable the item to be examined safely
x Specify what examination is necessary before the system is first used, where appropriate

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x The maximum interval between one examination and the next

x The critical parts of the system which if modified or repaired should be examined by a competent
person before the system is used again

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x Name of the competent person certifying the written scheme of examination
x The date of certification

Maintenance and Record Keeping

Records must include:

x The last report by the competent person

x Previous reports, if they contain information that will materially assist in assessing whether or not
the system is safe to operate
x Any repairs or modifications to the system can be carried out safely
x Any documents that relate to those parts of the system included in the written scheme of
examination; and
x Any agreements or notifications relating to postponements of examination

NB: The above information can be stored electronically, subject to data security. It is important to note
that documentation relevant to second-hand systems must be passed on to the new owner and therefore
needs to be in an acceptable form.

Competent Person
The term competent person and the degree of competence, in terms of qualifications, experience,
specialist services available and structure of the competent person’s organisation, is specified according
to the type of work undertaken, i.e., on minor systems, intermediate systems or major systems, as
defined.

Generally, however, it is used in connection with three distinct terms:

x Advising the user on the scope of the written scheme

x Drawing up or certifying schemes of examination; and
x Undertaking examinations under the scheme

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10.8 Safety Integration and Machinery Risk

Assessment
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Definition of Machinery
The ILO Code of Practice for ‘Safety and health in the use of machinery’ defines machinery as:

µ$Q assembly fitted with, or intended to be fitted with, a drive system other than one using only directly
applied human or animal effort, consisting of linked parts or components, at least one of which moves,
and which are joined together for a specific application¶
.

The International Labour Organisation Convention C119 Guarding of Machinery Convention and
International Standards define machinery in Article 1 as:

“All power-driven machinery, new or second hand, shall be considered machinery”.

Machinery can further be defined as:

x An assembly fitted with or intended to be fitted with a drive system aside from directly applied
animal or human effort, including connected components or parts, a minimum of one part among
them moves, and which are joined together for a specific application
x An assembly as referred above, missing out on only the elements to connect it on site or to
sources of energy and movement
x An assembly as described in the above points, prepared to be set up and able to work as it
stands only if installed on a method of transport, or able to function as it stands just if mounted on
a method of transport, or set up in a building or structure
x Assemblies of machinery as referred to in points 1, 2 or 3 or partly completed machinery, which,
in order to accomplish the very same end, are arranged and managed so that they operate as an
essential whole
x An assembly of linked parts or components, a minimum of one of which moves, and which are
connected together, intended for lifting loads and whose only power source is directly applied
human effort

Role and Application of Standards Relating to

Machinery
ILO Guarding of Machinery Convention C119
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The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation, held the ILO Guarding of Machinery
Convention C119 at Geneva on 5 June 1963, decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard
to the prohibition of the sale, hire and use of inadequately guarded machinery. The provisions included in
the convention and associated recommendation R118 includes:

Types of machinery covered:

x All power-driven machinery, new or second-hand, shall be considered as machinery

x The competent authority in each country shall determine whether and how far machinery, new or
second-hand, operated by manual power presents a risk of injury to the worker and shall be
considered as machinery
x Such decisions shall be taken after consultation with the most representative organisations of
employers and workers concerned. The initiative for such consultation can be taken by any such
organisation

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The provisions of the Convention:

x Apply to road and rail vehicles during locomotion only in relation to the safety of the operator or
operators

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x Apply to mobile agricultural machinery only in relation to the safety of workers employed in
connection with such machinery

SALE, HIRE, TRANSFER IN ANY OTHER MANNER AND EXHIBITION

x The sale and hire of machinery of which the dangerous parts specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 of
this Article are without appropriate guards shall be prohibited by national laws or regulations or
prevented by other equally effective measures
x The transfer in any other manner and exhibition of machinery of which the dangerous parts
specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 of this Article are without appropriate guards be prohibited by
national laws or regulations or prevented by other equally effective measures
x All set-screws, bolts and keys, and other projecting parts of any moving part of machinery also
liable to present danger to any person coming into contact with them when they are in motion,
shall be so designed sunk or protected as to prevent such danger
x All flywheels, gearing, cone and cylinder friction drives, cams pulleys, belts, chains, pinions,
worm gears, crank arms and slide blocks, and other transmission machinery also liable to
present danger to any person coming into contact with them when they are in motion, shall be so
designed or protected as to prevent such danger. Controls also shall be so designed or protected
as to prevent danger

The provisions above do not apply to machinery or dangerous parts which:

x Are, by virtue of their construction, as safe as if they were guarded by appropriate safety devices;
or
x Are intended to be so installed or placed that, by virtue of their installation or position, they are as
safe as if they were guarded by appropriate safety devices

The provisions in the article do not prohibit the sale or transfer in any other manner of machinery for
storage, scrapping or reconditioning, but such machinery shall not be sold, hired transferred in any other
manner or exhibited after storage or reconditioning unless protected in conformity with the said provisions.
This obligation shall rest on the manufacturer when he sells machinery, lets it out on hire, transfers it in
any other manner or exhibits it.

USE

x The use of machinery any dangerous part of which, including the point of operation, is without
appropriate guards shall be prohibited by national laws or regulations or prevented by other

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equally effective measures, provided that where this prohibition cannot fully apply without
preventing the use of the machinery it shall apply to the extent that the use of the machinery
permits
x Machinery shall be so guarded as to ensure that national regulations and standards of
occupational safety and hygiene are not infringed

The obligation to ensure compliance with the provisions of Article 6 shall rest on the employer. The
employer shall establish and maintain such environmental conditions as not to endanger workers
employed on machinery covered by this Convention.

x No worker shall use any machinery without the guards provided being in position, nor shall any
worker be required to use any machinery without the guards provided being in position.
x No worker using machinery shall make inoperative the guards provided, nor shall such guards be
made inoperative on any machinery to be used by any worker.

Individual member countries can extend the provisions of C119 and the supporting recommendation R118
manually powered machinery, following consultation within the country. The identification of the hazards
associated with the use of a machine is an exercise that can be achieved by a careful study of the
machine.

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BS EN ISO 12100
ISO 12100:2010 (ISO 12100) specifies basic terminology, principles, and a methodology for achieving
safety in the design of machinery. It specifies principles of risk assessment and risk reduction to help
designers achieve this objective.
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These principles are based on knowledge and experience of the design, use, incidents, accidents, and
risks associated with machinery.

Within the standard, procedures are described for identifying hazards and estimating and evaluating risks
during relevant phases of the machine life cycle, and for the elimination of hazards or sufficient risk
reduction.

Guidance is given on the documentation and verification of the risk assessment and risk reduction
process.
ISO 12100 defines three types of standards representing different levels of granularity:
x A standard establishes general, overarching guiding principles
x B standards have specific design principles for a specific technology, and
x C standards are application-specific standards

ISO 12100 provides the risk management framework for machinery and defines the principles of how to
do risk management for machinery: the different scenarios in which machines can operate in an unsafe
manner, and so forth.
It is those principles that are then applied at the technology level and the application level to make sure
that the right risk management process has been followed, and that the risk controls implemented on the
technology are appropriate to the specific hazards that may occur due to an application.
Overall, ISO 12100 applies to the system level, but specific elements trace down to the product or
component level.
x ISO 12100 is a type A standard that applies to everything that is defined as a machine under the
European Machinery Directive and it is to be used for machines for which there is no type C
standard—that is, no standard dedicated to the specific product or machine under consideration.
x Many specific machines have no associated type C standard. In these cases, ISO 12100 applies
to identify hazards and risks not yet identified by a type C standard. To emphasize an important
point, “THIS APPLIES TO ANY MACHINE AS DEFINED IN THE MACHINERY DIRECTIVE. It is
a harmonized standard with the directive”.

Supporting Risk Management

ISO 12100:2010 (Safety of Machinery – General Principles for Design – Risk Assessment and Risk
Reduction) replaces ISO 12100-1:2003, ISO 12100-2:2003, and ISO 14121-1:2007.

The new standard will help designers identify risks during the design stage of machine production,
reducing the potential for accidents.
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The risk assessment guidelines provided in ISO 12100 are presented as a series of logical steps. These
will help designers to systematically determine the limits of the machinery; identify risks of hazards such
as crushing, cutting, electric shock, or fatigue; and estimate potential dangers ranging from machine
failure to human error.
For those running a manufacturing plant, when you are buying equipment, regardless of who
manufactures the product, you need to consider whether it will integrate well and support ISO 12100
compliance and the dictates of the Machinery Directive. ISO 12100 will serve as a driver for system
integrators to look at the application they are addressing, determine whether risk management has been
addressed down to the application level, and verify that products specified support the risk controls that
have been established.
For example, if you have a machine installation that is required to fall under ISO 12100, and it has a
safety-related part that may be primarily electronic, then ISO 13849 or IEC 62061 will support the
management of risk as identified in ISO 12100.
By providing a best practices framework at the international level, ISO 12100 will help eliminate technical
barriers to trade while maintaining the safety and health of users of machinery, in line with requirements of
national legislations of countries around the world.

³
This is an important standard for PDFKLQHEXLOGHUV´

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Definition of Safeguard

ISO 12100 also provides the definitions of various types of guards and protective devices, which is widely

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accepted and used.

Safeguard Type Definition

Guard affixed in such a manner (for example, by screws, nuts, welding) that it
Fixed guard
can only be opened or removed by the use of tools or by destruction of the
affixing means

Movable guard Guard which can be opened without the use of tools

Adjustable guard Fixed or movable guard which is adjustable as a whole or which incorporates
adjustable part(s)

Guard associated with an interlocking device so that, together with the control
system of the machine, the following functions are performed:
— the hazardous machine functions “covered” by the guard cannot operate
until the guard is closed,
Interlocking guard
— if the guard is opened while hazardous machine functions are operating, a
stop command is given, and
— when the guard is closed, the hazardous machine functions “covered” by
the guard can operate (the closure of the guard does not by itself start the
hazardous machine functions)

Protective device Safeguard other than a guard

Mechanical, electrical or other type of device, the purpose of which is to

Interlocking device
prevent the operation of hazardous machine functions under specified
conditions (generally as long as a guard is not closed)

Enabling device Additional manually operated device used in conjunction with a start control
and which, when continuously actuated, allows a machine to function
Hold-to-run control Control device which initiates and maintains machine functions only as long as
device the manual control (actuator) is actuated

Two-hand control Control device which requires at least simultaneous actuation by both hands in
device order to initiate and to maintain hazardous machine functions, thus providing a
protective measure only for the person who actuates it.

Sensitive protective Equipment for detecting persons or parts of persons which generates an
equipment appropriate signal to the control system to reduce risk to the persons detected

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Device whose sensing function is performed by optoelectronic emitting and
Active optoelectronic
receiving elements detecting the interruption of optical radiation, generated
protective device
within the device, by an opaque object present in the specified detection zone.

Mechanical restraint Device which introduces into a mechanism a mechanical obstacle (for
device example, wedge, spindle, strut, scotch) which, by virtue of its own strength,
can prevent any hazardous movement

Limiting device Device which prevents a machine or hazardous machine condition(s) from
exceeding a designed limit (space limit, pressure limit, load moment limit, etc.)

Limited movement Control device, a single actuation of which, together with the control system of
control device the machine, permits only a limited amount of travel of a machine element

Any physical obstacle (low barrier, rail, etc.) Which, without totally preventing
Impeding device
access to a hazard zone, reduces the probability of access to this zone by
offering an obstruction to free access

Function of a machine whose failure can result in an immediate increase of the

Safety function
risk(s)

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Inherently Safe Design Measures

The standard identifies that inherently safe design measures are the first and most important step in the
risk reduction process because protective measures inherent to the characteristics of the machine are
likely to remain effective. Inherently safe design measures are achieved by avoiding hazards or reducing
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risks by a suitable choice of design features of the machine itself and/or interaction between the exposed
persons and the machine.

The factors to consider include:

x Geometrical factors - designing the shape of machinery to maximise direct visibility of the
working areas and hazard zones from the control position, e.g., reducing blind spots, and
choosing and locating means of indirect vision where necessary (e.g., mirrors) so as to take into
account the characteristics of human vision, particularly when safe operation requires permanent
direct control by the operator
x Physical aspects - Such aspects can be, e.g.:
- Limiting the actuating force to a sufficiently low value so that the actuated part does not
generate a mechanical hazard
- Limiting the mass and/or velocity of the movable elements, and hence their kinetic energy
x Mechanical stresses
x Materials and their properties resistance to corrosion, ageing, abrasion and wear
- Hardness, ductility, brittleness
- Homogeneity
- Toxicity
- Flammability
x Emission values (noise, vibration, radiation, substances etc.)
x Appropriate technology
x Provisions for stability
x Applying the principle of the positive mechanical action of a component on another component
x Provisions for maintainability
x Observing ergonomic principles
x Preventing electrical hazard
x Preventing hazards from pneumatic and hydraulic equipment

Safeguarding and Complementary Protective Measures

The standard provides information on guards and protective devices shall be used to protect persons
whenever inherently safe design does not reasonably make it possible either to remove hazards or to
sufficiently reduce risks. Complementary protective measures involving additional equipment e.g.,
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emergency stop equipment) is also referred. The different kinds of guards and protective devices as
defined in the earlier section.

The standard describes that certain safeguard may be used to avoid exposure to more than one hazard
(e.g., a fixed guard preventing access to a zone where a mechanical hazard is present being used to
reduce noise level and collect toxic emissions).

Requirements for the Design of Guards and Protective Devices

Standard mentions that guards and protective devices shall be designed to be suitable for the intended
use, taking into account mechanical and other hazards involved. Guards and protective devices shall be
compatible with the working environment of the machine and designed so that they cannot be easily
defeated. They shall provide the minimum possible interference with activities during operation and other
phases of machine life, in order to reduce any incentive to defeat them.
x Requirements for fixed guards - either permanently (e.g., by welding); or by means of
fasteners (screws, nuts) making removal / opening impossible without using tools; they should
not remain closed without their fasteners

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x Requirements for movable guards - Movable guards which provide protection against hazards
generated by moving transmission parts shall: as far as possible remain fixed to the machinery or
other structure (generally by means of hinges or guides) when open; are interlocking guards

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(with guard locking when necessary)
x Requirements for adjustable guards - Adjustable guards may only be used where the hazard
zone cannot for operational reasons be completely enclosed. They shall:
- Be designed so that the adjustment remains fixed during a given operation
- Be readily adjustable without the use of tools
x Requirements for interlocking guards with a start function (control guards) - An
interlocking guard with a start function may be used only when all the following requirements are
met:
- All requirements for interlocking guards are satisfied
- The cycle time of the machine is short
- The maximum opening time of the guard is pre-set to a low value (e.g., equal to the cycle
time). When this time is exceeded, the hazardous function(s) cannot be initiated by the
closing of the interlocking guard with a start function and resetting is necessary before
restarting the machine
- The dimensions or shape of the machine do not allow a person, or part of a person, to stay
in the hazard zone or between the hazard zone and the guard while the guard is closed
- All other guards whether fixed (removable type) or movable are interlocking guard.
x Hazards from guards - Care shall be taken to prevent hazards which might be generated by:
- The guard construction (e.g., sharp edges or corners, material)
- The movements of the guards (shearing or crushing zones generated by power operated

Information for Use

Information for use discussed in the standard consists of communication links, such as texts, words,
signs, signals, symbols or diagrams, used separately or in combination to convey information to the user.
It is directed to professional and/or non- professional users.

x Information shall be provided to the user about the intended use of the machine, taking into
account, notably, and all its operating modes
x It shall contain all directions required to ensure safe and correct use of the machine. With this in
view, it shall inform and warn the user about residual risk

The information shall indicate:

x If training is needed
x If personal protective equipment is needed

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x The possible need for additional guards or protective devices

It shall not exclude uses of the machine that can reasonably be expected from its designation and
description and shall also warn about the risk which would result from using the machine in other ways
than the ones described in the information, especially considering its reasonably foreseeable misuse.

Information for use shall cover, separately or in combination, transport, assembly and installation,
commissioning, use (setting, teaching / programming or process changeover, operation, cleaning, fault
finding and maintenance) of the machine, and, if necessary, de-commissioning, dismantling and disposal.

ISO/TR 14121
When ISO 14121-1:2007, Safety of Machinery - Risk Assessment - Part 1: Principles, was published in
September 2007 it was generally well received. However, in contrast to the standard it replaced, namely
ISO 14121:1999 and its European equivalent EN 1050, it lacked the Methods for Analysing Hazards and
Estimating Risk contained in Annex B of the old standard.

The reason for this is that the new standard has a second part ISO/TR 14121-2:2007, Practical Guidance
and Examples of Methods, which contains considerably more information and is far more helpful than the
old Annex B.

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The bulk of the document is covers provisions for:

x Preparation for risk assessment

x Risk assessment process, and
x Risk reduction
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x covers Risk assessment iteration and

x Documentation

Readers will also appreciate the two very useful Annexes:

1. Annex A gives examples of methods for several steps of the risk assessment process; and
2. Annex B contains an example application of the process of risk assessment and reduction.

Given the title of this Technical Report, readers may be pleasantly surprised to learn that it includes risk
reduction as well as risk assessment. However, given the iterative nature of the risk assessment process,
a failure to include risk reduction might have been viewed as an omission.

Principles of Safety Integration

Basic Principle and Risk Assessment
The safety integration principle, enshrined by Annex 1 of the Machinery Directive: safety must be
integrated to the greatest extent possible at the design stage, i.e., the designer must eliminate or reduce
as far as possible the risk resulting from every hazard generated by the machine. This process of risk
assessment and risk reduction requires the responsible person to:

x Determine the limits of the machinery which includes the intended use and foreseeable misuse.
x Identify the hazards that can be generated by the machinery and any associated hazardous
situations.
x Estimate the risks, the severity of possible injury or damage to health and the probability of
occurrence
x Evaluate the risks with a view to determining whether risk reduction is required
x Eliminate the hazards or reduce the risks associated with the hazards by applying protective
measures

Principles of Safety Integration

The following section outlines the 5 Principles of Safety Integration referred to in Supply of Machinery
(Safety) regulations SMSR 2008. These principles set out the basic methodology for designing and
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constructing safe machinery.

1. Machinery must be designed and constructed to be fit for purpose and to eliminate or reduce
risks throughout the lifetime of the machinery including the phases of transport, assembly,
dismantling, disabling and scrapping.
2. The principles to be applied in order to eliminate or reduce risks as far as possible; take
necessary protective measures where risk cannot be eliminated; and inform users of any
residual risks.
3. When designing and constructing machinery and when drafting the instructions: use and
foreseeable misuse must be considered.
4. Take account of operator constraints due to necessary or foreseeable use of personal
protective equipment.
5. Machinery must be supplied with all the essentials to enable it to be adjusted, maintained
and used safely.

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Factors to Consider when Assessing Risk

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All hazards, hazardous situations and hazardous events associated with the machinery need to be
identified at each phase of life. This includes mechanical and non-mechanical hazards as discussed
earlier in this element and a range of operational considerations including failure of control systems and
safety devices.

Persons at risk

The people that are at risk are those that encounter the machinery through its life and include those
involved in:

x Manufacture and testing

x Transport
x Assembly, installation and commissioning
x Setting up and use
x Adjustment, maintenance, clean and repair
x Dismantling, disabling and scrapping

Severity of possible injury

1. This will, in the first instance, depend on the level of energy relating to the hazard encountered.
2. The second factor influencing the severity of injury is any limitation on the extent to which parts
or the whole of the body may encounter the hazard.
3. The third factor is the duration of exposure to the hazard.

Probability of injury

Probability of injury tends to be summarised as being dependent on three factors:

1. Technical factors - Dangerous parts - type of hazard and the ease, with which a hazard may
trap, cut or entangle an individual (dependent on speed and surface of the moving part) Guards
and other devices available; Controls and layout of equipment
2. Procedural factors – Planned cleaning and maintenance; Systems of working required for
dangerous parts access; lack of procedures; Permit to work.
3. Behavioural factors – Information and understanding of hazards; instruction; training skills and
procedures; Supervision; positive motivational work methods; perception of hazards –
accentuated; human error through fatigue and repetition.

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Need for access

When assessing the risk, the need for access should be considered and the significance of this factor to
the level of risk considered

Consideration should include:

x Amount of access needed - frequency, proximity, duration of access and the number of people
requiring access
x Circumstances of access - whether the machine is running, switched off, isolated or locked off
x Reasons for access - whether they are operational requirements, setting, use or maintenance or
whether they are informal or an unplanned encounter
x Duration of exposure

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Duration of exposure
The exposure of persons to noise from machinery depends on factors such as:

x The installation of the machinery, the conditions of use of the machinery

x
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The characteristics of the workplace

x Noise emissions from other sources
x Position of persons with respect to the sources of noise
x Duration of exposure
x Use of personal protective equipment

Reliability of safeguards
The safeguards selected to control risk may involve:

x Physical safeguards
x Protective devices
x Training
x Personal protective equipment

Ways to make the defeat of safeguards more difficult include:

x The use of interlocking devices or access systems that are coded, for example, mechanically,
x electrically, magnetically or optically;
x Physical obstruction or shielding of the interlocking device while the guard is open.

Operating procedures and personnel

It is not always possible to eliminate hazards or to design completely adequate safeguards to protect
people against every hazard

When assessing risk, considerations should include:

x Procedures – Maintenance, cleaning, lock out tag out, permits to work, motivational procedures
x Personnel – competency to use the equipment, understanding and awareness of hazards, ability
to work within the parameters, level of supervision required, restriction of use

Purpose of CE marking and the relevance of the CE mark

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CE marking
The purpose of CE marking is to provide a visible declaration by the manufacturer, or their authorised
representative, that the machinery is in conformity with the applicable requirements set out in European
Community harmonisation legislation relating to machinery, being the Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC
and in the UK the SMSR 2008. ‘CE Marking’ is now used in all EU official documents.

Illustration 44: Example of a CE Mark Required for the Machinery Directive

CE marking gives companies easier access into the

European market to sell their products without
adaptation or rechecking. The initials ‘CE’ stand for
‘conformite europeenne’ (Frend for “European
conformity’) and are a declaration by the
manufacturer that the product meets the requirement
of the applicable European Directive(s).

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Limitation of the CE Mark

The CE mark:

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x Is not a mark, certification or approval issued by a third party
x Is not for sales or marketing or promotion
x Is not for components (although there are some exceptions, the vast majority of components do
not need CE marking)
x The CE mark is not a quality mark, nor a guarantee that the product meets the entire
requirements of relevant EU product safety law

Suppliers who install work equipment and users should make reasonable checks of any new products,
looking for obvious defects, and should ensure that there are user instructions. Any warning pictograms
must be in English if the product is for the UK market. Where the instructions are not in English, the
supplier must provide a translation into English and supply this together with the original instructions.

Selection and integration of work equipment in the workplace

The ILO Code of Practice ‘Safety and health in the use of machinery’ 2013 states that employers should
take the measures necessary to ensure that machinery is suitable for the work it is intended to carry out.
In the UK, SMSR 2008 implements into UK law the EU Machinery Directive 2006 (2006/42/EC) and builds
on the requirements of Regulation 6 of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (HASAWA) 1974.

Selection of work equipment - In the UK, the Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
(PUWER) 1998, Regulation 10 - Conformity with community requirements, places a duty on the employer
to ensure that work equipment, including machinery, conforms to UK legislation that gives effect to EU
Directives.

Integration of work equipment - Work equipment obtained by an employer may be integrated with other
work equipment to form an assembly of machines, for example, a packing machine combined with a
labelling machine.

Conformity Assessments
Manufacturers of work equipment can demonstrate that a product is safe by using a stepped approach:

1. Gathering evidence that the product is safe.

2. Producing a technical file.
3. Demonstrating conformance route (Possible 3rd Party approval) with specified standards.

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4. Certifying the product (Certificates of Conformity and Incorporation); providing appropriate
“instructions for use”; and
5. Marking the product.

The steps outlined below are typical of the approach adopted within the European Union and represent a
model of good practice for suppliers and manufacturers of work equipment.

Step 1: Gathering Evidence that the Product is Safe

Within the European Union a series of agreed standards are set out in Directives and subsequently
transposed into European Standards (EN’s). The manufacturer can either comply with the requirements of
relevant Directives directly, or with what are known as Transposed Harmonised Standards (THS), these
are the agreed EN’s. These standards explain how the physical requirements of the Directives may be
met, however, standards are not a legal requirement, but compliance with a Transposed Harmonised
Standard will be considered as satisfactorily conforming to the relevant section of the Directive.

These standards are formulated in the three European Standards Bodies CEN (European Committee for
Standardisation), CENELEC (which specialises in Electro-technical Standards) and ETSI (which deals
with telecommunications standards), with significant input from industry and other interested parties.

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Transposed Harmonised Standard is designated as a Euro Norm (EN) standard and will be common
across the European Union. The language of the standard will be denoted by a prefix e.g., BS EN will be
the English language version of the EN standard published by British Standards Institution (BSI). The
German equivalent standard would be DIN EN, Published by Deutsches Institut für Normung the Germany
national standards body equivalent to BSI.
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Step 2: Producing a Technical File

The manufacturer will undertake an assessment of the product against the detail of the Directive or more
usually the detail of the relevant Transposed Harmonised Standard. This will be documented in the form
of an assessment (risk assessment) and contained within a Technical File. Some Directives have specific
methodologies to use for assessments, for example the relevant Transposed Harmonised Standard for
the Machinery Directive is EN 1050 Machinery Risk.

Table 34: Example of a BS EN 1050 Risk Assessment

Type of Relevant Control Risk

Hazard
Group Standard Measures Controlled
Potential
Origin
Consequences
Fixed guard
In running enclosing drive
BS EN 95.
Mechanical nip between Drawing in with made from sheet
1997 Clause Yes
Hazards driven pulley severe potential steel securely
3.2
and vee-belt fixed with
hexagonal bolts

The Technical File will also contain other relevant information such as:

x Results of design calculations made

x Test reports
x General assembly drawing and/ or photographs
x A list of the standards applied; and
x A copy of the EC Declaration

Step 3: Conformance Route

The Directive will specify the conformance route, i.e., how the standards achieved will be evidenced,
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which may involve:

x Self-certification by the manufacturer or

x EC type-examination by an approved body; and
x EC Batch type-examination by an approved body

Step 4: Certifying the Product

On completion of the above the responsible person for the manufacturer will issue a Certificate of
Conformity indicating that the product complies with the Directive. For most of the product Directives there
are no official standard forms for EC Declarations of Conformity - each Company is free to design its own.
The Directives do stipulate the minimum information that must appear on the form. Foremost amongst the
information required is the name and full address of the “responsible person” - this is the individual or
organisation that will be held legally responsible for ensuring that the regulations are complied with. An
example of a Declaration of Conformity under the machinery directive is given in Illustration 45.

There are variations on this certification route for various options and each is detailed in the specific
Directive / regulation. For example, under the Machinery Directive a Declaration of Incorporation is

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required where the machinery is intended for incorporation into another machine or assembly. The
Declaration of Incorporation is like the Declaration of Conformity where relevant Harmonised Standards
are listed. The only difference is that a condition is included in the declaration, which states that: “the

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equipment must not be put into service until the machinery into which it is incorporated has been declared
in conformity with the provision of the Machinery Directive”.

Illustration 45: An Example of a Declaration of Conformity

Step 5: Providing Appropriate “Instructions for Use”

Each product Directive will specify the type of “instructions for use” a manufacturer should provide. As an
example, from the Machinery Directive which is detailed in EN12100-2, for the production of an instruction

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manual which should provide health and safety instructions for all foreseeable use of the machine.

Wherever possible, text should be supported by illustrations, the communication principles of when
information for use is being prepared, the communication process “see-think-use” should be followed in
order to achieve the maximum effect and should show sequential operations. The questions “how” and
“why” should be anticipated, and the answers provided. The information for use should be as simple and
as brief as possible and should be expressed in clear and consistent terms.

Step 6: Marking the Product

Once a declaration of conformity has been issued, the CE mark should be affixed to the product (where
possible). Details of the precise location and style of the CE marking will be detailed within each
Directive. For example, under the Machinery Directive the marking is as illustrated in Illustration 44.
Except for small-scale machinery, the marking may not be smaller than 5mm in its vertical height, and the
proportions in the said Illustration, must be maintained whatever its size. The grid does not form part of
the marking and is for information only.

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Generic Hazards
Common Machinery Hazards
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To identify the hazards the following factors must be considered:

x Shape of the moving part, which includes the effect of sharp edges, angular parts and could be a
hazard even when the machine is stationary
x The movement of one component of the machine in relation to other. This is what leads to
trapping
x and results in crushing or shearing
x Stability and weight of the machine, which could result in fall of the machine
x The speed of motion of the moving part
x Lack of mechanical strength, which could result in ejection, especially when they are designed to
run at a specific speed which is exceeded. For example, grinding discs
x Potential energies associated with spring loaded machine

While considering the hazards the aspects of operator – machine relationships during the complete
lifecycle of the machine must be looked into. The other aspects to consider would be the present
condition, possible breakdowns and foreseeable misuse/abuse.

Machine Hazards in General Workplaces

Table 35: Pedestal and Radial Arm Drills – Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards
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Table 36: Paper Shredder- Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 37: Simple Robots - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 38: Circular Saw – Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 39: Abrasive Wheels - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 40: Mechanical and Hydraulic Presses - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards
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Table 41: Guillotine - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 42: Lathe - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Table 43: Portable Power Tools - Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards

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Computer Numeric Controlled (CNC machines)

Traditional engineering workshop machinery such as lathes and milling machines may be operated via
computer numeric controls.
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Rather than relying on the skill of a human operator to control operating parameters and deliver precision
products, processes can be partially or completely computerised.

Partial control includes microprocessor enhancements that control critical parameters, whilst leaving many
control decisions in the hands of the operator, whereas fully programmable CNC machines, which may be
used in isolation or as part of an integrated process, with automated feeding and removal of work pieces,
fully control the process.

Machinery may be designed and constructed to operate under CNC or CNC systems may be retrofitted to
older traditional workshop machines.

Operating instructions are computer coded into a numeric code and fed to the PES at the heart of the
system. The most likely means of creating and inputting the data is by computer aided design (CAD)
software. The PES then transmits operating instructions to the machine actuators, which control the
process.

CNC systems provide a selection of features that can significantly improve the productivity of the machine
and the quality of the work produced but can also introduce a range of additional hazards by changing the
ways in which the workforce interacts with the machinery.

Automation may well increase power ratings, operating speeds etc. leading to potentially greater
consequences from the mechanical and non-mechanical hazards present. Further hazards may be
presented via programming errors or control system faults.

The safeguarding principles for CNC engineering machine tools are well established. A combination of
fixed and interlocked guards is used to prevent access during the operating cycle. If powered movement is
required with guards open (e.g., for setting) operating speeds should be greatly reduced and limited, and
controlled by hold to operate controls, (“inching” or “jogging”).

Automatic Doors and Gates

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Item Non-Mechanical Mechanical

1 Electricity Crushing

2 Noise Sheering

3 Vibration Drawing in

4 Slip and Trip Entanglement

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3D printers

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Non-Mechanical Mechanical

The generation of ultrafine/nano-sized

Hot surfaces - burn
particles/VOCs

Moving extruder and axis carriages – trapping and

Heat
pinching

High voltage Sharp removal tools - cuts

Ultraviolet light

Chemical vapours (ex. styrene, acrylonitrile, or

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formaldehyde, etc.) depending on the media
being used.

Hazards, Advantages and Disadvantages of AI Including

Wearable Technologies
Artificial Intelligence is one of the emerging technologies which tries to simulate human reasoning in AI
systems. Artificial Intelligence is the ability of a computer program to learn and think.

Hazards
ͻ Connectivity/cyber security
ͻ Lack of transparency in the algorithms used
ͻ Software malfunction
ͻ Data dependency/data accuracy
ͻ Misaligned intelligence can be a threat

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Advantages
ͻ Reduction in human error
ͻ Takes risks instead of humans
ͻ Available 24x7
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ͻ Helping in repetitive jobs

ͻ Digital assistance
ͻ Assists in faster decisions

Disadvantages
ͻ Does not improve with experience
ͻ Lack creativity
ͻ High cost for the implementation
ͻ Risk of unemployment
ͻ Makes humans lazy

Wearable Technologies
Wearable technology means a wearable device which presents information to users.

Present wearable technologies include accelerometers, gyroscopes, sole sensors, and barometric
pressure sensors mounted over the body. According to the purpose of the use, different body sensors
have been developed with a capacity to monitor physiological and biochemical properties, posture,
vibration and motion.

Advantages

ͻ This kind of device presents great potential to be used in occupational risk assessments for its
affordable price, portability, autonomy, ease of use and wireless connectivity
ͻ The possibility of performing long temporal assessment, with the possibility of monitoring worker
exposure on a continuous throughout the entire working day in order to reduce the uncertainties
associated with the measurement (magnitude and time)
ͻ The cost reduction by using devices and sensors with relatively low prices compared to the
specific vibration measurement equipment
ͻ Identification of specific risks related with machinery, tools and vehicles with high vibration
magnitude.
ͻ Develop a safety culture and education of workers, company, managers, etc.

Limitations
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ͻ Lack of precision
ͻ Limited frequency/magnitude range
ͻ Needs calibration
ͻ Employee may not cooperate/can manipulate the results
ͻ Data overload

Machinery Control System

Control Systems
Control systems can assist in reducing the consequences of hazardous machine functioning such as
unintended start-up, uncontrolled speed changes or failure of protective devices. Controls should be
constructed or located to prevent unintentional operation. This can be achieved by shrouding, guarding,
gating, appropriate positioning or otherwise designing to prevent accidental operation.

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Reliability of safety functions

This aspect of design includes consideration of:

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ͻ The reliability of all machinery components
ͻ Use of safety failure modes of components
ͻ Duplication or redundancy of safety-related parts; and
ͻ Automatic monitoring of fault conditions

Starting
It must be possible to start machinery only by voluntary actuation of a control device provided for the
purpose provided that this does not lead to a hazardous situation.
For machinery functioning in automatic mode, the starting of the machinery, restarting after a stoppage, or
a change in operating conditions may be possible without intervention, provided this does not lead to a
hazardous situation. If safety requires that starting and/or stopping must be performed in a specific
sequence, there must be devices which ensure that these operations are performed in the correct order.

Normal stop
Machinery must be fitted with a control device whereby some or all of the functions of the machinery can
be brought safely to a complete stop rendering it safe. The machinery’s stop control must have priority
over the start controls. Once the machinery or its hazardous functions have stopped, the energy supply
must be cut off.

Emergency stops devices

Emergency stop devices should not be the only method of controlling hazards. They should be used only
as a backup to other control measures.
When choosing an emergency stop device, it is important to conduct a risk assessment to consider if: part
of the machine may still need to operate, for example in an emergency; other safety features may still
need to operate, for example, pressure release valves; and any additional hazards may be introduced.
Ensure emergency stop devices are:
ͻ Prominent, clearly marked and immediately accessible to the operator
ͻ Have handles, bars or push buttons that are coloured red. Labelling can also be used. Consider
installing ones that protrude and are not level with the surrounds; and
ͻ Not affected by electrical or electronic circuit malfunction

Other considerations include:

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ͻ The best access for workers
ͻ The environment the machine is used in, for example, whether there could be exposure to dust,
chemicals, extremes of temperature or vibration
ͻ The number of emergency stop devices required. If the machine is large, several devices or pull
wires may be necessary
ͻ A manual procedure for resetting an emergency stop device. They should not be affected by
electrical or electronic circuit malfunction; and
ͻ Testing at regular intervals to ensure they have not ceased functioning

Poorly located emergency stop devices may delay shutdown in an emergency and encourage dangerous
practices, such as:

ͻ Reaching across moving parts

ͻ A failure to shut down machinery when a problem occurs; or
ͻ Situations where the machine can be started by one worker while another is in a dangerous
location, for example, cleaning a bin

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When there are multiple devices, safe operating

practices should be adopted so that machinery is not
restarted when it is undergoing maintenance or other
temporary operations. A lock-out and tag-out system is
an essential part of isolating an energy source to
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prevent accidental machinery start up.

An example of a safety on/of 110-volt magnetic

switch with shrouded square green start button, raised
normal running square red stop button and large
circular red emergency stop button.

Controls and Buttons

Where possible, manual control devices should:

ͻ Be designed and located according to ergonomic design principles

ͻ Have a stop control device near each start control device
ͻ Be located out of danger zones except where there is a necessary requirement, for example, an
emergency stop
ͻ Be marked to indicate their nature and function
ͻ Be located with the operator’s control position, so the operator is able to see the working area or
hazard zone
ͻ Not be able to be accidentally started; and
ͻ Where there is more than one control to start a high-risk part of the equipment, be arranged so
that only one control can work at a time

Safeguarding of Machinery and Plant

To safeguard operators and other workers during inspections, cleaning, repairing, maintenance and
emergencies:

ͻ Apply isolation procedures whenever maintenance or repair requires people to enter the danger
area around machinery
ͻ Cleaning, repair, maintenance and emergency procedures should be in place and understood by
workers
ͻ A regular inspection regime should be in place to identify any problems with machinery and
safeguards
ͻ Any additional hazards associated with inspections, cleaning, repair, maintenance and
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emergencies should be identified and assessed as part of the risk management process; and
ͻ Special precautions need to be taken where workers are obscured while undertaking tasks, or
where there are multiple operating switches

Position and marking of controls to be visible and identifiable

Controls for all work equipment should be clearly visible and identifiable, including by appropriate marking
where necessary:
x Operation of any control should not expose the operator to any risk to their health or safety as a
result of the operation of that control
x Where considered appropriate, an audible, visible or other suitable warning should be given
whenever work equipment is about to start

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Ergonomic principles

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Consideration of ergonomic principles, or the machine operator interface, can reduce exposure to physical
risks, for example, amputations and physiological or mental strain, and reduce the likelihood of errors in all
aspects of machinery use.
Typical ergonomic elements include:
x The nature of postures and movements
x The ease of physical operation
x The effects of noise or temperature
x The lighting environment
x The clarity and location of manual controls; and
x The design of dials, markings, and displays to best fi t the characteristics of human perception
and cognition

An important application of ergonomics is the use of anthropometric (human body) measurements in

machinery design. This type of information is important in determining the dimensions of access openings
for maintenance and repairs, the space requirements for operators, and the safety distances and gaps to
prevent contact of parts of the body with danger zones.

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10.9 Mobile Work Equipment and Lifting

Equipment
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This Element covers the issues of handling

materials in the workplace using a variety of
methods including forklift trucks and cranes. The
main hazards and precautions will be explained
with relevant examples.

Mechanical handling mechanisms are varied in

their design and are extremely common in many
workplaces. Forklift trucks have been in use at
work for many years and are involved in many
accidents each year.

Clearly control of vehicles in the workplace is an

important part of safety management and technical
expertise is required.

Mobile Work Equipment: Hazards

Application of Different Types of Mobile Work

Equipment
This section gives general guidance on the safe operation and use of lift trucks equipped with fork arms.
The same principles apply to other types of lift truck, such as industrial telescopic trucks, and to lift trucks
equipped with attachments other than fork arms.

In all cases the operating instructions of the manufacture or authorised supplier should be followed. It
does not cover the use of order-picking trucks, straddle carriers, industrial tractors or platform trucks.
Although the lift trucks illustrated and described below are the main types covered by this Element, it does
not form an exhaustive list.

Self-Propelled, Pedestrian Controlled and Remotely Controlled

Equipment
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Mobile work equipment - including self-propelled, remote-controlled work equipment - is subject to specific
requirements in addition to the requirements for normal work equipment, which cover:
x The suitability of equipment used for carrying people
x The minimising of rollover risk
x The provision of equipment to restrain or protect people (in the event of rollover or overturn)
x The control of the equipment, including operator vision and lighting (where required for safety)

If you have such equipment or provide it for someone else's use (e.g. hiring it out), you must manage the
risks arising from its mobility - in addition to all the other requirements of national regulation/legislation
(including suitability, maintenance, inspection, training/information and general safety measures).

Most mobile work equipment manufactured in recent years will already be provided with the physical
measures for safety required by national legislation. However, employers should still ensure that people
are protected, and that work is only carried out using mobile work equipment suitable for that purpose,
with features to reduce safety risks (as far as reasonably practicable) such as seats, restraints and
rollover protection.

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Where there is a risk of rollover, this should be minimised by stabilising the work equipment, with a
structure provided - such as a ROPS (rollover protective structure) - with sufficient clearance for anyone
being carried.

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Where there is a risk of crushing, a suitable restraint system should always be provided for anyone being
carried, unless such a system would:

x Increase the overall risk to safety

x Make the equipment significantly more difficult to operate (and thus not be reasonably
practicable)
x Not be reasonably practicable to put in place (e.g., for very old equipment)

Forklift trucks with either a mast or ROPS should, if not already fitted, be provided with restraint systems
(e.g., a seat belt) where appropriate, if such systems can be fitted to the equipment, to prevent workers
carried from being crushed between any part of the truck and the ground, should it overturn.

Those who provide self-propelled work equipment must ensure it has:

x Facilities to prevent the equipment being started by unauthorised people
x Facilities to minimise the consequences of collision, where there is more than one rail-mounted
item in motion at the same time
x A device for braking and stopping (where required) emergency facilities for braking and stopping,
operated by readily accessible controls or automatic systems - in the event of failure of the main
facility
x Adequate devices for improving driver vision, so far as reasonably practicable, where the driver's
direct field of vision is inadequate to ensure safety - modern CCTV systems can be very effective
where mirrors are found to be inadequate
x Appropriate lighting, where used at night or in dark places, so the work activity can be carried out
safely
x Carries (or have located close by) appropriate fire-fighting equipment, when carrying or towing
anything which could present a fire hazard and endanger employees
x Those who provide remote-controlled, self-propelled work equipment must:
- Ensure there is a means to stop it safely and automatically when it leaves its control
range, if it presents a risk to safety while in motion
- Provide features to safeguard against crushing or impact with other machinery,
obstacles or people

Where the seizure of a drive shaft - between mobile work equipment and its accessories or anything being
towed - is likely to involve a risk to safety, it must have means either to prevent seizure or the adverse
effects of seizure.
Means should also be provided to safeguard the shaft from soiling or damage from contact with the

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ground while uncoupled.

Types of Lift Truck

Illustration 46: Counterbalance Truck

Counterbalance Lift Truck

One of the more common designs of forklift trucks

(FLT’s) to be found in the workplace is the
counterbalance lift truck. This type of vehicle carries
the load in front, which is counterbalanced by a
weight at the rear. This is a versatile tool, which
allows the load to be raised or lowered and the mast
to be tilted forwards or backwards up to an angle of
around 15°. This type of truck is suitable for work on
predominantly smooth, firm and level surfaces such
as found in an indoor warehouse. Numerous
attachments are available for use with this type of
truck, as discussed later in this Element.

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Illustration 47: Industrial Reach Truck

Reach Trucks
The mast of a reach truck moves forward away from the
body of the vehicle to pick up the load. Once the load has
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been gathered the load is reached back and carried within

the wheelbase of the vehicle. This gives the vehicle very
good stability and along with good manoeuvrability in
narrow spaces provided by the three-wheeled design, this
truck is useful where narrow aisles are present, e.g., in
indoor warehousing.

This type of truck is suitable only for use on smooth, level

and firm surfaces.

Illustration 48: Rough Terrain Counterbalance Lift Truck

Rough Terrain Counterbalance Lift Truck

This type of vehicle operates with the same principle as the
counterbalance truck but is equipped with large pneumatic
(air filled) tyres which allows for a greater ground clearance
and is therefore useable on soft, less even ground. It is
most found in use in the construction and agricultural
industries and can be used with numerous attachments.

Illustration 49: Telescopic Materials Handler

Telescopic Material Handlers

This type of vehicle has a pivoting boom attached at the
rear of the vehicle. The boom is manoeuvrable up and down
on a hydraulic ram and the tines (forks) can be telescoped
away from the vehicle. This manoeuvrability makes this type
of truck extremely versatile. The large pneumatic tyres give
the vehicle good ground clearance and make it ideal for use
in both the construction and the agricultural sectors of
industry, where use on soft and uneven ground is likely.
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As with other trucks numerous attachments may be used

with the telescopic materials handler.

Illustration 50: Side Loading Lift Truck

Side Loading Trucks
The driver is situated at the front and to one side of the
vehicle, with the load carried on the vehicle to the side of
the driver. The mast moves out from the vehicle to pick up
the load and then retracts to carry the load on the side of
the vehicle. The load is set down in a similar fashion.
Commonly this type of vehicle is used to carry “long loads”
such as timber, pipes or bales. Due to the destabilising
nature of the picking up and setting down action the vehicle
may be fitted with stabilisers to ensure stability during these
stationary operations.

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Agricultural Tractors
Farm tractors are used for ploughing, tilling, harrowing, planting, and a variety of related tasks. They are

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also used to push and pull agricultural machines and trailers. They usually have larger tyres with deep
treads to navigate soft undulating terrains.

Remotely Controlled Mobile Equipment

An automated warehouse is a storage and retrieval system which comprises goods in reception area,
where goods are palletised and transported for storage by a storage and retrieval machine and placed on
racking within the warehouse and goods out despatch area where retrieved goods are packaged and
shipped. In an automated warehouse the movement of goods is controlled by a computer.

In automated warehousing as the name suggests a remotely controlled robot (RCR) operates
independently of a human operator and therefore represents several hazards including:
x Contact between the RCR and people
x Trapping points on the route of the RCR between fixed structures; and
x Inadvertent movement of the RCR, e.g., during transfer of goods between the RCR and the
automated retrieval system

To reduce the risk of contact with the automatic storage and retrieval machine, safeguards should be in
place to prevent the operation of the system when a person is present, e.g., using photoelectric light
sensors interlocked with the retrieval mechanism.

Illustration 51: Pedestrian Controlled Lift Truck

Pedestrian Controlled Trucks

This type of lifting device is operated by the individual
walking with the truck, rather than riding on it. The
pedestrian operated lift truck usually has a limited reach
height of around 2 metres. The principle of operation of
the truck is as a counterbalanced truck with the load
carried out in front of the operator.

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Illustration 52: Large Lift Truck

Large Lift Truck

This is a specialist vehicle often used in moving large

loads such as freight containers. The load is carried in
the front of the vehicle and may be used in conjunction
with a load spreader to distribute the weight
proportionately.

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Design Features
To ensure the suitability of the working platform the following design criteria should be incorporated:
x The platform should be as small as possible, compatible with the number of people it’s designed
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to carry and the work they are likely to carry out

x The floor of the platform should be horizontal when raised, slip resistant and able to resist the
accumulation of liquids. Any floor openings should prevent tools falling through
x The floor should not permanently deform under load (125 kg per 0.16 m2 or total pressure of
1500 N/m2 over the whole area)
x Devices which can aid the drivers vision include:
(a) plane, angled and curved mirrors; (c) radar; and
(b) Fresnel lenses; (d) CCTV systems.
x The selection of these devices for use on mobile work equipment is a matter for risk assessment,
taking account of the purposes for which, the devices are provided and their ability to improve
driver visibility
x All platform edges should be bordered by a guard rail, intermediate rail and toe board, capable of
withstanding without permanent deformation 900 N
x An access gate should be provided which opens inwards, upwards or sideways, and be self-
closing and locked once the platform is raised
x Handholds should be provided within the platform
x Provision should be made for safety harness anchorage capable of supporting 10 kN without
permanent deformation
x Guards should be fitted to prevent access to the working mechanisms of the truck and maintain
adequate separation from moving parts
x Head protection above standing height on the platform
x Platforms which are carried on the forks of the truck should be secured in position, as specified
by the manufacture
x The platform should be conspicuous in colour e.g., yellow
x The platform should be marked with the words “before elevating the platform apply the parking
brake and ensure the transmission is in neutral” and be visible from the operator position
x The platform should also have marked with the following information:
- CE mark (if applicable)
- Name and address of manufacture
- Serial number and year of manufacture
- Unladen weight and position of centre of gravity
- Maximum allowable weight
- Number of persons permitted; and
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- Minimum capacity of lifting truck

- When the platform is attached to the truck the tilt and slide mechanisms should be locked so
the platform is horizontal when raised

Good communications between the persons in the platform and the truck operator should be maintained
always. It is not appropriate for persons to enter or leave the platform while it is elevated.

The safety of operation of the working platform used in conjunction with the lift truck depends very much
on the effectiveness of the system of work operated by the workers. Integrated platforms are also
available on some types of trucks whereby the operation of lifting and lowering can be carried out from
inside the platform.

When lifting the platform there may be the possibility of overhead hazards due to electrical installations or
roof trusses. In such situations, the reach of the truck must be considered, and a platform specified with
roof protection.

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The Hazards Associated with Mobile Work Equipment

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Including Refuelling and Charging
The hazards associated with mobile work equipment are numerous and can include, but is not restricted
to:
x Rollover - Dumper trucks are particularly at risk from roll over (turning a full 360° or more.
Particularly when driven at speed or across an incline or a slope created by a steep spoil of earth
removed from an excavation.
x Overturning - Possible causes of a fork-lift truck overturning:
- Driving too fast
- Sudden braking
- Driving on slopes
- Driving over debris
- Under-inflated tyres
- Driving over holes in the floor, such as drains
- Driving with the load elevated
- Driving with the load incorrectly positioned on the forks
- Overloading - exceeding maximum rated capacity
- Collisions with buildings or other vehicles
x Overbalancing - The mass of a counterbalance lift truck acts as a counterweight, so that the
load can be lifted and moved without the lift truck overbalancing and tipping forwards. The lift
truck can be tipped forward if the load is too heavy. If the load is incorrectly placed on the forks or
if the lift truck accelerates or brakes harshly while carrying a heavy load.
x Collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects - People may unexpectedly
appear from a part of a building structure or worker’s intent on the work they are doing may step
away from where they are working to collect materials or tools.
x Often the space in workplaces such as warehouses is restricted.
x Non-Suitability for Carrying Passengers - Many types of mobile work equipment are not
designed to carry passengers. When incorrectly used for this purpose, there is a risk that the
passenger will fall off the mobile work equipment or suffer collision injuries to parts of their body
from impact with fixed structures. For example, when the equipment passes through narrow
doorways.

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x Unauthorised Start-Up- Unauthorised use of mobile work equipment by drivers that are not
trained in its use can lead to loss of load or overturning of the equipment. With the potential for
serious injury to the unauthorised driver. People may be working on, in or around the mobile
work equipment, loading/unloading or adjusting. An unauthorised start up and movement of the
equipment could cause injury to those on, in or around it, leading to entanglement, crush injuries
or falls.
x Unsafe Operating Station/Platform - The failure to provide a safe operating station for the
operator can result in poor access to controls or limited visibility. Leading to the risk of collision of
the mobile work equipment with other equipment, stationary objects or people. The operator
could be at risk of falling from the mobile work equipment while it is moving. In addition to fall
injuries there is a risk of the operator being run over by the moving work equipment.
x Overrun of Speed - Lift trucks, tractors, compact dumpers, tipper trucks, forestry and all-terrain
vehicles, multi-deck vehicles and cranes are all more likely to overturn if manoeuvring at speed.
x Overrun of speed is generally taken to be where mobile work equipment is moving at higher than
desired speeds. Often downhill, with the motion control (for example, accelerator) not applied
x This can occur where the momentum of the equipment provides additional speed to that required
or expected. This is particularly evident on a steep gradient

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x Contact with Wheels and Tracks - Pedestrians, passengers and operators of mobile work
equipment is at risk of crush, cut or abrasion injuries from contact with the moving wheels or
tracks of the equipment. In addition, injury may result from the ejection of soil or stones when the
equipment travels on un-made-up ground or gravel.
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x Falls of Objects- Drivers and pedestrians are at risk from the hazards of falling materials when
mobile equipment is used to carry or lift items that are not adequately secured. This could include
loose items that fall from a load being stacked by a forklift truck or a load falling from the trailer of
an agricultural tractor
x Moving Parts/Drive Shafts/Power Take-Offs - Many mobile vehicles will have partially exposed
moving parts. Such as the drive shafts/power take off points for fitting various attachments to an
agricultural tractor or the lifting parts of a forklift truck. These exposed parts of the equipment will
create hazards to the operator of drawing in or entanglement
x Over-Heating - The hazards of overheating are fires or explosions which are often the result of
friction (bearings running hot), electric motor burn out, thermostat failure or cooling system
failure. The risk of explosion may result from pressure build-up, perhaps due to the failure of a
pressure-relief valve or the unexpected blockage or sealing off pipework
x Charging - An electrically driven vehicle would normally draw its’ power from a battery carried on
the vehicle. The batteries used to operate lift trucks and similar equipment in the workplace is
rechargeable. When lead acid batteries are subjected to a charging current hydrogen gas is
released. Hydrogen when mixed with oxygen (atmospheric air) is explosive at certain
concentrations, care must be taken therefore to prevent ignition.

x Refuelling - Diesel fuel is a complex mixture of chemical including cancer causing benzene
produced by crude oil distillation. Diesel splashed onto the skin is absorbed into the bloodstream
and the vapour may be inhaled. Diesel fuel can irritate the skin and aggravate any existing skin
condition. A large skin exposure can lead to severe redness, pain and chemical burn blisters.
Diesel vapours can irritate eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Excessive short-term exposure can lead
to dizziness, drowsiness, loss of coordination, blood pressure elevation, headaches, nausea,
asphyxiation and lung damage.

x LPG cylinders are heavy, presenting a manual handling risk. In poor ventilated areas it can
present a fire risk

The Stability of a Fork Truck

Note that because the balance of the truck will be severely affected by acceleration and braking, the
forces should never be allowed to be equal.

Information on Load Restrictions

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The stability of a counterbalanced forklift truck relies upon the engine or battery to counterbalance the
mass of the load. The front wheels of the truck are the fulcrum or pivot point. The further forward the load
is from the front wheels the greater the leverage will be. This distance is known as the load centre
distance. For ease of measurement, it is usually taken from the front of the mast to the centre of gravity of
the load. The Safe Working Load (SWL) is calculated as a function of the lift height and the load centre
distance. This information is displayed on the truck for normal operations. However, where certain
attachments are used the truck may need to be derated, i.e., operate with reduced capacity. The
person(s) responsible for lifting operations need to know the circumstance where derating is required and
have the necessary competence in carrying out such an operation. The manufacturer or supplier of the
truck will have information on derating and should be consulted during this operation.

The counterweight of the vehicle should not be altered, as this will destabilise the vehicle. On battery
operated trucks the battery forms part of the counterweight mechanism and should therefore be within
specific size and weight restrictions.

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Longitudinal Instability

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Instability (tipping forward, losing control of rear wheel steering) caused by:
x Excessive loads (causing the truck to tip forward especially when braking) (see Illustration 53).
x Loads placed too far forward on the forks or too large (see Illustration 54).
x Travelling forwards when descending slopes.
x Travelling with a raised load (increases tipping effect when braking); and
x Harsh acceleration or braking whilst carrying a heavy load.

Illustration 53: Longitudinal Instability

Illustration 54: Longitudinal Instability

Lateral Instability
Instability (overturning, tipping sideways) caused by:

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

x Uneven loads or loads positioned unevenly (centre of gravity to one side)
x Speed (especially turning too fast)
x Travelling (especially turning) with a raised load
x Negotiating slopes
x Travelling on uneven ground or hitting potholes
x Suspension or tyre faults; and
x Live loads (centre of gravity shifts)

Illustration 55: Lateral Instability

Lateral instability caused by manoeuvring with a

raised load across a slope.

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Illustration 56: Lateral Stability

Vehicle manoeuvring across a slope with the load

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

lowered, within the capacity of the truck.

A reach truck behaves in the same way as a
counterbalance truck, when the mast is reached out.
With the mast reached in and the load within the
wheelbase of the truck the vehicle is far more stable
and less likely to tip. As the load is reached upwards
for loading with the mast tilted backwards the truck
becomes far less stable with an increased likelihood of
tipping over.

The presence of potholes, bumps or uneven surfaces will increase the instability of the vehicle in all
situations. The truck should not therefore be moved with a raised load or operated on uneven surfaces.

Illustration 57: Reach Truck Instability

To assist the operator with the operation of the

truck, load capacity information should be displayed
on the vehicle. The operator should receive
adequate training in the significance of the
information during “operator training” to interpret and
make use of the information provided.

Typically, the following information should be displayed on the vehicle:

x Name of manufacturer/ supplier
x Model designation
x Serial number
x Unladen weight (excluding battery weight for electric trucks, since the weight of batteries may
vary, although the weight of the battery will be marked on it)
x Capacity or Safe Working Load (SWL)
x Load centre distance
x Maximum lift height; and
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x Inflation pressure of pneumatic tyres

In addition to the above information clear markings of the controls should be provided.

Mobile Work Equipment: Control Measures

The Workplace
The use of lift trucks in areas where there are other lift trucks or vehicles working or pedestrians presents
several hazards leading to the risk of collisions. As part of the assessment of risks required by the
employer, consideration should be made of the location of vehicles and pedestrians in the workplace and
the subsequent precautions required to minimise the likelihood of accidents occurring.

Where the truck operates outside of the workplace, such as loading and unloading on the public roads or
close to the public roads then the assessment should include the additional risks presented by travelling
members of the public.

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Causes of vehicle accidents in the workplace can be considered as direct causes and indirect causes.
Typical direct causes involve:

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x People being struck or run over by moving vehicles
x People falling from vehicles
x People being struck by insecure loads; or
x Being injured when their vehicle overturns
x Collisions with fixed structures in the workplace or other vehicles; and
x Chemical or electrical hazards associated with the propulsion systems

The most common indirect causes are due to poor management organisation, i.e.:
x Failure to provide and follow a safe system of work
x Inadequate training, information and instruction
x Lack of proper maintenance; and
x Poorly designed / maintained / controlled workplace

Most transport related injuries are preventable.

All traffic routes should be of suitable construction and size, both in width and height to allow adequate
clearance for the largest vehicles. Attention should be given by the employer, to areas where vehicles
and pedestrians or other vehicles are likely to meet. This includes areas for loading and unloading.

Humps or speed bumps in the traffic routes are usually unsuitable for the counterbalanced lift truck
described earlier and is likely to have a destabilising effect on the truck.
If trucks are likely to operate near humps or bumps, then suitable arrangements must be made to allow
them to pass without risk of overturning e.g., flattened by-pass gaps.

One way traffic systems should be considered to reduce the need for reversing and reduce the risk of
collision.

It is desirable to prevent pedestrians and vehicles from operating in the same areas since this will reduce
the risk of collision, this is not however always possible. Where people and vehicles must operate, and
move together then adequate warnings, e.g., signs and markings should be displayed. Unnecessary
traffic movements should be avoided.

All characteristics of the workplace, which could destabilise the truck, should be avoided wherever
possible, e.g., sharp bends and overhead obstructions. Where the hazard cannot be removed in its’
entirety then adequate warnings should be made, e.g., black and yellow diagonal striped warning
markings, signs and barriers, to alert the operator to the hazard.

Where vehicles should pass through doors then the doors should be constructed of transparent material

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

to ensure the driver has a clear view before proceeding. Instructions to sound horns and speed
restrictions should also be included. Any overhead obstructions should be clearly marked where FLT’s
operate.

Any openings in the ground where vehicles operate such as inspection pits, excavations or loading bay
edges, should be clearly identified with diagonal yellow and black stripes. Physical barriers should be
provided wherever possible.

The operating area generally should be free from obstructions with a firm level surface and minimal
gradients. The vehicle operating in the relevant area should be selected on the basis that it can cope with
the ground conditions likely to be encountered. Whilst there are vehicles capable operating on uneven
surfaces, maintenance operations to ensure that potholes and other destabilising surface anomalies
should be in place.

Lighting in the workplace should be adequate with attention being paid to junctions and pedestrian areas.
Glare may be a problem from the sun and arrangements to avoid glare should be made where possible.
Large contrasts in lighting levels between internal work areas and external work areas should also be
avoided

A designated parking area should be identified for FLT’s and be secured or supervised away from the
general working area. This area should not be accessible to non-authorised personnel. Furthermore, the

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keys or other operating devices for the vehicles should be kept separate from the vehicles and only issued
to authorised personnel.

Pedestrians
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The people in the workplace can be kept safe using several measures including implementation of safe
systems of work and the provision of physical protection. Where lift trucks are specifically operating in the
workplace the precautions fall into the following areas:
x Segregation of pedestrians and vehicles e.g., physical barriers should be used in preference to
ground markings
x Audible warnings on lift trucks e.g., horns and reversing sirens to indicate the presence and
movement of vehicles
x Visual warnings on lift trucks e.g., flashing lights can be used on vehicles, particularly in poorly lit
areas; and
x High visibility clothing should be worn by all pedestrians in vehicle operating areas

Illustration 58: Segregated Access for Vehicles and Pedestrians

Lifting Equipment
Application and Types of Lifting Equipment - Using Lift Truck to Move People

Illustration 59: Working Platform on a Counterbalance Lift Truck

Whilst not specifically designed to do so, vertical

mast forklift trucks and telescopic handlers can be
fitted with an attachment which is suitable for
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carrying persons. This can be done occasionally

and is a useful tool for access to high level places
for inspection, maintenance or other work. It should
be recognised however that if regular and frequent
access is required then a permanent access solution
should be sought.
In the UK the Work at Height Regulations (WAH)
2005, Regulation 7(2) (b) places a duty on
employers to select the most suitable work
equipment for the task to be carried out regardless
of the duration of the task

Attachments to Lift Trucks

The versatility of the counterbalanced lift truck is expanded by the fact that it can be used with a vast array
of attachments. It should be borne in mind by the operator that the fitting of an attachment may alter
significantly the characteristics of the truck, including its’ rated capacity and handling. The derating of the
truck should be completed by a competent person and in accordance with the specifications set by the
manufacturer.

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Attachments may be mounted on the forks directly or on the carriage, to allow the full reaching capacity of
the truck. In all situations, the attachment must be secured to the truck and must not foul the mast or

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other moving parts.

Prior to using a truck with an attachment, it should be subjected to a rigorous inspection to ensure its
suitability and stability. Where defects are found there should be a reporting and repairing system to
ensure that the truck is not used until the defect has been suitably rectified.

The figures below identify several common attachments available:

Illustration 60: Side Shift Carriage

Allows sideways movement of the fork arms for precise positioning.

Illustration 61: Fork Positioner Illustration 62: Paper Reel Clamp

Allows independent movement of the Rubber faced to clamp paper reels, bales

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

forks in a horizontal plane. or similar loads.

Illustration 63: Crane Jib Attachment Illustration 64: Boom

May be of the fixed or extendible type Available in various sizes for lifting
for lifting various loads. carpets, coils or similar cylindrical loads.

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Specific precautions for operators of vehicles would include:

Roll-over Protective Structures (ROPS): the mast of a vertically lifting lift truck should be robust enough to
prevent a greater than 90° roll over, where there is a risk of a more than 90° roll over e.g., telescopic
handler, then further protection is required, such as a robust cab.
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Restraining Systems: personal restraints such as seat belts should be fitted where there is a risk that an
operator may be caught between a rolling over truck and the ground or there is a 180° roll over risk.
Head Protection: Falling Object Protective Structures (FOPS), such as a cage surrounding the operator
should be fitted where there is a risk of objects falling on the operator. Where it is not practicable to fit
FOPS then head protection by way of personal protective equipment should be used. Loads should not
be suspended or carried over areas occupied by people, adequate segregation should be maintained.
The use of forklift trucks and other workplace vehicles on the public highway is subject to compliance with
the appropriate road traffic legislation, including driver licensing and the construction of the vehicle.

Suitability of Vehicle for Operations

When procuring a lift truck for operations the following points should be considered to ensure the
suitability of vehicle:
x Lifting mechanism should be within the range and capacity for the work to be undertaken
x Wheel and tyres should be inflated to the correct pressure, be in good condition all round and
checked on a regular and frequent basis
x Brakes should be able to hold the vehicle when parked and stopping a laden truck
x The horn should be clearly audible
x FOPS should be provided where there is significant risk from falling objects
x ROPS should be provided where there is significant risk of roll over and should be combined with
operator restraints (seat belts)
x A load backrest extension should be fitted to prevent the load falling back on the operator
x The ability to use appropriate attachments for the loads to be lifted should be considered
x Adequate guarding should be provided to prevent access to dangerous parts by the operator
such as lifting chains etc.
x Lights should be provided where the vehicle could be used in poor light conditions
x Consideration should be given to the noise generated by the truck
x Comfort as good workplace ergonomics are essential since many operators will be using the
vehicles for a large proportion of the working day
x Protection from adverse weather conditions. Vehicles used outdoors should provide adequate
protection for the operator by a cab
x Vehicles should include a method to prevent unauthorised use, e.g., immobilising device; and
x Hazardous substances such as fuels and battery acid may cause exposure to the operator and
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others and should be adequately controlled

Maintenance
Prior to each use of the truck a check of key aspects should be completed by the operator and includes:
x Tyre pressures: pneumatic tyres if fitted should be inflated to the proper pressure; incorrectly
inflated tyres can affect the stability of the lift truck and the load. Tyres should also be checked
for damage, for example swarf, nails and other embedded material, cuts and bubbles
x Parking brake, service brakes, and steering gear to ensure that they are working efficiently
x Fuel, water and oil in internal combustion engine lift trucks for leaks and correct levels
x Batteries of battery-operated lift trucks to check that they are adequately charged and leak free,
that the charger is switched off, the charge lead dis connected and properly stored, and the
battery retention device is in place
x Systems for lifting, tilting and manipulation, including attachments. These should be working
properly. Hydraulic systems should be free from obvious leaks, and hydraulic fluid levels should
be correct when the fork arms are in the parked position
x Audible warning signal
x Lights: and Mirrors, if fitted

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In addition to the checks, adequate arrangements should be in place to comply with the requirements for
maintenance, inspections, examinations and testing.

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Requirement for Selection and Training of Operators
Operator Selection
Reliability and maturity are qualities that should be looked for in potential transport operators. Operators
should be over age 17 (18 in the construction industry). The safety implications of drivers with poor
eyesight or suffering blackouts etc. are such that drivers should undergo pre-employment medical
examination.

Fitness should be assessed on an individual basis and physical handicap may not prevent safe operation
of a vehicle though the ability to cope with emergencies should be considered. Medical assessments
should be carried out initially before training commences, followed by routine screening at 5-year intervals
after age 40 and assessment after prolonged absences and on suspicion of the conditions listed below:
ͻ Conditions resulting in limited limb movement
ͻ Cardiovascular (heart) conditions
ͻ Vision difficulties
ͻ Problems of the nervous system such as strokes, vertigo, giddiness; and

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

ͻ Uncorrected hearing difficulties

Training of Operators
The training of lift-truck operators may be divided into three stages:
ͻ Basic skills training and the knowledge required for safe operation
ͻ Specific job training, knowledge of the workplace and experience of any special needs and
handling attachments; and
ͻ Familiarisation training operation on the job under close supervision

Basic Training
Basic training should cover fully the skills and knowledge required for the safe operation of the lift truck
and any handling attachments which the trainee will be required to operate, including the risks arising from
lift-truck operation. Such risks would include not only those directly related to the operation of trucks, but
associated tasks, such as the fire hazard created by possible production of hydrogen when recharging
batteries.

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As a rough guide, the normal length of a course for novice operators would be five days. In all cases, the
time devoted to training needs to be sufficient to ensure that the basic training objectives can be achieved.
The ability to drive private cars or other conventional road vehicles does not remove the need for proper
training on lift trucks, which have very different stability and handling characteristics as well as different
controls. An operator with basic training on one type of lift truck or handling attachment cannot safely
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

operate other types, for which they have not been trained, without additional, conversion training.

The ratio of trainee: instructor: truck should be such that the instructor is able to demonstrate each part of
the practical training and the trainee is able to obtain adequate hands-on experience. There should be
adequate time allowed for each trainee to have sufficient practical experience to become a safe truck
operator and to do so under close supervision. A trainee: instructor: truck ratio of 2: 1: 1 is ideal, but in
any case, the ratio should not exceed 3:1:1 except for lecture sessions. The opportunity to learn from the
performance and mistakes of other trainees can be valuable.

Specific Job Training

Specific job training will normally be completed at the same time as basic training and would normally
include the specific requirements of the employer’s activities. Such detail would usually include:
x The control and maintenance (including pre-use inspection) requirements of the truck the
operator will be using in the workplace, including the use of specific attachments
x The use of the truck in the conditions which are likely to encountered in the workplace e.g.,
stacking, racking, working in cold stores, on slopes, rough terrain etc.
x The detail of site rules such as one-way systems, other hazards that may be encountered such
as overhead obstructions, noise etc.
x Specific handling techniques for loads to be lifted which are specific to the work area
x Safe systems of work, such as key control and authorised use of vehicles; and
x Refuelling and recharging of the vehicle as appropriate

Familiarisation Training
This final part of the programme should take place in the workplace and be supervised by the trainee’s
normal works supervisor. This part of the training should give the trainees the opportunity to practice the
new skills learned in the previous aspects and should continue to prepare them for the rate of work to be
managed on an ongoing basis.

On completion of the training the trainee should receive written authorisation to operate the lift truck and
an adequate record, including names and dates should be maintained. The operator should continue to
be monitored following completion of the training programme to ensure that competency is maintained,
since training does not ensure competency but should be coupled with experience.
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Charging - Controls

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Battery charging should be carried out in conjunction with the following precautions:
x Clearly mark the charging area away from the general work areas
x Provide good level of natural ventilation
x Keep the temperature cool
x Prohibit smoking or naked lights and provide no smoking or naked light signs; and
x Remove other sources of ignition

Since gas is liberated during the charging process pressure can accumulate in the battery and should be
allowed to release safely. The levels of the electrolyte (fluid in the battery) should be checked to ensure it
is within recommended specifications and topped up if required.
Depending on the type of battery the main cover may need to be released to allow the pressure release.
Before attempting to connect the battery to the charging mechanism the charger should be isolated
(switched off) to prevent any sparks during the connection process. Once the terminals are connected the
power can be switched on the battery charged. Once charging is completed the power should be
switched off before the terminals are disconnected, again to reduce the likelihood of a spark being
generated. Irrespective of the fuel used where trucks powered by internal combustion (IC) engines
operate a build-up of exhaust gases is likely.
Exhaust gases are typical of the products of combustion and contain carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
water, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt carbonaceous particles (particularly with diesel powered engines).

Ventilation in such work areas should be adequate to ensure the dispersal of gases and engines should
be maintained to ensure minimal gaseous emissions. Gaseous emissions can be significantly reduced by
using catalytic converters to remove the asphyxiant gases, or other filter systems to remove particulates.
However, even where filters or converters are used, suitable ventilation is still required.
Areas where refuelling of engine trucks take place should be located outdoors where there is adequate
ventilation and separation from ignition sources or other hazardous facilities.

Refuelling - Controls
Exposure to high levels of propane fuel occurs generally only while filling. To control exposure to LPG
during refuelling, it is recommended that:
x Refilling and handling of LPG by qualified or trained personnel
x Refuelling or exchanging removable LPG cylinders to be done outdoors or in well ventilated
areas, away from sources of ignition
x Refuelling area is equipped with fire extinguisher
x When using LPG powered equipment indoors, ensure that there is adequate ventilation in the

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

workplace
x LPG cylinders are heavy, presenting a manual handling risk

Flammable Atmospheres
Where there is a likelihood of the presence of a flammable atmosphere FLT’s, or other vehicles should not
operate in such areas and indeed other sources of ignition should not be present

Specifically, protected trucks can be sourced from the manufacturer to operate in such hazardous areas
where they have adequate electrical protection to prevent representing an ignition source.

Sources of ignition from a diesel engine truck would include the following:
x Flames or sparks from the exhaust system
x Flames from the air inlet system
x Over speeding of the engine and overload
x Surface temperature of the exhaust system and other hot surfaces
x Arcs and sparks from unprotected electrical equipment; and
x Sparks from a discharge of static electricity or from friction

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The corresponding precautions should include:

x The inclusion of flame arrestors to prevent flames from the exhaust reaching the atmosphere
x The inclusion of flame arrestors on the inlet to prevent flashback to the atmosphere
x
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Both inlet and exhaust systems should be designed to with stand internal explosions
x An air inlet shut off valve (auto or manual) to prevent ingestion of vapours causing overrun of the
engine leading to hot surfaces or destruction
x Keeping hot surfaces, such as brakes, exhaust and manifolds, below the ignition temperature of
the gases likely to be encountered. Cooling can be achieved by water jackets, insulation or air
cooling
x All electrical systems should be appropriately IP (International protection) rated or replaced with
mechanical alternatives; and
x Clearance between parts to prevent contact and frictional sparking and the use of conducting
components to reduce the build-up of static. Also, coating metals to prevent sparks on impact
with non-sparking materials

Lifting Equipment: Hazards and Control

Measures
Application and Types of Lifting Equipment
Each type of crane has certain features which make it suitable for activities. Below are listed some of the
more common types.

Mobile Cranes
Mobile cranes or crawler cranes tend to be suitable for short duration operations where movement around
a site may be required. The lifting element of the crane is attached to a chassis, which is then either
driveable on the public highway or fitted with caterpillar tracks and is transportable “piggyback” style on a
flatbed lorry. In specialist circumstances the crane may be sited on a floating craft for marine operations.

Typically, a lorry mounted mobile crane would have a capacity of between 50 and 1000 tonnes. It can be
set up and ready to lift in a short space of time so is often the choice of many. Stability of this type of
crane during lifting operations relies significantly on the correct placement of and maintenance of
stabilisers known as outriggers to widen the centre of gravity of the vehicle. The figure below shows a
typical mobile crane and a plan view with the outriggers in position.

Illustration 65: Mobile Crane

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Illustration 65 shows an example of a

mobile crane with a hydraulic telescopic
jib.

The lorry mounted mobile crane can be

rigged (fitted) with a jib of open-lattice
construction. This has the benefit of
reduced weight of the vehicle although
setting up the crane will take longer.
Erection of the jib is often assisted using
other smaller capacity cranes to lift the
sections into position.

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Illustration 66: Crawler Crane

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The crawler type crane is usually less suitable for use
on the public highway since it is run on tracks rather
than wheels. Manoeuvrability around the work site is
good since this type of vehicle can negotiate uneven
ground. The ground stability when the vehicle moves
or is stationary must be capable of withstanding the
load bearing pressures exerted by the tracks. An
advantage of crawler cranes on a site over the lorry
mounted type mobile crane is that movement around
the site can be completed without dismantling the
vehicle. The lorry mounted mobile crane will need to
have outriggers removed/withdrawn and the jib
reached in prior to movement.

Lorry Loaders
A crane mounted on a commercial truck chassis, whose primary function is to load and unload the vehicle.
This type of vehicle is often referred to as a “hiab”. The hydraulically powered jib can extend and
articulate to reach the carrying aspect of the vehicle. Typically, this type of crane will have a capacity of
between 0.5 and 10 tonnes.

Illustration 67: Lorry Loaders

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Tower Cranes
Illustration 68: Tower Crane (Trolley / Saddle Jib)

There are many different types of tower

cranes available depending on the type of jib
and method of operation, the most common
being “trolley jib” or “saddle jib”. This type of
crane has a wide range of capacities
between 45 to 2000 metre tonne.

The term metre tonne is a method of sizing a

tower crane based on its maximum load x
radius value.

The stability of a tower crane is determined,

predominantly by its base support.

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Depending on the nature of the lift and the site conditions a support may be required:

Cast in, whereby the crane is cast into a concrete footing used in the building or supported on piles. The
foundation must have adequate mass and base area to carry the various forces applied by the crane.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Cruciform - A four-cornered arrangement on piles or a concrete slab often used outside of the building
where space allows. It can be lighter than a cast in base since stability is provided by central ballast.

Grillage - Supported steel work appropriate for the forces applied and supported by the surrounding
structures holding the grillage in place; other moveable bases e.g., rail mounted, crawler mounted where
stability is achieved through the central ballast; and

Tying in - In some circumstances due to space constraints it may be appropriate to tie the crane to
existing structures, indeed in some buildings the crane may be fitted through a lift shaft and the building
built around the crane.

Gantry Cranes
These consist of a framework of a supported horizontal
beam or lattice along which a trolley moves. The bases
of the uprights may have wheels fitted which run on
railway tracks, allowing the gantry to move backwards
and forwards.

The area which can be covered is the full length of the

gantry rails and the width between. Whilst giving great
flexibility within the area they cannot provide lifting
capability outside. Some are fitted with rubber wheels
which can steer and drive the gantry and they are used
extensively for handling freight containers.

Overhead Cranes
These are a version of gantry cranes generally used within
buildings, although they can be found in outside situations.
The supports of the frame are omitted, the rails being
attached to the structural steel framework of the building or
on columns outside at a high level.

They are common in engineering works and plants where

lifting access for conventional cranes is difficult due to the
layout (e.g., in power stations, to lift out turbines for
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maintenance). Capacity can be very high (200 tonnes is

not unusual) and they are usually designed for a specific
location.

Hoists
Hoists are used to carry materials and people to high working levels.

The hoist should be selected to ensure it is suitable for the site conditions and the size and weight of the
loads needed to be moved.

The hoist should be erected by a competent person and as with all lifting devices be subject to periodic
inspections. It must also be maintained in good working order.

The safe working load and its suitability for carrying persons should be clearly marked on it. Under no
circumstances may persons be transported on a goods only lift.

The hoist should only be able to be operated from one position, usually at ground level, and the operator
should be able to see all the landing levels from the operating position.

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Gin Wheel Hoist

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A Gin Wheel is a pivot device used for hoisting equipment. Hazards associated with the use of gin wheel
include the loss of load from the hook and the loss of gin wheel and load from its fixing point.

Control measures include ensuring that it is securely fixed and capable of carrying the load without too
much stress on the poles or fittings. If gin wheel is suspended directly by its hook, this hook must have a
safety catch and should be prevented from moving sideways.

Lifts
Lifts can be categorised into the following groups:
x Electric
x Hydraulic, direct or indirect; and
x Manual service type

These group classifications based on mode of operation can be further subdivided into goods and
passenger only or both. The construction of lifts and the use of lifts in the workplace should be governed
in the same way as other machinery and work equipment. A lift is commonly defined as being:
x An appliance serving specific levels, having a car moving
x Along guides which are rigid, and
x Along a fixed course even where it does not move along guides which are rigid, and inclined at
an angle of more than 15 degrees to the horizontal and intended for the transport of:
- Persons
- Persons and goods; and
- Goods alone if the car is accessible a person may enter it without difficulty and fitted with
controls situated inside the car or within reach of a person situated inside

Safety requirements include:

x Precautions to prevent the car from falling e.g., double
suspension ropes, provision of arrestor system and
support for the car in the event of power failure.
x Ensuring that controls are clearly legible and reachable
by disabled persons.
x Incorporation of an interlock mechanism whereby the
car cannot move whilst the doors are open and that the
doors are only openable when the car is at a landing.
x Access to the lift shaft must be available only for

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

maintenance purposes and controls in place to prevent
crushing at the extremes of travel of the car.
x Adequate lighting within the car.
x Means of access for rescue purposes
x Communication systems to contact the emergency
services.
x Adequate provision for ventilation, given the number of
persons in the car; and
x Notice stating the maximum number of passengers
allowed.

Passenger and Goods Lifts

These types of lifts may be found in several different locations,
including workplaces and domestic premises, e.g., blocks of
flats.

Lifts provided for use in the workplace by the owner of the

building must be safe and subject to inspection.

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Scissor Lifts
This type of lift operates on a scissor type mechanism where there is a
high risk of trapping and shearing injury in the lifting mechanism. The
lifting platform may be either fixed or mobile and can be used to transfer
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

goods or people from one level to another. The lifting element should
be suitably guarded and the lifting platform visible by the operator
always.

The edge of the lifting platform should be fitted with a trip mechanism to
ensure that the lift stops should the edge of the platform encounter an
obstruction such as a persons’ foot. The controls of the platform should
be of the hold to run type. Physical scotches (props) should be
provided to manually prop the platform for access to the lifting
mechanism or recess pit for maintenance purposes.

Vehicle Inspection Lifts

This type of lift is used to raise a vehicle for the purposes of inspection or maintenance. The controls for
this type of lift should be of the hold to run type and be protected from inadvertent operation. The lifting
device should be clearly visible from the control panel and each control panel should incorporate an
emergency stop control. The capacity of the lifting devices should be such that an adequate margin of
error is allowed in the design to ensure stability. The driving mechanism of the lift could be rope, chain,
hydraulic or pneumatic and should incorporate the following excess safety margins:
x The steel wire ropes for rope drives should comprise a minimum of 114 single wires. The
nominal tensile grade of each wire should be at least 1,570 N/mm2 but not exceed 1,960 N/mm2.
The tensile grade of terminations should be a minimum of 80% of that of the rope.
x The minimum breaking load of chains should be at least four times the maximum static weight.
x Hydraulic components should be designed to withstand twice the maximum pressure permitted
by the pressure relief system; and
x Pneumatic systems should withstand three times the maximum permitted pressure.

Mobile Elevated Work Platforms (MEWP)

A mobile elevating work platform (MEWP) is an efficient means of providing a work platform at a height.
The equipment is designed to be movable, under its own power or by being towed, so that it can easily be
set up in a location where it is needed. Various mechanical and hydraulic means are used to elevate the
work platform to the desired height.

The versatility of this equipment, enabling the easy placement of a platform at a height, makes it a popular
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piece of access equipment

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Hazards Associated with Cranes and Lifting Operations

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The hazards associated with such equipment include the equipment itself and the system of work used to
operate the equipment.

The Lifting Equipment Itself

Hazards associated with the lifting equipment itself include:
x Crane collapse
x Overturning
x Unsuitable support or inadequate base for lifting appliance
x Failure of lifting equipment; and
x Contact with adjacent obstruction

The main causes of destabilising cranes are the action of the load on the balanced forces of the crane, as
the load moves away from the centre of gravity of the crane so the force acting on it is increased.
Similarly, as the load becomes dynamic due to movement resulting from swinging or travel so the forces
are increased. The forces may be such that the crane cannot withstand them and topples over.

Main Hazards Associated with Lifts & Hoists and other

Passenger Carrying Equipment
The hazards associated with hoists and lifts are like those encountered in any lifting operation, namely:
x Overturning or collapse of the lift structure
x Collision of the lifting car with other obstructions or persons in the vicinity
x Failure of the support mechanism i.e., ropes, chains or hydraulic
x Loss of the load; and
x Power failure or mechanical failure leading to the need to rescue persons trapped

Scissor Lifts
‡ Crush injuries may occur as the platform is raised to or past a fixed part of a structure
‡ People, equipment or materials falling from the platform
‡ Overload
‡ The scissor lift may overturn or collapse

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‡ The sheer effect of the scissor mechanism as it closes
‡ Localised ground features, such as trenches, manholes and uncompacted backfill, which could
lead to overturning

Vehicle inspection lifts

‡ There is a risk of vehicles falling or rolling off the lift due to incorrectly positioned lift mechanisms
or uneven lifting, this can cause fatal crushing injuries
‡ Crush injury, particularly to the feet, when the lift is lowered to the ground
‡ The vehicle lift may overturn, particularly if it utilises portable lifting mechanisms
‡ The vehicle lift may collapse, for example, if it is overloaded

Mobile elevating work platforms

‡ Operating too close to overhead cables or dangerous machinery
‡ Injuries to the head from pipework or roof beams when the platform is raised
‡ Injuries to protruding knuckle, or elbow, of the arm when working near vehicles
‡ Falls, if workers overreach guard rails
‡ Collision with other vehicles if used on roads

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Lifting Equipment Control Measures

Operation (System of Work)
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Hazards arising out of the system of work include the following:

x Contact with overhead electricity cables
x Incorrect positioning of lifting appliance
x Improper methods in use of equipment
x Incorrect signals; and communicated; and
x Personnel working at or near the track of a travelling or overhead crane

Control Measures
Safe System of Work
Lifting operations should be planned, supervised and carried out in a safe manner by a competent person.

In principle, all safe systems of work for crane operations are identical and should include the following:
x Planning the operation
x Selection of the correct crane and associated equipment
x Maintenance of the crane and associated equipment
x Election of appropriately trained and competent personnel
x Provision of adequate, properly trained and competent supervision
x Provision for the safety of those involved in, and others who may be affected by, the operation
x Effective communication between all of the relevant parties
x Ensuring that all necessary test certificates and other documents are in order and available; and
x Preventing unauthorised movement or use of the crane and equipment

An individual should be appointed by the site operator to take control of the planning and organising of the
lifting activity. This may be done under the provisions of a contract to lift whereby the supplier of the
equipment will also supply the competence to complete the activity.

Selection
In selecting the appropriate crane for the operation, regard should be given for the following key points:
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x Weights, dimensions and characteristics of loads

x Operational speeds, radii, heights of lifts and areas of available movement
x Number, frequency and types of lifting operations
x Length of time for which the crane will be required or anticipated life expectancy for a
permanently installed crane
x Site, ground and environmental conditions, or restrictions arising from the use of existing
buildings
x Space available for crane access, erection, travelling, operation and dismantling; and
x Any other special operational requirements or limitations imposed

Having decided upon the type of crane and knowing the overall requirements involved, a crane that will
safely meet all the specified requirements of the planned lift should be selected.

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Siting

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Siting of the crane should take account of all the factors that may affect its safe operation, particularly the
following:
x The crane standing and support conditions
x The presence and proximity of other hazards
x The effect of wind; and
x The adequacy of access to allow the placing or erection of the crane in its working position and
for dismantling and removing the crane following completion of lifting operations

Stability
To assist the operator in ensuring the stability of the crane the following safety devices should be fitted:

Rated capacity indicator - An automatic indicator is required on certain jib cranes to give warning of an
approach to the safe working load and a further warning when an overload occurs. The warnings should
be clear to the driver.

Load radius indicator - A load radius indicator is required on jib cranes having variable safe working
loads according to the radius at which they are operated. It should be clearly visible to the driver and
indicate accurately the safe working load and radius for whatever configuration of the crane is used.

Motion limit devices - Motion limit devices can be fitted to limit hoisting, derricking (vertical movement of
the jib), travelling, slewing, traversing, climbing or any other crane motion which could threaten the
stability of the crane.

Overload cut out devices - Switches or other devices may be fitted to cut out crane movement when the
crane is in an overload situation. Only movements that permit the crane to be returned to a safe condition
should remain operative.

Level indicator - Crane level indicators should be used in accordance with the instruction manual to
ensure that the crane is not operating outside of specified tolerances.

Anemometer - Anemometers or other wind-speed measuring devices should have their indicators
mounted in clear view of the crane driver or, if appropriate, the person controlling the lift to ensure that the
crane is not operating outside of specified tolerances.

Machinery guarding - All guarding should be properly fitted whenever the crane is in motion or use and
maintained in good condition.

Crane Standing or Support Conditions ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The appointed person should ensure that the loads imposed by the crane can be sustained by the ground
and any means of additional support provided, by obtaining the advice and guidance where necessary of
a competent person.

The loads imposed by the crane can be obtained from the crane manufacturer, supplier or other authority
on the crane design. The calculated loadings should include the combined effects of the following:
x The dead weight of the crane, which includes any counterweight, ballasting, outriggers or
foundation where appropriate
x The dead weight of the load(s) and any lifting attachment(s)
x Dynamic forces caused by movements of the crane; and
x Wind loadings, considering the degree of exposure of the site

It is likely that during operations there will be greater loading imposed; however, the likely loading during
erection and dismantling should also be taken into consideration.

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Proximity Hazards
Consideration should be given to the presence of proximity hazards such as overhead electric lines or
cables, other cranes, vehicles or ships being loaded or unloaded, stacked goods and public access areas
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

including highways, railways, paths and rivers.

Where such hazards exist and cannot be eliminated by the operators of the lift then the appropriate
authority or utility company should be consulted for guidance on control measures.

The danger to or from underground services such as gas mains or electric cables, should not be
overlooked. Precautions should be taken to ensure that the crane foundation is clear of any underground
services or, where this is not possible, that the services are adequately protected against damage. Again,
appropriate consultation with the relevant body should be carried out.

When the load passes an obstacle, the following precautions should be put in place:
x The crane path should be clearly defined by marking to ensure that it is kept free from
obstruction, and a suitable clearance distance (usually not less than 600 mm) should be provided
between any part of the crane and any obstacle. In any case, effective precautions should be
taken to prevent access to any trapping hazards; and
x Boundary lines for the stacking of goods should be permanently marked on the ground.

Overhead Electric Lines and Cables

A fatal accident may occur should some part of a crane, including rope, slings or load, touch, or even
come near to, overhead electric lines or cables when they are live.

The appointed person should ensure, that the relevant authority or utility provider are consulted, if the
crane is to be used near (usually within 15 m plus the maximum jib length to overhead lines on steel
towers or 9 m plus the maximum jib length to overhead lines on wood, concrete or steel poles) to the
lines.

Proximity alarms can be fitted on cranes to give warning when the crane comes within a predetermined
distance of an obstruction. However, such devices are supplementary to a safe system of work and not
instead of it.

Control Measures for Lifts & Hoists and other

Passenger Carrying Equipment
Lifts and Hoists for movement of goods and passengers require:
x Adequate design
x Sound construction
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x Correct selection and installation

x Competent operation
x Regular inspection
x Adequate maintenance
x Statutory safety devices
x Holdback equipment
x Overrun tip systems
x Guards on hoist/lift machinery
x Landing gates

Scissor Lifts
x Whoever is operating it is fully trained and competent
x The scissor lift is fitted with a guard covering the scissor mechanism to a height that is
reasonably practicable
x Anyone in the area is kept clear of the work area

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x The scissor lift is fully maintained, and pre-use checks take place for hydraulic oil leaks or cracks
in the body of the scissor lift (indication of previous overloading or misuse)

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x That it is not possible to insert a foot or similar part of the body underneath the lifting platform
when it is being lowered
x That there is a safe system of work for the retrieval of items dropped down near the scissor
mechanism and for maintenance underneath it

Vehicle Inspection Lifts

Always ensure that:

‡ Vehicle lift mechanisms must be sited on flat, even ground
‡ The vehicle should be positioned on the lift centrally or mechanisms fitted to the vehicle evenly
‡ The need to secure vehicle wheels from movement is considered before raising the hoist
‡ The lift is operated steadily
‡ The stability of the vehicle is checked at a low level before continuing to raise it
‡ Stand well clear of the lifting mechanisms and platform when raising or lowering the vehicle

Mobile Elevating Work Platforms

‡ The operator is fully trained and competent
‡ The work platform is fitted with guard rails and toe boards
‡ A harness with a lanyard attached to the platform provides extra protection against falls,
especially when the platform is being raised or lowered
‡ It is used on suitable firm and level ground; the ground may have to be prepared in advance
‡ Tyres are properly inflated

Lifting Accessories (Ropes, Wires, Chains and Lifting Tackles)

Accessories for Lifting
Accessories for lifting are commonly defined as “equipment for attaching loads to machinery for lifting”,
including e.g., hooks, ropes, chains and slings.

Lifting Tackle
The common definition of lifting tackle or equipment is “chain, slings, rope slings, hooks, shackles and
swivels”; this would also include lifting beams, eyebolts, ‘D’ rings, etc.

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Types and Application of Lifting Tackle

The following is a summary of the more commonly used lifting tackle.

Ropes are made from several materials such as:

x Natural fibres (of vegetable origin, generally - manila, hemp, sisal, coir and cotton).
x Wire ropes made up of strands and the number of wires per strand is termed the ‘construction’ of
the rope, thus a rope of 6 x 19 means that each of the 6 strands have 19 individual wires; and
x Man-made fibres (manufactured from nylon or terylene) have advantages over natural fibre as
they:
- Have a higher tensile strength.
- Can absorb shock loading.
- Are free from rot, mildew etc.
- Can be stored wet; and
- Have immunity / resistance to chemical attack.

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Illustration 69: Wire Rope

Damaged ropes should not be used for lifting

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

operations. With regards to wire ropes visible broken

wires should not exceed 10% of the total number of
wires in the rope.

Chains
Chains are usually manufactured from wrought iron, mild steel, high tensile or alloy steel.

Chains break for the following reasons:

x Defect in links
x Static load more than the chains breaking load; and
x Shock loading of chain

Illustration 70: Types of Slings

Slings

Slings are manufactured from the materials mentioned earlier, they can be single/multi-leg or endless.
They will incorporate either ‘eyes’, hooks or rings for attachment to both the load and lifting equipment.
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The angle at which a sling is used to lift a load can affect the strength of the sling. A chart showing the
SWL should be displayed in the storage area and slingers need to be trained in its use.

Hooks
Hooks should be manufactured from forged steel or equivalent and either fitted with a safety catch or
shaped to prevent the load from slipping off.

Illustration 71: Hooks

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Shackles

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Shackles are predominantly used to join slings to other lifting tackle and should have a breaking strength
1.5 times greater than the sling being used. Shackle pins must be secured fully prior to lifting.

Illustration 72: D Shackle

Eyebolts
Eyebolts are used for lifting loads that may be heavy and concentrated, e.g., dynamos, which have the
facility for eye bolt location.

The use of the wrong type of eyebolt is a common

contributory cause of accidents; a typical example is
when a dynamo eyebolt is used for other than a
vertical lift.

Illustration 73: Eye Bolts

Lifting Beam
A lifting beam or spreader bar is a special purpose device which enables the load to be lifted to prevent
horizontal stressing of eyebolts.

Illustration 74: Lifting Beam

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

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Main Hazards of Lifting Accessories

The main hazards arising from the use of chains and lifting tackle are:
x
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Using tackle of insufficient strength for the job. This can occur by simply picking up the wrong
tackle or underestimating the load to be lifted
x Using tackle of unsuitable material, design or makeshift tackle
x Incorrect slinging arrangements; and
x Using badly maintained or damaged tackle. Damage can occur through mistreatment of the
tackle, such as over-stressing equipment by using it to handle equipment that can result in
greatly exceeding the Safe Working Load (SWL). Apart from the requirement to mark the SWL
on the equipment, it is also a requirement to mark supporting structures

Incorrectly using tackle as listed above will mean that loads may fall completely or slip which may result in
injury to personnel or damage to equipment. It is essential that personnel are properly trained in the
correct methods of slinging and lifting.

Illustration 75: Rope and Chain Pulleys

Pulley blocks and gin wheels are grooved wheels

which guide a rope or chain used to directly lift an
object either mechanically or by manual force. The
most common use of this equipment is on
construction sites, maintenance workshops and
vehicle repair workshops; they are also used in fixed
locations that form raising and lowering operations
on roller shutter doors.

They can be used in conjunction with either a fixed

or transportable gantry or fixed to a temporary
structure.

The size of the pulley in use must match the size of

the rope or chain:

Pulley blocks and gin wheels must be properly

secured to tubes, poles or beams and these must
be strong enough to carry the fixture and its load
and be secured against movement.

Illustration 76: Gin Wheel

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Factors Influencing Choice of Lifting Accessories

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The choice of which lifting accessories to use will depend on:
x The weight of the load
x The shape of the load and centre of gravity
x Whether there are any lifting points

The main requirements relating to ropes, wires, chains and lifting tackle include the following:
x They should be well constructed, of suitable material and strength, and free from any defects
x The safe working load should be displayed or marked on it; only marked items may be used in a
lifting operation
x The SWL shall not be exceeded
x Before being taken into service, all items should be tested and thoroughly examined by a
competent person at regular intervals during service
x Certificates should be issued for all items except ropes
x Registers should be kept, giving details of equipment in use

Competence of Personnel
In relation to the safe use of lifting equipment, several key persons have responsibilities in the lifting
operation:

Crane driver
The crane driver should be responsible for the correct operation of the crane in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions and within the safe system of work. The crane driver should at any one time
only respond to the signals from one slinger/ signaller who should be clearly identified.

Slinger
The slinger should be responsible for attaching and detaching the load to and from the crane load lifting
attachment and for the use of the correct lifting gear and equipment in accordance with the planning of the
operation. The slinger is responsible for initiating and directing the safe movement of the crane. If there
is more than one slinger, only one of them should have this responsibility at any one time, depending on
their positions relative to the crane. Where continuity of signalling is required and this slinger is not visible
to the crane driver, another slinger or signaller may be necessary to relay the signals to the crane driver.
Alternatively, other audio or visual methods may be used. Where audio or visual methods are used, the

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

equipment or its means of use should be such that the driver will be immediately aware of failure of the
equipment, to enable him to stop crane movements.

Signaller
The signaller should be responsible for relaying the signal from the slinger to the crane driver. The
signaller may be given the responsibility for directing movement of the crane and load instead of the
slinger, provided that only one person has the responsibility.

Crane erector
The crane erector is responsible for the erection of the crane in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. Where two or more crane erectors are required, one should be nominated as “erector in
charge” to control this operation.

Maintenance personnel
The maintenance personnel should be responsible for maintaining the crane and ensuring its safe and
satisfactory operation. They should carry out all necessary maintenance in accordance with the
manufacturer’s maintenance manual and within the safe system of work.

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The recommended minimum attributes of personnel identified are:

Crane Driver
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The crane driver should be:

x Competent
x Over 18 years of age unless under the direct supervision of a person competent for training
x Fit, with regard to eyesight, hearing and reflexes
x Physically able to operate the crane safely
x Able to judge distances, heights and clearances
x Adequately trained for the type of crane being driven and have sufficient knowledge of the crane
and its safety devices; fully conversant with the duties of the slinger and signaller and should
understand the methods of relaying the signals that are to be used, to implement safely the
instruction of the slinger or signaller
x Familiar with the fire appliances on the crane and trained in their use
x Familiar with any means provided for escape in case of emergency; and
x Authorised to operate the crane

Slinger
The slinger should be:
x Competent
x Over 18 years of age unless under the direct supervision of a person competent for training
x Fit, with regard to eyesight, hearing, reflexes and agility
x Physically able to handle lifting gear and equipment
x Able to establish weights, balance loads and judge distances, heights and clearances
x Trained in the techniques of slinging
x Capable of selecting lifting gear and equipment in suitable condition for the load to be lifted
x Trained in the techniques of signalling
x Capable of giving precise and clear verbal instructions where audio equipment (e.g., radio) is
used and capable of operating the equipment
x Capable of initiating and directing the safe movement of the crane and load; and
x Nominated to carry out slinging duties

Signaller
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The signaller should be:

x Competent
x Over 18 years of age unless under the direct supervision of a person competent for the purpose
of training
x Fit, about eyesight, hearing, reflexes and mobility
x Able to judge distances, heights and clearances
x Trained in the techniques of signalling
x Capable of giving precise and clear verbal instructions where audio equipment (e.g., radio) is
employed and capable of operating the equipment
x Capable of directing the safe movement of the crane and load
x Nominated to carry out signalling duties; and
x Aware of the responsibilities allocated by the appointed person to the crane driver and slinger

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Crane Erector

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The crane erector should be:
x Competent
x Over 18 years of age unless under the direct supervision of a person competent for the purpose
of training
x Fit, with regard to eyesight, hearing, reflexes and agility
x Physically able to handle safely the loads involved in crane erection
x Able to work confidently and safely at heights
x Able to establish weights, balance loads and judge distances, heights and clearances
x Trained in the techniques of slinging
x Capable of selecting lifting gear and equipment that is suitable for the load to be lifted
x Adequately trained in the erection, dismantling and working of the type of crane being erected,
and in the safe use and setting up of any lifting appliance used during these duties; and
x Adequately trained in the setting and testing of the safety devices fitted to the crane being
erected and those on any lifting appliance being used for the erection

Maintenance Personnel
The maintenance personnel should be:
x Competent
x Fully conversant with the machinery they are required to maintain and its hazards
x Properly instructed and trained (where special machinery is involved this should include
attending appropriate courses given by the supplier of the equipment); and
x Familiar with the procedures and precautions of crane operations

Maintenance, Inspection and Thorough Examinations

Lifting equipment should be thoroughly examined for defects:
x Before first use
x Following installation and before putting into service (if installation conditions are important)
x After every assembly on-site, before use, if moveable

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Periodically when in use:
x At least every 6 months for person lifting equipment
x At least every 12 months for other equipment
x Or in accordance with an examination scheme devised by a competent person

Thorough examination may include testing if the competent person deems it appropriate.

The examination scheme may be statutory or as specified periodic inspections at intervals between
thorough examinations.

Any examination scheme for lifting equipment should take account of:
x Its condition
x The environment in which it is to be used
x The number of lifting operations; and
x Loads lifted

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The examination scheme need not necessarily be preserved in the form of a document. It should,
however, be capable of being reproduced as a written copy when required. It should be secure from loss
or unauthorised modification, and it should be authenticated by the competent person preparing the
scheme.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Only slings and lifting gear for which a valid test certificate has been issued and which have been
thoroughly examined within the previous six months should be used in a lifting operation.

All slings and lifting gear should be clearly marked with the safe working load (SWL) and a unique
identification number (for recording purposes).

All slings and lifting gear should be visually inspected on each occasion before use, for obvious signs of
damage, wear, corrosion etc. When not in use such lifting, gear should be maintained in a serviceable
condition in a suitable store. Lifting gear should be released from the store only on the instruction of a
person with the necessary authority to handle the lifting gear e.g., a slinger.

Under no circumstances should slings be knotted since this may cause damage to the sling structure or
introduce un-manageable stresses and strains on the sling.

Checks should be made to ensure that the lifting gear which is selected for use can withstand the
environment in which it is to be used and that it is protected from mechanical damage and other hazards.

Repairs to slings should not be carried out on site but must be referred for specialist repairs and
subsequently retested and certificated. Under no circumstances should chains be joined by means of
bolts or wire and when shackles are used it is essential that the correct pins should be fitted. Lifting gear
should not be dragged along the ground or floor on site since this may damage the sling causing it to fail
later.

Access and Work at Height Equipment: Hazards

and Control Measures

The Applications and Different Types of Access and Work

at Height Equipment
Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs) are classified as lifting equipment for lifting persons. They are
designed to provide a temporary working platform which can be easily moved from one location to
another. They are particularly suitable for short duration tasks, where the use of a ladder would be unsafe
or the erection of a scaffolding platform, time-consuming or impracticable in relation to the job to be done.

Some units have specialised applications e.g., under-bridge work.

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There are several differing types of MEWPs. They can be classified according to:
‡ The type of carrier or chassis: and
‡ The type of elevating structure

Principal Machine Types

‡ Scissor lifts. Generally vertical lift only. May be fitted with outriggers, depending on size and
height to which it extends
‡ Telescopic boom or jib. Gives direct straight-line approach to the point of work but has a limited
ability to clear obstructions between the vehicle and the point of work
‡ Articulating boom. Gives a wide range of reach and height, with platform mobility
‡ Combined telescopic and articulating boom. Gives maximum flexibility

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Illustration 77: Mobile Elevated Work Platforms - Scissors Lift and Articulated Boom

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Boom types are affectionately called “cherry pickers”.

All designs may be vehicle mounted, trailer mounted, or self-propelled.

Accidents involving MEWPS include collapsing or overturning, and people being thrown from the carrier,
or being crushed between the carrier and a fixed structure.

The direct causes of many accidents are attributable to a range of issues, notably:
‡ Equipment failure
‡ Unsuitable ground conditions
‡ Defective or unused outriggers
‡ Overloading the carrier
‡ The carrier being struck by a slung load, and
‡ The MEWP being struck by another vehicle

The Hazards of Access and Work at Height Equipment ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Mechanical Strength
Access and similar equipment of this type is designed to have a certain load-bearing capacity. As the
equipment is used, the moving parts may become worn out, for example, hydraulic seals may start to
leak, and this will reduce the ability of the equipment to carry its full capacity. In the same way, non-
moving parts, such as booms and struts, can be damaged by impact and a weak point caused in the item
that will reduce its load-bearing capacity

Loading Control and Control Devices

The absence of sufficient control devices available to those using the access equipment to work at height
could mean that it is operated from the ground. This creates a risk of contact with buildings and structures
due to poor communication and coordination between the person operating the equipment and those in it.

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Hazards to Persons on or in The Carrier

The principal hazards to persons on or in the carrier of access equipment of this type relate to:
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

‡ Movement of the carrier

‡ Persons falling from the carrier
‡ Objects falling on the carrier

Exceeding the Safe Working Loads/Persons Permitted

Because it can take time to lower, load and raise the equipment, those using it may be tempted to
overload it to save time. It is also not uncommon for users of the equipment to fail to take account of tools
and equipment being lifted as well as the people, leading to too many people in the carrier. This can
significantly overload the equipment and change the effective safe working envelope

Control Measures
Control measures for ensuring the safe use of a MEWP can be attributed to three categories: safe plant,
safe workplace and safe operator.

Safe Plant
The right MEWP should be selected for the job,
following consideration of ground conditions,
working height, the task, the required range and
sensitivity of movement and the anticipated load,
(people and tools).

The platform should be of sufficient size and be fitted with edge protection comprising guard rail,
intermediate rail and toe boards.

x Marked with maximum load limit

x Fitted with emergency stop devices
x
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Prevention of tilting by locking system when the platform is raised. When the device detects the
tilt is outside the acceptable limits it would cause the equipment to stop
x Wheels, tires and suspension should be appropriate for the working environment
x Most MEWPs are not designed to be moved with the carrier raised. The manufacturer’s
instructions should be checked to determine the acceptability of this practice.
x Outriggers, if fitted should be fully extended and chocked in place prior to raising the carrier.
x The MEWP should be thoroughly examined by a competent person at least once every six
months. This may need to be more frequent depending on the nature of use and operating
conditions. The MEWP should also be subject to daily checks and a weekly inspection.
x Planned maintenance should be conducted by competent persons in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Space and strength corresponding to the maximum number of persons and maximum working load

Consideration will need to be given to the selection of the equipment, to ensure it meets the requirements
for the task. This will include the maximum reach, both vertical and horizontal, that is required for the task,
to prevent overreaching of the operators. In addition, the space provided by the equipment and strength of
the equipment should be adequate for the maximum number of people and maximum working load.

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Fitted with a suspension or supporting system

Plant must be fitted with a suspension or supporting system, i.e., capable of carrying the maximum load,

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stable without undue movement. Where possible the carrier has an enhanced safety coefficient
suspension rope or chain, which is inspected by a competent person every working day. Platform
movement or ‘boom flexing’ should be minimised.

Control systems

Equipment must be controlled by the person in the carrier, i.e., controls for vertical or horizontal movement
of the equipment. This will enable more accurate positioning of the equipment and remove the need to
communicate to another person the movements required.

This can help prevent collisions and crush injuries, and the movement will tend to be conducted more
smoothly, reducing the risk of falling from the equipment.

Prevention of tilting if there is a risk of occupants falling

Prevention of tilting if there is a risk of occupants falling, i.e., locking system to prevent tilt when the
platform is raised. The equipment would benefit from a device that could detect that it was tilting outside
acceptable limits and would cause the equipment to stop.

Outriggers are extended as necessary before raising the platform. Trap doors must open in a direction
that eliminates any risk of falling. They should be securely fastened so that no inadvertent opening is
possible

Safe Workplace
A safe workplace is assured through a combination of acceptable environmental conditions and effective
management controls.

The ground conditions should be checked, for softness, slopes and the presence of local features such as
inspection chambers, potholes etc. Ground may need to be compacted or levelled, and other features
covered before work commences.

The presence of overhead obstructions and overhead electricity cables should be checked before raising
the working platform. Weather conditions should be monitored to ensure they are not beyond established
limits for safe operation (e.g., maximum wind speed). The MEWP should not be operated under adverse
weather conditions.

Other site traffic should be segregated from the proposed work area. Checks should be made to ensure
parts of a MEWP cannot protrude into roads or other transport routes. If this is unavoidable safe systems
of work should be devised, e.g., a temporary road closure at quiet times.

Effective communication systems, permit to work procedures and emergency plans will need to be
implemented.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Safe Operator
Operators should be trained and familiar with the performance and controls of the MEWP they are going
to use and its limitations in the given operating environment. Operators should also be provided with any
necessary task-specific training for the operations to be conducted from the MEWP (e.g., use of a
chainsaw).

Operators should be trained to handle situations where machine fails with platform in raised position.

Operators should conduct daily checks in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and should be
familiar with systems for recording faults, repairs and maintenance.

If there is still a residual risk of impact or persons falling after the control measures have been
implemented the use of fall protection equipment should be considered.

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There are two types of fall protection that a person can use in the carrier:

ͻ Work restraint systems which stop a person falling from the carrier in the first place; and
ͻ Fall arrest systems which stops a person after they have fallen from the carrier
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NB: Neither approach affords protection should the MEWP overturn.

General Precautions for The Use of MEWPs

Siting and Stability/overturning

ͻ Ground conditions will need to be considered, particularly following any periods of rain, causing
soft ground
ͻ Identify any buried services or cellars that may cause the ground to collapse under the weight of
the equipment
ͻ Ensure parts of the equipment cannot protrude into roads or other transport routes.
ͻ Do not exceed the SWL
ͻ Precautions to be taken while travelling with the platform raised on unsuitable ground conditions.
ͻ Use stabilisers and outriggers fully extended
ͻ Tyres are properly inflated

Overhead Obstruction
ͻ Identify any overhead Power cable or fixed structure hazards.
ͻ Install height restriction arrangements (limiters, goal posts, warning signs etc).

Fall of persons or Material

ͻ The work platform is fitted with guard rails and toe boards
ͻ Ensure they always wear personal fall arrest system
ͻ Do not overload the work platform
ͻ Secure all lose materials from kicking off

Entrapment
All moving parts and mechanisms should be properly and securely guarded. All operators should be
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made aware of the hazards and procedures for avoiding entrapment between the platform and any fixed
obstruction.

Inspection, testing and maintenance

Ensure the equipment has a thorough examination by a competent person at least once every six
months

Training of operators
‡ The operator is fully trained and competent
‡ All involved know what to do if the machine fails with the platform in the raised position (i.e., a
rescue plan)
‡ Ensure competent personnel undertake planned maintenance, in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions

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10.10 Electricity

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Hazards of Electricity and Static Electricity
Electric Current
The flow of electrons along a conductor is called the current (symbol I), and this is a measure of the
number of electrons passing a point in a conductor. This rate of flow is measured in units called amperes,
which is usually shortened to amps (symbol A).

Hazards of Electricity
Shock
An electric shock occurs when current flows through the body. This can happen in two ways:
x Direct contact; and
x Indirect contact

The circumstances in which each can occur are quite different.

Direct contact is contact of a person, or implement a person is holding, with a live conductor that is
supposed to be live (i.e., it is part of the circuit). This type of contact includes arcing. The likelihood of
touching live parts is increased during electrical testing and fault finding, when conductors at dangerous
voltages are often exposed.

Indirect contact occurs when there is contact with a conductor that is not live under normal conditions, but
is live through a fault, e.g., exposed conductors of electrical equipment with damaged insulation meeting a
steel workbench. The workbench becomes live.

Burns
Electrical burns are caused by the heating effect from the passage of current through the body (direct
burns) or by electric arcs or explosions (indirect burns).

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Direct Burns

These are burns that occur when electricity

passes through the body (see external and
internal burns earlier in this Element). When
the skin or muscle is heated to about 45 oC for
prolonged periods, thermal damage is likely.

Low voltage burns are more common than

high voltage burns. With low voltage burns the
damage below the skin can be far greater than
the skin’s appearance as they penetrate
deeply, destroying blood vessels, nerves and
other tissue.

Charring of the skin and massive tissue

damage can result from high voltage burns.

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Indirect Burns
These are thermal and radiation burns occurring from electrical arcs or explosions.

A high voltage arc, which is composed of ionised particles, can heat the air to 3,000 oC causing thermal
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

burns over a large area of the body.

Energy overload explosions can cause flame and molten metal thermal burns. These occur when
electrical equipment is subjected to excessive currents, prolonged internal arcing faults or from ignition of
flammable gases, vapours or dusts.

Burns can also be caused by non-ionising radiation from an arc. Infra-red radiation causes a heating effect
and may cause cataracts. Ultra-violet can burn the skin or cause kerato conjunctivitis (arc eye) and
erythema (skin reddening).

Exposure to electrically generated microwaves, radio frequency and lasers can cause indirect burns.

Arcing
Arcing can occur when a potential difference is great enough to create a conductive path across an
insulating material, usually air. Arcing generates large amounts of energy, often in a short period of time
(0.25 seconds or less).

Overhead high voltage transmission cables are normally un-insulated, the electricity being conducted on
the cable outer. Whenever people are in the vicinity of bare, live high voltage electrical equipment or
overhead cables there is a risk of arcing.

Static discharges are a form of arcing. Lightning is natural arcing, whereby high electro-static voltages
created in the atmosphere discharge to earth.

Arcing can cause direct electrical shock, direct and indirect burns, fires and explosions.

Fire
Electrical fires may be started in the following ways:
x Overheating of cables and electrical equipment due to overloading of conductors.
x Leakage of current due to poor or inadequate installation.
x Overheating of flammable materials placed too close to electrical equipment, which is otherwise
operating normally; and
x Ignition of flammable materials by arcing, including the scattering of molten metal and hot metal
particles.
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Explosions
Explosions can occur from:
x Electrical equipment explosion; and
x Ignition of flammable gases, vapours or dusts

Electrical explosions can occur when electrical equipment is subjected to excessive currents, prolonged
internal arcing faults. The energy overload, often from excess current short circuits, causes catastrophic
failure of the equipment e.g. accidental connection of test equipment across the two conductors with a
high potential difference.

Ignition of flammable atmospheres by arcing or hot surfaces of electrical equipment can cause an
explosion.

Explosions can cause severe injuries, including indirect burns, blast crush injuries, and impact injuries
from flying debris and from being thrown violently against fixed objects.

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Static Electricity

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Materials normally considered as insulators can generate and store significant electrostatic charge
voltages. Static electricity is produced by the build-up of electrons on insulating or isolated conducting
materials that become charged. Arcing occurs when the charge potential is sufficient to cause discharge
to an object at a lower potential, usually at earth potential.

Dangers Associated with Static Electricity

Static discharges are always a potential source of ignition when flammable or explosive atmospheres are
present, and may be sufficient to cause serious electric shock and burns. The charge retained on a liquid
or a solid creates an ignition hazard only if it is discharged to another body or, more usually, to earth.

The presence of highly insulating materials (HIMs) has been found to be a major factor in many of the
fires and explosions involving electrostatic sources of ignition.

Although discharges from an isolated highly charged HIM are limited in energy (up to 4 mJ) discharges
from a mixed system of HIMs and isolated conducting materials can produce much more energetic
discharges. Discharges in the order of several joules can be produced when containers made from HIMs
are filled with highly charged insulating powders.

Whether or not an electrostatic discharge will ignite a flammable mixture depends on the composition and
the temperature of the mixture, the energy of the discharge & the distribution of this energy in space &
time.

Most organic vapours and hydrocarbon gases in air have minimum ignition energies in the range 0.01 mJ
to 1mJ. For dust clouds the values range from less than 2 mJ to greater than 5000 mJ. The minimum
ignition energy of a dust cloud depends on the particle size distribution in the cloud, as well as its chemical
composition.

Electrostatic Charging
This can occur in the following ways:
x Contact electrification
x Direct charge transfer; and
x Charge induction

Contact Electrification

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This is the primary source of electrostatic charging, and occurs when two dissimilar materials are brought
into contact and then separated, carrying equal and opposite charges. Contact electrification can occur at
solid / solid, liquid / liquid or solid / liquid interfaces. Gases cannot be charged in this way, but if a gas has
solid particles or liquid droplets in suspension these may become charged on contact, so that such a gas
can carry an electrostatic charge.

In the case of dissimilar solids, initially uncharged and at the same, normally earth, potential, a small
amount of charge is transferred from one material to the other as they make contact. The two materials
are therefore oppositely charged and there is a potential difference between them. If the materials are
separated, work has to be done to overcome the attraction of the opposing charges and the potential
difference between them increases. This higher potential difference tends to drive charge back across the
interface whilst any contact remains.

In the case of two conductors the recombination of charges is virtually complete and no significant amount
of charge remains on either material after separation.

If one material, or both, is a non-conductor, the recombination cannot take place completely and the
separating materials hold part of their charges. Because the clearance between the surfaces when in
contact is extremely small the potential generated on separation can easily reach many kilovolts.

The charging is enhanced if the contact and separation involves rubbing. The risk of electrostatic
charging is increased in dry atmospheres with low relative humidity.

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Direct Charge Transfer

Objects can also receive charge from other charged objects. Whenever a charged object makes contact
with one that is uncharged the charge is shared between them to the extent that their conductivities allow.
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

This is a potent source of electrostatic charging when charged sprays, mists or dusts impinge upon a solid
object, for example by settling. A similar transfer of charge can also take place when a stream of gaseous
ions impinges upon an initially uncharged object.

Charge Induction
Conducting objects may also become charged electro-magnetically from another charged object or
objects in the vicinity. There is a magnetic field around any charged object. An insulated conductor
moving in this field will take up a potential. Removing the conductor from the vicinity of the original
charged object makes the remaining charge available to provide a spark. This type of induction sparking
can be hazardous, for example in the case of an insulated person moving about near electrostatically
charged materials.

Charge induction of a stationery object can also occur when the magnetic field is moving e.g., as a fluid
passes through a pipe a variable static charge (hence magnetic field) is produced, any conducting object
in the vicinity will become charged if it is isolated from earth.

Retention of Electrostatic Charge

Even after separation in the charging process electrostatic charges will quickly relax, either directly or via
earth, unless they are prevented from doing so. If a charge is on a non-conductor it is retained by the
virtue of the resistance of the material itself. To retain a charge on a conductor it must be insulated from
other conductors and earth. To retain a significant electrostatic charge, a resistance to earth in excess of
108 Ω is required.

Pure gases under normal conditions are non-conductors and the suspended particles or droplets in dust
clouds, mists or sprays can therefore retain their charges, often for very long periods, irrespective of the
conductivity of the particles themselves.

In all cases the charge leaks away at a rate determined by the resistance of the non-conductors in the
system. This process is known as relaxation.

Charging Mechanisms
There are six basic industrial electrostatic charging mechanisms:
x Manual rubbing
x Mechanical processing
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x Handling granular materials (e.g., powders, dusts etc.)

x Handling highly insulating liquids
x Electrostatic charging by means of jets; and
x Actions of personnel

Manual Rubbing
Fires have occurred because of manual rubbing, either accidentally or for process purposes. Many
incidents are caused by using synthetic rags for cleaning solvents and clearing petrol spillages using
brooms with nylon bristles.

Mechanical Processing
When HIMs are mechanically processed, e.g., by roller conveyor systems, the resultant frequent contact
and separation can produce a very effective charge generating mechanism. Fires often occur in printing
processes, coating machines and other systems where roller conveyor systems are used to transport
HlMs into troughs containing flammable liquids.

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When a liquid flow through a pipe charge separation occurs and the liquid emerging from the pipe is
charged. The amount of charge is dependent upon the flow velocity, turbulence, temperature and

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conductivity of the pipe.

Fine particle filters can be prolific generators of static electricity.

Splashing of liquids as the liquid emerges from a pipe can give rise to mists or spray. If the liquid column
is unbroken the charge may dissipate; however, any droplets will retain their charge. The resultant spray
is therefore charged.

Stirring and mixing of a liquid in a container generates static electrical charges dependent on the
conductivity of the liquid and the relative motion between the liquid and the solid surfaces with which it is
in contact. The amount of charge generated is much less than that produced by the flow of liquid through
a pipe because the turbulence is less, but a consideration in some blending processes.

Handling Granular Materials

The manual addition of granular materials, including powders, into vessels containing a flammable
atmosphere, is one of the most frequent causes of electrostatic incidents that produce serious injuries. In
many cases, the fires and explosions have occurred when the granular materials have been emptied from
containers either made from or lined with HlMs.

Incidents involving the manual loading of vessels illustrate that, whenever reasonably practicable, vessels
containing a flammable atmosphere should be loaded automatically by means of worm-screw conveyors,
vibratory feed systems, rotary valves, vacuum etc.

Handling Highly Insulating Liquids

Highly insulating liquids in their own right can act as accumulators of hazardous levels of electrostatic
charges but if they are either transferred in pipelines made from HIMs or stored in containers made from
HlMs there is often a greater degree of risk.

When highly insulating liquids flow through pipes made from HIMs, not only is the initial rate of
electrostatic charging of the liquid greater than with metal pipes, but also incendive discharges can be
produced from the outside of the pipe. When charged liquids are stored in containers made from HIMs it
can be shown that the surface potential on the liquid is approximately 50% higher than it would be in an
equivalent earthed metal container because of the neutralising effect of the induced charges in the metal
container.

Electrostatic Charging by Means of Jets

The atomisation of a liquid at a jet causes a separation effect when droplets are formed. The nozzle and
the droplets become charged.
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Actions of Personnel
If a person insulated from earth becomes charged, he/she can give rise to sparks, which may be
sufficiently energetic to ignite flammable vapours. Examples of charging mechanisms include contact with
a charged material, e.g., sampling a highly-charged powder, pouring liquids or powders from a container
held by the person, rising from a chair or brushing against a wall, walking on an insulating floor, e.g.,
carpet and removal of an outer garment.

It is commonplace for people to experience discharges of more than sufficient energy to be incendive
when they walk over floors carpeted with synthetic materials, or leave their cars by sliding across a seat
made of synthetic materials.

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Static Precautionary Measures

Highly Insulating Materials (HIMs)
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Six basic precautionary measures for the reduction of

electrostatic risks are listed below, the first two are of prime
importance:
1. Removal of highly insulating materials (HIMs).
2. Replacement of HIMs with anti-static equivalents,
including the use of anti-static additives in liquids.
3. Use of high humidities.
4. Removal of any electrostatic charging process.
5. Use of neutralising techniques, and
6. Design of units containing HIMs to either reduce the
effective size of any exposed insulating surface or to
ensure that the electric field distribution is non-
hazardous.

Removal of Highly Insulating Materials (HIMs)

In many situations, a risk analysis will show that the presence of a HIM in a hazardous area is
unnecessary and that it can be removed without detriment to the process concerned.

Replacement of HIMs with Anti-Static Equivalents

Many plastic materials can be made anti-static by the addition of quantities of carbon black at the
compounding stage. This usually impairs the mechanical performance and impact resistance of plastics,
especially at low temperatures. Glass fibre composites can be obtained which provide good strength and
anti-static qualities. Attention has to be paid to any possible leeching action if the anti-static HIMs are to
be used with solvents, which might remove the anti-static additive.

The use of surface treatments to render only the surface of a material anti-static is not generally
recommended because there is normally the possibility of, either the surface treatment gradually
becoming less effective with the passage of time, or even more undesirable, the preferential erosion of the
treatment regions leaving isolated conducting areas.

Highly insulating liquids can be made safer using anti-static additives to increase the conductivity of the
liquid. Unfortunately, the use of certain additives can pose general problems in the pharmaceutical and
food industries.
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Use of High Humidities

The use of high humidities to reduce the surface resistance of HIMs is generally not practicable because
most HIMs are highly hydrophobic and thus relative humidities of greater than 70% are required to
produce an acceptable anti-static surface. In some specialised industries, e.g., the explosives industry,
this precautionary measure has been found to produce a reduction in the risk of ignition.

Removal of any Electrostatic Charging Process

The use of HlMs should be avoided in hazardous areas unless it can be shown that these materials will
not be subject to any electrostatic charging mechanism. Charging mechanisms that occur as part of the
process and those that may occur inadvertently, e.g., by steam leaks or unauthorised cleaning, should be
considered.

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In a manual electrostatic spray-cabin, for example, consideration of this measure may lead to the
acceptance of buried plastic tanks, of adequate mechanical strength, for the storage of flammable liquids

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provided that:
ƒ The rate of filling of the tank is not greater than the safe-filling rate for an equivalent metal tank
ƒ There is an adequate path to earth for any charges in the liquid
ƒ The entry of personnel is prohibited; and
ƒ Only safe cleaning procedures are used

Charge Neutralisation Techniques

Many incidents occur when HIMs in the form of plastic are passed through roller or conveyor systems. In
a few cases, humidity or anti-static additives can be used to remove the ignition hazard but, in most
cases, electrostatic eliminators are required to reduce hazardous levels of charge on the HIMs to those
levels that are incapable of producing incendive discharges. Passive, electric-powered and radioactive
types of eliminators are commercially available and they all operate on the principle of providing a source
of ions which can be used to neutralise the charge on the surface of the HIM.

Included in this category of precautionary measures is the very rare safeguard of reducing the air pressure
above the surface of a HIM to between 10 and 30 mbar. Since the dielectric strength of air is proportional
to the air pressure, this reduction in pressure has the effect of reducing the maximum level of charge that
can be stored on the surface of a HIM.

Design of units containing highly insulating materials to either reduce the effective size of any exposed
insulating surface or to ensure that the electric field distribution is non-hazardous.

If HIMs are used in electrical apparatus for potentially explosive atmospheres, then either anti-static
materials should be used, or the electrical apparatus should be designed so that the presence of a HIM
does not present an electrostatic hazard.

The following design principles can be applied to any material containing HIMs, whether electrical or not,
which is to be used in a hazardous area:
x Ensure that the size of any exposed surface of a HIM is insufficient in area to give rise to an
incendive discharge
x Ensure that any charge on the surface of a HIM is not available to partake in a discharge; and
x Ensure that the surfaces of the HIMs are placed in such a way that they are neither accessible to
any contact charging mechanisms nor to the approach of an object which could form a spark-gap

Precautions against Static Electricity from Low

Conductivity Liquids ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues
The main precaution is to eliminate the flammable mixture by ventilation with air or by inerting. In the
absence of flammable mixture there may still be a risk of serious physiological shock. This can be
eliminated by bonding and earthing both conductor and personnel.

If the presence of a flammable mixture is possible electrostatic discharges should be controlled by:
x Bonding and earth conductors, including personnel
x Minimising electrostatic charge generation; and
x Maximising charge dissipation

Earth Bonding
Static earth bonding should have a resistance to earth of 10 or less. All flammable liquid containers
should be closed prior to decanting and transportation. The earth bonding should be attached before
opening the container and be removed after the container is closed.

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Minimise Charge Generation

The generation of electrostatic charge increases with the rate of flow of liquids. A flow velocity of 1ms-1 is
recommended for filling storage tanks with low conductivity liquids.
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Free fall of low conductivity liquids should be avoided by using bottom entry or by the use of a fill pipe that
extends to the bottom of the vessel.

Agitation or mixing of low conductivity liquids with air, steam, gas or jet nozzles should be kept to a
minimum to avoid possible charges on the mists or sprays formed.

Charge Dissipation
When a liquid is highly charged, e.g., after passing through a fine particulate filter most of the charge can
be dissipated by allowing the liquid to pass slowly through a relaxation chamber. This could be a small
tank or more frequently a length of large diameter pipe.

Precautions against Static Electricity from Powders

When an ignition risk exists in a powder handling system, the precautions needed to avoid a static
electricity hazard depend on, to some extent, the presence of other potential ignition sources in the
system. If the system requires explosion protection (explosion vents, explosion suppression or inert gas)
then precautions against electrostatic ignitions can often be limited to the earthing of metal components
and, where appropriate, personnel.

Some reduction of charge generation may be possible by using high density (semi-bulked) flow rather
than low density flow. Control of charge generation can seldom be used as the primary means of
minimising static electricity risks in powder handling systems.

Normal atmospheric air is a poor conductor of electricity irrespective of its relative humidity. Humidification
is therefore ineffective as a means of dissipating the charge from a dust cloud. High relative humidity can
decrease the surface resistivity of many powders and hence of facilitating charge relaxation in the bulked
powder when in a metal container.

The electrical conductivity of a gas in which a powder is suspended can be increased by ionisation;
however, such systems are not widely used.

Earthing probes or wires placed at the point a powder enters a container can reduce the energy of
individual discharges to a low level. If the powder is entering a non-conductive container, they can also
provide a safe route to earth for the accumulated charge. Where substances are used with very low
minimum ignition energies it is difficult to avoid incendive discharges by means of rods and wires. The
ignition problems should then be dealt with by other means such as inert gas or explosion venting. Rods
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can be used in these systems to avoid physiological shocks.

Precautions against Static Electricity on Personnel

Static discharges from the body can be minimised by providing an adequately conducting path between
the person and the floor. Antistatic footwear is intended for use in situations where protection is also
required against dangerous electric shock in the event of apparatus becoming live at voltages of up to 250
V to earth.

In general clothing made from any material can be worn provided the wearer is earthed directly or through
approved antistatic footwear. Antistatic clothing made from natural fibres such as cotton relies on the
presence of atmospheric moisture to be effective.

Clothing should never be removed in areas where flammable gas mixtures or low minimum energy ignition
dust clouds are present.

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Lightning

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Lightning strikes are a natural form of static electricity. The potential difference between the cloud and
earth may be in the order of 100 MV. Large amounts of energy being dissipated in an arc over a short
period of time potentially causing destruction of buildings. The risk from lightning strikes must be assessed
as other risks to the plant and building. Expert advice may be required from specialist companies in
lightning protection.

Control Measures for The Use of Electrical

Equipment and Electrical Systems
Electrical System
The definition of an electrical system does not only refer to functional circuits, but a system may also
contain one or many such circuits and is made up of all the electrical equipment and power sources that
are electrically connected. This may not be the same thing as physically connected e.g., there are no
physical connections between the windings of a transformer; however, they are electrically connected as

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electrical energy is transferred between the windings. A system does not have to be fixed; it can be part of
a mobile machine e.g., portable generator. A system does not have to be energised e.g., earth cable.
Equipment that is not and cannot be connected to a power source is not part of a system.

Duty Holders
Employers, the self-employed and employees have responsibilities for electrical safety. The duties on
employees are equivalent to those placed on employers and the self-employed where the matters are
within their control. This arrangement recognises the level of responsibility, which many employees in the
electrical trades and professions are expected to take on as part of their job.

Construction
All electrical systems should be constructed to prevent danger. This will not only include when the system
is in operation, but also during any testing, commissioning and maintenance.

Construction includes the design of the system, the design of component parts, the arrangement and
assembly of those parts and their physical condition. More specific design requirements of electrical
system components are discussed later in this Element as is use, maintenance and repair.

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Detailed safety standards for designers and installers of electrical systems and equipment are given in
codes of practice and industry standards.

Further standards are published by The International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), The European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation (CENELEC), and The British Standards Institution (BSI).
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Important Aspects of Electrical Systems

Strength and Capability of Electrical Equipment

Electrical equipment should not be put into use where its strength and capability may be exceeded in such
a way as may give rise to danger.

Strength and capability refer to the ability to withstand thermal, electro-magnetic, voltage stresses and
other effects of electric current both in normal use and under fault conditions.

Most electrical equipment will only be able to withstand short circuits for brief periods, so any protective
devices used should clear the fault well within this period. Protective conductors and equipment should
be able to survive beyond fault clearance times. Insulation should be effective under normal and fault
conditions.

The selection of cables of an appropriate size should take account of the method of installation. Rated
current carrying capacities can be considerably reduced where cables are grouped (bunched) or
insulated.

Insulation, Protection and Placing of Conductors

All conductors, including earth and neutral, in a system, which may give rise to danger should either, so
far as is reasonably practicable:

x Be suitably insulated and protected to prevent danger; and

x Have such precautions, including suitable placing where appropriate, to prevent danger

This requirement ensures that no danger will arise from any conductors in a circuit.

Insulation is the most common means of preventing direct shock contact with a current carrying
conductor. It also protects against burns, fire, arcing and explosion dangers.

Fixed electrical system conductor cables are generally insulated, and may be further protected by ducting,
conduit and trunking systems. Cables may be further protected from mechanical damage, e.g., steel wire
armoured (SWA), and tied to a cable tray system or buried. Where cable connection terminations are
made, they should be “finger-proofed” to prevent access.

Conductor enclosures and placement should prevent ease of access, e.g., enclosures interlocked with the
switch handle and the unprotected conductors of an overhead travelling crane placed out of reach at
height.
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Overhead high voltage transmission cables are normally un-insulated; however, they are placed at such a
height to prevent danger under normal circumstances.

Adverse or Hazardous Environments

Electrical equipment should be constructed and protected to prevent danger arising from the exposure to
adverse or hazardous environments.

Adverse or hazardous environmental hazards include:

x Mechanical damage.
x The effects of weather, natural hazards, temperature or
pressure.
x The effects of wet, dirty, dusty or corrosive conditions;
and
x Any flammable or explosive substance, including dust,
vapours or gases.

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Example hazards are shown in Table 44.

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Table 44: Adverse or Hazardous Environmental Hazards

Hazard Examples
Mechanical damage. Impact, stress, strain, abrasion, wear, vibration, pneumatic and
hydraulic pressure.
Weather. Long term – cyclic temperature, corrosion, dust accumulation.
Short term – rain, snow, ice, wind.
Natural. Solar radiation, plant, animal, lightning.
Temperature, pressure. External and caused by current flow, build-up of detritus.
Liquids and vapours. Liquid immersion, splashing, spraying, condensation, vapours,
solvents, detergents, conducting and non-conducting.
Dirty conditions. Liquid and solid contamination, conducting and non-conducting
dusts.
Corrosive conditions. Chemical or electro-chemical substances, solutions or
preparations.
Flammable substances. Dusts and vapours.
Explosive substances. Dusts, vapours and gases, explosive substances.

Suitable protection should be provided against hazardous environments, which can vary with place and
time. The protection necessary will depend upon the nature and likelihood of the hazard and the severity
of the resulting danger.

Mechanical Damage
Electrical equipment should be protected against the risk of mechanical impact and abrasion damage.
This may include placing electrical equipment away from impact risks, the use of barriers and fences or
the use of cable protection e.g., steel conduit and trunking, and the use of mechanically protected cables
e.g., steel wire armoured (SWA). SWA cables have a sheath of metal wires wound around the
encapsulated insulated cables, the whole cable is then protected by a flexible outer.

Illustration 78: SWA Cables

Electrical equipment should be able to withstand mechanical

forces by design, allowing for expansion and contraction, and

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

by the selection of suitable materials. Flexible cables should
withstand the rigours of regular movement. All flexible cable
entries should be protected against mechanical wear and
cord grips to prevent cables being pulled from their
connection terminals.

Cables should/can withstand all mechanical forces when

buried below ground or placed at height.

Precautions for buried cables include avoiding terrain that

may move, compacting soil, avoiding any sub-terrain hazards
that may cause cable damage, placement on, and burying of
cables in, a non-abrasive material, burying of cable warning
tape, and placement of cable indication and warning
markers.
Cables placed at height and their supports should have a mechanical strength capable of withstanding the
forces of gravity and weather e.g., wind, ice and snow.

If structural (building) movement is experienced or expected, then the electrical system support and
protection systems should be capable of permitting relative movement so that conductors are not
subjected to excessive mechanical stress.

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Effects of Weather, Natural Hazards, Temperature or Pressure

Precautions include the use of suitable enclosures.

An internationally recognised system exists which classifies the degree of protection afforded by
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enclosures against the ingress of solid objects and water (including humidity), and the protection afforded
against contact with any live parts within the enclosure for all types of electrical equipment, commonly
known as the IP Code (IP = International Protection). The greater the numeric value, the greater the
degree of protection.

External equipment should be designed, placed and sealed, to provide protection against damage by flora
or fauna root systems, gnawing rodents and the effects of mould growth.

Electrical equipment should be provided, where necessary, with means of dissipating heat e.g., cooling
fins, heat sinks and cooling fans. If cooling fans are used, then the air should be filtered. If the heat
cannot be dissipated it may be necessary to insulate, or reduce the current carrying capacity of, the
equipment. Electrical equipment should not degrade by the effects of solar radiation either by the
selection of suitable materials or by shielding. To prevent a fire risk, an accumulation of detritus should
preferably be prevented from occurring by design.

Where external pressure is applied to electrical equipment it should be sufficiently robust to withstand that
pressure.

Electrical equipment designed to detect and give warning of a fire should be suitably designed and
selected e.g., use of mineral insulated metal sheath (MIMS) cables.

Effects of Wet, Dirty, Dusty or Corrosive Conditions

Precautions include containment in enclosures to a suitable IP rating, provision of unventilated air-tight
enclosures and corrosion resistant enclosures. In the case of corrosive and wet environments it may be
necessary to purge the enclosure to achieve the dissipation of heat.

Flammable or Explosive Substances

Protective and precautionary measures for hazardous areas (environments) are discussed later in this
Element.

Earthing or Other Suitable Precautions

Precautions should be taken, either by earthing or other suitable means to prevent danger from a
conductor, which may become charged using a system or from a fault in the system. This is to prevent all
dangers arising when a conductor, other than a circuit conductor, becomes charged due to some fault or
process condition.

There are three general methods used to eliminate these dangers, which are:
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x By ensuring that the non-circuit conductors do not become charged by use of double insulation
x By ensuring that if the non-circuit conductors do become charged that the values and duration of
voltage and current are such that danger will not arise, e.g., by use of earthing and protective
devices or use of safe voltages; and
x By ensuring that if the non-circuit conductors do become charged then danger will not arise, e.g.,
by use of equipotential bonding or earth-free non-conducting environments

The above techniques may be used singly or in combination.

Earthing and Automatic Disconnection

In the UK, the public supply is referenced to earth at the distribution sub-station or power transformer.
This makes it possible to detect earth faults on equipment and disconnect faulty equipment automatically.
Automatic disconnection is made possible by the provision of devices such as fuses and circuit breakers,
including miniature circuit breakers (MCBs).

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A fuse is a weak link designed to melt thereby breaking the circuit at abnormal currents. Circuit breakers
can be thermal or electro-magnetic devices, which perform the same function as fuses although slightly

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faster. These are further discussed later in this Element.

This method of protection may protect against indirect shock in the event of a system fault, assuming that
the fault to earth occurs before a person contacts the equipment. Without a protective device, the
equipment might be damaged and would eventually become hot enough to start a fire.

Fault currents caused by a short circuit to earth are likely to allow much higher currents to flow than the
equipment or cables were designed to carry. The fault current must be large enough to operate the
protective devices quickly. The earth (protective) conductor must be an adequate rating to safely carry
any expected fault current for the time it takes for the protective device to operate. If an earth conductor
fails either because it becomes open circuit or because a large impedance is introduced into it, protection
is removed. Therefore, the integrity of the earth conductor is of great importance.

Where it is important to ensure that the user is made aware of any failure in the earth (protective)
conductor, e.g., open circuit or high impedance, an earth monitoring system should be employed. This
provides a very low current from a transformer through the protective conductor. This very low current
energises a coil and relay (switch) holding a circuit breaker closed in the power supply. A fault in the
protective conductor will open the power supply circuit breaker. These earth monitoring systems also
offer additional protection when using portable electrical equipment in wet environments where other
protective measures cannot be used.

Connection to a Common Voltage Reference Point

In some installations, the neutral and earth conductors on the incoming supply are combined, this is
known as protective multiple earthing (PME). Consumer earthing is provided by connection to the supply
neutral, whereby the return fault current flows back through the neutral conductor of the distribution
system via a connection from the consumer’s main earthing terminal. The supply neutral is referenced to
earth, so this allows operation of the protective devices as detailed above.

Reference points other than earth may be chosen to suit particular circumstances; however, this only
occurs in a very few specialised circumstances.

Means of Protecting from Excess Current

Electrical systems should be provided with suitably located efficient means for protecting every part of a
system from excess current.

It is necessary to install protective devices, e.g., fuses and miniature circuit breakers (MCB), ensure that
all parts of, and users of, an electrical system are protected. Their rating should not exceed the current
carrying capacity of the circuit for which they offer protection.

The types of faults requiring protection are normally overloads, short circuits (between live phases or live

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

to neutral) and earth faults (live to earth).

Means for Cutting off the Supply and for Isolation

Electrical systems should be provided with suitable means for cutting off the supply to (switching), and the
isolation of, electrical equipment, including where appropriate methods for identifying circuits.

It is important to differentiate between switching and isolation. Switching means depriving electrical
equipment of electrical energy, whereas isolation means the disconnection and separation of the electrical
equipment from every source of electrical energy in such a way that the disconnection and separation is
secure. Therefore, isolation requires steps to be taken to ensure that the electrical equipment cannot be
inadvertently re-energised.

Switches should cut off the supply in both normal and abnormal operating conditions and be in a suitable
location that allows ease of access. Switches should be clearly labelled so there is no doubt as to the
equipment it controls.

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Workspace, Access and Lighting

Adequate working space, adequate means of access, and adequate lighting should be provided for
electrical equipment on which, or near which, work is to be done.
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This requirement applies to any work, not only live work, and includes protecting those whose work is not
associated with the electrical system to ensure a safe working environment whenever work is to be
undertaken that may give rise to danger.

It is recommended that for up to 650 V a minimum clearance height of 2.13 m and width of 0.91 m to allow
persons to move around, pass each other and pull back without danger.

Natural or fixed permanent lighting is preferred, although torches and hand lamps may be used.
Whatever the lighting sources, it should be sufficient to allow work to be carried out safely.

Control Measures
Selection and Suitability of Equipment
Electrical equipment includes anything used, intended to be used or installed for use, to generate, provide,
transmit, transform, rectify, convert, conduct, distribute, store, measure or use electrical energy.

The selection of suitable work equipment for tasks and processes makes it possible to reduce or eliminate
many risks to the health and safety of people in the workplace. This applies to all types of work
equipment including electrical equipment, both in normal use as well as during other operations, such as
maintenance.

For electrical equipment, risk assessments should include consideration of:

ͻ Its initial integrity
ͻ The purpose for which it will be used; and
ͻ The place where it will be used

Design considerations should include:

ͻ The equipment manufacturer’s ratings
ͻ All anticipated load and fault conditions
ͻ The inter-relationship between items of equipment
ͻ The need to provide protective devices
ͻ The ability of components, e.g., switches, fuses, cables etc., to withstand any expected fault
current
ͻ Likely environmental conditions
ͻ User requirements
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ͻ Testing, commissioning and maintenance requirements; and

ͻ Conformance with recognised standards

Fuse
A fuse is a weak link designed to melt thereby breaking the
circuit at abnormal currents. It is intended to protect the
equipment and wiring from over current and will not protect
people from direct electric shock, as its operation is relatively
slow. The flow of electrical current generates heat, the higher
the current, the more the heat. Without a fuse, the equipment
might be damaged, and the wiring would eventually become
hot enough to melt its insulation and start a fire. The
advantages of fuses are that they offer good overload
protection, are relatively cheap and are usually easily
replaced. Disadvantages are wide operating current
tolerances, they can be replaced with a fault still on a system,
they are relatively slow to operate and can easily be defeated
by using a higher rated replacement.

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Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

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MCBs are either thermal or electro-magnetic mechanical
devices, which perform the same function as fuses.
Advantages are that as fixed devices they are less easily
defeated, they can be reset so do not need to be replaced,
their operation is faster than a fuse; however, still not quick
enough to protect against direct electric shock, and that
they cannot be reset with the fault still on the system.

Use of Safe Voltages

The use of reduced voltages is particularly suitable for use with portable equipment, where the risk of
physical damage to equipment is high and in wet areas.

These low voltages may be provided by voltage reducing isolating transformers, where there is no
electrical contact between the primary circuit (often 230 V) and the secondary circuit to which the
appliance is connected. The secondary circuit receives an electro-magnetically induced charge and is
separated (isolated) from the primary by an insulating barrier.

A typical example is the use of 110 V CTE (centre tapped to earth) equipment on construction sites.

Illustration 79: 110 V CTE Transformer

Where there is no 110 V supply a 230/110 V

transformer should be used. The secondary
winding of the transformer is centre tapped to
earth (i.e., the line conductor is at +55 V whilst the
return conductor is at -55 V). This allows the
equipment to be powered by the 110 V supply.
Since earth is at zero-volt potential, this means
that that the maximum shock voltage that could
result from a fault to earth is 55 V, hence the
potential shock current is reduced (Ohms Law). It
is very uncommon for people to be in contact with
both line and return conductors at the same time,
so a 110 V shock is highly unlikely.

Where the use of such a supply may still be hazardous, e.g., where there is water or a significant amount
of exposed metal, it is recommended that further precautions are taken, such as earthing. The supply to
the transformer will be at 240V and should be protected by a residual current device (RCD).

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Voltages less than 50 V a.c. or 120 V d.c. are safe in most circumstances and are used in lower voltage
systems, known as “separated extra low voltage” (SELV), provided from a safety isolating transformer.
The use of voltages of less than 25 V may be preferable near swimming pools and for certain handheld
portable tools, such as inspection lead lamps and soldering irons.

Battery operated tools may be appropriate in some areas, and whilst the risk of shock during use is
reduced the tools still need charging and consequently precautions will need to be taken during this
operation.

Isolation should:
x Establish an air gap between electrical contacts to prevent current flow e.g., switching
x Establish a barrier between electrical equipment and the supply, e.g., fuse removal
x Include a device to prevent removal of the barrier by un-authorised persons, e.g., a padlock fitted
to the switch; and
x Be clearly labelled so that there is no doubt about the equipment it controls

Isolators should be readily visible and be located to enable ease of access and operation.
Circuit identification and labelling of equipment is especially important where the electrical equipment is
remote from the switchboard that provides the point of isolation.

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Residual Current Device (RCD)

These devices are commonly known as residual current devices (RCDs) or current-operated earth
leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs).
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

RCDs are electro-magnetic mechanical devices that provide indirect shock protection and a means of
overload protection in the event of an earth fault. They are very sensitive; however, they do not provide
overload protection for short circuit overload; therefore, a fuse or a MCB should always be fitted in the
supply.

Illustration 80: RCD Circuit

Illustration 80 illustrates the RCD in the

tripped mode. RCDs work on the
principle of detecting an out of balance
between live (L) and neutral (N)
conductors. In normal operation without
an earth fault the current flowing in the
live and neutral conductors is equal.
These conductors are wound in around a
transformer core (toroid or ring). Both
conductors generate an equal magnetic
field that cancels each other out when
the current flow in equals the current
flow out of the circuit.

A fault to earth (E) causes the current flowing in the neutral conductor to be less than that in the live
conductor. This causes an imbalance in the magnetic field in the transformer core, inducing a current in
the secondary fault detection coil, which operates a tripping coil (solenoid), which activates a double pole
trip relay (switch), thus interrupting the supply.

RCDs are very sensitive and will detect leakage currents large enough to start a fire, but which may be too
small to operate a protective device (fuse, MCB). Whilst an RCD will not prevent a shock, their speed of
operation should limit the shock current and its duration. Typically for single items of equipment and
portable hand-held tools a trip current rating of 30 mA operating within 30 ms (milliseconds) is selected.
The use of a RCD has the advantage of providing protection to flexible leads as well as the appliance in
the case of portable hand-held tools, which is important as it is usually a damaged lead that causes
electric shock when using portable tools.
Where RCDs are provided their operation should be regularly tested, e.g., quarterly, using the test button
provided. A competent person using purpose designed test equipment, which will indicate the tripping
current and time, should also test the devices at regular intervals determined by the nature and frequency
of use. The test results should be recorded.

Double Insulation
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Illustration 81: Double Insulation Symbol

This method of protection uses two discrete layers of insulation

instead of one. Each layer alone can ensure that the conductor it
protects cannot give rise to danger. Equipment is so designed that all
exposed metalwork is separated from live conductors by two layers of
insulation so that the metalwork cannot become live.

Double insulation removes the need for an earth conductor, and is

particularly suitable for portable equipment; however, danger is
eliminated only so long as the insulation remains intact. For this
reason, regular maintenance is essential.

Some extension leads for use with double insulated equipment do not
provide an earth conductor therefore should never be used for
portable equipment that requires earthing as a means of protection.

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Equipotential Bonding

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This method involves the earth-bonding of all exposed
metallic conductors, which may become live under fault
conditions, and is often used in wet environments. All
extraneous metalwork is maintained at a common potential
using a common bonding conductor. Should one conductor
be raised to a high potential, then all are raised to the same
potential. This significantly reduces the risk of being in
simultaneous contact with different conductors at differing
potentials, i.e., no potential difference means no current flow.

This method does not protect against shock currents to

earth, therefore the earth-bonding is usually connected to an
earth conductor to ensure the operation of the protective
devices under fault conditions.

This method of protection is also used to prevent the build-up

of static charges, as discussed later in this Element.

Earth-Free Non-Conducting Environments

If work is carried out in an earth-free non-conducting area, dangerous potentials to earth are eliminated
because no path exists for earth fault currents, therefore there is no danger of indirect electric shock. The
floor resistance throughout a designated area should be at least 50 kΩ for supply voltages up to 500 V,
live to earth. Also, all electrical supplies should be via an isolating transformer fitted with earthed screens
to prevent an earth return path via the neutral or protective (earth) conductor. This method of protection
has very specialised applications and is costly to construct e.g., television test and repair workshops.

This method of protection does not afford protection from hand-to-hand direct shock or from short circuit
explosion e.g., on test instruments bridging exposed live parts.

Classification
Electrical equipment is often classified for providing protection against electrical shock. In the UK,
BS2754 “Memorandum on the construction of electrical equipment for protection against electric shock”, is
an example of a classification system for electrical equipment. It is shown in Table 45.

Table 45: Classification of Electrical Equipment for Providing Protection Against Electrical Shock

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Class Description
Class 1 Basic insulation with earthed metalwork.
(earthed equipment)
Class IIA Apparatus having two layers of insulation, one of which covers or
comprises the outer casing so that metalwork cannot be touched.
(all insulated equipment)

Class IIB Apparatus where all exposed metalwork is separated from

conductors by two layers of insulation so that the metal work cannot
(double insulated equipment) become live.
Apparatus operating on separated extra low voltage (SELV) i.e., not
exceeding 50V a.c. between conductors and earth, provided form an
Class III isolating transformer. The equipment has basic insulation only and
unearthed metalwork.

The Class numbers are not intended to reflect the safety level of the equipment. Class 0 equipment
provides protection from electrical shock only using basic insulation.

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Integrity of Referenced Conductors

No impedance should be placed in a conductor that is connected to earth or other reference point.
This is particularly important in the case of 3-phase systems where the neutral is connected to earth at the
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

source of supply to ensure that the phase voltages are similar and not unduly affected by unbalanced
phase loading. Similarly, it is important where the neutral and earth conductors on the incoming supply
are combined, e.g., protective multiple earthing (PME), as any open circuit is likely to affect any earthing
arrangements provided for the electrical installation. This is mainly of concern to the supply authority,
however it is relevant to those workplaces taking supplies at high voltages and responsible for their own
on-site distribution.

This does not prohibit devices such as a proper joint, a bolted link, a removable link or a manually
operated knife joint to be placed in the protective conductor, however some devices are prohibited e.g.,
fuses. The terminations of protective conductors should be robust and protected from the effects of
corrosion.

Connections
Every joint and connection on a system, including supply and protective conductors, should be
mechanically and electrically suitable for use.
Connections include terminals, plugs and sockets, and any other means of jointing, be they temporary or
permanent.

Mechanical protection should ensure the integrity of insulation and conductance under all conditions of
use, including any likely fault conditions.
Plugs and sockets not rated for making or breaking under load should have effective arrangements to
ensure that the connections are made or broken under no-load conditions.

Cables should be correctly affixed to equipment by properly constructed glands or plugs or sockets. The
importance of sound connections is to prevent “hot spots” under normal operating conditions that may
lead to failure of a connection. Many workplaces use thermal imaging equipment to identify hot spots in
systems when they are under load.

Inspection and Maintenance Strategy

The following requirements relate to electrical systems:
ͻ All systems to be maintained to prevent danger
ͻ Operation, maintenance and use of a system to be carried out to prevent danger; and
ͻ Equipment provided for protecting persons at work on or near electrical equipment to be suitable,
maintained and properly used

The risk assessment process should lead to the development of safe systems of work to control significant
risks.
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Factors to consider when carrying out the electrical equipment assessment include:
ͻ The initial integrity and the manufacturer’s recommendations
ͻ The environment in which it is used
ͻ The type of the equipment, e.g., fixed or handheld
ͻ Its intended use and foreseeable abuse
ͻ Its age, the frequency and duration of use
ͻ The effects of any modifications or repairs; and
ͻ Analysis of previous records of maintenance

Maintenance
To ensure the long-term safety of portable electrical equipment a robust system of maintenance should be
put in place, which is both proactive in terms of identifying defects and reactive in terms of dealing with
defects. As the different classes of equipment rely on different systems for protection against shock the
integrity of the conductor and connections should be inspected and tested on a regular basis.

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Maintenance can of course include visual inspection, testing, repair and replacement and determine the
most appropriate course of action in terms of the serviceability of the equipment.

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An effective maintenance regime should consist of the following:
ͻ Checks carried out by the user
ͻ Formal visual inspections by a competent person; and
ͻ Combined inspection and tests

User Checks

The person using the equipment should carry out a simple inspection of the equipment prior to use.
Furthermore, the user should be capable of identifying and recognising the deterioration on equipment
over time. The user should check for the following:
ͻ Damage to the cable sheath
ͻ Damage to the plug, e.g., the casing is cracking, the pins are bent or signs of overheating
ͻ Inadequate joints, including taped joints in the cable
ͻ The outer sheath of the cable is not effectively secured where it enters the plug or the equipment.
Obvious evidence would be if the coloured insulation of the internal cable cores were showing
ͻ The equipment has been subjected to conditions for which it is not suitable, e.g., it is wet or
excessively contaminated
ͻ Damage to the external casing of the equipment or there are some loose parts or screws; and
ͻ Evidence of overheating (burn marks or discoloration)

These checks should also be applied to equipment connecting the appliance to the electrical supply e.g.,
extension cables, plugs etc. Any defects noted during the check should be reported via a recognised
procedure and the appropriate response can then be applied e.g., repair, replacement or removal from
service.

Illustration 82: Visible Damage to a Plug Casing

Formal Visual Inspections

A formal visual inspection should be routinely carried by a
suitably qualified and experienced person. The inspection
regime should include those carried out by the user but in
a more formalised (documented) way and in addition
should include:
x Removing the plug cover and ensuring that a
fuse is being used (e.g., it is a fuse not a piece of

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

wire or a nail etc) and that it is of the correct
rating.
x Checking that the cord grip is effective; and
x Checking that the cable terminations are secure
and correct, including an earth where
appropriate, and there is no sign of internal
damage, overheating or ingress of liquid or
foreign matter.

Generally, the formal visual inspection would not include dismantling the equipment, which should be
carried out during the combined test and inspection.

Formal visual inspections of this nature should pick up most potentially dangerous faults and should
therefore always be a component part of the maintenance strategy. A suitably competent member of staff
should carry out the inspection at regular intervals. The time between inspections is a matter of
assessment where higher risk equipment should be inspected more frequently than lower semi fixed office
equipment.

Faulty equipment should be dealt with accordingly through repair, replacement and removal from service.

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Records of inspections over a period can reveal trends in faults that emerge and may lead to conclusions
following analysis such as:
x The wrong equipment is being selected for the job
x Further protection may be necessary in a harsh environment; or
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x The equipment is being misused

Combined Inspections and Tests

Whilst inspections will reveal most of the faults associated with equipment, internal faults or deterioration
of conductors e.g., broken earth wire within a flexible cable, cannot be detected by inspection alone.
Periodically a combined approach is a reliable method of ensuring electrical integrity of equipment when
combined with the user checks and formal visual inspection regimes.

The inspection element of this combined approach should include checking:

x The correct polarity of supply cables
x Correct fusing
x Effective termination of cables and cores; and
x That the equipment is suitable for its environment

Testing of equipment should be carried out in the following circumstances:

x Whenever there is reason to suppose the equipment may be defective (but this cannot be
confirmed by visual inspection)
x After any repair, modification or similar work; and
x At periods appropriate to the equipment, the manner and frequency of use and the environment

Clearly this combined approach requires more competence than the previously outlined inspection
regimes due to the interpretation requirements of test results. Specific training is therefore likely to be
required although once again this could be done by an appropriately qualified and experienced employee.
The responsibility for ensuring competence falls on the employer.

There are two levels of competency required:

The first level is where a person not skilled in electrical work routinely uses a simple ‘pass/fail’ type of
portable appliance tester (PAT), where no interpretation of readings is necessary. The person would of
course, need to know how to use the PAT correctly. Providing the appropriate test procedures are
rigorously followed and acceptance criteria are clearly defined, this routine can be straightforward.
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The second level is where a person with appropriate electrical skills uses a more sophisticated
instrument that gives actual readings, of e.g., power output and consumption, requiring interpretation.
Such a person would need to be competent through technical knowledge or experience related to the type
of work and equipment under test.

Maintenance and Test Records

Comprehensive records are useful management tool to ensure the Workplace Precautions, Risk Control
Systems and the Management Arrangements are appropriate for the risks presented.

A carefully described log can also be a useful indicator of places of use, or types of equipment which are
subject to higher-than-normal wear. Analysis can therefore assist the management of risks in terms of
ensuring the correct equipment is used appropriately in the correct environment.

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Frequency of Inspection and Combined Inspection and

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Testing
The frequency of testing should be determined based on an assessment of the risks associated with the
work and the equipment. Specific consideration in relation to the equipment is required in relation to
portable and transportable electrical equipment. When assessing the appropriateness of the frequency of
inspection and testing the following factors should be considered:
x The type of equipment and whether it is handheld or not
x Manufacturer’s recommendations
x The initial integrity and soundness of equipment
x The age of the equipment
x The working environment in which the equipment is used (e.g., wet or dusty) or likelihood of
mechanical damage
x The frequency of use and the duty cycle of the equipment
x Foreseeable abuse of the equipment
x The effects of any modifications or repairs to the equipment; and
x Analysis of previous records of maintenance, including both formal inspection and combined
inspection and testing

Repair and Replacement

The repair of electrical equipment would usually require specialist knowledge and expertise and in many
instances, replacement is a viable alternative. Where repairs are carried out testing should be redone to
ensure the integrity of the repair. It should be noted that wear out failures which are identified and
subsequently repaired may be accompanied by other undetected failures e.g., a lead showing evidence of
damage in one area may conceal damage in another, therefore replacement of the entire lead would be
appropriate in such circumstances. It is good practice to record all repairs.

Where equipment is taken out of service then it should be rendered inoperative prior to disposal to ensure
that faulty equipment is not used by mistake or intentionally in the workplace.

Maintenance Schemes
Maintenance, including inspection and testing, of electrical equipment is important to ensure that it
remains in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good working order.

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Maintenance strategies including opportunistic maintenance, emergency/breakdown maintenance,
planned preventative maintenance and routine condition monitoring, apply to electrical equipment.

The maintenance scheme should:

x Identify the equipment to be maintained, inspected and tested
x Define what must be done on which equipment
x Define how the work will be done
x Define who will do the work
x Identify and record the work instruction systems; and
x Define the audit and review systems

Inspection and testing should not cause danger to persons or cause damage to property and equipment.
The results of periodic inspection and testing should be recorded. The UK IEE Regulations, BS7671,
provides examples of initial installation completion certificate and periodic inspection report forms.
BS7671 represents an excellent model of best practice for the inspection and testing of fixed electrical
systems.

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Table 46 below provides examples of maximum intervals between inspections and tests of fixed
installations.

Table 46: Periodic Inspection and Testing of Fixed Electrical Installations

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Type of Installation Maximum period

between inspections
Commercial, hospitals and educational establishments 5 years
General
Industrial 3 years

Places of public entertainment, leisure complexes, 1 year

Buildings
open to the restaurants and hotels and churches over 5 years old
public Churches under 5 years old 2 years

Highway power supplies. 6 years

External
Agricultural and horticultural, and caravans 3 years
Installations
Caravan sites 1 year

Emergency lighting 3 years

Special
Fire alarms, laundrettes and petrol filing stations 1 year
Installations
Temporary installations 3 months

Periodic inspection and testing of fixed installations in a workplace should also be considered:
ͻ To verify compliance with standards and best practice requirements
ͻ On a change of use of the workplace
ͻ On change of ownership or tenancy of the workplace
ͻ After alterations or additions to an original installation
ͻ Due to increased loading of the installation; and
ͻ Here damage to the installation occurs or is suspected

Safe Systems of Work and Criteria of Acceptability for Live

Working
No person should be engaged in any work activity on or so near any live conductor, other than one that is
suitably insulated, unless:
ͻ It is unreasonable in all circumstances for it to be dead
ͻ It is reasonable in all the circumstances for it to be live; and
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ͻ Suitable precautions are taken to prevent injury

These requirements also apply to situations where conductors are covered with insulating material but not
suitably covered by it e.g., excavation near underground cables. Although live testing may be justifiable it
does not follow that there will necessarily be justification for subsequent repair work to be carried out live.
An example of where live working may be justifiable is to undertake some maintenance on a busy section
of railway track whereby it would be disproportionately disruptive and costly to isolate the equipment.

Other examples where live work may be acceptable are:

ͻ Commissioning or monitoring the operation of electrical equipment
ͻ When other hazards may arise from electrical supply failure e.g., continuous batch processes
ͻ When there is a need to comply with statutory requirements e.g., voltage testing; and
ͻ Where the cost grossly outweighs the risk, and the risk of injury can be reduced to an acceptable
level

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Suitable precautions to prevent injury from live working include:

ͻ The use of properly trained and competent persons to work on live equipment

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ͻ The provision of adequate information about the conductors, associated electrical system and
foreseeable risks
ͻ The use of suitable tools (including insulated tools), equipment and PPE
ͻ Effective control of the area where there is danger from live conductors
ͻ The use of insulated barriers and screens
ͻ The use of suitable instruments and test probes
ͻ Accompaniment by another competent person
ͻ The provision of specially equipped areas for routine testing; and
ͻ Restriction of live working to certain areas

Safe Systems of Work on Installations made Dead

Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent electrical equipment that has been made dead from
becoming electrically charged during work if danger may arise.

A written safe system of work is required whenever electrical work is to be carried out that gives rise to
danger to ensure adequate precautions are taken. The safe system of work may include the following:
ͻ Planning the job including the identification of equipment, points of isolation and any emergency
actions required
ͻ Disconnection from the power supply and any other potential electrical sources, such as
capacitance and inductance
ͻ Secure isolation, e.g., by removal of fuses, locking switches or securing fuse-boards and socket
outlets with insulating inserts
ͻ Proving the circuit is dead. The sequence here is to “prove” the test instrument on a live voltage
to ensure that it is functioning correctly, test the isolated equipment is dead then prove the test
instrument again
ͻ Earthing as an additional precaution. An earth lead that can carry a fault current should be
attached to the point of isolation (and at the point of work if it is remote).
ͻ Posting of cautionary notices at the place of isolation warning that work is being carried out on
the equipment and that to re-energise it would be dangerous
ͻ Consideration of other precautions e.g., physical barriers, temporary insulation, permits to work;
and
ͻ Communication of the safe system of work. Work should not begin until it is established that all
relevant persons understand the work to be done, the precautions, additional hazards that may

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

arise and the action to be taken in an emergency

Permits to work enhance the safe system of work as they should ensure that precautions are taken before
the work activity commences and are removed on completion of the work

High Voltage Glove

High voltage glove working enables essential maintenance and repair to overhead lines without taking
customers off electricity supply – high voltage glove working significantly reduces power outage periods
relative to traditional shutdown. Inspect gloves and sleeves for holes, rips or tears, ozone cutting, UV
checking and signs of chemical deterioration. Defective or suspected defective equipment needs to be
replaced.

Competent Persons
Persons undertaking electrical work need to be competent to prevent danger and injury. No person
should be engaged in any work activity where technical knowledge or experience is necessary to prevent
danger or, where appropriate, injury, unless he or she possesses such knowledge or experience, or is
under such a degree of supervision as may be appropriate having regard to the nature of work.

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The purpose of this requirement is to ensure persons employed on electrical work do not cause danger to
themselves or anybody else, or do not cause injury where danger cannot be prevented. This applies to all
work activities on electrical systems where danger exists or may arise, it does not actually have to be
present for the regulations to apply e.g., work on equipment made dead.
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The scope of technical knowledge or experience may include:

x Adequate knowledge of electricity
x Adequate experience of electrical work
x Adequate understanding of the system to be worked on and practical experience of that class of
system
x An understanding of the hazards that may arise during the work and the precautions to be taken
x An ability to always recognise whether it is safe for work to continue

Use of Permits-To-Work
Once the risk assessment is complete, a safe system of work can be prepared. Given the high risk of
working on or near live electrical systems it is particularly important that the precautions and procedures
provided to suitably control the risks are explicitly acknowledged, and their use - and eventual removal -
also explicitly appreciated and acknowledged.

The most effective way to ensure this is using a permit-to-work system. It is important to note that the
permit-to-work will ensure that the equipment is safe to work with and the area is safe to work in.

Live working, for diagnostic purposes, should be the subject of a similar explicit safe system of work, such
as a live working permit (often referred to as a 'Sanction to Test') to avoid misunderstandings on the
function of the issued permit-to-work. While the actual equipment being worked on is made dead, there
may be plant, equipment or conductors nearby that are still live.

This must be considered, and a safe working area noted on the permit-to-work. In some organisations,
this is placed explicitly on a separate document, often known as a 'Limitation of Access' document.

However, since it is part of the safe system of work, it is preferable to have the information on the permit-
to-work.

If a safe working area is not necessary, the explicit indication on the permit will avoid the possibility of
misunderstandings. The permit-to-work system is a formalised system that is prepared after the risk
assessment has identified and evaluated all the hazards and risks.

It is an explicit statement of the task to be carried out, the people who will carry out the work, the controls
necessary to ensure the safety of the people undertaking the work and the duration of time for which the
permit is valid.

It is important that the written permit is only issued by a person who has sufficient competence to
understand the hazards and risks involved and they should also be competent to check that all the control
measures are correct and in place.
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This person is known as the authorised person (AP). It is important that no work other than that allowed
for the permit-to-work is undertaken, nor that any areas other than the safe working area indicated in the
permit should be occupied or approached.

If any changes in work are necessary, it must be agreed with the authorised person or a specifically
nominated deputy

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High Voltage Systems

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High Voltage Systems
High voltage is defined in international standards as being more
than 1 kV a.c. or 1.5 kV d.c. However, historically, certain
precautions have been applied in the UK to systems energised at
more than 650 V a.c. Electricity is generally distributed from power
stations at up to 400 kV to reduce transmission power losses.
Voltages are then reduced for use by transformers, the supply
voltage depending upon power requirements. Where the demand
for power is high the electricity supply company may supply power
at 11 kV to a substation on the consumers’ premises.

High voltage equipment should be designed and installed so that it

is not necessary to work on exposed live parts, however allowance
should be made for carrying out potential checks or tests, and for
observation from safe distances.

Safe Systems of Work and Permit-to-Work Procedures

High-Voltage Systems
Restrictions on live working, safe systems of work, working space and competence for work on electrical
systems, are all essential aspects of electrical safety and were discussed earlier in this Element. They are
all applicable to high voltage work. The isolation of electrical systems prior to maintenance activities is
important. Permits to work are important for work on high voltage systems. The permit to work should be
clearly and legibly written and contain:
ͻ The identity of the persons issuing the permit and supervising the work
ͻ A signature from the person proving the circuit is dead
ͻ Sufficient detail to identify the equipment made dead and its location, a diagram may suffice
ͻ The location of the points of isolation
ͻ The location of temporary earth connections
ͻ The location of warning notices, including live equipment notices, and temporary locks
ͻ A description of the work to be carried out
ͻ Any other hazards that may arise; and

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

ͻ Any further precautions

Compliance with the safe system of work, including any permit to work where issued, should be
monitored.

Isolation should be by means of a device that has a safe isolating gap between live parts and those that
have been made dead. Sometimes work on electrical equipment will require more than one point of
isolation e.g., the primary and secondary sides of transformers. Earthing of conductors at the point of
disconnection of the supply is essential and additional earths may be necessary at the place of work.

Access to high voltage areas should be restricted to authorised persons. Physical barriers should be
more substantial than those used for low voltage systems.

Access to High-Voltage Areas

Access to high voltage areas should be restricted to only authorized persons, who have been issued with
authorisation in writing. The importance of isolating systems before gaining access for maintenance must
be stressed. The physical barriers provided to keep high-voltage systems and people apart are more
substantial than those provided for lower-voltage systems. In addition to secure fencing and locked
access, as in the case of outdoor switchyards or indoor substations, interlocking may also be appropriate.

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Additional Precautions for High-Voltage Work

ͻ High-voltage equipment should be designed and installed so that it is not necessary to work on
exposed live parts
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ͻ The dead working procedure must therefore be followed

ͻ Isolation should be by means of a device that has a safe isolating gap between live parts and
those that have been made dead
ͻ Earthing conductors at the point where the supply is disconnected are essential and additional
earths may be necessary at the place of work
ͻ The system of locking OFF while work is in progress should use safety locks which have unique
keys
ͻ The keys should be retained in a key safe or other suitable place available only to the person in
charge of the activity
ͻ The precautions should be backed up with a disciplined documentation system
ͻ Adequate coverage for shift changes or work extending over long periods
ͻ Precautions must be taken to prevent people approaching dangerously close to uninsulated high-
voltage conductors
ͻ Special equipment, tools, clothing etc, together with exacting working methods, are necessary to
ensure safe working in special circumstances
ͻ Specific work procedures need to be devised and a very high degree of competence and
discipline are essential for everyone involved

Sometimes, work needs to be carried out near uninsulated low-voltage overhead wires, or near wires
covered with a material that does not provide effective insulation, connected to a building. Examples of
such work are window cleaning, external painting or short-term construction work. If it is not possible to re-
route or have the supply turned off, the line’s owner, e.g., the distribution network operator, may be able to
fit temporary insulating shrouds to the wires, for which a charge may be levied. People, plant and
materials still need to be kept away from the lines.

Portable Electrical Equipment

Due to the nature of portable or transportable electrical equipment, the risk (likelihood) of injury of an
electrical nature is increased. By the very fact that the equipment is moveable the equipment itself or the
leads (cord, cable, flex) conducting the electrical supply may become damaged exposing live parts.

Portable and transportable electrical equipment includes equipment that is not part of a fixed installation
but is intended to be connected to a fixed installation, or a generator, by means of a flexible cable and
either a plug and socket, or a spur box, or similar means. This includes equipment that is either hand-held
or hand-operated while connected to the supply, intended to be moved while connected to the supply, or
likely to be moved while connected to the supply.
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Examples of portable equipment include:

ͻ Tools and extension lead in the construction industry
ͻ Grinders and hand-lamps in general manufacturing
ͻ Floor cleaners and metal-bodied kettles in offices; and
ͻ Extension leads, plugs, sockets, and cables that supply portable equipment

Conditions and Practices Likely to Lead to Accidents

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Why portable electrical appliances are at a higher risk of

electrical accidents?

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Due to the portable nature of the equipment the equipment itself along with the lead and plug is likely to
be subjected to physical damage and misuse (harsh treatment), in contrast to equipment which forms part
of the fixed electrical system.

Equipment which is designed to be handheld or held while being switched on is likely to represent a
higher degree of risk since if a fault develops then the person holding the equipment is likely to suffer an
electric shock.

Environmental conditions can considerably affect the risk of receiving an electrical shock. The
conductivity of the surroundings in terms of standing on the ground with a good contact and path to earth
(e.g., standing on concrete, working on scaffolding) or working in a moist atmosphere, which increases the
risk of arcing and improves the conductivity of the atmosphere, can increase the potential for electric
shock. Earth free areas or areas, which are well insulated e.g., by rubber matting, can reduce significantly
the risk of electrical shock by ensuring no route or a high impedance path to earth.

Failure to maintain the equipment can contribute significantly to the risk of accidents occurring.

The competency of the user in terms of their knowledge and skill in using the equipment should be a
consideration when assessing the activity. Specific training may be required in the use and handling of
the equipment as well as the visual inspection requirements to ensure the equipment is safe and
appropriate for the intended use.

Other electrical risks during use arise from:

ͻ Unsuitably made connections, e.g., block connectors and insulating tape
ͻ Damage to insulation e.g., mechanical damage causing conductors to be exposed
ͻ Overheating e.g., fire risk from coiled extension leads under load
ͻ Misuse of equipment
ͻ “Live” maintenance; and
ͻ Employees bringing “unauthorised” work equipment such as radios, kettles, heaters, fans
etc. into the workplace. Where this equipment is allowed in the workplace then it should be
controlled in the same way equipment that is provided for use by the employer

Electrical Risks from Important Portable Appliances

Portable Generators
Portable generators are useful when temporary or remote electric power is needed, but they can be

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

hazardous.

To avoid electrical hazards:

x Always keep the generator dry. Operate on a dry surface
x Dry hands before touching the generator
x Plug appliances directly into generator or use a heavy-duty outdoor- rated extension cord. Make
sure the entire extension cord is free of cuts or tears and the plug has all 3 prongs, especially a
grounding pin
x Use ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), especially where electrical equipment is used in or
around wet or damp locations. GFCIs shut off power when an electrical current is detected
outside normal paths
x Make sure a generator is properly grounded and the grounding connections are tight

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Welding Equipment
Factors which affect the severity of electrical shock from portable welding equipment are:
x The open circuit voltage of the welding machine, and whether the machine supplies alternating or
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

direct current (AC is 2 to 3 times more dangerous than DC, because AC causes muscles to grip
tightly)
x The pressure the victim exerts on the electrode and workpiece, because increased pressure
means better contact
x The effectiveness of insulation (gloves etc.) at the contact points, the presence of moisture from
rain, perspiration or other source
x Which parts of the body are in contact with the work and electrode, (the worst current flow path is
between the left hand and torso?
x The susceptibility of the victim to shock, which is dependent on health and other factors.
x Precautions against this risk include use of properly maintained equipment, correct protective
equipment and sound work practices

To avoid electric shock, it is best to avoid bare skin contact with the electrode, use dry welding gloves on
both hands when handling the electrode holder or gun, particularly when changing electrodes, and
prevent contact with the workpiece by covering exposed parts of the workpiece, workbench and concrete
or metallic flooring with insulation such as heat resisting blankets or rubber matting, or elect a low voltage
welding machine.

Aspects of Supply
Using electric portable equipment in inappropriate conditions, most particularly where cables are liable to
be damaged in use and/or where there is water present. For example, using an electric powered pressure
water cleaner outside, where the trailing cable may be damaged by vehicles and other equipment, and
live wires exposed in a wet environment.

In offices, the cables from floor cleaners or kettles are often exposed to damage where they trail across
corridors causing tripping hazards.

A particular problem on construction sites where the operating conditions mean there is a high probability
of cable damage caused by vehicles driving over them.

As part of cable management, it may be appropriate to route cables at height rather than across the
ground. All electrical work MUST be carried out by a licensed electrician.

Cables
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All cables and cords should be flexible and cable conductors should be electrically insulated and protected
against mechanical damage. The protection necessary depends on the conditions of use and must be
adequate to withstand foreseeable damage.

Where the cable is vulnerable to damage additional precautions such as flexible armouring, protective
braiding or superior forms of sheathing will be necessary. For light work in clean dry interiors, tough
rubber or plastic insulated and sheathed cables should be adequate.

In wet conditions elastomer-insulated and sheathed cables are recommended. In hot areas, the insulation
and sheath should be selected to match the ambient temperatures or heated surfaces present, and the
cable rating should be such that overheating will not occur. Where there are oils and greases, a cable
should be used which has a sheath which is resistant to these materials.

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Plugs, Sockets and Connections

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With permanently installed apparatus, operators should be protected from risk of electric shock from metal
enclosures by permanent and efficient earthing. Most portable apparatus, however, relies for its earthing
security on the integrity of an earth core in its flexible cable.

The cable, in turn, relies for its integrity on efficient connections at both ends. Connections within a plug
are not as secure as those within a fixed terminal box and there is a history of accidents caused by
conductors becoming detached and touching live terminals.

The shock risk may be reduced therefore by avoiding plugs and sockets and by permanent wiring
whenever possible, i.e., for those items of equipment which are infrequently moved. The terminals should
clamp the conductors of the flexible supply cable securely without damaging them and should not loosen
when subject to vibration and/or thermal cycling in service.

Loosening can be avoided using soldered or crimped connections, although it should be noted that the
stiffness resulting from soldering can lead to problems of fatigue fracture if there is excessive vibration or
movement

Sensitive earth leakage protection (residual current devices)

The supply to the outlet feeding the portable apparatus may be protected by a sensitive residual current
device (RCD) (see figure that follows). For use with portable tools the device should comply with an
appropriate standard and should operate if the earth leakage current exceeds 0.03 A.

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The RCD should be equipped with a test pushbutton which can be operated to prove the integrity of the
tripping circuit and should be of a type which opens the line and neutral conductors. RCDs and circulating
current earth monitoring protection systems are electro-mechanical devices which can fail to detect
danger.

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10.11 Construction, Work at Height,

Demolition and Excavation
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

The Health and Safety Professional’s Role in Construction

Projects
ͻ Watches out for the safety of all workers and works to protect them from entering hazardous
situations
ͻ Responds to employees’ safety concern
ͻ Coordinates registration and removal of hazardous waste.
ͻ Serves as the link between state and local agencies and contractors
ͻ Promotes safe practices at the job site
ͻ Enforces safety guidelines
ͻ Trains and carries out drills and exercises on how to manage emergency situations
ͻ Conducts investigations of all accidents and near-misses
ͻ Reports to concerned authorities as requested or mandated by regulations
ͻ Conducts job hazard analyses
ͻ Inspects the site to ensure it is a hazard-free environment
ͻ Promotes positive H&S culture

The construction industry covers a wide range of activities with many significant hazards associated with
plant, equipment, materials, activities and the workplace itself. Add in difficulties associated with
employment patterns, and contractual arrangements (a transient workforce, primarily employed on short-
term contracts on a self-employed basis) and the inherent difficulties in managing health and safety in
construction are self-evident.

Types of Work
Building Works
Construction work is a high-risk activity as evidenced by statistics. These activities may include building
work which means the construction, structural alteration, repair, renovation, alteration and maintenance of
existing premises (occupied or unoccupied), civil engineering and works of engineering construction and
demolition.
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Renovation
Renovation describes a series of planned changes and updates made to a facility where business is
conducted. Office and building renovation are a common undertaking. Sometimes these renovations take
place within the physical space of the business itself; on other occasions, the renovation may be limited to
common areas, lobbies, outer building areas, stairways/elevator systems that are shared by all the
tenants.

Alteration
Alternation is the changes made to a building during its remodelling, such as increasing or reducing floor
area, making or closing openings, erecting or demolishing walls, changing façade material, changing
plumbing or changing electrical fixtures.

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Maintenance of Occupied Premises

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Construction activities generate dust, debris, and odours that can be disruptive to occupants. In addition,
the occupants may also be exposed to health problems such as mucous membrane irritation, asthma
exacerbations, respiratory problems, and/or contact dermatitis and safety problems such as falling debris,
falling masonry and dust exposure. A management plan should be in place before construction begins
that specifies safety controls and work practices.

Maintenance of Unoccupied Premises

Deserted/abandoned site might have had a history of problems which may be required to be researched
in local libraries or councils to get an idea the kind of activities that were being carried out at the site
previously. Hazards include unstable walls, ground, beams, roof, supporting structures etc. There is also
the issue with biological hazards from vermin and mould.

Civil Engineering
Civil engineering works are generally one-of-a-kind projects, they are often grand in scale, and they
usually require cooperation among professionals of many different disciplines and involves heavy plant
and equipment such as cranes and excavators. Some common examples of civil engineering works
include bridges, buildings, dams, airports, highways, tunnels, and foundation work.

Construction Work
A broad definition of construction work is found in the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2007:

The construction, alteration, conversion, fitting out, commissioning, renovation, repair, upkeep,
redecoration or other maintenance, decommissioning, demolition or dismantling of a structure.

The preparation for an intended structure, including site clearance, exploration, investigation (but not site
survey) and excavation, and clearance or preparation of the site or structure for use or occupation at its
conclusion.

The assembly of prefabricated elements to form a structure or the disassembly of prefabricated elements
which, immediately before such disassembly, formed a structure.

The removal of a structure or part of a structure or of any product or waste resulting from demolition or
dismantling of a structure; or from disassembly of prefabricated elements which, immediately before such
disassembly, formed a structure, and the installation, commissioning, maintenance, repair or removal of
mechanical, electrical, gas, compressed air, hydraulic, telecommunications, computer or similar services

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

which are normally fixed within or to a structure.

Demolition
Demolition work involves many of the hazards associated with construction. Planning of the demolition job
includes the methods to be used to bring the structure down, the equipment necessary to do the job, and
the measures to be taken to perform the work safely.

Range of Activities

Site Clearance
Every construction project begins with site preparation. Site clearance means the preparation of the site
or structure for use or occupation at its conclusion. It may involve the preparation of a structure for
demolition by explosives, clearing debris, removal of trees, general excavation.

Upon completion of construction work, site clearance will involve the removal of debris, construction
wastes, plants and machinery.

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Dismantling and Demolition

Demolition work means to demolish or dismantle a structure or part of a structure that is load bearing or
otherwise related to the physical integrity of the structure. A structure is anything that is constructed,
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

whether fixed or moveable, temporary or permanent, and includes buildings, sheds, towers, chimney
stacks, silos, storage tank.

Before starting any demolition work, all areas of the workplace, including basements, cellars, vaults and
waste dumps, should be examined to determine whether:
x There are any items which could be a fire and explosion risk.
x Any previous use of the site might cause a risk because of the nature of and/or decomposition of
materials.
x There are any toxic, radioactive or other hazardous chemicals present. Any hazardous
materials, including explosives, should be clearly identified.

The building or structure to be demolished and all its components should be maintained in a safe and
structurally stable condition so as to prevent the unexpected collapse of part or all the structure.

It is important that other buildings in and around the demolition site are not adversely affected by vibration
or concussion during the demolition process. A system to prevent falling objects impacting on workers
should be implemented to protect the safety of people.

Excavation
Typical excavations include underground tanks, trenches, basements, sewers, manholes, etc. Soil cannot
be relied upon to support its own weight, so precautions must be implemented.

Buried services are not always obvious on-site surveys so the risk of accidently striking one is increased.
Underground services should be treated as live until confirmed dead by an authority. Record plans and
location drawing, although not always accurate will give an indication of the presence and likelihood of
services. It is common practice to use a detection device (cable avoidance tool also known as a CAT)
before any digging takes place. Any identified services should be marked on the ground to show the
locations.

Methods for digging include use of excavators, hand tools such as pick mattock, fork, hoe, and shovel.

Loading, Unloading and Storage of Materials

Adequate loading and unloading areas must be established on site. A trained banksman must be used
while loading/ unloading of materials. Where reversing cannot be avoided, reversing mirrors may be used.
The site perimeter must be cordoned off where uses of cranes or lifting equipment are used.
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Loading platforms and any supporting structure should not be overloaded to prevent collapse or be
deformed in any way so that they are unsafe to use or give rise to any danger.

There should be provision of adequate access and egress with space available for loading and unloading
skips and collection vehicles.

A variety of materials are required to be stored on a construction site. Different materials need to be
stored separately for practical and safety reasons e.g., stored liquid may spill, and damage materials
stored next to it or even worse cause a chemical reaction. Flammables should be kept away from
combustibles and oxygen cylinders.

The storage area should have adequate space for forklift trucks and people to move safely. Attention also
needs to be given to fire precautions in and around the area e.g., fire signage, correct extinguishers, away
from the smoking area, etc.

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Site Movements

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Strategies to protect pedestrians include engineering, procedural and behavioural controls, based on a
systematic risk assessment which considers patterns of movement in and around the workplace and the
needs of different groups of workers, including visitors, and of the public.

Wherever possible, pedestrians should be physically separated from vehicle traffic routes using barriers
and clear surface markings, the provision of designated crossing points and separate means of access
and egress. Where this is not possible for operational reasons, special protective measures should be
taken to ensure the safety of people.

Fabrication
Fabrication is the process of preparing components ready for assembly on site. For example, the cutting
of pieces of steel and connecting them together. Operations can include cleaning, sawing, shearing,
punching, grinding, bending, drilling, welding and the finishing of the steel.

Fabrication yards have facilities for storage, processing and dispatch.

Decoration
Methods of decoration include applying coatings to surfaces and objects using enamels, varnishes,
electroplating, pigments, powder coating, and solvents. The equipment use for these processes could be
simple hand-held tools to industrial robotic process.

Cleaning
Cleaning is to make (something or someone) free of dirt, marks, or mess. Equipment and cleaning
material used include:

x Cleaning material: Water, chemical, steam and various abrasive agents, etc.
x Cleaning equipment: vacuum machine, floor polisher, high pressure water jet, water hose,
scrubbing brush, etc.

Installation, Removal and Maintenance of Services

The degree of complexity involved in getting a connection or removal of utility services varies greatly
according to the size and nature of the development. Utility services are gas, water, electricity, and
telecommunications.

Smaller scale projects involving a connection to a single property may simply involve connecting or

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

removal a property to and from the existing network. However, larger schemes, often involving multiple
connections, may require extensive reinforcement of the network including the design, planning and
construction of physical infrastructure such as pipelines, cables and switchgear, as well as the preparation
of more complex legal agreements for the construction, connection, removal and maintenance.
Consideration will need to be given to protect the public during installation, removal or maintenance work.

The work should be carried out by licensed and qualified personnel.

Landscaping
This final stage of construction phase includes finish
grading, driveways, steps, walkways, groundcover,
shrubs and trees. Carpentry work associated with decks
and fences, and plumbing work for items such as
underground sprinkler systems are also carried out at
this time.

Care should be taken when planting trees with invasive

roots. These should not be planted close to buildings as
the roots will undermine the foundations and damage
underground services such as sewage and water pipes.

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Particular Construction Issues

Transitory Nature of Workers
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The transitory nature of construction operations and the continually changing workplace lead to problems.

The changing range of activities and the number of different tasks taking place all at once lead to an ever-
changing situation during construction operations, which is exacerbated by a changing workforce all with
different skills, knowledge, experience, competencies and training.

Temporary Nature of Construction Activities and the Constantly Changing Workplace

The construction industry depends heavily on the use of subcontractors with possible problems of level of
competency, training, knowledge, skill levels, ill-health, stress, violence, behavioural problems and use of
a transient workforce, etc.

Sub-contractors and individual self-employed workers are often likely to be on-site for a short period of
time and may therefore be constantly changing their place of work.

Site induction, safe systems of work, site rules should be designed, implemented and kept up to date to
suit the most current situation.

Time Pressures from Clients

Clients may often impose time pressures on the construction phase of the work with a resultant pressure
on the various levels of contractors who will be motivated to cut corners rather than satisfactorily complete
the work safely.

Weather Conditions

External work is often carried out in poor weather conditions and may result in diminished safety of the
workers. Working under the hot sun, rain, snow, and high winds expose the workers to harm.

Poor Levels of Numeracy and Literacy of Workers

Construction workers may be drawn from a wide

educational background of British nationals,
worker’s various countries. This will frequently
cause difficulties in communications due to English
not being the worker’s first language. Managers
need to be aware of this problem and it will be an
additional hazard for consideration during risk
assessment.

Poor literacy and numeracy also must be

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considered, as workers are likely to be drawn from

a wide socio-economic background with varying
educational skills. Likewise, workers with learning
disabilities will no doubt be employed in the
construction industry. Consequently, written
instructions will be a problem to workers suffering
from dyslexia who may nevertheless be adequately
skilled in the work.

Workers Who Do Not Speak Native Language

Language barriers can get in the way of effective communication and create complications in the
workplace, including problems with safety. Workers may act like they know what is being said, but in fact,
may not know. In some jobs, this can be dangerous.

All language barriers may not have such dire consequences, but they can contribute to a lack of
productivity, mistakes being made or general lack of trust between the employer and workers, all of which
could be avoided if communication were clearer.

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Employers could consider:

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x The use of pictograms in written instructions and in signage may partially offset the problem but
not be a total solution
x Provide an orientation program for new hires that addresses some of the cultural differences and
language barriers
x Consider having co-workers serve as mentors or coaches to help new workers adapt to the
culture and vocabulary of the workplace
x When working with immigrants, refrain from using jargon or slang
x Asking for feedback or for demonstration, particularly when the worker is undergoing training.
Never assume communications with someone with limited English-speaking abilities has been
understood
x Recruit bilingual managers and supervisors to serve as the communication link between cultures
and/or engage co-workers to serve as translators while people are learning English

General Health and Safety Duties for

Construction Project
Relevance of Site Layout
The establishment of a safe site and protection of the public is a critical feature of effective project
management.

Safe Place of Work

Prior to the commencement of any project, it is important to identify potential hazards, both for site
personnel and for the public. All relevant information should be assembled in the Pre-tender Health and
Safety

Plan. Key considerations affecting the establishment and laying out of the site include:

ͻ The size and complexity of the project

ͻ The site dimensions
ͻ The location and nature of the site
ͻ Site access and egress arrangements, to and from the highway
ͻ Proximity of overhead power lines & surface water will impact upon the safe movement of plant

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

ͻ The proximity of housing and schools etc, will impact upon the positioning of noisy equipment,
storage of waste and the level of site security required
ͻ The duration of the project
ͻ The arrangements for site services, electricity, water and both foul and surface water drainage
ͻ The numbers of site workers including sub-contractors will determine the space needed for
cabins, containers and private vehicle parking
ͻ The need for on-site parking for site vehicles
ͻ The range of heavy plant required, e.g., the location of a tower crane or the positioning of a
mobile crane
ͻ The need to store fuel on site, positioning the fuel store away from ignition sources and potential
vehicular impacts; and the delivery point(s) for materials, especially the “laydown” area for
structural steels

Use of Method Statements and Permit-to-Work

Method Statements are statements for all work activities identified as having health or safety risks,
identifying the measures to be used to manage those risks. Attention should be paid to work activities with

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a high safety risk (for example working at heights, with or near hazardous substances, in tunnels or
confined spaces, with cranes, with compressed air, with lasers, or in deep excavations).

Work Method Statements must at least include the following:

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ͻ A description of the work to be undertaken

ͻ The step-by-step sequence of activities and tasks involved in doing the work
ͻ The potential hazards and risks associated with each step of the work
ͻ The safety controls that will be put in place to minimise the risks
ͻ All precautions to be taken to protect health and safety
ͻ All health and safety instructions to be given to persons involved with the work
ͻ Identification of the parts of occupational, health and safety, workplace injury management and
workers compensation legislation, regulations, codes, standards and procedures applicable to
the work, and where these documents are kept
ͻ Identification of the resources, plant and equipment that is most likely to be used on the work
site, such as ladders, scaffolds, grinders, electrical leads, welding machines, fire extinguisher,
tools and materials
ͻ Details of any permits and licenses required to complete the work and where they are kept
ͻ Details of the inspection and maintenance checks that will be, or have been, carried out on the
plant and equipment listed for use.)

Permit-to-Work
A permit to work procedure is a formal written system used to control certain types of work which are
potentially hazardous.

Permit-to-work systems and procedures constitute the most formal method of ensuring safe working
practices and safe systems of work. The objective is for an experienced and trained authorised person,
who will sign the permit-to-work certificate to pre-assess (with all necessary technical assistance) the
hazardous circumstances, involved and then prescribe in writing:
x The work to be carried out and the hazards involved
x All the precautions required together with emergency procedures
x Who may carry out the work
x The limits of the permit-to-work area or equipment

According to circumstances, the permit-to-work certificates will require acknowledgement either by all the
personnel carrying out the hazardous work and/or by the supervisor in charge of them.

A well-considered permit-to-work certificate will also make provision for signed confirmation that the work
area or equipment involved has been restored to a safe condition, for possible time extension of the
permit, and for its formal cancellation and the keeping of a record.
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General Duties

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x A designer or contractor appointed to work on a project must be competent
x A person who is responsible for appointing a designer or contractor should ensure that all
appointed parties are competent
x All parties must cooperate with other parties working on or in relation to the project
x All parties must report to the client/ person appointed them, anything they are aware of anything
that is likely to endanger their own health or safety or that of others
x Provide information or instruction

Site Security
The purpose of site security is to protect both the assets
(plant, equipment, chemicals) on site and members of
the public on and off site not familiar with construction
activities. Site security consists of:
x Traditional physical and electrical measures
such as:
- Perimeter fencing
- Security guards on the premises
- Locked gates
- Means of securing plant and chemicals
- Roadside and security lighting
- Safe viewing points
x Management and procedural measures such
as:
- Visitor registration and sign-in procedures
- Escorting persons while on site
- Education – especially of children

Perimeter Fencing
On many sites, the location of the site perimeter is obvious. The layout of the site and the site

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

characteristics will influence the position of the site fencing e.g., by utilising existing permanent features
such as walls.

The construction of new structures may be phased so they will form an effective barrier as the work
progresses.

Where existing features cannot be used, a suitable perimeter fence will need to be constructed. Fences
should be at least 2 metres high and difficult to climb.

Mesh sizes should be as small as possible and sectional fencing should be locked together properly with
the clips on the inside of the fence.

Gaps beneath the fence should be restricted to prevent children crawling under them and support feet
should be positioned to avoid trip hazards.

Where timber fences are erected, supports must be of a substantial nature as “wind” loading can uproot
fences creating danger.

A “viewing” panel will help to satisfy the public’s curiosity and may help in developing good community
relations.

The entrance and access routes to the site office should be clearly signed.

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Signs
ͻ Signs should be fixed at regular intervals on the perimeter fence to warn of the dangers within
the site and instruct people to µNHHSRXW¶
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ͻ Quite often, the name of the security company that is responsible for ‘out of hours’ security will
also be displayed with a telephone number for emergency contact or to report any trespass

Protecting the Public

A design Risk Assessment (DRA) is an inevitable part of any construction project. DRA should include
necessary risk control systems starting with elimination. Residual risks that have not been designed out
would need to be transferred to the co-ordinator for inclusion into the pre-construction information, so that
they may be controlled by other means in the construction plan.

Design Risk Assessments are not an end in themselves; pre-occupation with the risk assessment
undermines their very purpose and may not address the fundamental issue of reasonableness or
foreseeability. A well-presented risk assessment does not compensate for an inappropriate level of health
and safety awareness in terms of hazard identification. Additionally, the designer should be aware of
inadvertently introducing hazards that are not subject to the rigour of the risk assessment regime.

The first step to take in managing public risk is to determine the site perimeter. This is the geographical
area within which the construction work will be carried out.

The second stage involves determining what hazards may affect the public outside the perimeter, e.g.,
transient hazards such as noise or dust, or activities occurring off-site such as unloading of deliveries and
specific hazards within the site perimeter, which may attract interest, e.g., trenches, scaffolds, plant and
equipment, and therefore requires protection.

At the final stage three issues need to be addressed:

ͻ The form the perimeter will take
ͻ Providing the perimeter; and
ͻ Maintaining the perimeter

Risk assessment should decide how the perimeters will be defined, what type will be needed to protect
the public and where it should be placed.

Factors to consider will include:

ͻ The nature and type of the construction work
ͻ How heavily the area is populated
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ͻ Who will need to visit the site during the work?

ͻ Whether the site may attract children; and
ͻ Site characteristics

Site Access Controls

The site entrance should be clearly marked with the appropriate signage, so people know where to go.

The site office should be as close to the main entrance as possible, so people do not have to walk through
potential danger areas to reach it. If this is not possible a clear, safe route should be provided.

A “signing in” book should be used to log visitor’s details and the times of entering and leaving the site so
that they can be accounted for during an emergency.

Visitors should not be allowed on site without a site health and safety induction. Thereafter they should be
provided with any necessary personal protective equipment and be accompanied by a competent staff
member whilst on site.

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Additional Precautions for Children

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Construction sites and equipment may be fascinating to children.

In addition to maintaining an effective site perimeter it is often advisable to be proactive if it is known that
there are likely to be schoolchildren in the vicinity. School visits can demystify the construction site and the
involvement of schools in poster campaigns and similar projects has proven effective in cultivating a good
rapport. Parent-teacher groups and other community organisations may be helpful in encouraging
parents and the community at large to take some responsibility for the wellbeing of children and others.

Means of securing plant, chemicals, etc.

ͻ Plant, equipment, materials or chemicals should be suitably secured to prevent injury by

unauthorised access
ͻ Plant should be locked up always when not in use and keys held in a secure location (site office,
safe)
ͻ It may be practical to house plant in an additional internal site compound
ͻ To improve security certain items of heavy mobile plant are provided with steel sheets or shutters
fitted around the cab and padlocked in position

Means of controlling dangers on public highways

ͻ Areas that surround a construction site are subject to mud and debris from the tyres and chassis
of vehicles that frequent the site
ͻ Which creates additional hazards to other road users as highway surfaces become slippery and
create skid hazards
ͻ This can be controlled by the implementation of regular highway cleaning with road sweeper
vehicles
ͻ Action can also be taken at site exits prior to vehicles leaving the site by routing site traffic
through a tyre and undercarriage cleaning system

Environmental Dangers
Construction sites create dust, which becomes mud when wet. It is difficult to p prevent dust going off the
site – it is carried by the wind and on vehicles – but efforts can be made, such as:
ͻ Wheel washes, to keep mud on site
ͻ Road sweeping, to stop dust off-site becoming a mud problem

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Arrangements for Protecting Employees and Others
Site Controls

Relevant controls must be put in place to protect persons from site activities e.g.:
ͻ Cordoning off high risk activities such as steel erecting
ͻ Protecting excavations with suitable barriers
ͻ Restricting the number of materials delivered to site to avoid congestion
ͻ Restricting the use of combustible materials where possible and storing them properly, away
from buildings and perimeter fences; and
ͻ Providing security guards or Close Circuit Television

Site Rules

These are usually enforced by the Principal Contractor. They are used in all on-site safety training and
displayed always in prominent places. Site rules apply to all persons who may come onto the site, not just
construction workers.

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Co-operation and Consultation

Both are vital to ensure that safety covers not only those involved in the construction work, but also
Persons sharing the site, e.g., occupants of factories, shops, etc. being worked on, or nearby premises.
Separate access and egress for occupants and no-go areas for the construction teams may be necessary.
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Shared Facilities
ͻ On a dedicated construction site, one set of facilities (welfare - toilets, washrooms, rest and
eating areas; first-aid, etc.) is usually provided and shared by all contractors and participants in
the work
ͻ On a site having occupants, there may be facilities already there that can be shared, e.g., toilets,
first-aid, etc. These arrangements will be put in place following consultation with the occupiers

Welfare Facilities
ͻ Drinking water should be from a source approved by the competent authority
ͻ Where such water is not available, the necessary steps must be taken to make any water to be
used for drinking fit for human consumption
ͻ Drinking water for common use should only be stored in closed containers from which the water
should be dispensed through taps or cocks

Protection of other employees/visitors

Where occupants of premises being worked on cannot be evacuated for the duration of the work,
precautions must be taken to protect them. Methods of separation and segregation from the plant and
mobile equipment may be required.

Occupants must be given adequate health and safety information about what is going on around them. On
all sites, visitors need protection, as they will not be aware of the site layout and the hazards presented by
the work in progress.

Working in Occupied Premises

Some construction work may take place in occupied premises. This may be in a commercial enterprise,
such as an office block or a factory, or in a public environment such as a school, a hospital, or shopping
centre Safety rules need to be applied to ensure the health and safety of the construction workers, the
employees of the client and members of the public.

These rules must consider existing rules that are in place governing the activities of the occupants. Extra
precautions may be required such as:
ͻ Isolating areas of work from occupants
ͻ Arranging work outside 'normal' hours (e.g., at night or weekends)
ͻ Appointing wardens to regularly inspect all occupied areas to ensure safety
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ͻ Carrying out more frequent cleaning and waste removal

ͻ Safety briefs for occupants to make them aware of the hazards understand the safety signs, etc.

ln all cases, liaison must be ensured and a forum available for questions, comments, and complaints to be
made by the occupants.

Arrangements for Site Inductions

The Principal Contractor is responsible for ensuring that site inductions are in place and carried out for all
workers and visitors to the site.

All inductions should be recorded and include:

ͻ Details of site arrangements (e.g., signing in procedures, car parking, use of PPE)
ͻ Conditions of work

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Emergency procedures, including accident reporting, fire precautions, medical welfare where appropriate,
locations and purpose of all safety and fire equipment.

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ͻ Special hazards and permit-to-work requirements
ͻ Exclusion and no-go areas
ͻ Use of mobile telephones, etc.

ln most cases, site induction will not contain any in-depth health and safety training for specific tasks or
hazards, such as work at height or use of plant and equipment. Contractors usually deal with this in a
regular series of toolbox talks.

Work at Height
Workplace precautions should be
implemented to prevent all falls based on
the principles of risk assessment and
control.

Falls are the largest cause of accidental

death in the construction industry.

Other significant hazards associated with

working at height, include falling objects
and the potential for a working platform to
collapse or overturn and contact with
overhead electrical services.

The Hazards Associated with Working at Heights

Across the world over 40 per cent of major injury accidents on construction sites involve ‘falls from
heights’. Roof work, including work on fragile roofing materials, gives rise to a substantial number of fatal
and serious accidents. It needs to be emphasised, however, that there is no ‘safe height’; anyone who is
off the ground is at risk of falling.

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The hazard exists on working platforms, scaffolds, ladders, flat and pitched roofs, open steelwork and any
area where work is being done in proximity to fragile materials, openings, holes and roof edges, etc.
Compliance with well-established safety procedures and existing legislation could save many lives and
prevent injuries. Most accidents could be avoided, given the proper use of sound equipment and the
adequate training and supervision of those who use it.

Access and Work at Height Equipment: Hazards and Control

Measures

The Applications and Different Types of Access and Work at Height

Equipment
Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs) are classified as lifting equipment for lifting persons. They are
designed to provide a temporary working platform which can be easily moved from one location to
another. They are particularly suitable for short duration tasks, where the use of a ladder would be unsafe
or the erection of a scaffolding platform, time-consuming or impracticable in relation to the job to be done.

Some units have specialised applications e.g., under-bridge work.

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There are several differing types of MEWPs. They can be classified according to:
ͻ The type of carrier or chassis: and
ͻ The type of elevating structure
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Principal Machine Types

ͻ Scissor lifts. Generally vertical lift only. May be fitted with outriggers, depending on size and
height to which it extends
ͻ Telescopic boom or jib. Gives direct straight-line approach to the point of work but has a limited
ability to clear obstructions between the vehicle and the point of work
ͻ Articulating boom. Gives a wide range of reach and height, with platform mobility
ͻ Combined telescopic and articulating boom. Gives maximum flexibility

Illustration 83: Mobile Elevated Work Platforms - Scissors Lift and Articulated Boom

Boom types are affectionately called “cherry pickers”.

All designs may be vehicle mounted, trailer mounted, or self-propelled.

Accidents involving MEWPS include collapsing or overturning, and people being thrown from the carrier,
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or being crushed between the carrier and a fixed structure.

The direct causes of many accidents are attributable to a range of issues, notably:
‡ Equipment failure
‡ Unsuitable ground conditions
‡ Defective or unused outriggers
‡ Overloading the carrier
‡ The carrier being struck by a slung load, and
‡ The MEWP being struck by another vehicle

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The Hazards of Access and Work at Height Equipment

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Mechanical Strength
Access and similar equipment of this type is designed to have a certain load-bearing capacity. As the
equipment is used, the moving parts may become worn out, for example, hydraulic seals may start to
leak, and this will reduce the ability of the equipment to carry its full capacity. In the same way, non-
moving parts, such as booms and struts, can be damaged by impact and a weak point caused in the item
that will reduce its load-bearing capacity

Loading Control and Control Devices

The absence of sufficient control devices available to those using the access equipment to work at height
could mean that it is operated from the ground. This creates a risk of contact with buildings and structures
due to poor communication and coordination between the person operating the equipment and those in it

Hazards to Persons on or in the Carrier

The principal hazards to persons on or in the carrier of access equipment of this type relate to:
‡ Movement of the carrier
‡ Persons falling from the carrier
‡ Objects falling on the carrier

Exceeding the safe working loads/persons permitted

Because it can take time to lower, load and raise the equipment, those using it may be tempted to
overload it to save time. It is also not uncommon for users of the equipment to fail to take account of tools
and equipment being lifted as well as the people, leading to too many people in the carrier. This can
significantly overload the equipment and change the effective safe working envelope

Control Measures
Control measures for ensuring the safe use of a MEWP can be attributed to three categories: safe plant,
safe workplace and safe operator.

Safe Plant

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The right MEWP should be selected for the job, following consideration of ground conditions, working
height, the task, the required range and sensitivity of movement and the anticipated load, (people and
tools).

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The platform should be of sufficient size and be fitted with edge protection comprising guard rail,
intermediate rail and toe boards.

ͻ Marked with maximum load limit

ͻ Fitted with emergency stop devices
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ͻ Prevention of tilting by locking system when the platform is raised. When the device detects the
tilt is outside the acceptable limits it would cause the equipment to stop
ͻ Wheels, tires and suspension should be appropriate for the working environment
ͻ Most MEWPs are not designed to be moved with the carrier raised. The manufacturer’s
instructions should be checked to determine the acceptability of this practice
ͻ Outriggers, if fitted should be fully extended and chocked in place prior to raising the carrier
ͻ The MEWP should be thoroughly examined by a competent person at least once every six
months. This may need to be more frequent depending on the nature of use and operating
conditions. The MEWP should also be subject to daily checks and a weekly inspection
ͻ Planned maintenance should be conducted by competent persons in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions

Space and strength corresponding to the maximum number of persons and maximum working
load
Consideration will need to be given to the selection of the equipment, to ensure it meets the requirements
for the task. This will include the maximum reach, both vertical and horizontal, that is required for the task,
to prevent overreaching of the operators. In addition, the space provided by the equipment and strength of
the equipment should be adequate for the maximum number of people and maximum working load.

Fitted with a suspension or supporting system

Plant must be fitted with a suspension or supporting system, i.e., capable of carrying the maximum load,
stable without undue movement. Where possible the carrier has an enhanced safety coefficient
suspension rope or chain, which is inspected by a competent person every working day. Platform
movement or ‘boom flexing’ should be minimised.

Control systems
Equipment must be controlled by the person in the carrier, i.e., controls for vertical or horizontal movement
of the equipment. This will enable more accurate positioning of the equipment and remove the need to
communicate to another person the movements required.

This can help prevent collisions and crush injuries, and the movement will tend to be conducted more
smoothly, reducing the risk of falling from the equipment.

Prevention of tilting if there is a risk of occupants falling

Prevention of tilting if there is a risk of occupants falling, i.e., locking system to prevent tilt when the
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platform is raised. The equipment would benefit from a device that could detect that it was tilting outside
acceptable limits and would cause the equipment to stop.

Outriggers are extended as necessary before raising the platform. Trap doors must open in a direction
that eliminates any risk of falling. They should be securely fastened so that no inadvertent opening is
possible

Safe Workplace
A safe workplace is assured through a combination of acceptable environmental conditions and effective
management controls.

The ground conditions should be checked, for softness, slopes and the presence of local features such as
inspection chambers, potholes etc. Ground may need to be compacted or levelled, and other features
covered before work commences.

The presence of overhead obstructions and overhead electricity cables should be checked before raising
the working platform. Weather conditions should be monitored to ensure they are not beyond established
limits for safe operation (e.g., maximum wind speed). The MEWP should not be operated under adverse
weather conditions.

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Other site traffic should be segregated from the proposed work area. Checks should be made to ensure
parts of a MEWP cannot protrude into roads or other transport routes. If this is unavoidable safe systems

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of work should be devised, e.g., a temporary road closure at quiet times.
Effective communication systems, permit to work procedures and emergency plans will need to be
implemented.

Safe Operator
Operators should be trained and familiar with the performance and controls of the MEWP they are going
to use and its limitations in the given operating environment. Operators should also be provided with any
necessary task-specific training for the operations to be conducted from the MEWP (e.g., use of a
chainsaw).

Operators should be trained to handle situations where machine fails with platform in raised position.

Operators should conduct daily checks in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and should be
familiar with systems for recording faults, repairs and maintenance.

If there is still a residual risk of impact or persons falling after the control measures have been
implemented the use of fall protection equipment should be considered.

There are two types of fall protection that a person can use in the carrier:

ͻ Work restraint systems which stop a person falling from the carrier in the first place; and
ͻ Fall arrest systems which stops a person after they have fallen from the carrier

NB: Neither approach affords protection should the MEWP overturn.

General Precautions for The Use of MEWPs

Siting and Stability/overturning
ͻ Ground conditions will need to be considered, particularly following any periods of rain, causing
soft ground
ͻ Identify any buried services or cellars that may cause the ground to collapse under the weight of
the equipment
ͻ Ensure parts of the equipment cannot protrude into roads or other transport routes
ͻ Do not exceed the SWL
ͻ Precautions to be taken while travelling with the platform raised on unsuitable ground conditions
ͻ Use stabilisers and outriggers fully extended

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ͻ Tyres are properly inflated

Overhead Obstruction
ͻ Identify any overhead Power cable or fixed structure hazards
ͻ Install height restriction arrangements (limiters, goal posts, warning signs etc)

Fall of Persons or Material

ͻ The work platform is fitted with guard rails and toe boards
ͻ Ensure they always wear personal fall arrest system
ͻ Do not overload the work platform
ͻ Secure all lose materials from kicking off

Entrapment

All moving parts and mechanisms should be properly and securely guarded. All operators should be
made aware of the hazards and procedures for avoiding entrapment between the platform and any fixed
obstruction.

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Inspection, Testing and Maintenance

Ensure the equipment has a thorough examination by a competent person at least once every six
months
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Training of operators
ͻ The operator is fully trained and competent
ͻ All involved know what to do if the machine fails with the platform in the raised position (i.e., a
rescue plan)
ͻ Ensure competent personnel undertake planned maintenance, in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions

Work at Height Requirements

Employers, the self-employed, and any person that controls the work of others, e.g., facilities managers or
building owners who may contract others to work at height have responsibilities for safety management.

Duty holders must ensure that:

ͻ All work at height is properly planned and organised
ͻ Those involved in work at height are competent
ͻ The risks from work at height are assessed and appropriate work equipment is selected and
used
ͻ The risks from fragile surfaces are properly controlled; and
ͻ Equipment for work at height is properly inspected and maintained

A simple hierarchy for managing and selecting equipment for work at height includes the following:

ͻ Avoid work at height where they can

ͻ Use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls where they cannot avoid working at
height
ͻ Where they cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use work equipment or other measures to minimise
the distance and consequences of a fall should one occur

The key messages are:

ͻ Risk assessments conducted for work at height activities should be followed and all work at
height should be planned, organised and carried out by competent persons.
ͻ The hierarchy for managing risks from work at height should be followed.
ͻ The correct equipment should be selected for the task; and
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ͻ Preventive measures such as guardrails and working platforms should be used before measures
designed to mitigate the distance and consequences of a fall (such as nets or airbags) or provide
personal protection from a fall.

Illustration 84: Edge Protection

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Basic Precautions

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The main safeguard for the prevention of falls, and falling objects is suitable, substantial edge protection
comprising a guardrail, intermediate rail and toe board as in illustration 84.

In this section, we will consider the hazards associated with working at height, and the corresponding
precautions, in the following contexts:
ͻ The use of access equipment such as ladders, step ladders and trestles
ͻ The use of general access and tower scaffolds
ͻ Working on pitched, flat and fragile roofs
ͻ Working from suspended access cradles, boatswains’ chairs and rope access equipment
ͻ Working on Mobile Elevating Work Platforms (MEWPs); and
ͻ The use of safety harness fall arrest systems, safety nets and air bags

Safe Use of Temporary (Immobile) Access Equipment

Ladders
Every year many people are killed using ladders in the construction industry. More than half the accidents
occur because the ladder is not properly secured, usually because the work was of very short duration.
Other typical accidents include falls because of overreaching or overbalancing, or due to losing hold of the
ladder when carrying loads up it.

Safety during the use of ladders, as with all work

equipment, can be achieved by ensuring:
ͻ The suitability of the ladder for the operations
and operating conditions under which it will be
used
ͻ That systems are in place to inspect and
maintain the ladder in a safe condition
ͻ That safe systems of work are devised for the
ladders use, and
ͻ That staff are informed, instructed, trained and
supervised as necessary to be able to use the
ladder safely

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Suitability
A ladder should be primarily regarded as a means of access to a work platform, rather than as a
workplace, although ladders may be used for work that is short term, light duty and low risk, or where the
site features will not accommodate a working platform provided a safe system of work can be devised.

Work that requires the use of both hands, and is inherently dangerous e.g., hot work should not be
conducted from a ladder.

The length of the ladder also has a significant bearing on its suitability. It must be long enough to allow an
inspection or task to take place without overreaching, and to provide a safe means of egress, if necessary,
at the top landing. The longer the ladder the more difficult it is to carry around site and manoeuvre into
position.

The material of construction may also be significant as timber is non-conductive it will prove to be a more
suitable material than aluminium where electrical equipment is being used. Aluminium ladders may be
damaged in corrosive atmospheres, timber ladders are prone to warp if left exposed to the elements.

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Inspection and Maintenance

A ladder should be inspected before each use to ensure it is suitable for the job, and in good condition.
Damaged stiles, damaged or missing rungs or missing feet should exclude the ladder from use. Painted
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ladders should not be used as the paint coating may conceal faults.

Ladders should be periodically examined by a competent person. Management systems are required to
ensure all ladders can be individually identified, are properly stored, and are issued for use to identified
personnel.

Safe Systems of Work

Safe systems of work should be devised to ensure that ladders are only used where appropriate, and
when used are used safely. The key considerations for ensuring the safe use of ladders are summarised
below:
ͻ Ladders must be properly secured before use. Ladders are only safe when rested on a firm,
level surface and secured by rope or other suitable stabilisation devices
ͻ Stabilisation devices must ensure that the ladder cannot run sideways or slide away from the wall
ͻ Both feet of the ladder should be on a firm footing so that they cannot slip
ͻ Ladder should be angled to minimise the risk of slipping outwards. The general rule is “one out
for every four up” (Illustration 85)
ͻ The top of the ladder should rest against a solid surface, not fragile or insecure materials
ͻ If the ladder is more than 3 m long or used as a way to and from a workplace, it should be fixed
at the top. If this is not possible it may be fixed at the base. If the ladder cannot be fixed or is
being fixed it should be footed by a second person while being used
ͻ Ladders should never be fixed or supported by the rungs
ͻ Extension ladders should be set up with an adequate overlap (2 rungs if < 5 m, 3 rungs if > 5 m)
and should be checked to ensure they are properly hooked and locked before use
ͻ The ladder should extend approximately 1 m above any landing place unless some other
adequate handhold is available
ͻ Where ladders are used in a run measuring a vertical distance of more than 9 m, suitable landing
areas or platforms should be provided
ͻ Tools and materials should not be carried up ladders other than in a suitable holster or bag that
leaves both hands free for climbing the stiles
ͻ Only one person at a time may climb a ladder; and
ͻ Work conducted from a ladder should be conducted whilst facing the ladder with one hand free to
hold the ladder

Step-ladders
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Stepladders provide a freestanding means of access, but they require careful use. They are not designed
for any degree of side loading and are relatively easily overturned, especially when overreaching.

People have been killed getting down from workplaces such as loft spaces when they have stepped on to
the top step of a stepladder, which has then overturned. The top step of a stepladder should not be
worked from unless it has been designed for this purpose.

Stepladders should be industrial grade, be used on a level surface, with the hinge fully extended and
locked (or retaining cord fully extended). The workers’ knees should be below the top of the ladder when
in the working position.

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Illustration 85: Access Ladder, Tied at Top, Correct Angle for Use, Suitable Extension above
Landing

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Trestles
There are a variety of trestles used in the construction industry. They are classified according to the
weight they can carry and should only be used within the manufacturer’s specifications.

Typical accidents include electricians falling due to overreaching whilst working seated on top of a large,
single trestle.

People often slip and fall when climbing down from a trestle as the rungs are wider spaced than on a step
ladder.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding may be erected using traditional tubes and fittings or
proprietary easy fit systems.

Proprietary System Scaffolds

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There are several proprietary scaffolding systems available (e.g.,
“Quickstage” or “Cup-Lock”) that come in prefabricated sections that
can be locked together and decked out in timber boards or steel
sheeting.

They can be constructed quickly and are suitable for working on

buildings that are in straight lines covering large areas. They are not
very adaptable however and not particularly suitable for areas such
as stairwells.

Tube and Fittings Scaffolds

Traditional tube and fitting scaffolds are widely used in construction
and consist of steel or aluminium tubes of varying lengths, coupled
together with a variety of fittings to create a working platform decked
with timber boards.

Scaffolding can be designed and erected as “independent” or “putlog”

scaffolds. Other less common designs include “slung”, “suspended”
and “cantilevered” scaffolds.

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Scaffolding Components
The following terms are used to identify the component parts of a traditional tube and fitting scaffold:
Standard: upright member.
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Ledger: horizontal member normally in the direction of the larger dimension of the working scaffold. i.e.,
parallel to the building façade.
Transom: horizontal member normally in the direction of the smaller dimensions of the working scaffold.
i.e., perpendicular to the façade.
Putlog: horizontal member, flattened on one end, spanning from a ledger to sit in the pointing of the
supporting structure.
Raker: an inclined load-bearing member used to support a cantilevered working platform.
Bracing in horizontal plane: assembly of components, which provides shear stiffness in the horizontal
planes.
Bracing in vertical plane: assembly of components, which provides shear stiffness in the vertical planes.
Façade bracing: bracing parallel to the façade of the building.
Ledger bracing: bracing perpendicular to the face of the building.
Base plate: plate used for spreading the load in a standard over a greater area, a base jack is a base
plate with a means of vertical adjustment.
Sole board: a timber plank positioned beneath two or more base plates to distribute the scaffold load
more evenly over the ground.
Coupler: device used to connect two tubes.
Parallel coupler: coupler used for connecting two parallel tubes.
Right angle coupler: coupler used for connecting two tubes crossing at a right angle.
Sleeve coupler: coupler used for joining two tubes located co-axially.
Swivel coupler: coupler used for connecting two tubes crossing at any angle.
Platform: one or more platform units in one level within a bay.
Bay: the distance between pairs of standards.
Lift: a storey.

Illustration 86: Parts of a Scaffold

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Independent Tied Scaffold

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Independent scaffolds are constructed with an
internal row of uprights (standards) against the
structure and one outside row. The space between
the standards (bay width) is dependent on the
weight the scaffold is intended to hold during the
work (see Illustration 87).

Stability is dependent upon a firm level base and

appropriate bracing to stiffen the structure.
Independent scaffolds should be tied into a
permanent structure by eyebolts, through ties or
reveal ties. Alternatively, other means of stabilising
such as rakers may be used.
Illustration 87: Independent Tied Scaffold

Putlog Scaffold
Putlog scaffolds are used only for brick buildings
of one or two storeys. They have a single outer
layer of standards.

The putlog transom has a special flat end that is

designed to fit into a hole in the brickwork.

Putlog scaffolds rely on the building to hold them

up. The advantage over an independent scaffold
is that there are no inside standards to get in the
way of the work.

Illustration 88: Putlog Scaffold

The Erection, Use and Dismantling of Scaffolds and

Falsework
Scaffolds should be:

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ͻ Designed, erected, altered and dismantled only by competent people, and in the case of
proprietary systems in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions. Scaffolds should be
regularly inspected by a competent person.
ͻ Based on a firm, level foundation, capable of supporting the weight of the scaffold and any loads
likely to be placed on it. Care should be taken around voids such as basements or drains, or
patches of soft ground, which could collapse when loaded. Extra support should be provided as
necessary.
ͻ Braced and tied into a permanent structure or otherwise stabilised. Rakers should only be used
to provide stability if they can be braced and footed adequately.
ͻ Capable of supporting loads likely to be placed on it.
ͻ Equipped with fully boarded platforms that are wide enough for the work and for access. Scaffold
boards should be properly supported and not overhanging excessively (no more than 4x the
thickness of the board)
ͻ Equipped with appropriate protective measures to prevent people or objects falling from height,
i.e., guard rails at least 910 mm high, toe boards at least 150 mm high, and an intermediate
guard rail to ensure the unprotected gap does not exceed 470 mm. Brick-guards or other barriers
may be used instead of the intermediate guard rail as long as they are strong enough and placed
so no one can fall through them
ͻ Provided with a safe means of access onto the work platforms

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ͻ Checked for stability and general safety before it is used and checked whenever it is substantially
altered or adversely affected by, for example, high winds
ͻ "Falsework" means a temporary structure that is created to support arches and spans during the
construction process. One of the most common examples of falsework is scaffolding which
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provides a platform to the structure under construction and making it easier for workers to access
and do the actual work

Additional Concerns
Scaffolds should be protected, where necessary from impacts by passing vehicles.

In built up areas, tube ends should be protected with suitable padding in case somebody accidentally
knocks into them. Cut tubes if not properly filed may have razor sharp edges.

The scaffolding should also be highlighted with bunting and lighting to improve visibility. If on a pavement
or highway a guide rail should be erected for the visually impaired.

Ladders should be removed at night, or a scaffold board should be tied securely to the ladder, to prevent
unauthorised persons gaining access to the scaffold.

Sheeted scaffolds should be designed and constructed

Inspections of Scaffolds
Scaffolds should be regularly inspected by a competent person:
ͻ Immediately after it has been constructed (a hand-over certificate should be provided by the
scaffold contractor within 24 hours of completing the scaffold)
ͻ Before anybody goes on to it (this may be some time after it has been built)
ͻ After any incident that may have damaged it, e.g., after a storm or it has been hit by a vehicle;
and
ͻ Every 7 days (a formal report must be completed and entered the site register)

A written report should be made following inspection and before the end of the working shift. The report or
a copy should be provided to the person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out within 24 hours.

The report should contain the following information:

ͻ Name and address of person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out
ͻ Location of the workplace inspected
ͻ Description of workplace or part of workplace inspected
ͻ Date and time of inspection
ͻ Details of any matter identified that could lead to a risk to the health or safety of anyone; and
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ͻ Details of any action taken as a result of any matter identified in the last point

Scaffold Hoist Towers

Scaffold hoists are used to carry materials to high working levels.

The hoist should be selected to ensure it is suitable for the site conditions and the size and weight of the
loads needed to be moved.

The hoist should be erected by a competent person and as with all lifting devices be subject to periodic
inspections. It must also be maintained in good working order.

The safe working load and its suitability for carrying persons should be clearly marked on it. Under no
circumstances may persons be transported on a goods only lift.

The hoist should only be able to be operated from one position, usually at ground level, and the operator
should be able to see all the landing levels from the operating position.

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Illustration 89: Scaffold Hoist Tower

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The main hazards and precautions are summarised in Table 47.

Table 47: Scaffold Hoist Lift: Hazards and Precautions

Hazard Precautions
Enclose the hoist-way at places where people might be struck, e.g.
People being struck by the working platforms of window openings.
platform or other moving parts
Provide gates at all landings and at ground level

Fence the hoist-way where people could fall down it.

Keep landing gates closed except during loading and unloading.
People falling down the hoist-way Gates should be secure and not free to swing into the hoist way.
The edge of the hoist platform is close to the edge of the landing so that
there is no gap to fall through.

Use a hoist with an enclosed platform.

Put loose loads in proper containers.
Falling materials

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Not carrying loose loads such as bricks.
Not overfilling wheelbarrows and chocking wheelbarrows on landings.

Mobile Tower Scaffolds

A wide range of prefabricated tower scaffolds are available. They are widely used for light weight work of
limited duration and are involved in numerous accidents each year, usually because the tower is not
properly erected or used.

The potential for overturning, especially with lightweight aluminium scaffolds, is a significant hazard, as is
collapse, which can occur if the tower is not properly erected with all parts in place.

Towers should be erected by a competent person, in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
The instructions should give sufficient advice on the erection sequence and bracing requirements to
ensure the stability of the tower.

To ensure stability, the tower should rest on firm level ground with the wheels or base plates properly
supported. The tower should be checked to ensure it is vertical before use.

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A tower on base plates is more stable than one on wheels and should be used in preference to a wheeled
tower when there is no need to move the tower. If a wheeled tower is used the wheel brakes should be
locked on before use.

The taller the tower, the more likely it is to become unstable. If towers are to be used in exposed
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conditions or outside, the height of the working platform should generally be no more than three times the
minimum base dimension. If the tower is to be used inside, the ratio may be extended to 3.5.

(As a guide, if the tower base is 2 m by 3 m, the maximum height would be 6m for use outside and 7 m for
inside though this should always be checked in the specific instruction manual).

The stability of any tower will be adversely affected if it is:

ͻ Sheeted and/or likely to be exposed to strong winds
ͻ Loaded with heavy equipment or materials
ͻ Used to hoist heavy materials or support rubbish chutes
ͻ Used for operations involving heavy or awkward equipment, e.g., grit blasting, water-jetting, etc.
ͻ Climbed from the outside; and
ͻ Used as a support for ladders

Illustration 90: Mobile Tower Scaffold

In these cases, extra support or alternative height to base

ratios may be needed. In any instance, the base can be
broadened using outriggers or stabilizers, reducing the ratio
of height to base and improving stability. Tying the tower
into the adjacent structure will also improve its stability.

A safe means of access and egress to and from the work

platform should always be provided. The end frames of the
tower should not be climbed unless there is an
appropriately designed built-in ladder, or a purpose-made
ladder has been securely fitted on the inside. More
appropriate ladder access is provided by a fitted ladder
inclined within the tower provide a route to the work
platform via a lockable “trap door”.
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The storage of materials and equipment on the working platform should be kept to a minimum. The
platform should be fully boarded out and if above 2 m should be provided with suitable edge protection
comprising guardrail, toe boards and intermediate rail or brick-guard.

Mobile towers should not be moved when there are people or materials on the upper platforms or in very
windy conditions. Checks should be made for overhead obstructions, especially power lines, and on the
suitability of ground conditions. The tower should be pushed or pulled manually from the base and under
no circumstances should a tower scaffold be towed by a powered vehicle.

When towers are used in public places, barriers should be erected at ground level to prevent people from
walking into the tower or work area.

Tower scaffolds should be subject to the same inspection regime as general access scaffolds.

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Safe Methods in Roof Work

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Falls associated with roof work account for more fatalities and major injuries than any other activity. “The
higher you climb – the harder you fall”.

Advice on safety during roof work is addressed to the specific problems associated with:
ͻ Pitched roofs (extensive works and short duration works)
ͻ Flat roofs; and
ͻ Fragile roofs

Pitched Roofs
Pitched roofs are those with a pitch of more than 10 degrees.

The level of protection required to address the risk of people and materials falling from pitched roofs
depends upon the extent of the works. Whether works are “extensive” is dependent upon the duration
and difficulty of the job and the numbers of people employed.

Re-roofing and major repairs should always be regarded as extensive, aerial fitting and minor roof repairs
as “non-extensive”.

Illustration 91: Properly Anchored Roof Ladder with Ridge Iron

Work on a pitched roof surface should be conducted

from a properly designed roof ladder, anchored using
a ridge iron (Illustration 91) or crawl boards. Roof
battens and timbers will rarely provide acceptable foot
and hand holds.

Work should not be conducted from a slated or tiled

roof covering unless a safety belt and harness can be
worn.

Safety belts should only be used where there is a

suitably positioned anchorage point that has safe
access and is able to withstand the shock.

Mobile Elevated Work Platforms (MEWP) can provide an alternative to roof access for visual inspections,
but if access is required to the roof from a MEWP a safe system of work using safety harnesses is
required for the transfer.

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Illustration 92: Scaffold at Eaves Level with Edge Protection

For “non-extensive” works the risk of falling objects can be controlled

by:

ͻ Storing materials away from the roof edge.

ͻ Positioning toe boards or similar at the roof edge to prevent
materials falling.
ͻ Using enclosed rubbish chutes for the disposal of waste
materials; and
ͻ Segregating the area beneath to protect passers-by,
incorporating covered access points to premises, if
necessary.

For extensive works, full edge protection is required to prevent people

and materials falling from the lower edge of the roof. Protection should
be provided to all roof elevations, including the gable end, where
extensive work is occurring. Edge protection normally consists of an
external scaffold with a deck at eaves level (minimum of four boards /
800 mm wide) fitted with guard rails and toe boards (Illustration 92).

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Where the work platform is below eaves level intermediate rails or additional barriers may be necessary to
prevent people or materials falling from the roof and passing under or over a single guardrail. A similar
barrier could be constructed at the roof edge.
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Edge Protection
Full edge protection at eaves level will normally be
required for work on sloping roofs. The edge
protection needs to be strong enough to withstand
a person falling against it. The longer the slope
and the steeper the pitch, the stronger the edge
protection needs to be. A properly designed and
installed independent scaffold platform at eaves
level will usually be enough. Less substantial
scaffolding barriers (rather than platforms) may not
be strong enough for work on larger or steeper
roofs, especially slopes in excess of 30°. On some
larger roofs, the consequences of sliding down the
whole roof and hitting edge protection at the eaves
may be such that intermediate platforms are
needed at the work site to prevent this happening.
If the work requires access within 2 m of cable
ends, edge protection will be needed there as well
as at the eaves.

Alternatively, consider using MEWPs or proprietary access systems, which are easy to transport from site
to site, quick to erect and provide good access, as an alternative to fixed edge protection where
appropriate for the work you are planning.

Flat Roofs
Flat roof work poses the risk of falling from the roof should the work involve approaching within 2 m of the
edge. Additional concerns include the risk of falling through the roof either due to unfenced openings in
the roof or the fragility of the roof covering.

Open edges should be protected with substantial edge protection, comprising a guardrail, able to support
a falling person, and toe boards. Unfenced openings should be similarly guarded, or covered with solid
sheeting, able to take a person’s weight and suitably signed.

Work that does not involve approaching unprotected edges should be marked out with bunting or tape
with a minimum of 2 m clearance from any edges.

Flat roof work repairs usually require rolls of roofing felt, bitumen and a heat source to be brought to the
roof. A safe means of raising and lowering materials such as a gin wheel is required, and adequate edge
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protection is required around the landing area.

Fragile Roofs
Fragile materials may totally cover a roof surface or be incorporated as part of the structure e.g., roof
lights.

Any material that is liable to break under a person’s weight should be considered fragile. Examples
include asbestos/ fibre cement sheets, rusted corrugated steel sheeting, wood wool slabs, plastic sheeting
and wired glass.

Before any roof work commences the roof should be surveyed for fragile materials.

If the entire surface is fragile, appropriate precautions must be taken to ensure no one steps onto the
surface. Two crawl boards (minimum 430 mm wide and long enough to span the purlins – roof supports)
should be provided. Crawl boards should be secured wherever possible to prevent movement. NB
Walking along the line of bolts securing sheeting to the purlins is not a safe method of working and results
in many fatalities each year.

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Work in valley gutters, with fragile surfaces forming the valley requires boarding to a minimum of 1 m up
the valley sides to act as a barrier should somebody fall against it. Alternatively, a running line, to which a

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safety harness lanyard may be attached, may be provided.

If the fragile materials are only present in a section of the roof (e.g., roof lights) substantial barriers or
covers should be used.

Wind Strengths
We must also consider problems associated with fluctuations in the strength of the wind. At ground level,
the rate of air flow is often reduced by the protection given by buildings, compared with its effect at roof
level where a worker is exposed to its full force. Footholds at heights are generally not as good as at
ground level and balance becomes a more obvious problem, so the carrying of large items of material,
e.g., a roofing sheet or lengths of wide timber, will exaggerate the problem by acting as a ‘sail’ in the wind.

Accidents have occurred when workers have been blown off a roof while handling large items of materials.

Means of Temporary Access

Suspended Access Cradles and Platforms

Illustration 93: Suspended Access Cradle - Raised Roof Rig

A suspended access system includes a working

platform or cradle and a means of raising and
lowering it suspended from a roof rig (Illustration
93).

Systems may be “fixed” whereby they can only

be lowered and raised in a fixed position, or
“travelling” where the roof rig permits the cradle
to traverse the façade of the structure.

A temporary installation is one, which is

dismantled after use, whereas a permanent
installation remains on the structure whether the
cradle is suspended.

Cradles may be raised and lowered manually by

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pulley blocks or by a powered winch.

Accidents occur during the installation, operation and dismantling of suspended access cradles. Most are
attributable to:
ͻ Unsafe means of access to and from the cradle
ͻ Insufficient or poorly secured counterweights and holding down systems
ͻ Failure of the cradle platform or components such as drop nose pins and bolts
ͻ Failure of winches, climbing devices, safety gear and ropes usually because of poor:

- Maintenance; or
- Failure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions on erection and dismantling.

Cradles should be carefully selected to ensure they are suitable for the intended task. They should be
installed by competent workers and be thoroughly examined and tested before use. Workers must also
be competent to use or work from a cradle.

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When using cradles checks should be made to ensure that:

ͻ The cradle has adequate guard rails and toe boards, and material cannot fall from or through the
cradle’s base
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ͻ The equipment fits closely to the building and where buffers or rollers are fitted; they will run
against suitable features on the building
ͻ The building can carry the loads placed upon it, particularly under the counterweights and under
the fulcrum (or pivot point) of the outrigger. The advice of a structural engineer may be needed
ͻ Jib spacing matches the cradle length and, when the cradle can move, adequate stops are
provided to prevent the cradle running off the end of the track
ͻ Jib length and counterweights are specified to give a factor of safety against overturning of no
less than three
ͻ A secondary safety rope fitted with a fall arrest device is provided and used
ͻ Adequate operating instructions and technical support is available. If the equipment is hired, the
supplier should be able to advise
ͻ The cradle is not overloaded, and loads are placed on the platform as uniformly as possible
ͻ There is safe access into the cradle, ideally from ground level. If access is via the roof, the
cradle should be secured to prevent it swinging away from the building. Access should be
possible without the need to climb up or down the suspension ropes and suitable means to
prevent falls from roof edges are required; and
ͻ There is a plan for rescuing the operator if the crane fails while at a high level

Even where these precautions have been taken, accidents are still possible e.g., if a motor of a powered
cradle fails, it can make the cradle tip or people may overbalance and fall while reaching out of the cradle.

Safety harnesses should be worn and attached to suitable anchor points within the cradle, such as motor
mounting points or running lines. Further information on the use of harnesses follows in this element.

A thorough visual pre-use check for obvious faults is carried out before each use. In addition, a weekly
inspection should be carried out by a competent person and a record made of that inspection.

At the end of the day/shift, the platform should be cleared of tools and equipment and all power switched
off and, where appropriate, isolated. Appropriate security precautions should be taken to prevent access
by vandals or trespassers.

Rope Access Techniques

Rope access techniques (abseiling) can be used for inspection and short-term light-duration construction
work where access from a working platform is not practicable.

The equipment should only be erected and used by competent persons and should be given a
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comprehensive inspection before use.

A single suspension point should not be relied upon to ensure a safe descent. Wherever possible the
main rope and safety rope should be attached to separate suspension points.

Tools required for the work should be attached to the operator with suitable ropes or chains, so that they
cannot be dropped and if necessary, the area beneath the work should be fenced off or covered.

When using a rope access system, ensure that:

ͻ A competent person has installed the equipment
ͻ The user is fully trained
ͻ There is more than one point securing the equipment
ͻ Tools and equipment are securely attached
ͻ The main rope and safety rope are attached to separate points

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A rope access or positioning technique shall be used only if:

ͻ It involves a system comprising of at least two separately anchored lines

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ͻ The user is provided with a suitable harness
ͻ The working line is equipped with safe means of ascent and descent
ͻ The safety line is equipped with a mobile fall protection system

Work Positioning Systems

Boatswain’s (Bosun’s) Chairs and Seats
Boatswain’s chairs and seats should only be used for light, short-term work where it is not practicable to
provide a working platform.

A boatswain’s chair, which consists of a seat with a back, a central suspension point and a carrying point
for tools is generally preferable to a boatswain’s seat which is a plank seat suspended from either end,
though seats are still used for some specialist activities such as steeplejack operations.

The user should always be attached to the suspension system by a harness and lanyard to protect
against falls.

Precautions for using Boatswain Chair

Before use:
ͻ Installation and use of boatswain's chair to be supervised by a trained, experienced and
competent person
ͻ Chair and associated equipment carefully examined for defects
ͻ Confirm test/examination certificates are valid
ͻ Check that user is both trained and competent
ͻ Warning notice displayed and notification of intention to carry out work given
ͻ Prohibit access to the area below the chair in case materials fall

While in use:
ͻ Chair must be free of material or articles
ͻ The fall rope must be properly tied off in use and always under or around a cleat to act as a
brake

After use:

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Chairs and rope should be left in a safe condition:
ͻ Top rope secured/chair and rope secured
ͻ Raised when out of use/overnight storage
ͻ Inspected for defects
ͻ Ropes dried before storage

Illustration 94: Boatswain Chair

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Use of Personal and Collective Fall Arrest Systems

Collective Fall Arrest System (CFAS)
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Safety Nets and Air Bags

Safety nets are designed to catch falling personnel or falling materials. Here we are concerned with the
use of safety nets as a means of fall arrest.

Safety nets should be erected as close as possible to the working level and, if on the outside of the
structure, should be higher at the outer edges than at the inner.

Illustration 95: Safety Net and Supporting Framework

Size and siting of the net are of critical

importance; the further a person may fall, the
larger the net needs to be.

The use of safety nets is limited to high level

work such as roof work and steel erection. If
the net is too close to the ground it will not be
able to safely accommodate the deflection
arising from the impact of a falling person.

Safety nets should be erected by competent

persons able to ensure that the net tension will
allow the safe catching of a falling person; that
the supporting framework can withstand
impact or shock loadings, and that it does not
in itself present a hazard to falling persons.

Care of Nets
Care should be taken to reduce to a minimum unnecessary wear and mechanical damage likely to
weaken the net.

Materials must not be stacked on it and the deliberate jumping into, or dropping of objects onto nets must
be prohibited, as permanent deformation may occur.

The following sources of damage or wear should be avoided as far as possible:

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ͻ Dragging the net over rough surfaces

ͻ Contact between the net and sharp edges
ͻ An accumulation of debris in the net
ͻ Any sparks, etc. from welding and burning operations, hot gases from blowlamps, or hot ash
from chimneys or furnaces
ͻ Chemical attack
ͻ Any form of radiation

Special care should be exercised, and precautions are taken to prevent the net and any supporting
framework from being struck by loads on moving vehicles or by the vehicles themselves. Regular
inspection is necessary to ensure that the nets remain serviceable. The net manufacturer should be
consulted when there is any doubt about the suitability of nets for use in hazardous conditions, after any
known contamination or when deformation has occurred. When erecting nets near electricity lines or
overhead power cables, the appropriate authority should be consulted before the work is commenced.

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Rescue from a Net System

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Where the net is erected as close as possible to the work area, many of the situations where persons
enter a net will be minor ‘step-ins’, and the person able to climb out unaided. On other occasions, a
person may fall into a net and cause deformation. They may fall onto materials lying in the net or strike
their head or body on the way down.

It is, therefore, essential that companies using net systems have emergency procedures written for:
ͻ Treating first aid needs whilst in the net
ͻ Emergency recovery from a rigged net system

Procedures for both the above are included in the standard industry training courses for net riggers or net
inspectors.

Air Bags
Air bags tend to be used where there is insufficient height to accommodate a safety net or to provide
anchorage for a fall arrest system.

The strength of the material and the air pressure within the bag are critical to ensuring the safety of a
falling person. They should only be installed by competent specialist suppliers.

These systems are of use where secure fixings to brick or concrete are unavailable this method offers a
flexible and quick solution which, whilst inhibiting work in an area, is a means of collective fall arrest from
heights. The Air Bag or Inflated Crash Deck system consists of a series of interlinked air mattresses
located under the work area. The mattresses are connected by secure couplings and then inflated on site
by a pump fan either electric, petrol or butane powered. The individual mattresses fill with low-pressure air
to expand and form a continuous protective surface.

The mattresses (depending upon manufacturer) are manufactured in various sizes which allow for use in
any configuration.

The system has been tested in conjunction with for example the Building Research Establishment (BRE. –
UK) The Bean Bag system is a free-flowing cushioned material bag made from expanded polystyrene with
high compressive creep and recovery properties. It is constructed from 1650 / 1800 Denier tear-resistant,
the man-made fabric being low of weight (0.1Kgm-2), and of low tensile strength (1.7 MNm-3) – this may
vary by manufacturer. The Bean Bags will be clipped together to form one complete unit.

As each Bag is installed, it will be pushed hard into the previous fall bag to ensure that a continuous mat is
assembled. Where the floor area to be covered is smaller than the length or width of the bag, it will simply
curve up the perimeter wall (this should direct a falling body onto the "Fall Protection System").

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Personal Fall Arrest System (PFAS)

Safety Belts, Harnesses, and Lanyards

Where a standard working platform, barriers,
guardrails or safety nets are not practicable, and a risk
of falling still exists, a safe system of work is to be
designed. This safe system may require the use of
safety harnesses and lanyards but should be a last
resort. The danger of using such fall arrest equipment
is that it only protects a person if they wear the
harness and connect the lanyard. Any such system
requires a high degree of training and supervision.

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Training
Training should refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and should emphasise the importance of following
those instructions. It should cover the fitting, adjustment and use of the safety belt or harness, and explain
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the choice and use of suitable anchorage points. Personnel should not be permitted to use the equipment
before adequate instruction has been received.

Safety belts and harnesses are wrongly regarded by some workers as an encumbrance and a restriction
on their freedom of movement. The fact that a safety belt or harness can prevent serious injury or even
save a life is ignored. The problems arising from such attitudes can and must be solved by applying the
principles of good safety management. These include educating personnel on the need for the equipment,
training them in its use, ensuring it is provided and, through adequate supervision, ensuring it is always
used.

Types of Belts or Harness

Whilst the British Standard which defined the various types of belts and harness has been replaced by a
European Standard, the common construction industry terminology for these pieces of equipment is as
follows:
ͻ Pole belt
ͻ Chest harness
ͻ General purpose safety harness
ͻ Safety rescue harness

Selection of Equipment
The correct selection of a safety harness or safety belt is important. If a person falls more than 600 mm
when using a safety belt, serious injury can be sustained due to a heavy load being exerted on the spine
and internal organs. Safety belts should only be used for pole access or other similar specialist access
needs.

If any doubt exists concerning the suitability of a piece of equipment for a task or type of work, further
information and advice should be sought from the manufacturer. Whatever type is chosen, it should give a
high degree of safety allied to mobility and wearer comfort.

The main characteristics of the types of appliances listed above, together with an indication of their uses,
are given below.
ͻ Pole belt. A simple waist belt for use by Pole linesmen and for other similar tasks. They are not
intended for situations where a drop may exceed 600 mm
ͻ Chest harness. A safety belt with shoulder straps, for use where a lanyard and anchorage point
limit the drop to a maximum of 600 mm. It must be worn quite tightly to prevent any slippage after
a fall
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ͻ General purpose safety harness. A full harness with thigh and shoulder straps. A lanyard and
anchorage point limits the maximum drop to 2 m. In the event of a fall, a person is suspended in
a reasonably upright position from the attachment point. If the harness is of the right size and
properly adjusted, the wearer cannot fall out
ͻ Safety rescue harness. Designed to be worn by anyone in a confined space or location where
they may be overcome or incapacitated and need to be rescued.

A safety rescue harness looks like Type C, but will support a person almost upright for rescue purposes.
They are intended for a maximum drop of 600 mm.

General
When a fall is arrested by a belt, the shock loading is highly concentrated, and the resulting stress on the
body is very high and injury very possible. Harnesses are better in these respects. Both harnesses and
belts impose high loadings on anchor points. To limit the drop, the anchorage points should always be as
high as possible above the person and as near to vertical as possible to avoid ‘swing’. Anchorage points
must be capable of withstanding shock loading. Consideration should also be given to how persons would
be rescued following an arrested fall, particularly when work is from high structures.

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Markings on Belts and Harnesses

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Safety belts and harnesses must be clearly and indelibly marked or permanently labelled with the
following information:
ͻ The British Standard, or European Standard, to which it conforms
ͻ The name, trademark or other means of identification of the manufacturer
ͻ The year in which the harness or belt was manufactured
ͻ ‘MAXIMUM SAFE DROP 2 m’ (as appropriate) together with details of any recommended safety
lanyards for use with the safety belt or harness
ͻ The type of belt or harness which it is
ͻ The manufacturer’s serial number
ͻ The company serial number or another recognition system for recording maintenance and
inspections

Markings on Lanyards
Lanyards not permanently attached to belts or harnesses must be clearly and indelibly marked or
permanently labelled with the following information:
ͻ The British Standard, or European Standard, to which it conforms
ͻ The name, trademark or other means of identification of the manufacturer
ͻ The year of manufacture
ͻ The manufacturer’s model number and the type of belt or harness to which the lanyard is
designed to be used
ͻ The company serial number or another recognition system for recording maintenance and
inspections

Lanyards should have a label bearing the words: ‘For maximum safety attach the free end to a point
as high as possible above you and avoid looping the lanyard around small joints and angles with narrow
edges.’ Lanyards should preferably be permanently attached to belts so that ‘longer’ lanyards cannot be
substituted.

Shock Absorbers
If a person is wearing a harness and lanyard falls, there is a considerable shock loading to the body, and
the further the fall, the greater the shock.

The maximum distance a person should fall before an arrest is 2 metres. Shock absorbers in the form of

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

tear-away stitching, stretch springs or a deforming metal strip may be built into the lanyard or safety
harness to reduce the shock loading. Once these have been deployed in a fall, they must be discarded.

Arrester Devices
These devices are similar in operation to the ‘inertia reel’ safety
seatbelt fitted in cars. The safety harness is attached to a self-
reeling cable which is securely anchored. The wearer is free to
move normally but, in the event of a sudden movement (a fall),
the locking device is brought into operation. Various types are
available: self-recoiling cable, a traveller on a pre-tensioned
vertical cable, and a rope and ladder climbing system. There
are also proprietary systems where the lanyard is attached to a
traveller which moves along a pre-positioned and tensioned
horizontal or vertical steel cable. This permits movement
around corners and past obstacles without the need to unhook.
Advice should be sought on the best type to be used for the job
to be done.

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Storage
While not being worn, appliances should be stored in a cool, dry place and not subjected to direct sunlight.
The use of purpose-designed cabinets which allow ventilation is recommended. If the appliances get wet,
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they should not be dried by direct heat. The equipment should not be subjected to unnecessary strain or
pressure and must be kept free from contact with sharp implements, corrosives and other possible causes
of damage.

Recommended cleaning instructions should be followed.

Inspection
The wearer must make a visual inspection of safety equipment before use. The appliances should be
examined by a ‘competent person’ at least once every six months and a record kept of this inspection.
Safety belts, harnesses, lanyards, etc. should be examined by a ‘competent person’ after a fall or other
circumstances in which the equipment has been deployed before it is re-issued for use. Safety belts,
harnesses, and lanyards should be taken out of use if found to be damaged or defective.

Attention should be directed to the points below.

x Webbing and leather. Examine for cuts, cracks, tears or abrasions, stretching and distortion,
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damage due to deterioration, contact with heat, acids or other corrosives and rot.
x Snap hooks. Examine for damaged or distorted hooks, faulty springs and strained jaws.
x Buckles. Carefully examine the shoulders of buckles; inspect for open or distorted rollers, and
undue wear. Sewing. Examine for broken, cut or worn threads, open seams and failed stitching.
x Lanyards, ropes, and chains. Examine for damage or signs of wear and, in the case of ropes,
inter-strand wear, unravelling extension and fusion. Unauthorised modifications. Examine
equipment for ‘home-made’ attachments or adaptations.

It should be impressed upon the wearers that their lives depend on upon the continued efficiency and
durability of their safety equipment and that, by frequent personal inspections, the possibility of accidents
will be reduced to a minimum.

Records
A card or history sheet should be kept for each harness and lanyard, and particulars of all examinations
and other details of interest recorded. Each harness and lanyard should be marked with an individual
serial number for identification purposes.

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Demolition Work

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The process for planning a safe and effective demolition has been summarised in Flowchart 4. Here we
will consider:

Pre-Demolition Surveys
The use of structural surveys to determine structural hazards; hazardous substance surveys to determine
site specific hazards e.g., the use of hazardous construction materials, storage of hazardous materials on
site, and contaminated land; and site / environmental surveys to determine all other site-specific issues.

Demolition Principles and Techniques

The fundamental principles of all demolition work and the range of specific techniques available.

Demolition Hazards
The range of health and safety hazards likely to be encountered during a demolition project.

Precautions
The preventive and protective measures used to safeguard the workforce and others.

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Flowchart 4: Stages of a Demolition Project

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Pre-Demolition Surveys

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Structural Surveys
The structural survey should determine any variations in construction within the building, or complex to be
demolished. Structural modifications, repairs and extensions over time may well lead to differences in
design, construction methods or materials used.

The structural condition will need to be established as weathering, exposure to corrosive atmospheres or
vandalism may well have weakened structural members or connectors.

The survey should also identify the need for temporary works or shoring required within the building to be
demolished, or to adjacent buildings, to allow the fabrication of any necessary temporary works in good
time.

The surveyor must be competent and able to recognise the contribution made to the superstructure by its
component parts, tie bars, pre-stressing, counterweighting, arches and other systems affording structural
stability. Access to site drawings and details of the initial construction sequence will aid the survey.

Hazardous Substance Surveys

Hazardous substance arising from construction materials or use of the site should be determined during
the pre-demolition surveys, e.g., the presence of asbestos lagging, lead painted steelwork, or process
residues that may be retained in machinery, pipework, storage vessels or contaminated land.

Site/Environment Surveys
Consideration must also be given to the following site-specific issues; the information may be gathered
through desktop exercises, a site survey, or a combination of both:
ͻ Access routes to and from the site, around the site, and to and from places of work
ͻ Topographical features such as trees and water courses which require protection or affect the
planning of the work
ͻ Ground conditions, including the water table, the potential for flooding, ground types, and the
presence of sink holes, mineshafts and shallow workings
ͻ Location and type of services, both above and below ground
ͻ Extent of buried features such as basements, cellars, tanks and vaults
ͻ Extent of above-ground structures, including those with basements, etc. and including those at or

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near the boundaries of the site
ͻ Presence of neighbours who may be caused problems, e.g., by impact vibration, noise, dust or
electronic transmissions; and
ͻ Presence of neighbours who may cause problems, e.g., by producing radio transmissions that
may affect the use of electric detonators when demolishing by explosives

The client has the duty to make information available to the project co-ordinator who has responsibility for
preparing the pretender health and safety plan. The principal contractor will use this information to aid his
own site surveys and develop the health and safety plan for the demolition phase.

Main Techniques Used in Demolition of Buildings

Principles and Techniques

The most suitable method of demolition is determined considering knowledge of the site and the nature of
the structure, including the interdependency of elements.

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There are three basic principles of structural demolition:

1. Progressive
2. Deliberate collapse or
3. Deliberate removal
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Progressive Demolition
Progressive demolition is the controlled removal of sections of the structure, whilst retaining the stability of
the remainder and avoiding collapse of the structure being demolished.

Progressive demolition should be considered for most sites and is particularly useful in confined and
restricted areas.

Generally, a structure is demolished in the reverse order it was constructed.

Deliberate Collapse Mechanisms

Demolition by deliberate collapse involves the removal of key structural members to cause complete
collapse of the structure or part of the structure.

Where part of a structure only is to be demolished by deliberate collapse the stability of the remaining
structure must be ensured to protect site personnel and others who may be endangered by the demolition.

Deliberate collapse techniques are appropriate on detached, isolated, reasonably level sites where the
whole structure is to be demolished, and where there is sufficient space to enable equipment and
personnel to be removed to a safe distance.

Deliberate Removal of Elements

The deliberate removal of elements is the removal of selected parts of the structure by dismantling or
deconstruction.

The method is often used in the lead up to deliberate collapse or as part of renovation or modification
work.

With all techniques, the strategic use of inherent forces is an aid to efficient demolition.

To avoid premature unintentional collapses, the key structural members, on which the integrity of the
structure relies, should be clearly indicated in the method statement and on-site drawings. The intended
sequence of removal must also be clearly identified.
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Demolition Techniques
There are several demolition techniques available, each of which requires specific precautionary
measures. Several methods of demolition can be used in combination or at different parts of the
demolition site. The techniques broadly fit into one of three categories: by hand, by machine or by
chemical agents.

Appropriate techniques are determined following risk assessment. Each technique introduces its own
hazards. The major concerns associated with each technique are outlined below.

Demolition by Hand
Progressively demolished structures or elements of structures can be demolished by operatives using
hand-held tools, however, using remote demolition techniques, e.g., by machine is usually more
appropriate.

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Mechanical assistance is often necessary for the lifting and lowering of elements once they have been
released.

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Structures should generally be demolished in the reverse order to that of their construction, in a
progressive process, working storey by storey.

Work at height, either on the structure itself or on a working platform (e.g., scaffold or MEWP) is a
significant hazard.

Illustration 96: Base Machine, Equipment and Attachments

Demolition by Machine
Demolition machinery comprises:
ͻ A base machine (compact machine,
high reach machine, tower crane)
ͻ Equipment (e.g., boom and dipper
arm); and
ͻ Attachments (hydraulic and non-
hydraulic).

Here we will consider the various

combinations that may be encountered during
demolition works.

Demolition machinery should be operated

either from a protected cab or remotely using,
e.g., umbilical cable control or robotic devices.

Plant and equipment used should be:

ͻ Of an appropriate type and condition having regard to the location and type of work involved
ͻ Maintained in good working condition always; and
ͻ In the control of a competent (certificated) operator

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Any attachments should be properly fitted to machines of adequate power and stability for the intended
use.

Where plant is being operated, the surface should be strong enough to support it. Where necessary, soft
ground should be excavated and replaced by compacted hard-core to provide a suitable base.

Consideration should also be given to providing adequate support for cranes and other machines where
there are basements and other below-ground voids, ducts, etc. by breaking into them and backfilling with
hard-core.

Compact Machines
Compact machines (e.g., mini-excavators and skid-steer loaders) may be used for demolition on the
upper floors of buildings. This introduces additional hazards of lifting the machines into place and of using
the machines within the structure being demolished.

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Appropriate Methods for Lifting the Machine into Position

Should be Employed
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The strength of the floor should be assessed to ensure that the machine and any debris could be
supported by the floor before being removed. Account should be taken of the weakening effects on the
structure by the progressive removal of elements and the extra loading caused by temporary access
ramps.

Edge protection and restraint systems are required to prevent machines from falling through holes in, or
from the edges of, buildings.

High Reach Machines

Operators of high reach machines require specialist training beyond that required for low reach machines.

This training addresses issues concerning the:

ͻ Increased weight of the machine
ͻ Increased ground bearing pressure
ͻ Stability characteristics different from other demolition machines
ͻ Fitting, safe use and removal of attachments; and
ͻ Use of variable width tracks (where fitted)

Tower and Other High-Reach Cranes

The installation, operation and dismantling of tower and other high-reach cranes requires specialised skills
and should be planned and managed in accordance with relevant standards. Tower cranes are suitable
for deconstructing high rise structures.

NB Tower cranes are designed for the lifting of freely suspended loads and should not be used for balling
operations.

Attachments
Pusher Arm

Demolition by pusher arm involves the progressive demolition of a structure using a machine fitted with a
pusher arm exerting a horizontal force. The pusher arm should be purpose made and fitted with a
deflector plate. The height of the structure is reduced progressively by pushing over small sections.

Impact Hammer
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Demolition by impact hammer involves the progressive demolition of masonry and concrete structures by
applying heavy blows to a point in contact with the material and may be pneumatically or hydraulically
operated. Use of impact hammers may affect structural stability due to vibration from its operation.

Hydraulic Shears

Cold cutting of metal and reinforced concrete sections can be achieved by cutting and severing material
using shear jaws.

Shears attachments may be rigidly mounted to the machine or be able to rotate to provide increased
working versatility for cutting.

Machines fitted with hydraulic shears may be used for cutting metal sections and reinforced concrete in
situ and for the processing of materials at ground level.

Dismantling of redundant oil and chemical storage tanks introduces additional risks of fire or explosion
through trapped gases or residual substances. All tanks and pipe runs should be fully purged prior to any
work.

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Pulveriser

Mechanical demolition by a machine mounted pulveriser is the progressive demolition of reinforced

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concrete or brick structures by crushing the material with a powerful jaw action, by closing the moving
jaw(s) against the material.

The pulveriser attachment is suitable for crushing beams, columns, floor slabs and panels either in situ or
as a subsequent processing operation, when reinforcing bars can also be separated.

Demolition Pole

A telescopic or rigid demolition pole, to which attachments such as a claw or ripper hooks can be fixed,
can be used to achieve a greater working height and distance from the base machine during the
progressive dismantling of, e.g., roofs, walls, lintels of brick-built structures.

Grapple

A grapple is designed for use in bringing steel and concrete beams, columns, walls and floor sections, and
roof joists progressively to ground level. Careful consideration must be given to the loading effects on the
structure locally, and the position from where the load is being applied.

Hydraulic Multi-Purpose Attachments

Multi-purpose attachments can be used to progressively demolish reinforced concrete or steel structures
including chemical and oil storage tanks using interchangeable jaws for steel cutting, concrete crushing,
concrete pulverizing or plate/tank cutting.

Multi-purpose attachments can be mounted either directly to the boom or to the dipper arm.

Demolition Ball

Demolition by ball involves the progressive demolition of a building using a weight that is suspended from
a lifting appliance and then released to impact the structure, repeatedly, in the same or different locations.

There are two acceptable demolition ball techniques: hoisting and dropping the ball vertically; and
winching the ball towards the machine and releasing it to swing in line with the jib. The maximum ball
weight should not exceed 50% of the safe working load (SWL) of the machine, at the working radius.

NB Cranes with telescopic jibs, tower cranes and other high reach machines should not be used for
demolition balling operations.

Wire Rope Pulling

Wire rope pulling involves attaching wire ropes to a structure, usually of steel, and pulling the pre-
weakened structure to the ground by winch or tracked plant. This technique should not be used on brick

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or masonry structures.

Drilling and Sawing

Drilling and sawing methods are used to weaken and/or remove parts of (or complete) structures (from
block and brick walls to concrete floor slabs and reinforced concrete structural members), particularly
where work is in confined spaces, in locations where a high degree of accuracy is needed, or where the
noise, dust, smoke and vibration resulting from other methods, would be unacceptable or inappropriate.

Methods include a range of diamond cutting and drilling techniques, wet and dry tungsten-cutting methods
and may involve small-scale manual operations or heavy-duty mechanical applications.

Demolition by Chemical Agents

The selection and use of chemical agents such as explosives, bursting agents and combustible gases
should be undertaken only by, or under the supervision of, appropriately trained personnel as they are
highly specialised activities.

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Demolition by Explosives

When explosives are used in demolition, specific consideration should be given to the suitability of the
structure for demolition by explosives, techniques appropriate to the structure and location, and
associated exclusion zones. The whole operation should be under the close control of a competent
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explosives engineer (i.e., qualified, experienced and trained).

Explosives may be used for: the deliberate collapse of concrete, masonry and steel structures (or any
combination thereof); the breaking or shattering of objects such as concrete blocks and foundations; and
full or partial removal of structural elements.

Each blast must be carefully designed to ensure the most efficient use of explosives (e.g., by structural
pre-weakening) and the minimisation of flying debris. Test blasts are often made to increase knowledge of
the material to be blasted, thus allowing the blast design and the extent of exclusion zones to be
confirmed or modified in light of that knowledge.

If charges can be placed in or on, the internal members of the structure the perimeter of the structure will
contribute to an efficient blast protection design, (e.g., in multi-storey buildings with internal columns).

Explosives should be stored under high security. A log should be kept showing the quantity of materials
used, balanced against the quantities of materials remaining. The log is the responsibility of the senior
explosives engineer who should complete and sign it daily.

Arrangements should be made to ensure that explosives cannot be prematurely detonated, including
through unintentional initiation, e.g., when positioning floodlights or using mobile telephones and radios.

Gas Expansion Bursters

The effect of the burster is obtained by inserting it into a prepared cavity in the mass to be demolished.
Upon being energised the resultant increase in pressure of the gas ruptures a diaphragm, releasing the
gas into crevices in the surrounding structure which is then fractured.

The burster should be effectively restrained within the prepared cavity in order to prevent it from becoming
projected in an uncontrolled manner.

Hydraulic Bursters

Hydraulic bursters work on the same principles as gas expansion bursters in that they use an expanding
device to force apart a mass, but the process is not as rapid as in a gas expansion burster. Pistons or
wedges are placed in a prepared cavity and are gradually jacked out under pressure; the resulting
increase in size of the device fractures the surrounding material.

Expanding Demolition Agents

Expanding chemicals are mixed with water to form a liquid or paste, which is poured into pre-drilled holes
in the material that is to be demolished. The chemicals expand to cause a fracture. The handling and use
of the chemicals are likely to be hazardous.
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Hot Cutting

Commonly used hot cutting techniques include oxy-fuel gas flame cutting and disc grinders. Hot cutting
methods create additional risk of fire and/or explosion.

High Pressure Water Jetting

“High pressure water jetting” covers all water jetting processes including those using additives and
abrasives where there is energy input to increase the pressure of water. In demolition the process is
used, for cutting out concrete from around steel reinforcing bars where the latter are to remain.

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Typical Hazards

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Health Hazards
Health hazards may arise from the demolition techniques
used (e.g., noise, vibration, dust) or may be caused by toxic
materials used in the construction (e.g., asbestos) or
abandoned on site (contaminated land).

Here we will consider the hazards under the general

headings of:
ͻ Chemical (dusts, gases, vapours and fumes)
ͻ Physical (noise vibration and radiation); and
ͻ Biological (via rodents, other vermin and sewage)

Chemical Hazards
Lead Dust
Lead as a toxic dust arises from such demolition jobs as paint removal and handling metallic lead. Lead
fumes from hot cutting and burning processes and dismantling tanks that may have contained leaded
petrol or other products containing lead are also a potential concern.

Silica Dust
Silica dust is fibrogeimic (i.e., cause fibrotic diseases of the lungs). Siliceous stone occurs as a building
material in natural stone construction, bricks and aggregates for concrete.

Exposure to silica dust may occur because of:

ͻ Demolition processes involving breaking, crushing or grinding of siliceous materials, and
ͻ Use of abrasives containing crystalline silica during sand blasting stone, or dismantling pipe-work

Asbestos
Asbestos fibres cause asbestosis and mesothelioma. Asbestos dust will be generated whenever
demolition involves work on asbestos in sprayed coatings, thermal and acoustic insulation materials, fire
resistant walls and partitions, asbestos cement sheets and flooring material. Work on asbestos insulation

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and sprayed asbestos coating can produce particularly high levels of dust.

Gases, Vapours and Fumes

Gases, vapours and fumes may be released from:

ͻ Residues and wastes left behind in premises previously used for chemical processes or storage
ͻ The demolition of tanks and pipework
ͻ Hot cutting processes
ͻ Explosives, fuels and other products used in demolition processes
ͻ Site bonfires; and
ͻ Natural processes such as organic decomposition

Dangerous atmospheres can also be found in pits and tunnels, and in confined spaces where oxygen has
been removed from the air by chemical or biological action.

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Physical Hazards
Ionising Radiations
ͻ Sealed radioactive sources are likely to be present in smoke detectors, fire exit signs, lightning
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conductors and hospital waste.

ͻ The demolition of premises, where radioactive substances have previously been manufactured,
stored or used, poses additional difficulties.

Noise
Demolition plant, such as compressors and concrete breakers, frequently create noise levels more than
100 dB(A). Peaks of up to 150 dB(A) may be achieved during activities such as shot firing.

Vibration
Pneumatic drills and breakers are among many hand-held tools likely to give rise to vibration white finger
(VWF) and hand arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). Whole body vibration syndrome may be attributed to
the driving / use of heavy plant and equipment.

Biological Hazards
Biological hazards likely to be encountered during demolition work include Weils disease from
contaminated surface water; ornithosis / psittacosis from exposure to bird droppings and other wastes in
roof spaces; and a range of disease-causing organisms in sewage.

Safety Hazards
As we have seen each of the techniques available for demolition poses its own hazards and risk.

For hand demolition, the major concern is the potential for workers to fall from height and demolition using
explosives, or hot cutting techniques are by design highly hazardous. Major concerns for all techniques
however are the potential for premature collapse and the danger from falling materials.

Control Measures
Irrespective of the demolition technique(s) used on a project, safeguards are designed around two key
principles:
ͻ The establishment and maintenance of safe working spaces and exclusion zones; and
ͻ The development of safe systems of work detailing appropriate precautions for the method of
demolition used.
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Exclusion Zones
An exclusion zone defined as:

“A designated three-dimensional space from which all persons, including the public, are excluded during
demolition activities.”

Although in certain circumstances key site personnel may remain within the zone for a specific task
provided, they are adequately protected.

The exclusion zone is made up of four areas (see Illustrations 97 and 98).
ͻ Building / structure footprint
ͻ Designed drop area
ͻ Predicted debris area; and
ͻ Buffer zone

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The following are suggested minimum distances for various activities. Risk assessments including
consideration of previous experience and specific calculations may well determine the need for greater

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distances:

ͻ For debris dropping, a radius of 6m, or half

the drop height (whichever is the greater),
should be used to determine the restricted
area.
ͻ The operation of cranes, grabs, balling
machines, pusher arms and similar
equipment requires a minimum space of
6m from the face of the building being
demolished.
ͻ When wire rope pulling is used, three
quarters of the exposed length of pull rope
should be allowed on either side of the rope
and behind the winch or pulling vehicle.
ͻ When tall structures are demolished not
less than twice the total height should be
allowed along the proposed line of fall to
cater for parts coming free in flight, or
bouncing and rolling on impact; and
ͻ On slender structures, a 30-degree arc
either side of the line of fall should be clear
of obstructions and an area of radius not
less than twice the total height should be
cleared of persons before the actual felling.
Illustration 97: Exclusion Zone – Plan

Method Statements/Safe System of Work

The demolition method statement should work through from hazard identification and risk assessment to
the determination of necessary precautions to eliminate or adequately control the hazards (i.e., provide a
safe system of work).

The method should be easy to understand and be communicated to and accepted by the workforce. It is
equally important that it is understood and enforced by supervisors and management.

It is likely that an effective method statement will address:

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ͻ The sequence and method(s) of demolition detailing means for access, provision of safe working
platforms and machinery requirements
ͻ Details of pre-weakening of structures prior to demolition by explosion or pulling down
ͻ Arrangements for protection of personnel and others through the establishment of exclusion
zones
ͻ Details for the making safe of electricity, gas and water supplies and site drainage
ͻ Specification of temporary services required during the operation
ͻ Detail methods for dealing with hazardous materials retained on site in machinery, pipework or
tanks
ͻ Methods for identifying the presence of hazardous substances such as asbestos on site and the
methods to be used during its removal and disposal
ͻ Requirements for personal protective equipment; and
ͻ Arrangements for controlling site transport

Many demolition activities will be of sufficiently high risk to warrant permit-to-work controls.

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Protection of the Public/Site Security

Demolition is frequently carried out near highways or areas to which the public have access. Because of
the public’s unfamiliarity with the dangers, their curiosity about the work and the number of people that
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can be at risk, high standards of site protection, safe systems of work and effective supervision of the
work are needed.

Where reasonably practicable to do so, a perimeter fence that is at least two meters tall and difficult to
climb over should protect the site. Access gates should be securely locked outside of working hours.

Where it is not reasonably practicable to erect a perimeter fence precaution should be taken to cover or
fence excavations, remove ladders to prevent access to scaffolds, immobilise and secure vehicles and
plant and isolate and secure services. Façade netting and debris fans may also be required to protect
passers-by.

Illustration 98: Exclusion Zone

Excavations
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Introduction
Excavation work is an essential element of the construction process particularly in relation to the
construction of foundations, drainage work and underground services of all kinds.

Soil conditions and types can vary widely. No soil can be relied upon to support its own weight for any
length of time, especially if subjected to additional loads from plant and materials. An excavation will
eventually collapse if left unsupported; the only doubtful element is when:
x A cubic metre of earth weighs approximately 1.3 tonnes. Even a small fall of earth can inflict
serious injury, or death.

Ground Conditions
Soil varies in its nature. Some soil, like fine sand, flows easily. Other soils, like stiff clay, are more
cohesive. A guide to determining the appropriate precautions against collapse is the angle at which a
type of soil will stand without collapsing. This is called the “angle of repose”.

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For all excavations or trenches, a survey of soil prior to excavation by a trained and experienced person
will usually provide sufficient information for suitable methods of excavation and support to be determined.

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Information on ground conditions may be obtained from trial pits or boreholes. Such investigations are
undertaken during preliminary site surveys.

The location of the water table is also significant. If the water table is going to be exposed by the
excavation, careful consideration will need to be given to how it may affect the stability of the excavation
sides.

Main Hazards and Controls

The main hazards encountered during excavation work are:
ͻ Collapse of the sides
ͻ Over running of vehicles
ͻ Persons falling into the excavation
ͻ Materials falling into excavations
ͻ Access and egress

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ͻ Hazardous atmospheres
ͻ Undermining adjacent structures
ͻ Flooding; and
ͻ Buried services

Illustration 99: Sheeted Excavation with Edge Protection, Ladder Access and Supported Services

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Collapse
Excavation sides can be protected from the risk of collapse by battering the sides to a safe angle or
supporting them with traditional sheeting (Illustration 99) or proprietary trench boxes or hydraulic support
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systems.

Over Running of Vehicles

To prevent vehicles overrunning the edge of an excavation, stop blocks should be placed near to the edge
of the excavation (at least 1.5 m) to provide protection from the vehicle overrunning and falling into it. This
will also minimise the risk of “surcharging” i.e., the excavation edge collapsing due to the weight of the
vehicle.

Persons Falling into the Excavation

Where a person may fall 2 m or more, barriers must be erected.

Any structure forming a guardrail or barrier must be of sufficient strength and suitable for the purpose for
which it is being used. The main guard-rail should be at least 910mm above the edge of the excavation
with a second or intermediate guard-rail so positioned that there is no gap greater than 470 mm between
the edge of the excavation and the mid-guardrail and the top or main guard-rail.

Materials Falling into Excavations

Excavated spoil and other materials should be stored well away from the edge of the excavation. The
extra loadings can make the sides of excavations more likely to collapse and loose materials may fall into
the excavation.

A scaffold board used as a toe board and fixed along the outside of the trench sheets will provide extra
protection against loose materials falling.

Safety helmets will protect those working in the excavation from small pieces of materials falling either
from above, or from the sides of the excavation.

Access and Egress

Safe means of getting into and climbing out of an
excavation must be provided. If a risk assessment
identifies those ladders are a reasonable means of
access or egress from an excavation, they must be
suitable and of sufficient strength for the purpose.
They must be on a firm level base, sufficiently
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secured to prevent slipping and must, unless a

suitable alternative handhold is provided, extend to a
height above the landing place of at least 1 m, so as
to provide a safe handhold.

Climbing into or out of an excavation using the

walling and struts should be prohibited.

Hazardous Atmospheres
Noxious or flammable gases may arise naturally e.g., hydrogen sulphide, methane and sulphur dioxide;
be exhausted from nearby plant; or leak from nearby pipes or installations. Any gases heavier than air will
accumulate at the bottom of the excavation.

Gas tests should be carried out before work is started, and continually as work progresses.

Ventilation may be provided by blowing clean air into the excavation in sufficient volume to dissipate any
gas and provide adequate breathable air.

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Undermining Adjacent Structures

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Care must be taken to see that excavation work does not affect the stability of any adjacent structure.
Precautions to protect workers and others must be taken before and during any excavation work.

It is therefore extremely important that this is reflected in health and safety plans. If there is any doubt
whatsoever, a structural engineer should be called in to give advice.

Flooding
In addition to affecting the stability of an excavation, groundwater can present the potential for flooding.

Ground de-watering systems can be used to lower the water table by sinking boreholes into the ground
surrounding the excavation and pumping the water from the boreholes to a drain or ditch.

Surface waters and rainwater could also potentially flood an excavation.

Contamination
Construction work frequently involves the development of land that has become contaminated by the
residues from previous industrial activities. Such activities include the production of town gas, the disposal
of domestic and/or industrial waste, various processes involving chemicals, and the storage or handling of
chemicals at places such as docks or warehouses.

Temporary Shoring (drag boxes, piling)

Shoring is artificial support for the side walls of an excavation where the angle of repose in the excavation
is greater than the natural angle for the type of material. This will invariably be at 90° to the base of the
excavation since it is virtually impossible to provide the bracing required at lesser angles. The type of
shoring required will depend on such factors as the depth and width of the excavation and the material
being excavated.

The basis of shoring lies in laying boards or steel sheets across the face of the side wall to provide the
support against the soil and earth and bracing them against a secure surface to withstand the force. The
main type comprises vertical wooden boards (poling boards or soldiers) which are held in place by
horizontal timbers (walings), and then braced by wooden timber struts against a facing wall, as in a trench
or a square pit shaft with two pairs of facing walls.

Steel sheets, secured together by clamps and braced by expandable steel struts or hydraulic rams are
also common. The struts in these constructions will impede the working space available, particularly in
trenches. Where there is no facing wall to brace the supporting sheets against, they may be braced

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against the floor using angled supports similar to rakers in scaffolding. The steel sheets should be toed in
at the bottom and rise above the tops of the trench sides.

If working near to buildings, it may be necessary to shore up the foundations and brace the walls so that
the building does not fall. Support boxes may also be used, e.g., a trench (drag) box.

Trench (drag) boxes are ready-constructed units which can be easily and quickly installed into an
excavation, using an excavator or similar machine to provide strong, reliable shoring for most ground
conditions whilst giving full protection for operatives.

A method statement must be prepared and all underground services, watercourses should be located,
and made safe where possible for activities like piling. Nature of soil and previous site contamination must
be considered while deciding on the type of pile to be used.

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Drag (trench) box
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Timber Piles

Sheet Piles

Use of 360° Excavators

A 360° excavator with multi-functional attachments may be used. Certain of these machines have a reach
of between 15 and 35 metres plus the length of the fitted attachment. The super reach excavators are,
however, not as stable as conventional excavators and the operator requires advanced training in this
type of machinery.

When using this type of excavator, do not:

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ͻ Misuse, tamper or interfere with the machine and any associated safety equipment provided to
you
ͻ Operate any machine unless you have received appropriate training and are authorized to do
ͻ Always conduct a pre-use check that the Excavator is serviceable and safe to use
ͻ Carry out daily checks and maintenance
ͻ Check working areas for hazards and obstacles, which could affect the operation of the
Excavator
ͻ Ensure when loading vehicles that the load is evenly distributed and does not overload the
Excavator
ͻ Extend the dipper attachment uphill when travelling up a steep slope
ͻ Keep the dipper attachment close to the machine when travelling downhill. Keep the bucket low
to the ground and face downhill
ͻ Before leaving the machine unattended: drive clear of the working area; stop and apply brakes;
disengage drive and controls; stop engine and remove ignition key

Excavators are involved in many accidents typically when slewing around, reversing and moving around
site.

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To prevent such accidents:

ͻ Excavators should be equipped with adequate visibility aids to ensure drivers can see all areas
where people may be at risk
ͻ Barriers should be erected to keep people away from the area of excavator operation
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ͻ A signaller should be provided, in a safe position, to direct the excavator’s operation and
pedestrian movements; and
ͻ A clearance of over 0.5 m needs to be maintained between any part of the machine, particularly
the ballast weight and the nearest obstruction

Inspections and Examinations of Excavations

Excavations which need to be supported or battered back to prevent danger should be inspected by a
competent person:
ͻ At the start of the shift before work begins;
ͻ After any event, likely to have affected its stability; and
ͻ After any accidental fall of rock, earth or other material

If the competent person is not satisfied that work can be carried out safely, they should advise the person
for whom the inspection was carried out as soon as possible.

The workplace should not be used until the defects have been put right.

A written report should be made before the end of the working period and the report, or a copy be
provided to the person on whose behalf the inspection was conducted within 24 hours.

Only one written report is required within any seven-day period, unless there has been a collapse/ fall of
material or other event likely to affect stability. In this case, an inspection and report are required before
work starts again.

The report should contain the following information:

ͻ Name and address of person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out
ͻ Location of the workplace inspected
ͻ Description of workplace or part of workplace inspected (including any plant, equipment, and
materials, if any)
ͻ Date and time of inspection
ͻ Details of any matter identified that could lead to a risk to the health or safety of anyone
ͻ Details of any action taken because of any matter identified in the last point; and
ͻ Any other relevant information
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Underground Services
Underground services may be encountered wherever work involves penetrating the ground at or below
ground level.

The hazards associated with encountering a cable or pipeline during an excavation will vary considerably,
depending upon the nature of the contained service.

The main services and associated hazards are presented in Table 48.

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Table 48: Underground Services and Associated Hazards

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Service Hazards

Explosive effects of arcing current when a live cable is pierced or crushed.

Electricity cables Consequential fires.
Direct electric shock is less likely.

Damage may cause a gas leak immediately or sometime later.

Gas pipes
Ignition of the resulting flammable atmosphere cases fire or explosion.

Water under pressure may directly injure someone.

Water pipes
Flooding may lead to risk of drowning or undermine the sides of an excavation.

Sewage is rarely pumped under pressure. Sewers are normally gravity fed. The
Sewerage
main concern is the risk of contamination from / exposure to biological agents.

Flammable liquids and gases.

Toxic liquids and gases.
Other pipelines Inert gases that may displace oxygen and asphyxiate e.g., nitrogen, argon.
Liquids under pressure.
A combination of the above.

The risk of direct personal injury is low.

The concern is the expense of business interruption and repairs / reinstatement.
Telecommunications
Noxious or explosive gases if present from other sources, may accumulate in
cable ducts.

Safe Systems of Work

A safe system of work for working near underground services includes four basic elements, which
complement each other and should always be used together:
ͻ Planning the work.
ͻ Plans

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ͻ Cable and pipe locating devices; and
ͻ Safe digging practices

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Flowchart 5: Underground Services Safe System of Work

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Planning the Work

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Planning the work through a site-specific risk assessment and the use of a properly managed permit-to-
work system will help to avoid or adequately control any hazards.

Plans
Buried services usually belong to one of the utility companies. Exceptions may be found near commercial,
industrial or military sites.

Service owners should be able to provide readable, current plans showing the line and depth (if known) of
all their services in the proposed work area.

“One call” systems allow information from all service providers to be obtained from one contact, provided
sufficient notice is given.

Plans should not be expected to provide the absolute truth of the location of services. Services may not
have been laid to plan; the plans may be subject to errors in the original drafting, subsequent modification
or reproduction.

Plans can however give a useful indication of where to start tracing with locating devices.

Cable and Pipe Locating Devices

The main types of detectors available are:
ͻ Hum detectors
ͻ Radio frequency detectors
ͻ Transmitter-receiver instruments
ͻ Metal detectors; and
ͻ Ground probing radar

Hum Detectors
Hum detectors detect the magnetic field radiated by electricity cables, which have a current flowing
through them. They do not respond to:
ͻ Cables where there is little or no current flowing, e.g., service connection cables to unoccupied
premises or street lighting cables in the daytime.

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ͻ Direct current cables; and
ͻ Well-balanced high voltage cables, which generate relatively little field (which in turn may be
further screened by the cable sheathing).

Radio Frequency Detectors

Radio frequency detectors respond to low-frequency radio signals, which may be picked up and re-
emitted by long metallic pipes and cables.

Other metallic objects may re-radiate the signal and results may vary appreciably according to locality,
length of the buried cable or pipe and distance from the termination and geographical orientation.

Transmitter-Receiver Instruments
Small portable transmitters/ signal generators can be connected to a cable or pipe or placed very close to
it so that the signal is introduced into it. The receiver can then detect this signal. Usually, the location of
some part of the cable or pipe needs to be already known so that the transmitter can be properly
positioned, and these locators generally require more skill to operate than most other types.

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Metal Detectors
Conventional metal detectors will usually locate flat metal covers, joint boxes, etc., but may well miss
round cables or pipes.
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Ground Probing Radar

The ground probing radar method can detect anomalies in the ground. When these anomalies can be
plotted into a continuous line, this may indicate a cable, duct or pipe. The technique alone cannot
determine the precise nature of the service.

Some commercially available instruments use more than one of the techniques outlined and may also
include a depth-measuring facility.

Use of Locating Devices

The degree of confidence with which buried services can be detected depends on a number of factors
such as:

ͻ The training, skill, and experience of the operator.

ͻ The hearing acuity of the operator.
ͻ The characteristics of the device being used.
ͻ The calibration and reliability of the locating device.
ͻ The type, length and depth of the service.
ͻ For cables, the magnitude of the current being carried; and
ͻ The effects of other nearby services.

Locators may not be able to distinguish between cables or pipes running close together and may
represent them as a single signal. If, for example, two are sited one above the other, the lower one may
not be detected. Exposing one cable or pipe does not mean that there is not another close by.

Frequent and repeated use should be made of locators during the work as service location is likely to
become more accurate as cover is removed.

Locators (except for ground-probing radar) are unable to detect plastic pipes or other non-metallic
services unless a metallic tracer wire has been laid with the pipe or a small signal transmitter is inserted
into and pushed along the pipe.

Telecommunication and railway signalling cables also cannot be located by locating devices, unless metal
components (such as a metal sheath) are connected to earth.

The line of any identified services should be noted and marked with waterproof crayon, chalk or paint on
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paved surfaces (use biodegradable paint or erase residual markings as far as possible after excavation),
or with wooden pegs in grassed or un-surfaced areas. Steel pins, spikes or long pegs, which could
damage services laid at shallow depth, should not be used.

Safe Digging Practice

Once a locating device has been used to determine position and route, excavation may proceed, with trial
holes dug using suitable hand tools as necessary to confirm the position of any buried services. Special
care should be taken when digging above or close to the assumed line of such a service.

Hand-held power tools and mechanical excavators should not be used too close to underground services.
Safety margins differ for each service, but power tools and mechanical excavators should not be used
within 500mm of the marked run of electricity or gas services.

Excavations should run alongside the service rather than directly above it.

Final exposure of the service by horizontal digging using hand tools is recommended, as the force applied
can be controlled more effectively.

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Spades and shovels with curved edges are the tool of choice and digging techniques should ease them
into the ground with gentle foot pressure.

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Proprietary air digging tools can be used to expose buried services without damage to the service. They
remove soil with a high-pressure air jet and consequently are ineffective on asphalt, concrete or frozen
ground.

Once exposed, services may need to be supported and should never be used as hand- or footholds for
climbing out of excavations.

All services should be assumed to be live until disconnected and proven.

Identifying Exposed Services

Failure to correctly identify exposed services is a common cause of accidents.

Difficulties arise because a wide variety of materials and colours have been used for services over the
years and black plastic has often been used to cover water pipes, electricity cables and
telecommunication cables.

The following general precautions are recommended to be followed until the nature of the service is
confirmed:
x Black plastic services should be assumed to be live electricity cable.
x Iron and steel pipes should be treated as gas pipes.
x Continuously welded steel pipes should be treated as containing hazardous or high-pressure
fluid

x Where there is any doubt about the identity of an exposed service it should be treated as an
electricity cable or gas pipe until proved otherwise.

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10.12 Workplace Transport and Work-Related

Driving
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Typical Hazards
Many accidents involving vehicles, some of which are fatal, are caused by operator error. A particular
problem is the use of lift trucks by untrained or unauthorised personnel. Other major causes of accidents
are poor vehicle maintenance and unsuitable operating surroundings.

The hazards involved in vehicle operations in the workplace may be divided into three groups:

ͻ Loss of control, where the vehicle is not under the full control of the driver
ͻ Overturning, tipping over onto the vehicle's side or onto its front or back
ͻ Collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects

Note that the harm from any of these hazards may be to the vehicle itself and/or the driver, and/or to
people and/or buildings, plant and equipment in the vicinity.

Conditions in which Hazards Arise

Driver error is often a key factor in vehicle accidents, and it may vary from simple mistakes to acts of
gross irresponsibility, such as driving too fast or under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. Many such
errors occur during reversing procedures and maneuvering. Driver error may compound or cause the
following hazards:

Loss of Control

Assuming driver competence, loss of control is likely to have one of two main causes:

ͻ Mechanical failure for example, of the braking or steering mechanisms, preventing the driver from
using the main controls
ͻ Environmental conditions, particularly as they affect the road, such as water and ice, but also as
they may affect visibility, such as sunlight suddenly blinding a driver

A possible outcome of a vehicle being out of control is that it will hit something. It may also cause the
vehicle to overturn.

Collisions with Other Vehicles, Pedestrians and Fixed Objects

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Again, assuming a competent driver, collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects are
generally caused by adverse local conditions:

ͻ Poor weather – ice or rain causing skidding or longer braking distances, sunlight blinding vision,
rain or fog restricting visibility
ͻ Poor lighting - decreasing visibility or obscuring parts of the traffic route, including obstructions
ͻ Poor sight lines - causing blind spots and concealed junctions
ͻ Poor ground surface - uneven or slippery surfaces or excessive slopes
ͻ Congestion - there simply being too many vehicles in one area

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Factors to Be Considered in A Workplace Transport Risk

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Assessment
As an employer or self-employed person, you are responsible for assessing the risks to health and safety
in your business. Risk assessment for any work-related driving activity should follow the same principles
as for any other work activity. You can delegate the task, but you will need to make sure it is carried out by
someone who:

ͻ Is competent to do so (has the right skills, knowledge and experience)

ͻ Involves your workers in the process
ͻ Understands when specialist help may be needed

Risk assessment is about identifying and taking sensible measures to control the risks in your workplace,
not about creating huge amounts of paperwork. You may already be taking steps to protect your
employees, but your risk assessment will help you decide whether you should be doing more. The aim is
to make the risk of someone being injured or killed as low as possible.

You must control the risks in your workplace. Risk assessment is about identifying and taking sensible
and proportionate measures to control these risks. You are probably already taking steps to protect your
employees, but your risk assessment will help you decide whether you should be doing more.

ͻ Think about how accidents and ill health could happen and concentrate on real risks – those that
are most likely, and which will cause the most harm. Monitor your workplace activities involving
vehicles (including visiting vehicles) over a reasonable period to build up a clear picture of
vehicle and pedestrian traffic movements including, for example, loading and unloading, or
collecting waste.
ͻ Think about new designs/layouts before they are put in place. Also, think about the effect of any
changes in how things are done, e.g., different types of vehicles, or having to use different or
new routes.
ͻ Some workers may have particular requirements, for example, new and young workers, migrant
workers, new or expectant mothers, people with disabilities, temporary workers, contractors and
lone workers.
ͻ Generally, you need to do everything reasonably practicable to protect people from harm. An
explanation of what ‘reasonably practicable’ means is provided.

Where two or more employers (or the self-employed) share a workplace (whether temporarily or
permanently), they need to:

ͻ Co-operate with the other employers so they can meet their health and safety duties;
ͻ Take all reasonable steps to co-ordinate the measures they take to meet their legal duties with

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

those taken by other employers;
ͻ Take all reasonable steps to tell the other employees about risks to their employees’ health and
safety as a result of their work activities.
ͻ Normally, the site operator or the main employer controls the site, and they should take
responsibility for co-ordinating health and safety measures by:
- Discussion with the smaller employers.
- Asking other employers to agree to site-wide arrangements.
- Liaising with other employers to help ensure they take responsibility and co-operate
ͻ Where employees enter a different workplace (for example, to make a delivery or collect goods),
consider that workplace as shared.
ͻ Vehicles on which employees of more than one company are working are also considered
shared workplaces, even if it is only for a brief period (for example, during loading and
unloading). Both employers are responsible for the safety of their own employees and those of
other companies. Those involved in managing this work should agree, preferably in writing, the
safety arrangements before work starts.

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Shared workplaces
Where two or more employers share a workplace (i.e., a construction site that may be temporary or a
shipyard that may be more permanent), they need to co-operate with the other employers so they can
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

meet their health and safety duties.

The various employers in the common workplace will need to take all reasonable steps to co-ordinate the
measures they take to meet their legal duties with those taken by other employers. This will involve taking
all reasonable steps to tell the other employers about risks to their employees’ health and safety as a
result of their work activities including:

ͻ Taking all reasonable steps to tell the other employees about risks to their employees’ health and
safety as a result of their transport related operations.
ͻ Normally, the site operator or the main employer controls the site, and they should take
responsibility for co-ordinating health and safety measures by:
- Discussion with the smaller employers.
- Asking other employers to agree to site-wide arrangements.
- Liaising with other employers to help ensure they take responsibility and co-operate.
- Where employees enter a different workplace (for example, to make a delivery or collect
goods), consider that workplace as shared.
ͻ Vehicles on which employees of more than one company are working are also considered
shared workplaces, even if it is only for a brief period (for example, during loading and
unloading). Both employers are responsible for the safety of their own employees and those of
other companies. Those involved in managing this work should agree, preferably in writing, the
safety arrangements before work starts.

The Reasons for Providing Information to All Employees

and Visitors
Employers should ensure that the health and safety of their employees, contractors and members of the
public are not put at risk as a result of the work you do. They must have arrangements in place for
effective planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review of preventive and protective measures
identified by the risk assessment.

This requires providing information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure employees’ and visitor’s
health and safety at work and in the premises. Managing health and safety is an integral part of managing
a business

All International Standards follow a ‘Plan, Do, Check, Act’ approach.

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The International Labour Organisation's Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No.155) sets
the standard for employers to look after the health, safety and welfare of their employees and to provide
them with information about the hazards and risks on their site, including workplace transport safety:

³
Employers shall be required to ensure that so far as is reasonably practicable, the workplaces,
machinery, equipment and processes under their control are safe and without risk to heath”.

The site owner should ensure that workers, contractors, visitors and members of the public are not put at
risk while on site as a result of the work carried out on the premises. As part of this duty of care, these
people should be provided with information relating to hazards and risks on the site, and this includes
workplace transport issues.

A comprehensive set of site rules handed out and explained at induction, together with notices warning of
hazards on site ("Deep excavation," etc.) and good supervision, will normally satisfy this requirement.

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 371

Site Rules

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It is important that all drivers using a site are aware of all the rules that apply, such as one-way systems,
speed limits, parking, etc. Visiting drivers may need to be given both general and specific instruction about
the management systems operating on site.

There are several general rules applying to all situations to prevent unauthorised use or misuse of
vehicles, and to ensure that when unattended or parked they do not create hazards:

ͻ When a vehicle is not in use the keys should be kept in a secure place. At the end of the work
period the engine should be switched off and the brakes applied. On battery operated vehicles
the battery should be disconnected.
ͻ All vehicles should always be parked in a safe place and not obstruct emergency exits, other
vehicle routes, fire-fighting equipment or electricity control panels.
ͻ Vehicles should not be left unattended on a gradient. If a vehicle must be left or parked in an
emergency, even for a short period of time, it should be left in neutral with the parking brake
applied and wheels chocked to prevent unexpected movement.
ͻ Horns should be sounded at every potential danger point, such as before entering doorways and
at blind corners, although the use of a horn does not give the driver right of way.

Why Drivers Are at A Higher Risk of Fatigue and How Fatigue

Can Be Managed
Driver’s job involves long hours of work or driving, shiftwork, or a long commute and hence at an
increased risk of fatigue.

What causes fatigue?

ͻ Being awake for many consecutive hours
ͻ Not getting enough sleep over multiple days
ͻ Time of day: Your body has a sleep/wake cycle that tells you when to be alert and when it’s time
to sleep. The urge to sleep is the most intense in the early morning hours.
ͻ Monotonous tasks or long periods of inactivity
ͻ Health factors such as sleep disorders or medications that cause drowsiness

What are the effects of driver fatigue?

ͻ Nodding off
ͻ

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Reacting more slowly to changing road conditions, other drivers, or pedestrians
ͻ Making poor decisions
ͻ Drifting from your lane
ͻ Experiencing “tunnel vision” (when you lose sense of what’s going on in the periphery)
ͻ Experiencing “microsleeps” (brief sleep episodes lasting from a fraction of a second up to 30
seconds)
ͻ Forgetting the last few miles, you drove

What can employers and workers do to manage driver fatigue on the job?
Employers:
ͻ Implement policies that set overtime limits and maximum allowable consecutive shifts
ͻ Ensure sufficient staffing levels across operations
ͻ Provide employee training on sleep health and fatigue management
ͻ Implement a workplace sleep disorder screening and management program
ͻ Allow for rest breaks and napping during extended work shifts
ͻ Give supervisors and workers fatigue-symptom checklists and encourage self-reporting

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 372

ͻ Encourage peer monitoring of fatigue symptoms among co-workers

ͻ Review data from in-vehicle monitoring systems to detect signs of fatigue episodes, such as lane
departures
ͻ Consider using wearables such as an instrumented wristband to monitor driver fatigue
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ͻ Train incident investigators to assess the role of fatigue in incidents and near-miss incidents

Workers:
ͻ Get enough sleep (7-9 hours each day). If fatigue persists after adequate sleep, get screened for
health problems that may be affecting your sleep.
ͻ Plan your activities outside work to allow enough time for adequate sleep.
ͻ Create a sleeping environment that helps you sleep well: a dark, quiet, cool room with no
electronics.
ͻ If you feel fatigued while driving pull over, drink a cup of coffee, and take a 15–30-minute nap
before continuing. The effects are only temporary – the only “cure” for fatigue is sleep.
ͻ Watch yourself and your co-workers for signs of fatigue.
ͻ Report instances of fatigue in yourself and others to your direct supervisor, who can help to
determine the safest course of action.
ͻ Speak honestly if you are questioned about a fatigue-related incident. Fatigue is a normal
biological response – it is not a reflection of how well you do your job.

Use of telematics (GPS system combined with on-board

diagnostic systems) to control the risk from workplace
transport activities

Telematics is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses telecommunications, vehicular technologies

(road transport, road safety, etc.), electrical engineering (sensors, instrumentation, wireless
communications, etc.), and computer science (multimedia, Internet, etc.). Telematics can involve any of
the following:
ͻ The technology of sending, receiving and storing information using telecommunication devices to
control remote objects
ͻ The integrated use of telecommunications and informatics for application in vehicles and to
control vehicles on the move
ͻ Global navigation satellite system technology integrated with computers and mobile
communications technology in automotive navigation systems
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Lexus Gen V navigation system

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 373

Use of Telematic system

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Vehicle Tracking
A key component is the vehicle tracking component. This component is usually GPS-based, but
sometimes it can be based on GLONASS or a cellular triangulation platform. Once vehicle location,
direction and speed are determined from the GPS components, additional tracking capabilities transmit
this information to a fleet management software application. Methods for data transmission include both
terrestrial and satellite. Satellite tracking communications, while more expensive, are critical if vehicle
tracking is to work in remote environments without interruption. Users can see actual, real-time locations
of their fleet on a map. This is often used to quickly respond on events in the field.

Principle of geolocation based on the GPS for the position determination and the GSM/GPRS or
telecommunication satellites network for the data transmission.

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Mechanical Diagnostics
An advanced system can connect to the vehicle's onboard computer and gather data for the user. Data
such as mileage and fuel consumption are gathered into a global statistics scheme.

Driver Behavior
Highly developed vehicle telematics systems collect a full range of data in real-time and for transport and
fleet managers. By combining received data from the vehicle tracking system and the on-board computer,
it is possible to form a profile for any given driver (average speed, frequency of detours, breaks, severity
of manoeuvres, choice of gears, etc.). This data can be used to highlight drivers with dangerous habits
and to suggest remedial training applicable to the issues, or to ensure that drivers are meeting KPIs. Fleet
management apps have shown to reduce driving incidents.[5]

Geo-Fencing
Many fleets management and vehicle telematics systems use geofencing to enhance asset security.
Geofencing allows any internet-enabled device with a GPS or asset tracker application to set up a virtual
boundary around a particular location using mapping technology. It also enables users to establish action
triggers, such that when an asset enters or leaves the pre-defined boundaries, users receive an alert –
either via text messages, emails, or push notifications.

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 374

Driver Hour Rules

It is recommended that drivers are not allowed to drive for longer than 4.5 hours without taking a break of
at least 45 minutes. Drivers may take the 45-minute break in 2 sections. The first section must be at least
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

15 minutes and the second section at least 30 minutes. You cannot have these breaks the other way
around. If you take anything less than 45 minutes, then you must take a second break of at least 30
minutes. You must have at least 15 minutes of continuous break for it to count as a break. Anything less
will not count as a qualifying break.

How to Manage Work-Related Road Safety?

Organisations have a legal duty to put in place suitable arrangements to manage health and safety. It
should be part of the everyday process of running an organisation and part of good management
generally. The UK HSE’s INDG382 publication provides guidance on how employers can follow a ‘Plan,
Do, Check, Act’ approach to managing work-related road safety.

Plan – Describe how you manage health and safety in your organisation and plan
to make it happen in practice

ͻ Assess the risks from work-related road safety in your organisation.

ͻ Produce a health and safety policy covering, for example, organising journeys, driver training and
vehicle maintenance.
ͻ Make sure there is top-level commitment to work-related road safety in your organisation.
ͻ Clearly set out everyone’s roles and responsibilities for work-related road safety. Those
responsible should have enough authority to exert influence and
ͻ be able to communicate effectively to drivers and others.

Do – Prioritise and control your risks, consult your employees and provide training and information
ͻ In larger organisations, make sure departments with different responsibilities for work-related
road safety co-operate with each other.
ͻ Make sure you have adequate systems to allow you to manage work-related road safety
effectively. For example, do you ensure your vehicles are regularly inspected and serviced
according to manufacturers’ recommendations?
ͻ Make sure you involve your workers or their representatives in decisions. This is a good way of
communicating with them about health and safety issues.
ͻ You must provide training and instruction where necessary.

Check – Measure how you are doing

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ͻ Monitor performance to ensure your work-related road safety policy is effective and has been
implemented.
ͻ Encourage your employees to report all work-related road incidents or near misses.

Act – Review your performance and learn from your experience

ͻ Make sure you collect enough information to allow you to make informed decisions about the
effectiveness of your existing policy and the need for changes, for example targeting those more
exposed to risk.

Regularly revisit your health and safety policy to see if it needs updating.

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 375

References

NEBOSH International Diploma

Confined Spaces Regulations 1997. Approved code of practice, regulations and guidance. HSE
Books L101 ISBN 9780717662333
International Labour Organisation Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, chapter 58
– ‘confined spaces’:
http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/encyclopaedia/index.htm
International Labour Office, Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work, an ILO Code of Practice, ILO, 1993.
ISBN: 9221080064 Section 6: Operational control measures; Section 7: Design and installation
ILO Encyclopaedia Chapter 39 Case study (Kader Toy Factory fire)
Chemical Safety Board America Investigation Reports: http://www.csb.gov/investigations
UK Department for Communities and Local Government practical fire safety guidance, which can be found
at: http://www.communities.gov.uk
Fire Safety Guidance booklet ‘Are you aware of your responsibilities?’ - Scottish Executive (Safer
Scotland) downloadable publication - http://www.firelawscotland.org/files/Summary_Guide_Full.pdf
Scottish Government’s Police and Community Safety Directorate sector specific guidance, which can be
found at http://www.infoscotland.com/firelaw
PAS 79:2007, Fire Risk Assessment. Guidance and a Recommended Methodology, British Standards
Institute (BSI)
ATEX Guidelines: 3rd Edition, June 2009 (updated May 2011)
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/mechanical/files/atex/guide/atexguidelines_june2009_en.pdf
CFPA-E Guideline No 1:2002 – Internal fire protection control
http://www.cfpae.org/files/PDF/Guidelines/Ratified%20Guidelines/Guideline_No_1_2002.pdf
CFPA-E Guideline No 23:2010 F – Securing the operational readiness of fire control systems
http://www.cfpae.org/files/PDF/Guidelines/Ratified%20Guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_23_2010_F.pdf
CFPA-E Guideline No 13:2006 – Fire protection documentation
http://www.cfpae.org/files/PDF/Guidelines/Ratified%20Guidelines/Guideline_No_13_2006.pdf
CFPA-E Guideline No 5:2003 – Guidance signs, emergency lighting and general lighting http://www.cfpa-
e.org/files/PDF/Guidelines/Ratified%20Guidelines/Guideline_No_5_2003.pdf

United Nations, Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods: Model Regulations, 14th
edition, UN Publications, 2005. ISBN: 9211391067
International Labour Office, Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work, an ILO Code of Practice, ILO, 1993.
ISBN: 9221080064

ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, Third revised edition, 2009.
Available from: http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev03/03files_e.html
International Labour Standards, Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents Convention, C174, International
Labour Organisation, Geneva, 1993
International Labour Office, Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents, an ILO Code of Practice, ILO,
Geneva, 1991. ISBN 9221071014
International Labour Standards, Guarding of Machinery Convention, C119, International Labour
Organisation, Geneva, 1963
NB ILO Draft code of practice on safety in the use of machinery - Draft Meeting of Experts on the Code of
Practice on Safety in the use of Machinery (Geneva, 29 November–7 December 2011)
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/--
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_164653.pd

Safety of pressure systems, L122 HSE Books, ISBN: 9780717617678

Written schemes of examination, INDG178, HSE, http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg178.pdf

International Labour Standards, Guarding of Machinery Convention, C119, International Labour

Organisation, Geneva, 1963

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 376

NB ILO Draft code of practice on safety in the use of machinery - Draft Meeting of Experts on
the Code of Practice on Safety in the use of Machinery (Geneva, 29 November–7 December
2011)
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/-
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_164653.pdf
ID3 - Workplace Safety Issues

Transposed Harmonized Standards British/European/International

EN ISO 12100-:2010 Safety of machinery -- General principles for design -- Risk assessment and
risk reduction

ISO/TR 14121-2:2007 Safety of machinery. Risk assessment. Practical guidance and examples of
methods (soon to be replaced by ISO/TR 14121-2:2010)

International Labour Standards, Guarding of Machinery Convention, C119, International Labour

Organisation, Geneva, 1963
NB ILO Draft code of practice on safety in the use of machinery - Draft Meeting of Experts on the Code of
Practice on Safety in the use of Machinery (Geneva, 29 November–7 December 2011)
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_164653.pdf
Transposed Harmonized Standards British/European/International
EN ISO 12100-:2010 Safety of machinery -- General principles for design -- Risk assessment and risk
reduction
ISO/TR 14121-2:2007 Safety of machinery. Risk assessment. Practical guidance and examples of
methods (soon to be replaced by ISO/TR 14121-2:2010)
BS 7671:2008 Requirements for Electrical Installations. IEE Wiring Regulations. Seventeenth edition
Electricity at work: Safe working practices HSG85, HSE Books ISBN 9780717621644
Maintaining portable and transportable electrical equipment, HSG107, HSE Books ISBN: 9780717628056
Avoidance of danger from overhead electric powerlines, GS6, HSE Books ISBN: 9780717613489
NEBOSH International Diploma

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