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STUDY GUIDE
HL
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Economics HL
Study Guide
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 7
1. Microeconomics 9
– Demand and supply – Externalities – Government
intervention – The theory of the firm – Market structures
– Price discrimination
2. Macroeconomics 55
– Overall economic activity – Aggregate demand and
aggregate supply – Macroeconomic objectives – Government
intervention
3. International economics 81
– Trade – Exchange rates – The balance of payments – Terms
of trade
4. Development economics 97
– Economic development – Measuring development
– Contributions and barriers to development – Evaluation of
development policies
5. Definitions 109
– Microeconomics – Macroeconomics – International
Economics – Development Economics
6. Abbreviations 129
7. Essay guide 133

– Time management – Understanding the question – Essay
writing style – Worked example
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6
INTRODUCTION
The foundations of economics
Before we start this course, we must first look at the foundations of economics. We will
basically discuss what the science of economics actually is and what the scope of this
science might be.
• Economics is a social science on how to deal with scarcity.
• Scarcity is the problem of having infinite wants, or unlimited desires, while having
only finite resources, or limited means, to fulfil these wants.
• A small scale example of scarcity: a person wants to buy a laptop and a phone, but
has only enough money to buy one of the two.
• In general we describe this problem of scarcity as the economic problem.
The solution to the economic problem
In order to solve the economic problem, we must make choices between the different
alternatives we are faced with. In a general economy these choices must be made on:
• What to produce?
• How to produce?
• For whom to produce?
When a choice is made, an alternative is always foregone. We call this the opportunity cost
of the choice.
Opportunity cost The value of the next best alternative that is lost while
making a choice.
7
INTRODUCTION
For example: A person has only enough money to buy one of three of the following
items: a smartphone, a laptop, a tablet.
• He lists the items in order of how much he or she desires them: (1) laptop,
(2) smartphone, (3) tablet.
• Because he or she desires the laptop the most, the laptop will be chosen.
• The next best alternative, in this case the smartphone which is next on the list, will
be the opportunity cost of the choice.
In the IB course we will look at the economic problem from different viewpoints and in
different domains.
Structure of the course
In this course we will study the economic problem in four themes:
1. How can governments help solve the economic problem in different cases?
2. How is sustainability threatened, while people or companies are making an effort

to solve their economic problem?
3. How does efficiency conflict with equity while people or companies are making an
effort to solve their economic problem?
4. How does economic growth conflict with economic development while

companies or governments are making an effort to solve their economic problem?
We will study these questions in each of the following four economic domains:
Microeconomics: the science of choosing on a small scale (individuals, companies).
Macroeconomics: the science of choosing on a big scale (regions, countries).
International economics: the science of choosing in interaction with other countries

(continents, the entire world).
Development economics: the science of choosing in order to develop more welfare

(developing countries).
During this economics course we will go through all four domains and discuss the
material you need to understand for your IB exam. This guide contains a summary of the
contents of the course.
8
MICROECONOMICS 1
1.1. Demand and supply 11

In this section the microeconomic laws of Demand and Supply
are discussed. Further, it is explained how Equilibrium is
reached on the market. We will also see that at this
equilibrium point Market efficiency is reached.
1.2. Externalities 22
Before discussing the theory, this section will briefly go over
the most important Definitions. Next the Economics of
externalities will be discussed in general before dividing them
into two categories: Externalities of production and
Externalities of consumption. This section will close with
Other sources of market failure that might exist in the
economy.
1.3. Government intervention 27

The government can try to solve market failures in many
different ways. This sections discusses the solutions of Indirect
taxes, Subsidies and Price controls.
1.4. The theory of the firm 33

This section will discuss the theory of the firm in general.
More specific it will discuss the determination of Production
and costs, Revenues and Profit. Finally, this section will go into
the different Goals of the firm, that a firm may have.
9
MICROECONOMICS
1.5. Market structures 41

This section will go into the different market structures that
can exist in an economy: Perfect competition, Monopoly,
Monopolistic competition and Oligopoly.The different
characteristics of these structures are explained, as well as the
profitability on the long en short term and the level of
efficiency.
1.6. Price discrimination 52

This section will first describe the Definition and conditions
that have to be met for price discrimination to be possible.
Next, the Three degrees of price discrimination that are possible
will be explained.
10
MICROECONOMICS Demand and supply 1
1.1 Demand and supply
1.1.1 Demand
Law of demand when price goes up, ceteris paribus, quantity demanded goes
down. Therefore, a negative relationship exists between price and
quantity demanded.
This relationship makes sense because consumers will want to buy less of a good when
its price has risen.
Ceteris paribus means ‘when all else remains equal’. In this case it means that the law of
demand only holds when everything except price and quantity demanded remains the
same.
The law of demand can also be written as a formula, the formula of the demand
curve, which has the following general form:
QD = a − b P
In this formula:
• Q D = Quantity Demanded;
• P = Price;
• a = intersect; if the a in the formula changes, the demand curve will shift to
the left (if a decreases) or to the right (if a increases);
• b = slope; the higher the b , the higher the slope of the demand curve; in
the case of the demand curve, b will be negative because of the negative
relationship between price and quantity demanded.
Figure 1.1: The demand curve.
A move along the demand curve occurs

Price
when the price of the product changes.

If, for example, the price increases, a
shift along the demand curve may
P2 A
occur from point B to point A.
B A shift of the demand curve occurs in

P1 cases in which any other factor than
price changes.
Q2 Q1 Quantity Demanded
11
MICROECONOMICS Demand and supply
Below the most important of these factors are listed along with their effect on the
demand curve:
The income of consumers In general when the income of consumers

increases (decreases), consumers will have more (less) money to spend. Their
demand of the good of which the demand curve is drawn will increase (decrease).
This will shift the demand curve to the right (left).
⇒ The shift above will only happen if the good in question is a normal
good (i.e. any good for which demand increases when income increases).
Most goods on the market are normal goods.
⇒ In the case of inferior goods (i.e. goods for which demand decreases when
income increases) the opposite will happen. When income
increases (decreases), the demand curve will shift to the left (right). An
example of an inferior good is a hamburger from McDonald’s. When the
income of people increases, they will typically use the extra money to buy
better, healthier and more expensive types of food so demand for hamburgers
goes down.
Prices of complementary goods A complementary good is a good that is consumed

along with another good. Examples of complementary goods include cars with
fuel, computers with computer software and Christmas trees with Christmas
decorations.When the price of a good increases (decreases), the demand for the
complementary good will decrease (increase), shifting the demand curve for the
complementary good to the left (right).
Prices of substitute goods A substitute good is a good that is consumed instead of

another good. Examples of substitute goods include iPhones vs. Samsung phones,
Volkswagen vs. Opel cars and match sticks vs. lighters.When the price of a good
increases (decreases), the demand for the substitute good will increases (decreases)
because it is now a relatively less expensive (more expensive) alternative. This will
shift the demand curve for the substitute good to the right (left).
Population When the population increases (decreases) there will be more (less) people
to demand the good. This will increase (decrease) demand, shifting the demand
curve to the right (left).
Taste when taste (e.g. in fashion) changes so will the demand for certain goods. This
depends on the change. If wearing a certain type of shoe suddenly becomes a trend,
the demand for this type of shoe will increase, shifting the demand curve to the
right.
12
1.1.2 Supply
Law of supply Higher prices will, ceteris paribus, increase quantity supplied.
Therefore a positive relationship exists between price and quantity
supplied.
This relationship makes sense, because producers will want to make and sell more
products when the price on the market for these products has increased in order to make
more profit.
Ceteris paribus means ‘when all else remains equal’. In this case it means that the law of
supply only holds when everything except price and quantity supplied remains the same.
The law of demand can also be written as a formula, the formula of the demand
curve, which has the following general form:
QS = c + d P
In this formula:
• QS = quantity supplied;
• P = price;
• c = intersect; if c in the formula changes, the demand curve will shift to the
left (if c decreases) or to the right (if c increases);
• d = slope; the higher the d , the higher the slope of the supply curve; in the
case of the supply curve, d will be positive because of the positive relation-
ship between price and quantity demanded.
Figure 1.2: The demand curve.
A move along the supply curve occurs

Price
when the price of the product changes.

If, for example, the price increases, a
shift along the supply curve may occur
P2 A
from point B to point A.
B A shift of the supply curve occurs in

P1
cases in which any other factor than
price changes.
Q1 Q2 Quantity Supplied
13
Below the most important factors are listed along with their effect on the supply curve:
Cost of factors of production When the factors of production become more (less)
expensive, the production cost for producers will increase (decrease). This means
they will probably produce less (more) and the supply curve will shift to the
left (right).
Level of technology When technology advances (deteriorates), producers can produce

more (less) efficiently. This means they will probably produce more (less), shifting
the supply curve to the right (left).
Prices of related competitive goods When the prices of competitive goods

increase (decrease), producers will feel more (less) confident about ‘winning’ the
competition. They will increase (decrease) production, shifting the supply curve to
the right (left).
Prices of related joint goods When the prices of related goods increase (decrease),
producers will feel less (more) confident about selling their goods along with the
related good. Therefore they will produce less (more) goods, shifting the demand
curve to the left (right).
Indirect taxes When the indirect taxes (i.e. taxes levied on the sale of goods)
increase (decrease) the price of goods will increase (decrease). This will make
producers feel less (more) confident on selling their goods so they will
decrease (increase) their production and supply. Consequently, the supply curve
will shift to the left (right).
Subsidies When subsidies (i.e. government money given to producers)

increase (decrease), producers will decide to produce more (less) of the good. This
will shift the supply curve to the right (left).
Numbers of firms / competitors on the market When there are more (less)
competitors on the market, the producers will face increased (decreased)
competition, decreasing (increasing) their market shares. This causes them to
produce less (more), shifting the supply curve to the left (right).
Change in expectations When expectations change so does the production of

producers. If a producer, for example, expects an economic crisis to occur, he will
probably decrease supply in order to be prepared for a sudden loss in demand.
14
1.1.3 Equilibrium
Supply and demand interact to produce market equilibrium. This market equilibrium
will be at the intersection of the demand and the supply curve, where supply equals
demand (see Figure 1.3).
At this equilibrium point, you can find the equilibrium quantity (Q∗ ) at the horizontal
axis and the equilibrium price or market price (P∗ ) at the vertical axis.
But in some cases the price is different from P∗ :
• If the price lies above the market price, the quantity supplied will be higher than
the quantity demanded (QS > Q D ). In this case there will be excess supply.
• If the price lies below the market price, the quantity demanded will be higher than
the quantity supplied (Q D > QS ). In this case there will be excess demand.
Figure 1.3: Equilibrium. Figure 1.4: Excess supply. Figure 1.5: Excess demand.
Price
Price
Price
excess supply
QS QS QS
P2
P∗ P∗ P∗
P1
QD QD excess demand
QD
Q∗ Quantity Q D2 Q∗ QS2 Quantity QS1 Q∗Q D1 Quantity
In general, price can be said to have two functions on a market:
Signalling function: A high price is a signal to producers that consumers want to buy
the good.
Incentive function: A higher price is an incentive for producers to produce more to

increase profit.
15
1.1.4 Market efficiency
The efficiency that is achieved on a market can be measured by adding up the consumer
and producer surplus. This gives you the total welfare.
Consumer surplus (CS) The extra satisfaction gained by consumers from

paying a price that is lower than the price they were prepared to pay
→ total welfare gained from being able to consume.
Consumer surplus is measured by calculating the size of the area locked inside
the demand curve; the horizontal line from P∗ and the vertical line from Q∗ .
Producer surplus The excess of actual earnings that a producer makes from
a given quantity of output above the amount a producer would be
willing to accept for that output
→ total welfare gained from being able to produce; equal to producer
profits.
Producer surplus is measured by calculating the size of the area locked inside
the supply curve; the horizontal line from P∗ and the vertical line from Q∗ .
Figure 1.6: Consumer surplus and Figure 1.7: Consumer surplus and pro-
producer surplus when market is in ducer surplus when market is not in
equilibrium. equilibrium.
P
QS gone! QS
CS
CS P
P∗ PS
PS
QD QD
Q∗ Q QS QD Q
Best allocation of resources is reached at the market equilibrium. At that point the
community surplus (CS + PS) is maximised. (At that point marginal benefit = marginal
cost, see section on market failure).
⇒ To see that this is true, let’s look at a situation where price is not equal to the
market price (see Figure 1.7).
⇒ You can see that CS + PS is smaller than at the equilibrium, the loss in producer
and consumer surplus is marked in the figure.
16
Elasticities
Elasticities are used to measure the effect a change in some factor (income, price of a
good, price of another good etc.) has on supply and demand of a good. For your IB exam
you must know of four different elasticities which we will discuss here.
Price elasticity of demand ( PE D )
The price elasticity of demand is used to measure the effect a change in price has on the
demand for a certain good. It can be calculated as follows:
% change in Q D
PED =
% change in P
The outcome of PED is typically negative (because there is a negative relationship

between price and quantity demanded) but in economics we do not write the minus
symbol of the PED.
What does the outcome mean? If price increases by a certain percentage, quantity
demanded will decrease by PED × that percentage. (If for example PED = 2 and price
increased by 10%, demand would decrease by 20%).
The outcome of the PED can be placed into one of five categories:
1 PED = 0 Perfectly inelastic demand

The higher the
2 0 < PED < 1 Inelastic demand elasticity, the more
elastic PED is, the
3 PED = 1 Unit elastic demand
more demand will
4 1 < PED < ∞ Elastic demand change when price
changes.
5 PED = ∞ Perfectly elastic demand
P
• elasticity=∞
PED is different at each point of the

elastic demand
demand curve. In the middle it is equal
to 1. Left of the middle of the demand
• elasticity=1
curve PED will be elastic; right of the
middle of the demand curve it will be
inelastic demand inelastic.
elasticity=0
•
Q
17
There are two exceptions to the rule above:
On a completely horizontal demand On a completely vertical demand curve,

curve, PED = ∞ at every point. PED = 0 at every point.
P
P
D
PED = ∞
PED = 0
D
Q Q
When PED is elastic, firms should lower their price to get more revenue because in that
case demand will increase more than the price will decrease. The opposite will be the
case when PED is inelastic. When PED = 1, the firm should leave the price at the
current level; revenue is maximised at this point.
Governments want to tax goods with an inelastic PED because demand changes less than
the price increase due to the tax, so they can make more tax revenue on these goods.
The size of the price elasticity of demand is influenced by the following factors:
The number and closeness of substitutes: The more substitutes, the higher PED. If
there are a lot of substitutes, consumers can easily switch to another product when
the price of the product increases.
The degree of necessity: The higher the need for the product, the lower PED.
Consumers will buy goods they need anyway, regardless of the price. Examples
include: food and gasoline.
The time period over which PED is measured: The longer this time period, the
higher PED. In the long run, consumers have more time to look for alternatives /
substitutes for a good. They will switch more often if the price of the good
increases.
The proportion of income spent on the good: The smaller this proportion, the lower
PED. When the proportion of income spent on a good is low, consumers will not
notice or care about a price change and still buy the same proportion of the good.
The type of good: Primary commodities (i.e. materials in raw unprocessed state) have a
lower PED than manufactured commodities. Primary commodities are necessary
for producers in order to produce. They will buy them anyway, regardless of the
price that is asked for them.
18
Price elasticity of supply ( PES )
The price elasticity of supply is used to measure the effect a change in price has on the
supply for a certain good. It can be calculated as follows:
% change in QS
PES =
% change in P
The outcome of PES is typically positive (because there is a positive relationship between
price and quantity demanded).
What does the outcome mean? If price increases by a certain percentage, quantity supplied
will increase by PES × that percentage. (If for example PES = 2 and price increased by
10%, supply would increase by 20%).
The outcome of the PES can be placed into one of five categories:
1 PES = 0 Perfectly inelastic supply

The higher the
2 0 < PES < 1 Inelastic supply elasticity, the more
elastic PES is, the
3 PES = 1 Unit elastic supply
more supply will
4 1 < PES < ∞ Elastic supply change when price
changes.
5 PES = ∞ Perfectly elastic supply
PES is different at each point of the supply curve, but there are two exceptions to the rule
above:
On a completely horizontal supply On a completely vertical supply curve,

curve, PES = ∞ at every point. PES = 0 at every point.
P
PES = ∞
PES = 0
S
Q Q
19
The size of the price elasticity of supply is influenced by the following factors:
Mobility of factors of production: The more mobile factors of production are, the
easier it is for producers to buy and sell them. This means it is easier for producers
to increase or decrease production, therefore the PES will be more elastic.
Unused capacity: When producers have a lot of unused capacity, it will be easier to
increase production if necessary, therefore the PED will be more elastic.
Ability to store stocks: If a firm is able to store high levels of stock of their product,
they will be able to react to price increases with swift supply increases and
therefore the PES for the product will be relatively high.
The time period over which PES is measured: PES will be higher when it is measured
in the long run since companies will have more time to adjust production to price
levels. In the short run producers often can’t change supply by that much.
Type of goods: Primary commodities typically have a low PES while manufactured
commodities often have a high PES. This is due to the higher necessity of primary
goods (in manufacturing and general usage) compared to manufactured goods.
Cross price elasticity of demand ( XE D )
The cross price elasticity of demand is used to measure the effect a change in price of one
product has on the demand for a certain other good. It can be calculated as follows:
% change in Q D for good X

XED =
% change in P of good Y
The outcome of XED can be positive or negative:
+ −
If the outcome of the XED is positive, If the outcome of the XED is negative,
goods X and Y will be substitute goods goods X and Y will be complementary
because an increase in the price of goods because an increase in the price of
good Y increases the demand for good Y decreases the demand for
good X . good X .
What does the outcome mean? If the price of good Y increases by a certain percentage, the
quantity demanded of good X will increase by XED × that percentage.
(If, for example, XED = −2 and the price of good Y increased by 10%, demand for
good X would decrease by 20%).
The closer XED is to 0 the weaker the relationship between the two goods is. The
further the XED is from 0 (positive for substitute goods, negative for complementary
goods) the closer the relationship is.
20
Income elasticity of demand ( YE D )
The income elasticity of demand is used to measure the effect that a change in income of
consumers has on the demand for a certain product. It can be calculated as follows:
% change in Q D
YED =
% change in income
The outcome of YED can be positive or negative:
+ −
If the outcome of the YED is positive, If the outcome of the YED is negative,
the good of which the YED is the good will be an inferior good.
calculated is a normal good. When When income increases the
income increases, so does consumption consumption of the good will decrease.
of the good.
What does the outcome mean? If the income of consumers is increased by a certain
percentage, the quantity demanded the good will increase by YED × that percentage.
(If, for example, YED = −2 and the income of consumers has increased by 10%, demand
for the good would decrease by 20%).
Goods can also be placed into two categories based on the size of the YED:
1. If YED > 1, YED is said to be income elastic and the good of which YED is
calculated is a luxury good because an increase in income will lead to a spectacular
increase in demand for these goods. Examples of luxury goods include jewelry and
sports cars.
2. If YED < 1, YED is said to be income inelastic and the good of which YED is
calculated is a necessity good because an increase in income won’t change the
demand for these goods that much, consumers will need them anyway. Examples
of necessity goods include food and medicine.
21
MICROECONOMICS Externalities
1.2 Externalities
1.2.1 Definitions
Before discussing the economics of market failures and externalities, it is important to

understand a few definitions:
Market failure failure of the market to achieve allocative efficiency resulting

in an overallocation or underallocation of resources.
An externality occurs when production or consumption of a good has an effect

on a third party for which the latter does not pay or does not get compensated.
• This effect can be positive (benefit) in which case we speak of positive

externalities. Examples include getting educated. The third party that
would benefit in this case would be the society in general.
• This effect can be negative (cost) in which case we speak of negative

externalities. Examples include pollution from the production of a good,
which hurts society (the third party).
Marginal private costs (MPC) costs of production that are taken into
account in a firm’s decision making process. The MPC curve is equal to
the supply curve.
Marginal private benefits (MPB) benefits the individual enjoys from the
consumption of an extra unit of a good. The MPB curve is equal to the
demand curve.
Marginal social cost (MSC) cost of production to society.
Marginal social benefit (MSB) benefit of consumption of one extra unit to

society.
22
MICROECONOMICS Externalities 1
1.2.2 Economics of externalities
In the ideal situation, the marginal social costs are equal to the marginal private costs and
the marginal social benefits are equal to the marginal private benefits (so MPC = MSC,
MPB = MSB). The price is determined at the intersection of the demand and supply
curves, which also means that the marginal social costs are equal to the marginal social
benefits (so MSC = MSB).
Figure 1.8: The ideal situation in which MPC =

MSC and MPB = MSB.
P
social efficiency
Have a look at the graph: in
this situation the community
CS QS = MPC = MSC surplus will be maximised,
remember?
P∗
PS
Q D = MPB = MSB
Q∗ Q
In reality, MPC and MSC and MPB and MSB are often not the same. In total four
different scenario’s are possible:
1 MSC > MPC negative externality of production
2 MSC < MPC positive externality of production
3 MSB < MPB negative externality of consumption
4 MSB > MPB positive externality of consumption
In general we can say the following so the ideal situation is reached when the externalities
are equal to zero:
MSC = MPC + externalities MSB = MPB + externalities
We will have a look at all four alternatives in the two sections that follow.
23
1.2.3 Externalities of production

Negative externalities of Positive externalities of
production production
welfare loss potential welfare gain
P
P
MSC MPC
MPC MSC
P∗ negative externalities P1 positive externalities

P1 P∗
MSB MSB
Q∗ Q1 Q
Q1 Q∗ Q
In this case MSC > MPC, the MSC curve lies In this case MSC < MPC, the MSC curve lies
above the MPC curve. This can be caused by below the MPC curve. This can be caused by
polluting production. green production.
As you can see the negative externality leads As you can see the positive externality leads to
to a welfare loss (the shaded triangle). a potential welfare gain (the shaded triangle).
The government can end this by taxing the The company produces at Q1 and P1 , while
companies and thereby increasing their MPC max welfare could be achieved at Q∗ , P∗ .
shifting the MPC curve upwards. The government could achieve this by
subsidising the companies, shifting their MPC
curve downwards.
1.2.4 Externalities of consumption

Negative externalities of Positive externalities of
consumption consumption
welfare loss potential welfare gain
P
MSC MSC
P1 P∗
P1
P∗
negative externalities MSB
MPB positive externalities
Q∗ Q1 MSB Q
Q1 Q∗ MPB Q
In this case MSB < MPB, the MPB curve lies In this case MSB > MPB, the MSB curve lies
above the MSB curve. This can be caused by above the MPB curve. This can be caused by
consumption of demerit goods (goods of consumption of merit goods (goods of which
which the consumption has negative the consumption has positive consequences
consequences on society) such as gasoline. on society) such as education.
As you can see the negative externality leads As you can see the positive externality leads to
to a welfare loss (the shaded triangle). a potential welfare gain (the shaded triangle).
The government can end this by imposing a People consume at P1Q1 , while the optimum
tax on the consumption of this good, causing would be P∗Q∗ .
MPB to decrease so that the MPB curve shifts The government could get there by
downwards. subsidising the consumption of the good,
shifting the MPB curve upwards.
24
MICROECONOMICS Externalities 1
1.2.5 Other sources of market failure
In addition to the discussed sources of market failure the following sources can also be
named.
Lack of public goods
Public goods (e.g. dams) have the following two characteristics:
• They are non-rivalrous: more people can use the good at the same time e.g. a dam
protects more people at the same time.
• They are non-excludable: people can’t be excluded from the use of the good e.g. in
the case of a dam, people living in the protected area can’t be excluded from the
protection by the dam.
In economics we also recognise private goods (e.g. tickets to a concert) which have the
following characteristics:
• They are rivalrous: the good can’t be used by more people at the same time
e.g. tickets to a concert can only be used by one person to enter.
• They are excludable: people can be excluded from the use of the good e.g. someone
checking for tickets could deny people entry.
Private firms will not supply public goods because few people will pay for it if they can
use it anyway; this is called the free rider problem.
Governments can solve this by providing the public goods themselves paying for them
using taxes.
Common access resources, threat to sustainability
Common access resources are resources that everyone has access to so it is very hard to
exclude people from using them (e.g. fishing grounds, fossil fuel reserves).
The lack of a pricing mechanism on these resources may cause overuse or depletion. This
poses a threat to sustainability.
For example, poverty in developing nations often leads to overexploitation of

agricultural land.
25
What can the government do to solve this problem?

• Legislation to forbid or limit the use of some common access resources.
• Carbon taxes to make sure companies will use less common access resources that
eventually lead to the emission of carbon dioxide such as oil, coal and natural gas.
• Cap and trading schemes for companies to trade rights to emit carbon dioxide. This
has the same effect as carbon taxes, but also limits the emission to a predetermined
level because there is a certain maximum of rights to be traded.
• Funding for clean technologies so companies will use fewer resources.
But government responses are limited because:

• The problems have a global nature. They can only be solved if all countries and
governments act against them, otherwise companies will just move to countries
where the laws are less strict.
• There’s lack of ownership of the common access resources. Often no one feels
responsible for solving the problem.
• Effective responses require international cooperation, see above.
Asymmetric information
One party in a transaction possesses more knowledge of the transacted product than the
other party resulting in market failure because the price does not reflect the true value of
the product. An example can be the difference in information between the seller of a
house / the real estate agent and the buyer. The seller knows exactly where the
shortcomings of the house lie but the buyer does not unless he inspects the property
thoroughly.
The government can prevent this by providing:

• Legislation / regulation: how much information to include when selling a product.
• Information: the government can directly provide information on certain products
or help consumers make the right choice by providing brochures etc.
Abuse of monopoly power
Abuse of monopoly power creates a welfare loss because often a higher price is asked for
the product than the true value.
The government can prevent this by providing:

• Legislation / regulation to prevent the monopolist from being able to set a higher
price.
• Nationalisation of the company. The government can buy the company to make it
part of the government so the government now decides what the price shall be.
• Trade liberalisation. Allowing foreign competitors to enter the domestic market
creates more competition, which usually lowers the price level.
26
MICROECONOMICS Government intervention 1
1.3 Government intervention

1.3.1 Indirect taxes
Indirect taxes are taxes imposed on certain goods to discourage the consumption of goods
that can create externalities (demerit goods).
Figure 1.9
These indirect taxes can be placed into
P
S + ad valorem tax two categories:

S + specific tax Specific taxes: the same amount of tax
S per unit sold (S+specific tax in
the graph).
Amount of Specific tax
Ad valorem taxes: a percentage of the
price of the good is taxed (S+ad
valorem tax in the graph).
Q
Let’s look at what happens to the equilibrium when the government decides to install a
specific tax on a certain good:
Figure 1.10: Change in equilibrium due

• The tax makes the supply curve of
to a tax.
the good shift upwards, because the
good will now be sold at a higher
P
price.
S + tax
S1 • There is also a difference in the price
a tax consumers pay (Pc which is the price
PC the producers set + the tax) and the
b e price the suppliers receive (P s which
tax P∗ f
PS c is only the price they have set, and
d not the tax, because they have to give
D away the tax money to the
Q1 Q∗ Q government).
Now let’s take a look at what happens to the overall welfare level:
Consumer surplus before tax a+b +e

− Loss of b + e
Consumer surplus after tax a
Producer surplus before tax c +d + f
− Loss of d + f
Producer surplus after tax d
Extra government revenue b +c + Gain of b + c
In total the tax will result in a welfare loss of e+f
We call this welfare loss due to a tax the tax burden.
27
MICROECONOMICS Government intervention
Changes in price elasticity of demand and supply
In general we can say that if the general elasticity of demand and supply changes the slope
of the demand and supply curve also changes. In this section we will look at what will
happen to the changes in welfare when these elasticities change.
Supply becomes (relatively) more elastic
When supply becomes relatively more elastic, the supply curve will become less steep
because a change in price will have a larger effect on quantity supplied.
Figure 1.11: A tax in the case of

relatively more elastic supply. In the graph, the supply curve is shifted
upwards due to the tax. From the
previous section you can remember
P
that:
• the decrease in consumer surplus is

a represented by b + e;
S+t
• the decrease in producer surplus is
PC tax
represented by c + f .
tax b e
P∗ c f S1 As you can see in the graph, when the
PS
d D supply curve is less steep, c and f are
now much smaller than b and e.
Q1 Q∗ Q
This results in the following general rule: the higher the elasticity of supply, the higher the
tax incidence (welfare loss caused by the tax) will be on consumers and the lower it will be on
producers.
Of course exactly the opposite of the above will be the case when supply becomes
relatively less elastic (and the supply curve has an increased slope).
28
Demand becomes (relatively) more elastic
When demand becomes relatively more elastic, the demand curve will become less steep
because a change in price will have a larger effect on quantity supplied.
Figure 1.12: A tax in the case of

relatively more elastic demand. In the graph the supply curve is shifted
upwards due to the tax. From the
previous section you can remember
P
S+t
S1 that:
• the decrease in consumer surplus is

represented by b + e;
a
PC • the decrease in producer surplus is
e
tax P∗ b represented by c + f .
c f
PS
As you can see in the graph, when the
d demand curve is less steep, b and e are
D
now much smaller than c and f .
Q1 Q∗ Q
This results in the following general rule: the higher the price elasticity of demand, the
lower the tax incidence (welfare loss caused by the tax) will be on consumers and the higher it
will be on producers.
Off course exactly the opposite of the above will be the case when demand becomes
relatively less elastic (and the demand curve has an increased slope).
1.3.2 Subsidies
A subsidy is an amount of money paid by the government to a firm per unit of output.
Possible goals of the government for setting the subsidy may include:
• To lower the price of essential goods: producers of essential goods can lower the
price when receiving a subsidy.
• Guarantee the supply of certain goods: more producers will want to produce
certain goods if they can get a subsidy in order to do so.
• Enable producers to compete with foreign competitors: domestic companies stand

stronger on the international market if they get money in the form of subsidies
from their government.
29
Figure 1.13: Change in equilibrium due

to a subsidy.
P
S1 In the graph you can see the effect on
a the equilibrium of a subsidy.
S2 + S
b j
P∗ k The subsidy will shift the supply curve
c de downwards / to the right because
subsidy PC ,S
h g f producers will now produce more at a
lower price for every quantity.
i
D
Q∗ Q
Now let’s take a look at what happens to the overall welfare level:
Consumer surplus before subsidy a+b

+ Gain of c + d + e
Consumer surplus after subsidy a+b +c +d +e
Producer surplus before subsidy c+h

+ Loss of c, gain of f + g + i
Producer surplus after subsidy f + g +h+i
b +c+d +
Extra government expense + Loss of b + c + d + e + j + k
e+ j +k
In total the subsidy will result in a welfare loss/gain of f + g +i −c −c −d − j −k
Whether the subsidy will result in a welfare loss or gain depends on the size of the areas
involved. If f + g + i > c + c + d + j + k, there will be a welfare gain. If the opposite is
the case, there will be a welfare loss.
30
1.3.3 Price controls
A price control is a measure by the government that forces producers to sell goods for a
fixed price or for a price within a certain range. In this section we will discuss two price
controls: (1) the maximum price (price ceiling) and (2) the minimum price (price floor).
Price ceiling (maximum price)
Figure 1.14: A price ceiling (maximum price) on the market causes excess demand.
P
Pceiling
excess demand
D
QS QD Q
With a price ceiling the government sets a maximum price, which lies below the
equilibrium price, beyond which producers are not allowed to raise the price.
The government can do so to protect consumers against high prices.
As you can see in the diagram, in the case of a price ceiling the demand will be greater
than the supply. An excess demand will thus exist.
Possible consequences of setting a price ceiling may include:
Shortage: production falls short of demand.

Underground parallel markets: due to the excess demand some consumers who want
to buy the good cannot do so. They may go on the black market to still buy the
good in question.
Welfare loss: the market won’t be at equilibrium, consumer and producer surplus are
not maximised.
Inefficient resource allocation: the market won’t be at equilibrium, resources are not
used most efficiently.
Non-price rationing: producers may start deciding who may buy and who may not
buy. They may do so by queuing: consumers who are willing to wait the longest
in a queue may buy the good.
31
Price floor (minimum price)
Figure 1.15: A price floor (minimum price) on the market causes excess supply.
P
S
excess supply
Pfloor
D
QD QS Q
With a price floor, the government sets a minimum price which lies above the
equilibrium price. Below, producers are not allowed to lower the price.
The government can do so to protect producers against large fluctuations in

prices (e.g. agricultural products) or to protect workers (e.g. setting a minimum wage).
As you can see in the diagram, in the case of a price floor supply will be greater than
demand. An excess supply will thus exist.
Possible consequences of setting a price floor may include:
• Surpluses and government measures. As explained above in the case of a price

floor, there will be excess supply and the government often sets a minimum price
while promising producers to buy the stock that they can’t sell on the market for
the higher price.
• Welfare loss. The market won’t be at equilibrium, consumer and producer surplus
are not maximised.
• Inefficient resource allocation. The market won’t be at equilibrium, resources are

not used most efficiently.
32
MICROECONOMICS The theory of the firm 1
1.4 The theory of the firm
1.4.1 Production and costs
Let’s start with some definitions:
Short-run (SR) at least one factor of production is fixed and the firm cannot
quickly change the quantity produced. All production takes place in
the short run.
Long-run (LR) all factors of production are variable in the long run but the
state of technology is fixed. All planning takes place in the long run.
Total product (TP) total output that the firm produces using its fixed and
variable factors in a given time period.
Average product (AP) output that is produced on average, by each unit of

the variable production factor (V) e.g. 5 cars per tonne of iron ore.
TP
AP =
V
Marginal product (MP) extra output that is produced by using one extra
unit of the variable factor e.g. when one tonne of iron ore is used in
addition, 3 more cars can be produced. The marginal product is equal
to the slope of the total product curve.
∆TP
MP =
∆V
33
MICROECONOMICS The theory of the firm
Total, average and marginal product curves
In Figures 1.16 and 1.17 the graphs for the total product, marginal product and average
product are drawn.
Figure 1.16: The total product curve. Figure 1.17: Average and marginal prod-
uct curves.
Total product
Total product
150 30
TP
100 20
AP
50 10
MP
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Quantity of variable factor (labour) Quantity of variable factor (labour)
As you can see, TP is always rising but beyond a certain labour quantity (in this example
a labour quantity of 3.5), TP is rising less rapidly (the slope decreases).
In the other graph you can see that at a labour quantity of 3.5 MP starts to decrease,
meaning that from a labour level of 3.5 one additional unit of labour will add less to the
total product than the previous one.
This phenomenon is called the law of diminishing returns; as more of the variable factor is
added, there is a point beyond which TP only rises at a diminishing rate.
The AP curve will always intersect the MP curve at the highest point:
• When MP > AP, average product will be increasing.
• When MP < AP, average product will be decreasing.
• When MP = AP, average product will be at the maximum.
34
Costs in the short run
Total costs (TC) the complete costs of producing output.
Marginal costs (MC) the increase in total cost when producing one more
unit of output (q). The marginal cost is equal to the slope of the total
cost curve.
∆TC
MC =
∆q
Average total costs (ATC) costs per unit of output.
TC
ATC =
q
These costs can be:
Fixed costs (FC) costs of fixed assets such as rent for company space. These
costs will always be a constant amount and they won’t change in the
short run.
Variable (VC) costs of variable assets. Variable costs increase when

production is increased.
In Figure 1.18 you can see the general form of the TC, MC and ATC curves.
Some important notes on the TC, MC and ATC

Figure 1.18: The TC, MC and curves:
ATC curves.
TFC TVC
• AFC = and AVC =
q q
€
MC • ATC and AVC intersect with MC at their

lowest points.
ATC • When MC < AVC or MC < ATC, AVC

and ATC are decreasing.
AVC
• When MC > AVC or MC > ATC, AVC
and ATC are increasing.
AFC
• The distance between ATC and AVC
Quantity produced decreases when q increases.
Next to the total cost there is also economic cost.
35
Economic cost the opportunity cost of all resources employed by the

firm (including entrepreneurship).
These economic costs can be explicit or implicit:
Explicit cost the opportunity cost of the money spent on resources not
currently owned by the company.
Implicit cost the opportunity cost of the usage of resources currently owned
by the company.
Costs in the long run
The long run average cost curve (LRAC) is a combination of all short run average cost
curves (SRAC) that are present at fixed levels of production at fixed levels of factors of
production.
Figure 1.19: The long run average cost curve.

€
SRAB1
LRAC
SRAB6
SRAB2
SRAB3 SRAB4 SRAB5
I II III
Quantity produced
In the short run, a producer can’t change all the factors of production but in the long run
he can. This shifts his SRAC curve along the LRAC curve.
The LRAC curve can be divided into three segments based on the returns to scale:
I. Increasing returns to scale (economies of scale): average cost is decreasing when

II. Constant returns to scale: average cost is constant when production is increased.
III. Decreasing returns to scale (diseconomies of scale): average cost is increasing when
36
Factors giving rise to economies of scale
Specialisation: when firms grow they have the resources to specialise their personnel in
certain specific tasks of the production process, this decreases the average cost of
the product, because the personnel has more expertise in the part of the
production process that they are contributing to.
Efficiency: when firms grow they can afford more efficient production
methods (machines, bulk buying etc.) this will lead to lower average cost.
Marketing: when output increases the marketing cost typically will only increase
slightly or remain the same. This decreases average cost.
Indivisibilities: some production factors can’t be divided into smaller pieces, for
example large machines. Small firms will still have these large costs, even if
production is low. When production is increased these indivisible cost can be
divided by more products, lowering average cost.
Factors giving rise to diseconomies of scale
Problems of coordination: when the company grows larger, the company may need
more managers in order to manage the logistics of the production. This will
increase total costs and this increase average costs.
Problems of communication: when a firm grows larger it generally needs more

personnel. Communication with all personnel may be difficult. The company
may need to hire more extensive management in order to streamline this
communication. This will lead to a higher average cost of production.
37
1.4.2 Revenues
Total revenue (TR) total amount of money a firm receives from selling
goods or services in a given time period.
TR = p × q
Average revenue (AR) the revenue a firm receives per unit of sales.
TR p × q
AR = = =p
q q
Marginal revenue (MR) the extra revenue that a firm gains by selling one
more product in a given time period.
∆TR
MR =
∆q
Figure 1.20: The total revenue, average revenue and marginal revenue curves.
P
TR max
AR TR
Q
MR
In the graph you can see the general form of the TR, AR and MR curves. Take note of
the following when drawing these curves:
• The MR curve intersects the Q axis when TR is at maximum. This also makes
sense: when MR > 0 every additional product will earn positive revenue, raising
TR. However, when MR < 0 every additional product will earn negative
revenue (a loss), decreasing TR.
• AR is downward sloping.
38
1.4.3 Profit
In economics two different types of profit are distinguished:
Economic profit (abnormal profit) total revenues exceed total

cost (TR > TC).
Normal profit total revenue equals total cost (TR = TC, zero economic
profit).
In sum, economic profit is all profit that is made above normal profit.
Why will a firm continue to operate at normal profit?
At normal profit all costs are covered. Shutting down would mean not being able to
cover fixed costs or not being able to pay off debt.
Loss negative economic profit, total cost exceeds total revenue (TC > TR).
1.4.4 Goals of the firm

The most common goal of firms is profit maximisation. This goal is achieved when the
difference between total cost and total revenue is maximised (TC − TR = max). This is
the case when the marginal costs are equal to the marginal revenue (MC = MR).
⇒ When MC > MR selling one more unit would lead to additional loss.
⇒ When MC < MR, selling one more unit would lead to an additional profit.
⇒ So profit is maximised when MC = MR.
In addition to profit maximisation, firms may also have some alternative goals:
Revenue maximisation: producing at a level of output at which the amount of revenue

is at its maximum level (MR = 0) for the firm, ignoring increases in costs.
Growth maximisation: the firm may want to maximise the growth. This growth can
be measured in revenue, production, employment or market share.
Satisficing: the firm tries to perform satisfactorily rather than to a maximum level.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR): the business includes public interest in its
decision making. This may be that the company wants to produce as
environmentally friendly as possible, provide good service for consumers, employ
39
workers under favourable conditions etc. Different firms may adopt different
approaches to CSR.
40
MICROECONOMICS Market structures 1
1.5 Market structures
1.5.1 Perfect competition
Characteristics of perfect competition:
5
Freedom of entry / exit. Firms can easily enter or leave the market if the
wish to do so.
4
There is perfect resource mobility, meaning resources can move from
location to location at zero cost.
3 The product is homogeneous, meaning every product is exactly the same.
2 There is perfect information, everyone knows everything.
1 There is a large number of firms.
⇒ These characteristics imply that firms are price takers, they cannot influence the
price in the industry and must sell at whatever the market price is.
Figure 1.21: Market in perfect competition.

P
AR = MR
D
Q Q
⇒ The graphs on Figure 1.21 show the situation on the market when in perfect
competition.
⇒ AR is the same as the market price (see the section on revenues).
⇒ MR is equal to AR because every extra good sold means an additional revenue of

1 × market price. Since the firms are price takers, their output does not influence
the market price leaving it constant.
41
MICROECONOMICS Market structures
Profit with perfect competition
First let’s explain how you can read / calculate profit diagrams depicting the cost curves
of a firm:
• The firm (which wants to maximise profits) will always produce at the intersection
of MC and MR.
• You can calculate the profit at this point by multiplying the difference between AR
and AC with the production of the firm:
profit = (AR − AC) × q
In the short run, firms in a perfectly competitive market can make abnormal
profit (profit > 0), normal profit (profit = 0) or a loss (profit < 0) depending on the place
and shape of the AC curve. Let’s review the three situations in Figure 1.22.
Figure 1.22: In the short run firms in a perfectly competitive market can make abnormal
profit (profit > 0, left), a loss (profit < 0, middle), or normal profit (profit = 0, right).
profit loss
P
P
MC MC MC
AC
AR = MR AR = MR AC
p p p
AC AR = MR
q Q q Q q Q
Because at the production Because at the production Because at the production

level average cost lies below level average cost lies above level average cost is equal
average revenue, the average revenue the, to average revenue, the
company will make a company will make a company won’t make
profit (the shaded area). loss (the shaded area). profit or loss (normal
profit).
Figure 1.23: When in the short run profit is possible, firms will enter the market,
increasing supply, decreasing MR = AR, eliminating any profits in the long run.
P
S MC
S2
MR1 = AR1
p1
p2 AC
MR2 = AR2
D
Q q2 q1 Q
42
In the long run, firms in a perfectly competitive market will make normal
profit (profit = 0).
Starting in the short run situation where there is profit, firms from outside the market
will know that there is a profit to be made and start entering the market.
This will shift the supply curve on the market to the right (increase in supply).
This causes the market price to decrease.
Since the market price is equal to the MR, the marginal revenue will also decrease.
Firms will keep entering the market until the MR curve has decreased to the point where
profits will be zero.
Shut down and break even price
Figure 1.24: The break even and shut down price levels.
MC
P
ATC
AVC
p1 AR1 = MR1
p2 AR2 = MR2
Shut down price when the price falls below this price, the company will
shut down in the short run (immediately), because the average variable
revenues are less than the average variable costs, meaning the company
can’t cover the variable cost. The shut down price thus lies at
AR = AVC.
Break even price the price at which a firm is able to make normal profit in
the long run. When the price falls below this price, the company will
shut down in the long run. The break even price thus lies at AR = ATC.
43
Allocative and productive efficiency
In firm theory we recognise two types of efficiency:
Allocative efficiency suppliers are producing the optimal mix of goods and
services required by consumers. Allocative efficiency occurs when the
company produces at the point where
MC = AR
(cost to producers) = (value to consumers)
Productive efficiency (technical efficiency) suppliers produce the product

at the lowest possible unit cost (AC). Occurs when production takes
place at minimum point of ATC.
⇒ If you take another look at the graphs of perfectly competitive firms, you will see
that in the long run both allocative (MC = AR) and productive (q at minimum
AC) is achieved.
⇒ In the short run, when there is a profit or a loss, there will still be allocative
efficiency (MR = AR), but there won’t be productive efficiency (q is not at
minimum AC).
1.5.2 Monopoly
Characteristics of a monopoly:
1. There’s a single or dominant firm.
2. There are no close substitutes of the good on the market.
3. There are significant barriers to entry the market.
Barriers to entry ways of preventing entry of a company to the industry.
44
Examples of barriers to entry include:
Economies of scale: firms entering the market cannot directly obtain the advantage of
economies of scale of the existing firms (because they start small and still need to
grow) and therefore cannot compete against the low prices of the existing firm.
Branding: consumers may not be willing to leave the popular brands of existing firms
on the market in order to switch to the product sold by the new firm.
Legal barriers: the government prevents entry into the market by law.
Natural monopoly: there are only enough economies of scale to support one firm. In
order to understand this take a look at the graph in Figure 1.25.
Figure 1.25: Natural monopoly.
profit possibile
AR ≥ LRAC
P
a
LRAC
b
D1 = AR1
D2 = AR2
q1 q2 Q
Suppose there is currently one firm in the market with the LRAC curve and D1 = AR1 .
This firm can make a profit when the production lies between q1 and q2 . (Because in that
range, the average revenue will exceed the average cost).
If another firm enters the market demand curve for the goods of the existing firm will
shift to the left because less demand is left for the existing firm. The existing firm now
can’t make a profit anymore, because there are no points where the average revenue
exceeds average cost.
We will now review the graphs of a monopolist firm. It is important to note what the
major difference between the graphs of a monopolist firm and a firm in perfect
competition are:
• The MC and AR (= D) curves are no longer one and the same.
• The monopoly is not a price taker but a price maker. It can determine the price all
on itself. Therefore the the MC and AR (= D) curves are no longer vertical lines.
For a monopolist firm they are downward sloping.
45
• Determining profit of monopolist firm can be done the same way as for a perfectly
competitive firm:
profit = (AR − AC) × q
• The only difference is that you will need to determine price using the
Demand (= AR) curve. When you have found the production quantity (depending
on the goal of the firm, see below), draw a vertical line at this quantity towards the
demand curve. The price on the market will be the vertical coordinate of the
intersection point of this horizontal line and the demand curve.
Profit when the goal is maximum profit
Figure 1.26: Profit for a monopolist

when pursuing maximum profit.
• Maximum profit is achieved when
P
production is at MC = MR.
MC
• Draw a vertical line upward towards
the demand curve to find the
Pm AC price (P m )
• The shaded area represents the profit

to be made by the monopolist firm.
MR D = AR
Qm Q
Profit when the goal is maximum revenue
Figure 1.27: Profit for a monopolist

when pursuing maximum revenue.
• Maximum revenue is achieved when
P
production is ar MR = 0.
MC
• Draw a vertical line upward towards
the demand curve to find the
AC price (P m )
Pm
• The shaded area represents the profit
to be made by the monopolist firm.
MR D = AR
Qm Q
46
Some notes on profit in the case of a monopoly
• A monopolist firm can make profit in both the long run and the short run,
because new firms can’t enter the market due to entry barriers.
• When the monopolist firm pursues maximum profit:
– There will be no allocative efficiency because MC ̸= MR at the production
level.
– There will be no productive efficiency because production is not at the level
where AC is at its minimum.
• Although monopolist firms will not attain allocative or productive efficiency,
being able to make large profits does have some advantages:
– Monopolist firms have enough profit to finance research and development in
order to make better products in the future.
– Monopolist firms can grow large enough to fully exploit economies of scale,
which could reduce the price eventually.
1.5.3 Monopolistic competition
Characteristics of monopolistic competition:
1. There’s a large number of firms.

2. The products sold are differentiated.
3. There are no barriers to entry or exit.
It is important to note that monopolistic firms do compete in the market because

products are differentiated. Two different forms of competition are possible:
Price-competition rivalry between suppliers based solely on price.
Non-price competition rivalry between suppliers based on other aspects

than price e.g. quality of service, packaging, advertising and product
development.
The cost and revenue curves of monopolistic firms look the same as the cost and revenue
curves for monopolist firms. Monopolistic firms are, like monopolist firms, in some
degree price makers: because they sell differentiated products, they can decide what price
to ask.
47
Short run
Figure 1.28: Profit for monopolistic • In the short run, monopolistic firms
firms in the short run. have some market power, due to
differentiated products the demand
abnormal profit curve is downward sloping: the firm
can influence price.
P
MC
• This means that in the short term
making a profit (like is drawn in the
Pm AC graph in Figure 1.28) or a loss is
possible.
• When profit maximisation is the goal

of the firm, the profit is the shaded
MR D = AR
area found by using MC = MR using
Qm Q
the demand curve to find the price.
Long run
• Due to the absence of entry and exit

barriers in the long run profit will be
Figure 1.29: Profit for monopolistic normal (profit = 0).
firms in the long run.
• If in the short term companies make
a profit (loss) then in the long term
P
MC companies will enter (leave) the

market.
AC • New firms will take away
Pn
business (firms that left will leave
their business for the old firms),
which shifts the demand curve to the
MR D = AR left (right).
Qm Q
• Profit, found using MC = MR, using
the demand curve to find the price,
will be zero.
Some notes on profit in the case of monopolistic competition:
• In the short term, there will not be allocative or productive efficiency because
MC ̸= MR at the production level and the production level is not at the minimum
of AC.
• In the long term, there will not be allocative or productive efficiency for the same
reason.
48
1.5.4 Oligopoly
Characteristics of oligopoly:
1. Dominance by a small number of firms
• Dominance by a small number of firms can be measured using the

concentration ratio (CR) e.g. CR4 = 80% means the sum of the market share
of the 4 large firms in the industry is 80%. The higher this number, the more
likely it is that an oligopoly exists in this market.
2. Differentiated or homogeneous products. In an oligopoly either can be the case.
3. High barriers to entry (see monopoly).
4. Interdependence: decisions by one firm influence the other.
• For example two firms deciding on what price to set for a product (see the
table for the options they face). The firms currently offer $5.50.
• If only one firm lowers the price this would be the best scenario for that one
firm, but the worst for the other firm.
• In this example firms will most likely lower the price, in fear of the other
firm doing it and leaving them with an extreme decrease in profit. This will
happen while remaining at a price $5.50 would be the mutually best option.
• If firms were able to collude they could be better off.
Firm A’s choices

Set the price at $5.50 Set the price at $5.00
Firm B’s choices
Set the price Firm A gets $6 million Firm A gets $8 million

at $5.50 Firm B gets $6 million Firm B gets $2 million
Set the price Firm A gets $2 million Firm A gets $4 million

at $5.00 Firm B gets $8 million Firm B gets $4 million
49
Collusion
Collusion the collaboration of firms to charge the same price; the firms will
act together as one monopoly. When oligopolist firms collude, their
graphs will be exactly the same as for monopolist firms.
Note that collusion is illegal in most countries. It can maximise the profit of
firms but it goes at the expense of consumers who are faced with higher prices.
Cartel collusive oligopoly (group of firms making price arrangements).
Two forms of collusion can be recognised:
Formal collusion firms agree on a price, all firms participating in the

collusion know that they are participating and know the negotiated
price.
It is important to note that a formal collusion is not openly communicated to

the general public or the government: collusive agreements are often handled
in secrecy.
Tacit collusion firms charge the same price by looking at each other. There
is no formal agreement involved.
But members of a cartel have an incentive to cheat. Asking for a price beneath the
arranged one could boost profits.
Cartels are also hard to maintain due to fear of government penalties. Being part of a
cartel is, again, illegal.
Profit in an oligopoly
If an oligopoly is non-collusive, firms must act strategically in order to take account of

possible actions by rivals.
The demand curve of non-collusive oligopolists is kinked. Suppose an oligopolist is

operating at point a. Raising price above point a will lead to demand rapidly decreasing
because other firms are cheaper. This is why the demand curve left/above point a is very
flat (very price elastic). Vice versa for lowering the price.
50
Figure 1.30: The break even and shut down price levels.
MC1
P
MC2
pm a
b
c
MR D = AR
Qm Q
This kinked demand curve causes price rigidity (= prices stay the same over long periods
of time) for two reasons:
1. Firms won’t raise prices if competitors won’t follow because they will rapidly lose
demand.
2. However, firms won’t lower their prices either, because they think other firms will
follow. This might result in a price war, where no producer ends up being better
off.
Therefore, Firms often compete in other aspects than price (non-price competition, see
above).
Summary Table
t?
it?
)
al profi
)
C = AC
C = AR
ry or ex
abnorm
liers
tive? (M
ive? (M
s to ent
upp
Possible
Nr. of s
Allocat
Produc
Barrier
Market type Product type Other characteristics Time

Perfect many no homogeneous perfect information SR ✓ ✗ ✓
competition and resource mobility LR ✓ ✓ ✗
Monopolistic many no differentiated SR ✗ ✗ ✓
competition LR ✗ ✗ ✗
Oligopoly some yes either interdependence SR ✗ ✗ ✓
LR ✗ ✗ ✓
Monopoly one yes differentiated no close substitutes SR ✗ ✗ ✓
LR ✗ ✗ ✓
51
MICROECONOMICS Price discrimination
1.6 Price discrimination
1.6.1 Definition and conditions
Price discrimination the practice of charging different prices to different

groups of consumers for the same product, where the price difference is
not justified by differences in cost.
Conditions for price discrimination to work:
• The firm must possess some degree of market power so it can set prices without
consumers instantly moving to a competitor.
• There must be groups of consumers with differing price elasticity of demand for
the product so different groups of consumers react different to a change in price.
• The firm must be able to separate groups to ensure no resale of the product occurs.
1.6.2 Three degrees of price discrimination
First degree price discrimination
Figure 1.31: First degree price discrimi-

nation.
Each consumer pays the highest price
he would be willing to pay.
P
S
This way the total consumer surplus
will be revenue for the producer.
Normally only the light red shaded area

would be producer revenue, but now
the dark red area, normally the
D consumer surplus, is revenue as well.
Q Q
52
MICROECONOMICS Price discrimination 1
Second degree price discrimination
Figure 1.32: Second degree price dis-

crimination.
P
This way producer surplus (the shaded

$15 area in the graph) will be larger than
before but less than in the case of first
$10 degree price discrimination.
D
Q
Third degree price discrimination
Figure 1.33: Third degree price discrimination.
Group I Group II
P
MC MC
P
P
MR D MR D
Q Q Q Q
Consumers are divided into market segments (e.g. adults and kids). As producers
maximise profit in each segment, the highest price is asked in the segment with the
lowest price elasticity (steepest demand curve) because consumers in this segment won’t
react that much to a high price.
53
MICROECONOMICS Price discrimination
54
MACROECONOMICS 2
2.1. Overall economic activity 56

This section will first go into the model that describes the
macroeconomy: the Circular flow of income model. Using this
model we will determine Measures of Economic Activity. This
section will end with an analysis of how the level of economic
activity changes over the years: The business cycle.
2.2. Aggregate demand and 59

aggregate supply
This section will go into the determination of Aggregate
demand, Short Run Aggregate Supply and Long run aggregate
supply in a macroeconomic context. We will also go into how
Equilibrium is reached on a market.
2.3. Macroeconomic objectives 65

In this section we will discuss the five major macroeconomic
objectives and provide theoretical context to these objectives:
Low unemployment, Low and stable rate of inflation, Economic
Growth and Equity in the distribution of income.
2.4. Government intervention 75

In this section the different ways the government can choose
to intervene in a market will be discussed. The government
can do so by implementing Fiscal Policy, Monetary policy or
Supply side policies. At the end of this section there will be an
Evaluation of policies.
55
MACROECONOMICS Overall economic activity
2.1 Overall economic activity
2.1.1 Circular flow of income model

Money, goods and services flow through the economy. The circular flow of income
model illustrates the exchange between households and firms:
Figure 2.1: Visualisation of the circular flow of income.
Injections (J) Withdrawals (W)

= Goods and services =
Investment (I) Savings (S)
+ Factors of production
+
Government House
Firms Taxes (T)
spending (G) holds
+ Income +
Exports (X) Import (M)
Consumer Expenditures (C)
Closed economy, no government, no financial sector

Income = Expenditures = Output
Open economy with government, with financial sector

Change in net value of economic activity = J − W
Table 2.1: The factors of production and their respective income.
Factor of production Income Factor of production Income

Capital −→ Interest Land −→ Rent
Enterprise −→ Profit Labour −→ Wage
Some important notices about the circular flow of income model:
• The middle part of the model is a closed economy (no international trade ⇒ no
imports and exports) that has no government (no taxes, no government spending)
and no financial sector (no investment, no savings).
• In this economy, the income of consumers will always be the same as their
expenditures because saving is impossible and there are no taxes.
• In this economy, the earnings of companies will always be the same as consumer
expenditure because consumers can’t spend their income on products from abroad
(imports).
• In this economy, all earnings of companies will be the same as the value of their
domestic outputs because companies can’t invest parts of their earnings, nor can
they export some of their output.
• Therefore, in a closed economy without a government and financial sector:
Income = Expenditures = Output
56
MACROECONOMICS Overall economic activity 2
• When we add international trade, a government and a financial sector, injections

(value added to the circular flow: investment, government spending and exports)
and withdrawals (value removed from the circular flow: savings, taxes, imports) are
possible.
• In such an economy the change in the value of economic activity can be measured
as:
J − W = (I + G + X) − (S + T + M)
2.1.2 Measures of Economic Activity
The size of the ‘economic activity’ can be measured in different ways:
GDP — Gross Domestic Product total income earned by the factors of

production in a country, regardless the assets owner.
GNP/GNI — Gross National Product / Gross national income the total

income earned by a country’s factors of production, regardless the
assets location.
Green GDP GDP minus environmental costs, such as pollution, measures

sustainability.
Each of these indicators can be measured:
• At nominal value = at current prices
• At real value = adjusted for inflation
• Per capita = per head of population
You need to be able to calculate the measures in the following ways:
GDP GNP / GNI
• Output method: sum of value of all goods GDP+ net property income from abroad
and services produced in the economy.
Real GDP
• Income method: sum of all incomes earned
in the economy. Nominal GDP
× 100
GDP Deflator
• Expenditure method: sum of expenditures
by all sectors in the economy:
GDP(Y) = C + I + G + X − M
57
MACROECONOMICS Overall economic activity
2.1.3 The business cycle
The economy tends to go through a cyclical pattern of Real GDP development. The
pattern is called the business cycle (Figure 2.2). The business cycle consists of different
phases of real GDP growth and decline, but in the long run GDP increases, hence the
increasing trend line drawn in the figure.
Figure 2.2: The business cycle.
Recovery Boom Recession Trough

Real GDP
Time
Table 2.2: Characteristics of the phases of the business cycle.
Phase Recovery Boom Recession Trough

GDP is GDP increases less and GDP starts to decrease GDP decreases less
increasing reaches highest point and reaches lowest
point
Consumption & Increasing Increasing to highest Decreasing Decreasing to lowest
Investment point point
Unemployment Decreasing Decreasing to lowest Increasing Increasing to highest
point point
Price Level Increasing Increasing Stable or possible Stable or possible
decrease decrease
58
MACROECONOMICS Aggregate demand and aggregate supply 2
2.2 Aggregate demand and aggregate supply
2.2.1 Aggregate demand
Aggregate demand (AD) total demand for goods and services in an

economy at a given time.
AD = C + I + G + X − M
The AD curve is typically downward sloping: if the average price level increases,
consumers will typically buy less goods and vice versa. There is a negative relationship
between price and demand.
Shifts of and moves along the AD curve
Figure 2.3: Aggregate Demand curve. • A move along the AD curve occurs
when the average price level changes.
If, for example, the average price level
Average price level
increases, a shift along the AD curve

may occur from point A to point B.
• A shift of the AD curve occurs when
A one of the components that make up
AD increase or decrease: when C, I,
B G or X increase (decrease) or M
decreases (increases), the AD curve
will shift to the right = a general
AD increase in demand (left = a general
Real GDP (y) decrease in demand).
Table 2.3 contains different factors that influence Consumption, Investment,

Government Spending, Exports and Imports.
Table 2.3: Factors that can influence, C, I, G, E and M.
Consumption Investment Government Net Exports

(C) (I) spending (G) (E − M)
+ Consumer − Interest rates +/− Policy choices + Income of

confidence + Business of the trading partners
− Interest Rates confidence government − Value of home
+ Wealth + Level of currency
+ Disposable technology + Value of foreign
income − Business tax currencies
− Income tax − Level of − Level of
− Level of corporate debt protectionism
household debt
(+) = positive relationship, (−) = negative relationship.
59
MACROECONOMICS Aggregate demand and aggregate supply
2.2.2 Short run aggregate supply
Aggregate supply (AS) the total amount of goods and services that all
industries in the economy will produces at every given price level. In
the short run (SRAS) or in the long run (LRAS).
The SRAS curve is typically upward sloping: if the average price increases, producers
will typically produce more to increase revenue or profit.
Shifts of and moves along the SRAS curve
• A move along the SRAS curve occurs

Figure 2.4: Short Run Aggregate Supply
when the average price level changes.
Curve.
If, for example, the average price level
increases, a shift along the SRAS
SRAS
Average price level
curve may occur from point A to

point B.
• A shift of the SRAS curve occurs
B
when one of the components that
make up SRAS increase or decrease:
when resource prices or business
A taxes decrease (increase) or subsidies
increase (decrease) the SRAS curve
will shift to the right = a general
Real GDP (y)
increase in short run supply (left = a
general decrease in short run supply).
60
2.2.3 Long run aggregate supply
In the long run the AS curve differs from the SRAS curve. But the exact difference is
disputed: neo-classical economists and Keynesian economics both have a different view
on what the long run aggregate supply (LRAS) curve should look like:
Figure 2.5: The neo-classical LRAS curve and the Keynesian LRAS curve.
Neo-classical LRAS Keynesian LRAS

Average price level
Average price level

LRAS
LRAS
I II III
Real GDP (y) Real GDP (y)
In the opinion of neo-classical The Keynesian LRAS curve consists of

economists, producers are producing at three parts:
full capacity, they cannot produce
more, so a change in price doesn’t and I Producers are producing below
cannot influence the LRAS. The LRAS capacity, so they can increase
curve only depends on the quantity and output without raising the cost of
quality of factors of production. When a product, the average price level
they increase (decrease) the LRAS will remains the same.
shift to the right (left).
II When producers increase output
Quantity and quality of factors of
even further, factors of
production are influenced by:
production will become scarce,
• Changes in efficiency (+)
increasing the price of the
• Technological development (+)
product.
• Changes in unemployment (−)
• Institutional / government policy III Producers are operating at full
changes (+/−) capacity, they cannot increase
output any further.
61
2.2.4 Equilibrium
The equilibrium point is the point at which demand is equal to supply. This point
determines the average price and quantity produced and sold on the market. Since we
have learned that there are three different supply curves, three possible equilibria exist:
Figure 2.6: Three equilibria: short run, long run neoclassical view and long run Keynesian
view.
Short run Long run – neoclassical Long run – Keynesian

Average price level
Average price level
Average price level

LRAS LRAS
SRAS
AD AD AD
y y y
Price and output are The impact of any changes The economy usually
determined by the in AD will be on price operates at less than
interaction of AD and only, because LRAS is a capacity (as shown). This
SRAS. vertical line so output will will lead to slow growth
not change. and unemployment.
Changes in the long run neoclassical equilibrium
Two possible changes are possible: (1) an increase in AD and (2) a decrease in AD. We
will illustrate both changes graphically:
Figure 2.7: Changes in the neoclassical equilibrium.
Increase in AD Decrease in AD
Average price level
Average price level
LRAS SRAS2 LRAS SRAS1

SRAS1 SRAS2
G
P3 P1 E
P2 F P2 B
P1 E P3 C
AD1 AD2 AD2 AD1

Y f Y1 Real Output Y Y1 Y f Real Output Y
62
Increase in AD Decrease in AD
• E is our starting point: long run • E is our starting point: long run
equilibrium, full equilibrium, full
employment (producers are employment (producers are
producing at full capacity) producing at full capacity)
• AD increases so we move from AD1 • AD decreases so we move from AD1
to AD2 . We end up at point F at a to AD2 . We end up at point B at a
higher average price and a higher lower average price and a lower
output. output.
• But this means that the economy is • But this means that the economy is
now producing beyond full capacity, now producing below full capacity,
this leads to a dramatic increase in this leads to a dramatic decrease in
costs. costs.
• In order to solve this, firms will • In order to solve this, firms will
decrease their SRAS, so SRAS shifts increase their SRAS, so SRAS shifts
to the left: SRAS1 ⇒ SRAS2 . We end to the right: SRAS1 ⇒ SRAS2 . We
op at point G. end op at point C.
• Result: we end up at the same level of • Result: we end up at the same level of
real output as before (again full real output as before (again full
employment) but at a higher average employment) but at a lower average
price. price.
Changes in the long run Keynesian equilibrium
Again we will discuss what will happen when AD changes, but this time in the situation
of a long run Keynesian equilibrium.
Increase in AD (decrease in AD: the

Figure 2.8: Change in the Keynesian opposite will happen)
equilibrium: increase in AD. • We start at AD1 , output is at y1 . At
this point production is below
Deflationary gap
capacity: there will be
Average price level
unemployment and slow growth.

LRAS There is a deflationary gap: demand
is less than potential output.
• AD increases so we move from AD1
to AD2 . This reduces
unemployment (output increases),
but also increases inflation (price
AD3
level increases).
AD2 • When AD increases even further to
AD3 , the same thing will happen.
AD1 • But with each increase of AD the
y1 y2 y3 y increase in output will be less big and
the inflation even higher.
63
Shifts in the LRAS curves
Another possibility is the increase of the neoclassical or Keynesian LRAS curve, which
can shift either to the left or to the right. When this happens, all you have to do is find
the intersection of the new LRAS curve and the AD curve. Production and average price
level will be at this point.
The Keynesian multiplier
If a government decides to increase spending (G), the change in GDP (Y) will be larger
than the increase in G. We call this the multiplier effect:
∆Y = k∆G
The change in GDP is equal to the multiplier (k) × the change in government
spending (G).
The workings of the multiplier effect can be explained through the following flow-chart:
M ↑
T ↑
S ↑
G ↑ AD↑ Y ↑ C ↑
An increase in government spending (G), an injection, will lead to a higher level of

aggregate demand (AD) because people have more money to spend, this will increase
production (GDP, Y), which will cause incomes to go up, because more workers are
needed to produce the extra production. This increase in income will cause consumer
expenditure (C), Imports (M), Taxed income (T) and Savings (S) to increase.
The extra money that can be spent domestically (C) will again increase Aggregate
Demand, which will increase Y, which will increase M, T, S and C etc.
However, every time we move round this flowchart, some of the money will leak out of
the economy: it will either be used to import (M) and therefore leave the country, used
to pay taxes (T) and therefore flow back to the government or used to save (S) and
therefore end up on a savings account, not being used to consume. These factors are
called “leakages”.
The fraction of the extra income that causes AD to rise even more will, thus, slowly
decline, until eventually GDP stabilises at a new, higher, level.
64
MACROECONOMICS Macroeconomic objectives 2
Calculating the Keynesian multiplier
There are two ways to calculate the size of the Keynesian multiplier:
1
k=
1 − MPC
1
k=
MPS + MRT + MPM
MPC — marginal propensity to consume the percentage of additional

government expenditure that consumers use to consume.
MPS — marginal propensity to save the percentage of additional

government expenditure that consumers save.
MPT — marginal rate of taxation the percentage of additional government

expenditure that consumers have to pay back in taxes.
MPM — marginal propensity to import the percentage of additional

government spending that consumers use to import goods.
2.3 Macroeconomic objectives
2.3.1 Low unemployment
Unemployment all people of working age that are not working and are
actively looking for a job.
unemployed people
Unemployment rate × 100
labour force
Labour force everyone that can, wants to, and is allowed to work. Typically
the labour force consists of all people that are currently employed + all
unemployed people
65
MACROECONOMICS Macroeconomic objectives
Unemployment can be hard to measure, this has several reasons:
1. The existence of hidden unemployment: people not represented in the

unemployment figures:
• people who have given up looking for a job;

• people in a part-time job that would want to work full time (which isn’t
possible);
• people who are overqualified for a job, but can’t find a better one.
2. Unemployment figures are an average: the unemployment figure ignores regional,

ethnic, age and gender differences.
Consequences of unemployment
Economical Consequences Personal Consequences

• Loss in GDP (drop in production). • Increased crime rates, using crime to
• Loss of tax revenue, because increase money to spend.
unemployed people have less income to • Increased stress levels; worries over
pay taxes. money
• Increased cost of unemployment • Increased indebtedness.
benefits. • Being unable to pay for housing;
• Loss of income for individuals. homelessness.
• Greater differences in income • Family breakdown.
distribution.
Table 2.4: Types of unemployment.

Type Cause Possible solutions
Cyclical Decrease in aggregate demand, causes • Demand side policies to increase AD
(demand production to go down and people to become
deficient) unemployed
Structural Permanent changes in demand and supply • Retraining employees to fit other
(e.g. change in taste, advance in technology) jobs
causes people in certain industries to become • Encourage people to move to other
redundant regions
• Reduce unemployment benefits to
encourage people to find a new job
• Less regulation so employment be-
comes easier
Seasonal Lower labour demand at certain times of year • Reduce unemployment benefits
(e.g. less labour demand for waitresses in • Encourage to take other jobs in the
winter) off-period
Frictional Imperfect information: it takes time to find a • Improve information flow
new job when you have left your old one (e.g. vacancy websites)
• Reduce unemployment benefits
66
Graphical depiction of unemployment
Figure 2.9: Graphical depiction of structural unemployment.

Manufacturing
SL
wage
Structural unemployment
• Due to a change in AD (e.g. taste,
w1 technology) the labour demand (DL )
decreases from DL1 to DL2 .
w2 • Employment decreases from Q1
to Q2 .
D L2 D L1 • Wages decrease from w1 to w2 .
Q2 Q1 Quantity of
manufacturing
Structural workers
unemployment
Figure 2.10: Graphical depiction of cyclical unemployment.
Cyclical unemployment
Wage
• Due to economic recession labour

SL demand decreases from DL1 to DL2 .
• But wages are sticky, it takes time for
wages to adjust to a new situation.
2 1 This can be because contracts
w1
determine wages over a longer time
3
w2 period or people who are already
employed won’t take a lower wage:
they remain at w1 instead of falling
D L2 DL1 to w2 .
Number of • There is a surplus of labour: supply
Cyclical workers of labour is at point 2, demand for
unemployment
labour at point 1.
67
2.3.2 Low and stable rate of inflation
Inflation a sustained increase in the level of prices
Disinflation a persistent fall in the rate of inflation
Deflation a persistent fall in the level of prices
Inflation can be measured in two ways:
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
Economists compile a basket of goods that is representative for the economy, they then
compare the cost of this basket over time. The increase in price of the basket is the
inflation rate.
Cost of a typical basket in year 2
CPI = × 100
Cost of a typical basket in year 1
Cost of typical basket =Price of product category 1 × weight factor1

+ Price of product category 2 × weight factor2 + . . .
· · · + Price of product category n × weight factorn
new CPI − old CPI

Inflation rate = × 100
old CPI
Producer Price Index (PPI)
Economists compile a basket of factors of production representative for the economy,

they then compare the cost of this basket over time. The increase in the price of the
basket is the inflation rate.
Changes in the PPI can predict future inflation: Higher resource prices eventually lead to
higher consumer good prices
68
Consequences
Consequences of inflation Consequences of deflation

• Greater uncertainty: what will prices • Deferred consumption: consumers
do in the future? will wait to spend money, because
• Decrease in purchasing power: prices are decreasing: goods bought
people can buy less due to higher in the future will be cheaper.
prices. • High level of cyclical
• Less savings: people want to spend unemployment: less consumption
money now, because it is decreasing will lead to less production and
in value. therefore causes unemployment.
• Damage to export competitiveness: • Bankruptcies: less consumption will
foreign countries will buy less goods cause profits of firms to decline. This
from the country that has inflation may result in them having to shut
due to increasing prices in this down.
country.
Difficulties in measuring inflation
• Different income earners may experience a different rate of inflation when their
consumption pattern is not accurately reflected in the CPI (it is an average).
• Inflation figures may not accurately reflect changes in consumption patterns and
the quality of the goods purchased.
• Sudden swings in the price level of food and oil can influence CPI heavily.
Economists therefore also calculate an underlying rate of inflation.
• CPI only measures change in consumption prices, while changes in producer
prices are also important (the PPI does use producer prices).
Two different forms of inflation

Figure 2.11: Graphical depiction of demand pull inflation (left) and cost-push
inflation (right).
Price level
Price level
SRAS2
SRAS1
SRAS
P2
P2
AD2 P1
P1
AD1 AD
y1 y2 Real GDP y2 y1 Real GDP
As you can see in the graph an increase in When the cost of production for some
AD (shift to the right) causes price level to reason increases, the SRAS curve will shift
rise from P1 to P2 . to the left: production will decrease. This
causes price level to rise from P1 to P2 .
69
How could the government reduce inflation?
Increase taxes / reduce government spending (fiscal policy): this will cause incomes
of people to decrease, reducing spending and thus reducing demand pull inflation.
Raise interest rates: this will cause people to save more (they will get more interest) and
spend less, this reduces demand pull inflation.
Reduce money supply (monetary policy): when there is less money in circulation, the
value of money will increase. So less money is needed to buy something and the
price is reduced.
Supply-side policies – shift supply curve to the right: (e.g. education, invest in
technology etc.) this will reduce the cost for producers, reducing cost-push
inflation.
Inflation and unemployment trade-off
In the short run and the long run there is a connection between inflation and
unemployment. This relationship is called the Phillips Curve.
Figure 2.12: Short run (left) and long run (right) Phillips curves.
Phillips curve (SR) Phillips curve (LR)

Inflation rate
Inflation rate
High unemployment +
high inflation =
stagflation due to ↓ SRAS
Natural rate
of employment
Unemployment rate Unemployment rate
Short run Long run

• At a low level of unemployment, wages will be • When the economy is at long run equilibrium,
high (because at that point demand for labour there will be full employment (see neoclassical
will be high), high wages will lead to high view).
production cost and high cost-push inflation. • In this case the unemployment rate = natural
• At high levels of unemployment, wages will be unemployment rate. Therefore inflation does
low (because at that point demand for labour not influence unemployment.
will be low), low wages will lead to low
production cost and a low cost-push inflation.
• If SRAS suddenly decreases (supply shock), this
can cause the prices to rise (less supply, prices
↑), but unemployment to remain at the same
level (because firms can’t fire people in the short
run). This causes the Phillips curve to shift
outwards: stagflation.
70
2.3.3 Economic Growth
new GDP − old GDP

Economic Growth × 100
old GDP
There are two possible sources of economic growth:
1. GDP increases due to an increase in output
2. GDP increases due to an increase in potential output
Increase in output
Price level
Good type y
LRAS
SRAS
y2 B
y1
A
AD1 AD2
x1 x2 Good type x y1 y2 Real GDP
Deflationary gap
The graph on the left shows the Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) = A curve that
shows the theoretical maximal combination of two goods that an economy can produce
if full use is made of all factors of production.
When AD increases (AD1 ⇒ AD2 in the graph on the right), GDP will increase as
well (y1 ⇒ y2 ).
In the PPF: a shift from point A to point B: a higher production of both goods can be
attained.
Possible cause: the country is making better use of existing resources, resulting in a more
efficient production.
The gap between y1 and y2 is called a deflationary gap, because the economy was not
producing at capacity (a point on the LRAS) curve.
71
Increase in potential output
Average price level

Good type y
LRAS1 LRAS2
AD
Good type x y1 y2 Real GDP
The theoretical maximum production is increased, the production at full capacity is

higher than before.
LRAS (= production at capacity) increases: LRAS1 ⇒ LRAS2 .
PPF shifts outwards: the theoretical maximum production is increased, so more of both
good y and good x can be made.
Possible cause: increases in the quantity and quality of resources due to investments in:
Human capital to increase productivity / skill of workers

(e.g. through education).
Physical capital to increase quantity / quality of man-made resources
(e.g. better machines, technological advance).
Natural capital to improve / increase the stock of natural resources
(e.g. explore parts of the world for fossil fuels).
Consequences of economic growth
• Increase in living standards, due to higher GDP per capita, increase in wealth.
• Decrease in unemployment, more workers needed for the increased production.
• Possible increase in inflation; when caused by a higher demand prices may rise due
to demand pull inflation.
• Possible reduction in inequality (using taxation). Governments can increase their
tax revenue and redistribute more.
• Increase in exports and imports: more production may lead to a higher export
potential, more demand may lead to a higher import potential.
• Possible increase in sustainability. When GDP is growing there is more money
available to work on sustainable technologies / when GDP growth is caused by
technological advance, part of that technological advance may be used for a more
sustainable production.
• Possible decrease in environment: a higher GDP means production has increased.
Production may be polluting the environment.
72
2.3.4 Equity in the distribution of income
Equity fair distribution of income.
Equality equal distribution of income.
Due to unequal ownership of factors of production there is inequitable

distribution of income.
How to promote equity?
Taxation to redistribute income
• Direct vs. indirect taxes

– Direct: imposed directly on income, wealth and profit. (e.g. income tax)
– Indirect: imposed over consumer spending (e.g. VAT)
• Progressive, regressive and proportional taxation
– Progressive: the higher the income, the higher the average tax rate.
– Regressive: the higher the income, the lower the average tax rate.
– Proportional: same tax rate for all incomes.
Direct government expenditures
• Provide money directly to people

• Subsidies (e.g. subsidise certain sectors in order to employ more people).
Transfer Payments (e.g. unemployment benefits, pensions).
Evaluation of redistribution of income policies
Arguments in favor of redistributions Arguments against redistribution

• Taxes are important revenue for the • Full efficiency can only be reached
government without government intervention
• Taxes can help reduce market • Taxes may discourage people to work
failure (see microeconomics). or engage in entrepreneurial activities
• Redistribution makes the • Taxes have negative effects on growth
distribution of income more fair • Transfer payments cost a lot of
money which could also be used
elsewhere
73
Lorenz curve
The degree of equity can be measured using the Lorenz curve. A Lorenz curve is shown
on Figure 2.13, drawn on the basis of the fictional data in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Fictional data to draw a Lorenz Curve.
% of % of total
Person Income population Cumulative income Cumulative
A 10,000$ 20% 20% 7% 7%
B 20,000$ 20% 40% 13% 20%
C 30,000$ 20% 60% 20% 40%
D 40,000$ 20% 80% 27% 67%
E 50,000$ 20% 100% 33% 100%
Figure 2.13: Lorenz curve.
100%
Cumulative % of total income
67%
e
lin
y
lit
Lorenz curve
ua
Eq
40%
20%
7%
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Cumulative % of population
The population of a country is divided into a number of income groups of equal size (in
this example: 5). The first group contains the 20% poorest people of the country, the
final group the 20% richest people of the country. Of each group the percentage of total
income which the people in the respective group earn is calculated.
The cumulative data of these percentages is used to draw the Lorenz curve.
The green line in the diagram represents the equality line: if every group earned the same
percentage of total income, the Lorenz curve would lie on this equality line. The further
away the Lorenz curve lies from the equality line, the less equal the income is distributed
among the people of the country.
Another measure of equality is the Gini-index. This is a number between 0 and 100. The
higher this Gini-index the more unequal the distribution of income.
74
MACROECONOMICS Government intervention 2
Poverty
In some cases income is distributed extremely unequal. In these cases poverty is

imminent.
Absolute poverty the inability to fulfil the basic economic needs.
Relative poverty being poor relative to others around you.
Causes of poverty Consequences of poverty

• Low incomes • Low living standards
• Unemployment • Lack of access to health care and
• Lack of human capital, not having education
enjoyed enough education may lead
to unemployment and low incomes.
2.4 Government intervention
2.4.1 Fiscal policy
Fiscal policy government intervention by either adjusting taxes or adjusting

government spending
Figure 2.14
Price level
LRAS
AD3 AD1 AD2

y3 y1 y2 Real GDP
75
MACROECONOMICS Government intervention
Two types of fiscal policy
Expansionary fiscal policy Contractionary fiscal policy

• Reducing taxes • Increasing taxes
• Increasing government spending • Decreasing government spending
• AD increases: a move from AD1 • AD decreases: a move from AD1
to AD2 . to AD3 .
Fiscal policy also automatically stabilises short term fluctuations in GDP:

e.g. unemployment benefits, progressive tax system. People suddenly losing their job in a
time of crisis get benefits from the government, so their loss in income is manageable.
Their purchasing power / expenditure doesn’t decrease that much, so GDP will not
fluctuate dramatically.
Fiscal policy also promotes long term economic growth:
• Government expenditure can help to create an economic environment favourable

to investment. (e.g. investing money in infrastructure).
• Direct investments by the government may lead to a more efficient production

(e.g. by providing companies with the means to do more research & development).
The government budget
Government Revenue Government Expenditures

• Taxes • Current expenditures = recurring
• Sale of goods and services expenditures
(e.g. by companies that belong to the (e.g. wages of civil servants, interest
government). on government debt).
• Sale of state owned enterprises • Capital expenditures = one-time
payments
(e.g. building a new school).
• Transfer payments = payments to
citizens (e.g. welfare, pensions).
• Revenue > expenditures → surplus → government debt decreases

• Revenue < expenditures → deficit → government debt increases
• Revenue = expenditures → balanced budget → government debt remains the same
76
2.4.2 Monetary policy
Monetary policy central bank intervention by adjusting interest rates or

money supply
More More
borrowing investment
Lower
AD ↑
interest rates
Less More
saving spending
Two types of monetary policy
Expansionary / easy monetary policy

Figure 2.15
• Increasing the money supply, this
will decrease the price paid for
Price level
money (which is interest) so interest

LRAS will decrease.
• AD increases: a move from AD1
to AD2 .
Contractionary / tight monetary policy

• Decreasing the money supply, this
will increase the price paid for
money (which is interest) so interest
AD3 AD1 AD2 will increase.
y3 y1 y2 Real GDP • AD decreases: a move from AD1
to AD3 .
Note: Central banks are more guided by maintaining a stable rate of inflation than by
influencing aggregate demand. Central banks will therefore seldom use their powers to
try and increase AD.
77
The role of central banks

Responsibilities of Central Banks
Figure 2.16 • Controlling inflation
• Controlling money supply
• Influencing exchange rates
Interest rate
MS1 MS2
• Regulating commercial banks
• Controlling interest rates
What can Central Banks Do?
R1 • Increase money supply (releasing

money from reserves). This will
cause the Money Supply Curve (MS)
R2 to shift to the right (MS1 ⇒ MS2 ).
MS D
This measure will decrease the price
m1 m2 Money
of money = interest rate.
• Change the interest rate directly, this
will have the same effect.
2.4.3 Supply side policies
Supply side policies government intervention by affecting the production

side of the economy
⇒ changing the quantity or quality of the factors of production.
Two types of supply side policy
Interventionist supply side policies Market based supply side policies

(focuses on government intervention) (reduce competition, encourage free markets)
• Investment in human • Reforming the labour market to
capital (e.g. providing education). increase flexibility, this may make it
• Investment in new technologies. easier for companies to find the right
• Investment in infrastructure. personnel.
• Policies that favour industrial • Incentivise working of labourers by
companies, e.g. tax cuts, subsidies. cutting income tax. Incentivise
investment by firms by cutting
corporate tax.
⇒ These policies allow companies to ⇒ These policies allow firms to produce

produce more efficiently, which may more efficiently, which may lead to
lead to an increase in production. In an increase in production. In the
the graph this will shift the LRAS graph this will shift the LRAS curve
curve to the to the right (LRAS1 ⇒ LRAS2 ).
right (LRAS1 ⇒ LRAS2 ).
78
2.4.4 Evaluation of policies
Fiscal Policy Monetary Policy Supply-side policies
+ Positively affects + Easy to increase interest + Positively affects

growth rates growth
+ Ability to target specific + Interest rates can be + Creates employment
sectors increased step-by- + Reduces inflationary
+ Direct impact on AD step (incrementally) pressure
+ Works well in a + Positively affects
recession growth
− It takes time to − Takes time to − Takes time to

work (time lag) work (time lag) work (time lag)
− Can’t influence the − Doesn’t work well in a − Can negatively
supply side of the recession influence equity
economy − Conflict of interest − May be politically
− Negatively influences with inflation targets undesirable
government budget − May negatively
− Raise in government influence the
spending can increase environment
interest rates
⇒ less consumption
and investment
(crowding out)
79
80
INTERNATIONAL 3
ECONOMICS
3.1. Trade 82
This section will discuss a wide array of subjects concerning
international trade. First the Advantages of free trade and the
theory of Absolute and comparative advantage. Next The
World Trade Organisation will be discussed. What follows is
an explanation of Trade protectionism and of Arguments for
and against protection. Finally Economic integration is
discussed.
3.2. Exchange rates 89

This section discusses how the value of a currency is
determined. It can be done using one of three different
regimes: Freely floating exchange rates, Fixed exchange rates and
Managed exchange rates. In this section the theory behind each
regime is explained.
3.3. The balance of payments 92

All inflows and outflows of money of a certain country can be
found on the balance of payments. This section will first
discuss The structure of the balance of payments, before going
into Current account deficits and surpluses.
3.4. Terms of trade 95

Trade competitiveness can be measured using the Terms of
Trade Ratio. This section will discuss respectively the
Measurement of the Terms of trade, the Causes of changes of the
Terms of Trade and the Consequences of changes of the Terms
of Trade.
81
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Trade
3.1 Trade
3.1.1 Advantages of free trade
International free trade may have the following advantages:
Lower prices for consumers: due to free trade consumers can import the goods they
want from the country that can make them the cheapest. They do not necessarily
have to buy the good domestically.
Greater choice for consumers: consumers can choose from goods that are made all
over the world, and not just in their own country.
The ability for producers to benefit of economies of scale: producers can sell to a
larger market (the whole world instead of just one country) which allows them to
grow and to further exploit economies of scale to produce more efficiently.
The ability to acquire needed resources: firms may now have access to resources
which cannot be found domestically.
A more efficient allocation of resources: resources can now be used in the country
that can make most efficient use of them.
Increased competition: free trade opens up the world market to a large number of firms
that will compete. Competition will lead to more diverse products, more quality
and lower price.
Source of foreign exchange: countries can use free trade to get foreign currency or
make dispose of domestic currency (foreign countries can pay for goods they
import in their own currency).
3.1.2 Absolute and comparative advantage
In general, economists say that the country that has advantage in the production of a
good should produce that good, rather than a country that does not have this advantage.
There are two theories on how to determine which country has the advantage: (1) the
theory of absolute advantage and (2) the theory of comparative advantage:
1. A country has absolute advantage in the production of a good when it can produce
it using fewer resources than another country.
2. A country has comparative advantage in the production of a good when it can

produce it at lower opportunity cost than another country.
An individual firm or a
nation has comparative
advantages when it can
produce a good or service at
a lower opportunity cost
82
than another producer or
nation .
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Trade 3
Figure 3.1
On the left you can see the
production possibilities frontiers
Trucks
of 2 countries A and B for cars and

Country A trucks.
21
is 3.5 times Country A has the absolute
more
productive advantage in both products,
at truck A because it can make more trucks
production
that
and more cars than country B.
country B 6 The opportunity cost of cars for
B
country B is 0.2 trucks, the
opportunity cost of cars for
30 35 Cars
country A is 0.6 trucks; therefore
Country A is
1.17 times more country B has comparative
productive at car advantage in cars.
production
The opportunity cost of trucks for country B is 5 cars, the opportunity cost of trucks
for country A is 1.67 cars; therefore country A has comparative advantage in trucks.
• The curve on the inside has comparative advantage in the good that is on the axis
with the smallest gap with the other curve.
• The curve that intersects with the axis the furthest away from the origin, has
absolute advantage in the production of the good on that axis.
Limitations of the theory of comparative advantage
1. Perfect knowledge is assumed, but it is impossible that everyone knows everything.
2. It is assumed that there are no transport costs, while in reality this is not the case.
3. It is assumed that there are only two economies producing two goods, while in
reality there are a lot of economies producing a lot of goods.
4. It is assumed that costs of production do not change and that the returns to scale
are constant, while in reality this won’t be the case.
5. It is assumed that the goods that are being traded are completely identical, while in
reality differentiation within goods is possible.
6. It is assumed that factors of production remain in the country, while in reality

factors of production can travel between countries.
7. It is assumed that there is perfect free trade among countries, while in reality trade
barriers exist.
83
3.1.3 The World Trade Organisation
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international organisation that sets the rules
for global trading and resolves disputes between its member countries.
Objective
Increase international trade by lowering trade barriers and provide a forum for
negotiations.
Functions of the World Trade Organisation
• Administer WTO trade agreements that the WTO has set up between countries.
• Be a forum for trade negotiations and facilitate in setting up trade deals.
• Handle trade disputes among member states.
• Monitor national trade policies.
• Provide technical assistance and training for developing countries.
• Cooperate with other international organisations in order to increase trade.
3.1.4 Trade protectionism
Different forms of trade protection exist. In this section we will first look at a graphical
depiction of a free trade situation. Then, we will show what happens to the free trade
equilibrium in case of (1) a tariff, (2) a subsidy and (3) a quota.
Market with free trade

In this market with free trade the product is
Figure 3.2 both produced domestically and imported
(world production).
P
The domestic production is represented by the

SD S D curve and the world production by the SW
curve.
SW is a horizontal line, the world production
is not affected by the price on the domestic
Pr market, because the domestic market is only a
small fraction of the world market.
In the case of free trade, producers will
Pw SW produce 0Q1 (I).
I II D Beyond Q1 , the price of world production will
O
Q1 Qr Q2 QD be below the price of domestic production,
Q1Q2 (II) will be imported.
84
Tariff tax charged on imported goods.
Figure 3.3 • Sworld will shift upwards, because foreign

producers have to pay the tariff in order
to sell their goods in the country.
P
SD Domestic consumers will face a higher

market price.
• Import is reduced from Q1Q2 to Q3Q4 .
• Foreign producer revenue is d + e + i + j
minus the tax of d + e, so i + j in total.
Pr • Domestic production increases from 0Q1
to 0Q3 .
Pw +t Sw +t • Domestic revenue increases from g to
a b d e
c f
Pw Sw a + b + c + g + h.
g h i j k • Government revenue is represented by
D
O
d + e.
Q1 Q3 Q r Q4 Q2 QD
• The tariff causes a welfare loss of c + f .
Subsidy sum of money given to producers.
• The subsidy will increase the domestic

production so S D will shift to the right to
Figure 3.4 S D+S .
• Domestic production increases from 0Q1
P
to 0Q3 .
SD • Domestic revenue increases from a to
SD + S a + b + e + f + g of which e + f + g is
the subsidy.
• Import decreases from Q1Q2 to Q3Q2 .
Pe • Foreign revenue decreases from b + c + d
to c + d .
f
e g • The government spending on the subsidy
Pw Sw is represented by e + f + g .
a b c d
D • The subsidy results in a welfare loss
O
Q1 Q3 Q r Q4 Q2 QD represented by g . This area represents the
net loss in producer and consumer
surplus.
85
Quota limit on imported goods.
Figure 3.5 • A quota is imposed at Q1Q3 , meaning

that the country can not import any
further than point Q3 .
P
SD • Domestic production will be 0Q1 and

Q1Q3 will be imported.
SD + S • Beyond this point, the excess demand will
cause domestic producers to be willing to
produce more (at a higher price), S D will
Pe
thus shift to the right.
f
g i • Domestic revenue increases from a to
h j k
PW SW a + c + d + f + i + j.
a b c d e • Foreign revenue decreases from
D
O
b + c + d + e to b + g + h.
Q1 Q3Q r Q4 Q2 QD
• The welfare loss is represented by j + k.
In addition to quota, tariffs and subsidies, countries can also set administrative barriers
such as:
• Requiring a lot of paperwork before a good can be imported (this form of

administrative barriers are often referred to as “red tape”).
• Setting high health and safety standards that products have to comply to in order
to be imported.
3.1.5 Arguments for and against protection
Arguments for protectionism
• Domestic jobs are protected because domestic consumers are more dependent on
domestic production.
• Protection can reduce dependence on international trade and can this way protect
national security.
• Infant industries can freely develop when they do not face competition from
foreign established producers.
• Maintenance of health, safety and environmental standards.
• Foreign producers can use the market of other countries to dump excess
production at extremely low prices. Protectionism protects domestic producers
for this kind of unfair competition.
• Protectionism limits imports, this way a balance of payments deficit can be
overcome.
• The government can profit out of tariff revenues.
86
Arguments against protectionism
• It raises prices because its limits free trade.
• Import is limited, which limits the diversity of goods being supplied on the
domestic market, limiting consumer choice.
• Competition diminishes, which reduces the positive effects of competition such as

improved quality and diversification of products.
• Foreign countries may retaliate with trade barriers of their own, harming the
exporting companies of the domestic country (trade wars).
• Resources may not be used in the country that can make most efficient use of
them: misallocation of resources
• Because governments can earn major sums of money by using tariffs there is great
potential for corruption, especially in less developed countries.
• Domestic companies may focus more on the domestic market due to the barriers,
thereby reducing their export competitiveness.
• Increased cost of imported factors of production, because tariffs and quota may
also apply to these.
3.1.6 Economic integration
Economic integration the unification of economic policies between

different states through the partial or full abolition of tariff and
non-tariff restrictions on trade taking place among them prior to their
integration.
In general six degrees of economic integration can be recognised:
1 Preferential trade Agreements that give preferential access to certain

agreements products from certain countries by reducing tariffs or
by other agreements related to trade. These agreements
can be:
Bilateral: between two countries
Multilateral: between three or more countries
2 Free trade areas Countries are able to trade freely among themselves,
but are able to trade with countries outside the free
trade area in anyway they like.
87
3 Customs union Countries are able to trade freely among themselves

and also agree to adopt common external barriers
against any country outside the union.
4 Common market A customs union with common policies on product
regulation and free movement of goods, services, capital
and labour.
5 Monetary Union Common market with common currency and common
central bank.
6 Complete economic Countries have no control of economic policy, full
integration monetary union with complete harmonisation of fiscal
policy.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Lower transaction costs • Loss of economic sovereignty

• Certainty • Interest rate might not fit the
• Price comparison situation of all countries involved
• Trade creation (see later) • Asymmetrical shocks affect different
• Transparency countries within the union
• Helps attract foreign direct differently
investment due to larger market
The further down the road of economic integration, the higher the potential for
companies to benefit of economies of scale.
Some notes to economic integration
In a customs union there can be trade diversion and trade creation:
Trade creation with the entry of the country into the customs union,
countries can regain comparative advantage which was hindered by
previous trade barriers. Now this country can trade more by exploiting
this advantage and producing more of the good.
Trade diversion before entry into the customs union, the country imported
from country x without barriers. With entry into the union, tariffs are
imposed on country x (non-member) and the product is therefore
imported from member countries at higher price instead of from
country x.
88
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Exchange rates 3
3.2 Exchange rates
3.2.1 Freely floating exchange rates
The exchange rate is the value of

Figure 3.6: Demand and Supply for a one currency expressed in terms of
currency (the euro). another currency.
(e.g., 1€ = 1.15$).
In a freely floating exchange rate
Price of ¤1 in ¤2
Supply of ¤1 regime, the value of an exchange

rate is determined by the demand
for and supply of that currency. At
the equilibrium point the price and
quantity of the currency on the
Demand for ¤1 market is determined (see graph).
Quantity of ¤1 Demand for and supply of
currency can change due to shifts
Figure 3.7: An increase in demand for the in the supply and demand curves.
currency leads to an increase in the price This will lead to a change in
(value of the currency): an appreciation. exchange rate as well. These
changes in exchange rates due to
P. ¤
market shocks are called

S depreciations and appreciations.
If the supply of the € decreases
(supply curve shifts to the left) or
the demand for the € increases
D′
(demand curve shifts to the right),
D the value of the € will go up, and
Q. ¤ the exchange rate will increase; we
call this an appreciation of the €.
Figure 3.8: An increase in supply of the If the supply of the € increases
currency leads to a decrease in the price (supply curve shifts to the right) or
(value of the currency): a depreciation. demand for €s decreases (demand
curve shifts to the left), the value of
P. ¤
the € will go down and the

S exchange rate will decrease; we call
S′ this a depreciation of the €.
Note: we only call it appreciation
or depreciation if the shift in
demand/supply is caused by
market forces (and not when it is
Q. ¤ caused by government
intervention).
89
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Exchange rates
What factors influence supply of and demand for a currency?
Foreign demand for exports: when foreign demand for exports increases, demand for
the currency will increase because foreign nations will need to buy the exports in
the domestic currency.
Domestic demand for imports: when domestic demand for import increases, the
supply of the domestic currency increases because domestic consumers will need
to buy the import in the foreign currency. They will need to exchange the
domestic currency for the foreign currencies.
Domestic interest rates relative to foreign interest rates: when the domestic interest
rate increases relative to the foreign interest rates, foreign investors will bring their
money into the domestic country. They can only deposit money of the domestic
currency on the domestic country’s banks, so demand for domestic currency (in
order to exchange their foreign currencies) will increase.
Investment from overseas in domestic firms: when foreign investors invest more in
domestic firms the demand for domestic currency will increase, because these
investments must be made in the domestic currency.
Speculation: investors may spread rumors about the future development of exchange
rates and speculate on future value. Basically anything can happen to the value of
the currency, depending on the content of the rumors.
What happens if the domestic currency appreciates?
• Domestic products will be more expensive to buy for foreign nations so exports
will decrease.
• This will result in decreased employment, because people producing goods for
exports will be needed less, and less economic growth.
• Foreign products will be cheaper to buy for the domestic nations so imports will
increase.
• This will result in less inflation due to decrease in price of imports.
• Because exports decrease and imports increase the current account balance (X − M)
decreases.
90
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Exchange rates 3
3.2.2 Fixed exchange rates
A fixed exchange rate regime is an

exchange rate regime in which the value
of the currency is pegged to the value of
Figure 3.9: The revaluation of a cur- another currency e.g. 1 Danish krone
rency. (DKK) will always be 0.14€.
But what if due to a shock the price of
P. of Dkk in €
DKK decreases? e.g. due to an increase

in supply of DKK because the Danes
suddenly buy more? (S1 ⇒ S2 ).
S1 The government will have to increase
S2 demand for DKK in order to keep the
exchange rate fixed at 0.14€. (How the
0.14 government can do this is discussed
later on in this chapter).
D2 The demand curve for the currency will
D1 therefore shift to the right (D1 ⇒ D2 ).
Q. of Dkk This rise in value of the currency caused
by government is called a revaluation; a
decrease in value caused by the
government is called a devaluation.
3.2.3 Managed exchange rates
Under a managed exchange rate regime the exchange rate is freely floating but there is
periodic government intervention to influence the value of the exchange rate. For
example there is a bandwidth within which the value of the currency can freely float but
if the value of the currency goes outside this bandwidth, the government will intervene.
How does the government influence demand for and supply of a currency?
1. Using reserves of money (the central bank has in them in the vaults) to buy or sell
foreign currencies:
• Selling foreign currencies in exchange for domestic currency decreases the
supply of and increases the demand for domestic currency.
• The opposite is true for buying foreign currency in exchange for domestic
currency.
2. Changing interest rates:
• If a government were to increase the domestic interest rate this would draw
(the money of) foreign investors to the country and they would have to
exchange their foreign currency for domestic currency. This increases
demand for domestic currency and decreases supply of domestic currency.
• The opposite is true for a decrease in interest rate.
91
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS The balance of payments
3.3 The balance of payments
3.3.1 The structure of the balance of payments
The balance of payment is a record of all money entering the country (credit, +) and
leaving the country (debit, −). It consists of different sub-accounts, which can be
summarised in the following schedule:
I. Financial account
The inflows from investments from abroad (credit) against investment to abroad (debit).
These investments can be placed into three categories:
• Direct investment: purchase of long-term assets (such as buildings or factories).
• Portfolio investment: purchases of stocks and bonds.
• Reserve assets: purchases of reserves of gold and foreign currencies.
II. Capital account
Miscellaneous income (credit) or expenses (debit) that can’t be placed in any other
category.
• Capital transfers: miscellaneous (e.g. death duties, debt forgiveness).
• Transactions in non-produced non-financial assets: purchases of intangible assets

(trademarks, patents, rights etc.).
III. Current account
Inflows of trade and income (credit) against outflows (debit)
• Balance of trade in goods: exports of goods minus import of goods.
• Balance of trade in services: exports of services minus import of services.
• Income: earnings from investment leaving (−) and entering (+) the country.
• Current transfers: net payments to governments without retribution

(e.g. gifts, aid etc.).
92
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS The balance of payments 3
The financial account and capital account add up to the current account.
But it is almost impossible to measure exactly how much money is leaving and entering a
country. That is why the formula must also include ‘errors and omissions’. The final
formula will be as follows:
Current account
= financial account + capital account + net errors & omissions
3.3.2 Current account deficits and surpluses
A (persistent) current account deficit may cause:
Downward pressure on the domestic currency exchange rate: more imports than
exports lead to relatively more supply than demand for the domestic currency.
Increase in indebtedness: to finance the net outflow of money the country must
borrow money, resulting in more indebtedness and higher interest rates. this can
result in declining international credit ratings.
More foreign ownership of domestic assets: a current account deficit can be financed
with a financial account surplus, meaning the net ownership of foreign countries
of domestic country’s assets will increase.
The opposite of the above may happen in case of a current account surplus.
A government can use several strategies to tackle a persistent current account deficit:
Expenditure switching methods: making sure people buy more domestic products
instead of foreign goods so import is reduced. This can be achieved by using
protectionist measures.
Expenditure reducing methods: making sure people spend less in general which will
also reduce imports. This can be achieved by using contractionary fiscal or
monetary policy.
Supply side policies: boosting supply and therefore exports. This can be achieved using
supply side policies.
93
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS The balance of payments
Marshall-Lerner and the J-curve effect
When there is a Current Account

deficit, the exchange rate depreciates
Figure 3.10: J-curve. (see above).
Normally this would lead to more
Current exports and less imports which would
Account fix the problem. In real life though, this
surplus is often not the case.
z
Why? Because demand for exports and
imports are often inelastic, meaning a
price change (due to the depreciation of
x Time the currency) doesn’t affect them that
much.
Depreciation of currency only works
Current when the price elasticity of exports and
Account y
imports are sufficiently elastic and the
deficit Marshall-Lerner condition holds:
PEDexports + PEDimports > 1
When this is the case we will see the J-curve effect, which is depicted in the graph in
Figure 3.10:
• x: starting point, the currency will depreciate from this point because there’s a
current account deficit.
• y: prices have fallen but it takes time for consumers to act on this due to delays in
communication and long term contracts.
• z: consumers start to act on new prices, the deficit disappears rapidly.
94
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Terms of trade 3
3.4 Terms of trade
3.4.1 Measurement
Terms of trade (TOT) an index that shows the value of a country’s average
export prices relatively to their average import prices.
Index average export price (AEP)

TOT = × 100
Index average import price (AIP)
3.4.2 Causes of changes
Changes in the Terms of Trade can have different causes in both the long run and the
short run. The most relevant causes are listed below:
Short Run Long Run
• Shifts in the demand and supply • Changes in world income levels. For
curve of imports and exports. When example if income in the country
the demand curves have shifted, the increases, there will be more demand
price of imports and exports can for imports so the import price will
change, resulting in different TOT. increase thereby decreasing TOT.
• Changes in global supply of key • Changes in productivity within the
inputs (production factors). When country. For example when the
the supply of these inputs change so country becomes more productive, it
do their price. When the country can produce more efficiently and the
imports or exports these resources, prices of domestic goods decrease.
this will influence the average import This decreases the average export
and export prices. price leading to a decrease in TOT.
• Changes in relative inflation rates. • Technological developments. For
For example when the domestic example when the country has gone
inflation increases relative to the through technological advance, it
foreign inflation rate, export prices becomes more productive so it can
will be higher and import prices will produce more efficiently and the
be lower, resulting in an increase in prices of domestic goods decrease.
TOT. This decreases the average export
• Changes in relative exchange rates. price, leading to a decrease in TOT.
For example when exchange rates
increase, the export price for foreign
countries will be higher and import
prices for the domestic country will
be lower. This results in an increase
in TOT.
95
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS Terms of trade
3.4.3 Consequences of changes
Changes of the TOT may have the following consequences:
Effect on global distribution of income: Countries with greater TOT get more
income at the expense of countries with low TOT in the long term because
countries with high TOT pay relatively less for their imports and receive more
money for their exports.
Effect on current account:
• An improvement in TOT, caused by increase in demands for exports, will

lead to an improved current account balance.
• An improvement in TOT, caused by inflation, will lead to an improvement
of the current account balance when demand for exports is inelastic.
Effect on the economy of developing countries: Developing countries have low TOT
because price of primary commodities (which they export) has fallen over the past
decades. Furthermore, the price elasticity of demand for primary products is low
(inelastic) and the demand for these products hasn’t increased much to cover the
loss in revenue due to the decrease in price.
Consequences:
• Developing countries have to sell more exports to buy the same amount of
imports. This decreases price of exports even further.
• Falling export prices makes it harder to service national debt because the country
earns less money.
• Developing countries may want to boost their exports in order to earn more
money but they may do so by over-exploiting their natural resources. This has
many negative effects such as pollution.
96
DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS 4
4.1. Economic development 98

This section will first discuss Economic Development vs.
Economic Growth underlining the differences between the two
concepts. Furthermore, the Characteristics of less developed
countries are discussed.
4.2. Measuring development 99

This section will go into different indicators that can be used
to measure development. There are different categories:
Economic indicators, Health indicators, Education indicators,
and Composite indicators, the most well known indicator of
the latter being the Human Development Index (HDI).
4.3. Contributions and barriers 101

to development
This section will discuss many different barriers and
contributions to development of countries. We will go into
respectively: Domestic Factors, International trade, Foreign
direct investment, Foreign aid, Multinational development
assistance and International debt.
4.4. Evaluation of development 106

policies
This final section will evaluate the policies that can be used to
help developing countries develop. We will first evaluate the
Market oriented policies, before going into the Interventionist
policies.
97
DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Economic development
4.1 Economic development
4.1.1 Economic Development vs. Economic Growth
Economic growth increase in GDP.
Economic development increase in welfare. This includes wealth but also

quality of life.
Limited economic development is possible without growth but on the long term growth
is usually necessary to get economic development.
Sources of economic growth Sources of economic
• Increase in quantity of human development

and physical capital allows • Reducing widespread poverty
companies to produce more / improves welfare.
more efficiently.
• Raising living standards improves
• Development and use of new welfare.
technologies allows companies to
produce more / more efficiently. • Reducing income inequalities this
increases overall welfare.
• Institutional changes (changes in
government, less corruption) • Increasing employment
may lead to a more favourable opportunities which may increase
climate for production. incomes and therefore welfare.
For your IB Economics
Exam you must know
The United Nations (UN) have drawn up global goals for the development of developing
the current status of
the millennium goals. nations known as “The Millennium goals”:
For preparation you can
look up different
examples of the level of
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
progress made on the
development goals.
2. Achieve universal primary education.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women.
4. Reduce child mortality.
5. Improve maternal health.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
8. Global partnership for development.
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Measuring development 4
4.1.2 Characteristics of less developed countries

General characteristics:
1. Low levels of GDP per capita

2. High levels of poverty
3. Relatively large agricultural sectors
4. Large urban informal sectors (black markets)
5. High birth rates
These characteristics may lead countries to be caught into the ‘poverty trap’: poor
communities are unable to invest in physical, human and natural capital due to low or no
savings ⇒ poverty is being transmitted from generation to generation.
However, economically less developed countries, though sharing some characteristics,

also differ greatly. These differences may arise from: For your IB Economics
Exam, you must know
some examples of
1. Resource endowments (differences in natural resources). these differences
2. Climate (desert climate or otherwise). between some
3. History (colonial or otherwise). developing countries.
4. Political systems (democracy, dictatorship or otherwise).

5. Degree of political stability (generally peaceful or at war).
4.2 Measuring development

4.2.1 Economic indicators
In the following table, different economic indicators are listed that can be used to
distinguish between developed countries and developing countries:
Indicator What does it measure? Developed Developing

Country Country
GDP per Total income earned by the factors of Very High Very Low
Capita production in a country regardless the
assets owner per head of the population
GNI per Total income earned by a country’s Very High Very Low
Capita factors of production, regardless the
assets location per head of the
population
GDP per GDP per capita corrected for High Low

Capita at differences in prices and exchange rates
Purchasing between countries; compares
Power Parity purchasing power (how much can you
buy from your money) between
countries
99
DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Measuring development
4.2.2 Health indicators

In the following table, different health indicators are listed that can be used to distinguish
between developed countries and developing countries:

Country Country
Life The average number of years a person High Low
expectancy may expect to live from the time that
at birth they are born
Infant A measure of the number of deaths of Low High

mortality babies under the age of one year per
rate 1000 births in a given year
4.2.3 Education indicators

In the following table, different education indicators are listed that can be used to
distinguish between developed countries and developing countries:

Country Country
Adult The proportion of the adult population High Low
literacy rate (15+) that knows how to read
Net The ratio of children of primary school High Low

enrolment in age enrolled in primary education to
primary the total number of children who are of
education primary school age in the country
4.2.4 Composite indicators — HDI

It is also possible to distinguish between developed countries and developing countries
by using composite indicators. Composite indicators contain more than one measure
and so are considered to be better indicators of economic development.
The best example is the Human Development Index (HDI), a number between 0 and 1
comprised of:
• Long and healthy life; measured by life expectancy.

• Education; measured by literacy rate and school enrolment.
• Standard of living; measured by GDP per capita at PPP.
Economically developed countries have a very high HDI (> 0.900). Economically
developing countries have a medium (0.500–0.799) or low (< 0.500) HDI.
Because HDI takes into account more than just GDP/GNI per capita, a country’s GNP
ranking may differ from its HDI ranking.
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Contributions and barriers to development 4
4.3 Contributions and barriers to

development
4.3.1 Domestic factors
In the following table, several domestic factors that can contribute to economic
development are listed:
Domestic Factor Examples

Education and health Better education can lead to a more productive workforce.
Better health care improves life expectancy
The use of appropriate Using technology that fits the skills of the people may
technology lead to higher employment levels
Access to credit and Small loans can give people the chance to start a business,
micro credit which increases income and business productivity
The empowerment of Emancipation of women can mean higher employment

women of women or more educated women contributing to
development
Income distribution More equitable income distribution could lead to less

conflict, rebellion and wars, which is good for growth and
stability
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Contributions and barriers to development
4.3.2 International trade
Contributions to development
In the following table, several international trade factors that can contribute to economic
development are listed together with their advantages and disadvantages.
International Explanation Advantages Disadvantages

Trade factor
Import Producing goods yourself instead
substitution importing them + Protects jobs − Doesn’t benefit from
+ Protects local culture comparative
+ Less dependence on advantage
foreign nations − Higher prices
− Danger of retaliation
Export Focussing on exporting goods and using

promotion the revenues from this export to boost + More efficiency − Strategy for growth,
aggregate demand + Increased variety / not development
quality − Inequality
+ Quick growth − Might not be
possible in
developing countries
Trade More free trade

liberalisation (see international economics!) + Lower prices − May cut jobs in
+ Increased variety / some sectors
quality − Increases dependence
+ Increased efficiency
Help of the International organisation which

World Trade regulates international trade + Can help set up trade − Gives multinationals
Organisation deals a chance to exploit
+ All free trade cheap labour in
arguments developing countries
Bilateral and Trade agreements between countries in a

regional certain region + Lower prices − May cut jobs in
preferential (see International Economics!) + Increased variety / some sectors
trade quality − Increases dependence
+ Increased efficiency
Diversification To move from the production and export

of primary commodities and to replace + Protection from − Developing
these with production and export of volatile changes in countries often don’t
manufactured goods primary product have the
sophisticated
workforce for this
102
Barriers to development
In the following table several international trade factors that can be barriers for economic
development are listed:
International Trade Explanation

Factor
Over specialisation on a This can cause too much dependence on the export of a
narrow range of small set of goods. If the market of these goods collapses,
products the country may face economic catastrophe.
Price volatility of Since developing countries are very dependent on the

primary products export of primary products, volatility in the price of
these products (especially decreases in price) can hurt the
economy.
Inability to access Developing countries often can’t access the markets of

international markets developed countries due to protectionist measures, which
leads to less exports and thus limits growth and
development potential.
Long term changes in Often TOT is low in developing countries, long term low
terms of trade TOT may lead to inability to buy imports, resource
overuse and inability to finance debt
(see International economics)
4.3.3 Foreign direct investment
Another factor that may contribute to or form a barrier to development is Foreign

Direct Investment:
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) long term investments by multinational

corporations (MNCs) in foreign countries by either building new
plants or expanding existing ones.
Why would companies want to invest in developing countries?
• Developing countries can often provide factors of production at a very low cost
(e.g. low wages). This makes it possible to produce goods at a low price.
• Developing countries often have a favourable fiscal (tax) climate, allowing
companies to produce while paying little to no taxes.
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Contributions and barriers to development
• Developing countries often have a regulatory framework that makes it easy to

bring made profits to the country of origin of the MNC (profit repatriation).
FDI can contribute to development, but can also form a barrier:

Advantages of FDI Disadvantages of FDI
• Provide employment and education. • MNCs may only use

low-wage/unskilled workers of the
• Provide greater access to Research & country.
Development, technology and
expertise. • MNCs may exploit the favourable
tax rules leading to less revenue for
• Improves infrastructure of the the country’s government.
country.
• MNCs may exploit the weak
• Drop in consumer prices and more legislation on pollution of the
diversity in goods. country, which may lead to
• More efficient allocation of world unsustainable and polluting
resources. production.
4.3.4 Foreign aid
Another factor that may contribute to or form a barrier to development is Foreign Aid.
Aid can be extended by:
• Governments (we then call it “Official Development Assistance” (ODA)).
• Non-governmental organisations (NGO’s).
In general we can distinguish between humanitarian aid and development aid:

Humanitarian Aid Development Aid
• Food aid • Grants, sums of money given to invest in

development.
• Medical aid
• Concessional (= with favourable conditions)
• Emergency relief aid long-term loans.
• Project aid (e.g. support for schools and hospitals)
• Programme aid (e.g. support for sectors such as

education and financial sector)
NGO’s mainly focus on providing aid on a small scale to achieve development objectives.
Aid may also be “tied aid” meaning that the receiving country must spend the aid
according to guidelines of the donor country.
104
Why do economically more developed countries give aid?
Social factors:
• To relieve the suffering in the developing country
• To improve the standard of living in the developing country
Economic factors:
• Developed countries can benefit financially as a result of interest being paid
on loans.
• Companies in developed countries may get better prices for product it buys
from the recipient developing country, because the aid has helped the
developing country to produce more efficiently.
Political factors:
• The developed country can use the aid to encourage a preferred political
system (democracy) in the developing country.
• The developed country can make a political ally out of the recipient country.
• Providing foreign aid may give the donor country prestige within the
international community.
4.3.5 Multinational development assistance
Multilateral development assistance is mostly provided by two international

organisations: the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In the following
table the most important characteristics of the two organisations are listed:
International Monetary Fund World Bank

(IMF) Goals:
1. Surveillance • End extreme poverty
• Promote shared prosperity
• Monitoring economic
development. 1. Loans
• Providing policy advice to
developing countries. • To support a wide array of
development projects
2. Loans (e.g. education, infrastructure)
• To provide temporary financing. 2. Knowledge sharing
• To support policies to fix
underlying problems. • Policy advice to governments of
• To reduce poverty. developing countries.
• Research and analysis of policies
3. Technical assistance & training and economic situations in
• To educate government officials. developing countries.
• Technical assistance to
governments of developing
countries.
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Evaluation of development policies
4.3.6 International debt
A final factor, which is mostly a barrier to economic development, is international debt.
Foreign debt outstanding loans that a country owes to other countries or

other countries’ institutions.
Countries often borrow internationally in order to finance government expenditure, a

negative balance of trade or fees for goods and services.
In some cases developing countries have become so heavily indebted that rescheduling of
debt payments and/or conditional assistance from international organisations is
required.
Debt is a barrier to development because it costs a lot of interest which could also be
spent on development projects (opportunity cost of interest) and which can cause
balance of payment problems.
The burden of debt often forces developed countries to cancel a part of the debt owed to
them by developing countries in order not to jeopardise repayment of the rest of the
debt.
4.4 Evaluation of development policies
4.4.1 Market oriented policies
Market oriented policies policies that minimise the role of government and
maximise free market operation (e.g. liberalised trade and capital flows,
deregulation, privatisation).
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Evaluation of development policies 4
Strengths Weaknesses
• More efficient allocation of resources • No government intervention may

still lead to market failure (see
• Economic growth microeconomics).
• No government intervention may

lead to income inequalities
• Not intervening may lead to the

creations of dual economies within
the country (= developing countries
where one sector focuses on local
needs and another on the global
export market, the two economies
have different levels of development
and technology).
4.4.2 Interventionist policies
Interventionist policies policies that promote an active role by the

government and manipulation of the workings of the market.
Strengths Weaknesses
• A strong government can provide • A large government may lead to

infrastructure. excessive bureaucracy
• A strong government can invest in • A large government may lead to poor

human capital (e.g. through and inefficient planning because the
education). government does not face market
incentives.
• A strong government can provide,
monitor and maintain a stable • A large government in developing
macroeconomic economy. countries which have a weak judicial
system may lead to corruption.
• A strong government can provide a
social safety net (e.g. unemployment
benefits)
When considering interventionist policies, good governance is crucial. You need a good
government in power to make well informed decisions.
Due to strengths and weaknesses of both policies, the general view is that what’s best is a
combination of market oriented and interventionist policies.
107
DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS Evaluation of development policies
108
DEFINITIONS 5
5.1 Microeconomics
Ad valorem tax A tax whose amount is based on the value of a transaction.
Allocative efficiency A state in which suppliers are producing the optimal mix of goods
and services required by consumers. Allocative efficiency occurs when the
company produces at the point where cost and value to consumers is at the same
level.
Asymmetric information A market failure in which one party in a transaction
possesses more knowledge of the transacted product than the other party.
Average product An output that is produced on average, by each unit of the variable
production factor.
Average revenue The revenue a firm receives per unit of sales.
Average total costs Costs per unit of output.
Barriers to entry Ways of preventing entry of a company to the industry.
Branding A process in which a company develops a name, term, sign, symbol, design
or any other feature that allows consumers to identify the goods and services of a
business and to differentiate them from those of competitors.
Break even price The price at which a firm is able to make normal profit (zero
economic profit) in the long run.
Cap and trading schemes Government-mandated, market-based approach to
controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions
in the emissions of pollutants: a central authority (usually a governmental body)
allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a
specific pollutant per time period. Polluters are required to hold permits in
amount equal to their emissions. Polluters that want to increase their emissions
must buy permits from others willing to sell them.
Carbon tax A tax on fossil fuels intended to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide.
Cartel A group of firms making price arrangements.
Ceteris paribus Latin expression meaning ‘when all else remains equal’.
Collusion The collaboration of firms to charge the same price.
Common access resources Resources that everyone has access to so it is very hard to
exclude people from using them.
Community surplus Total welfare created in the economy; the sum of consumer and
producer surplus.
Complementary good A good that is consumed along with another good.
109
DEFINITIONS Microeconomics
Concentration ratio A measure of the percentage market share in an industry held by

the largest firms within that industry.
Constant returns to scale The situation in which an average cost is constant when
Consumer surplus The extra satisfaction gained by consumers from paying a price that
is lower than the price they were prepared to pay.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) The responsibility that a business has towards
all stakeholders in which it follows a set of ethical guidelines on how the
company should conduct its business.
Cross price elasticity of demand A measure for the effect a change in price of one
product has on the demand for a certain other product.
Decreasing returns to scale The situation in which an average cost is increasing when
Demand curve A curve showing how the demand for a commodity or service varies
with changes in its price.
Demerit goods Goods of which the consumption has negative consequences on society.
Differentiated products Products that do not have perfect substitutes.
Diseconomies of scale A situation that occurs when the long term average costs of
production increase as the scale of operations increases beyond a certain level.
Economic cost The opportunity cost of all resources employed by the firm (including
entrepreneurship).
Economic profit or abnormal profit A situation in which total revenues exceed total
cost.
Economies of scale A situation that occurs when an output increases due to ability to
sell to a larger market, reducing the costs per unit of output.
Elastic demand The percent change in demand is more than the percent change in price.
Elastic supply The percent change in supply is larger than the percent change in price.
Equilibrium price The market price where the quantity of goods supplied is equal to
the quantity of goods demanded.
Equilibrium quantity The quantity of goods that will be demanded at the point of
market equilibrium.
Excess demand A situation in which the quantity of a good or service demanded is
higher than the quantity supplied.
Excess supply A situation in which the quantity of a good or service supplied is higher
than the quantity demanded.
Excludable characteristic of a good People can be excluded from the use of the good.
Explicit cost The opportunity cost of the money spent on resources not currently
owned by the company.
Externality A situation in which production or consumption of a good has an effect on
a third party for which the latter does not pay or does not get compensated.
110
DEFINITIONS Microeconomics 5
Factors of production All the inputs that are used in the production of final goods and
services. They include land, labour, capital and enterprise.
First degree price discrimination Charging consumers the maximum price that they
are willing to pay.
Fixed costs Costs that always remain constant and do not change in the short run.
Formal collusion When firms secretly agree on a price and all firms participating in the
collusion know that they are participating and know the negotiated price.
Free rider problem A market failure that occurs when people take advantage of being
able to use (public) goods without paying for it.
Homogeneous products Products that are exactly the same.
Implicit cost The opportunity cost of the usage of resources currently owned by the
company.
Incentive function of a price A higher price is an incentive for producers to produce
more to increase profit.
Income elasticity of demand is used to measure the effect that a change in income of
consumers has on the demand for a certain product.
Income elastic The percent change in demand for a good is larger than the percent
change in income.
Income inelastic The percent change in demand for a good is smaller than the percent
change in income.
Increasing returns to scale The situation in which an average cost is decreasing when
Indirect taxes Taxes imposed on certain goods to discourage the consumption of goods
that can create externalities (demerit goods).
Indirect taxes Taxes levied on the sale of goods.
Indivisibilities A state in which some production factors cannot be divided into smaller
pieces.
Inelastic demand The percent change in demand is less than the percent change in price.
Inelastic supply The percent change in supply is less than the percent change in price.
Inferior good Goods for which demand decreases when income increases.
Interdependence Mutual dependence between two parties.
Law of demand The economic law that states that when price goes up, ceteris paribus,
quantity demanded goes down.
Law of diminishing returns A phenomenon in which the more of the variable factor is
added, there is a point beyond which total product only rises at a diminishing rate.
Law of supply The economic law that states that higher prices will, ceteris paribus,
increase quantity supplied.
Legal barriers The government’s attempts to prevent entry into the market by law.
Long-run Time period in which all factors of production are variable but the state of
technology is fixed. All planning takes place in the long run.
111
Loss A negative economic profit, when total cost exceeds total revenue.
Luxury good A good for which demand increases more than proportionally as income
rises.
Manufactured commodities Products that have been made (manufactured) from a raw
material.
Marginal costs The amount of the increase in total cost when producing one more unit
of output.
Marginal private benefits Benefits the individual enjoys from the consumption of an
extra unit of a good.
Marginal private costs Costs of production that are taken into account in a firm’s
decision making process.
Marginal product An extra output that is produced by using one extra unit of the
variable factor.
Marginal revenue The extra revenue that a firm gains by selling one more product in a
given time period.
Marginal social benefit The benefit of consumption of one extra unit to society.
Marginal social cost The cost of production of one extra unit to society.
Market equilibrium A state where the supply in the market is equal to the demand in
the market.
Market failure Failure of the market to achieve allocative efficiency resulting in an
overallocation or underallocation of resources.
Market price The current price at which goods or services can be bought or sold.
Market segment A group of people who share one or more common characteristics.
Merit goods Goods of which the consumption has positive consequences on society.
Monopolistic competition A market structure in which there is a large number of
firms that sell similar, but slightly differentiated products. Barriers to entry and
exit are absent.
Monopoly A market structure characterized by a single seller who has a complete
control of the entire supply of goods or of a service in a certain area or market.
There are significant barriers to entry and exit and there are no close substitutes
to the good the monopolist firm sells.
Monopoly power A market failure in which one party (the monopolist) controls a
large share (typically 25% or more) of a particular market.
Nationalisation The process of transforming private assets into public assets by
bringing them under the public ownership of a national government.
Natural monopoly A situation in which there are only enough economies of scale to
support one firm.
Necessity goods Goods whose consumption is essential to human survival.
Negative externalities The costs that are suffered by a third party (that does not get
compensated) as a result of an economic transaction.
112
Negative externality of consumption A negative externality (see: ‘negative

externality’) caused by the consumption of goods.
Negative externality of production A negative externality (see: ‘negative externality’)
caused by the production of goods.
Non-excludable characteristic of a good People cannot be excluded from the use of
the good.
Non-price competition The rivalry between suppliers based on other aspects than
price e.g. quality of service, packaging, advertising etc.
Non-price rationing The use of methods other than price that have the effect of
limiting consumption or demand.
Non-rivalrous characteristic of a good More people can use the good at the same time.
Normal good Any good for which demand increases when income increases.
Normal profit A situation in which total revenue equals total cost.
Perfect competition A market structure in which there are a lot of producers that have
no market power and produce and sell a homogeneous product, barriers to entry
or exit ar absent, there is perfect information and perfect resource mobility.
Perfect information A feature of perfect competition in which everyone knows
everything.
Perfectly elastic demand The percent change in demand is infinite when price changes;
when price increases demand will drop to zero, when price decreases demand will
increase to infinity.
Perfectly elastic supply The percentage change in supply is infinite when price changes;
when price decreases supply will drop to zero, when price increases supply will
increase to infinity.
Perfectly inelastic demand Demand does not change when price changes.
Perfectly inelastic supply Supply does not change when price changes.
Perfect resource mobility Resources can move from location to location at zero cost.
Positive externalities The benefits that are enjoyed by a third-party (that does not pay
for them) as a result of an economic transaction.
Positive externality of consumption A positive externality (see: ‘positive externality’)
caused by the consumption of goods.
Positive externality of production A positive externality (see: ‘positive externality’)
caused by the production of goods.
Price ceiling A price set by the government above which the price may not rise.
Price-competition The rivalry between suppliers based solely on price.
Price control A measure by the government that forces producers to sell goods for a
fixed price of for a price within a certain range.
Price discrimination The practice of charging different prices to different groups of
consumers for the same product, where the price difference is not justified by
differences in cost.
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Price elasticity of demand A measure of the effect a change in price has on the demand
for a certain good.
Price elasticity of supply A measure of the effect a change in price has on the supply
for a certain good.
Price floor A price (set by the government) above the equilibrium price below which
the price may not fall.
Price maker A firm that has the power to influence the price on the market.
Price rigidity The situation in which prices stay the same over long periods of time.
Price taker An individual or company that must accept prevailing prices in a market.
Primary commodities Materials in a raw or unprocessed state.
Producer surplus The excess of actual earnings that a producer makes from a given
quantity of output above the amount a producer would be willing to accept for
that output. The producer surplus is equal to producer profits.
Productive efficiency A state in which suppliers produce the product at the lowest
possible unit cost.
Public goods Goods that one individual can consume without reducing its availability
to another individual, and from which no one can be excluded.
Queuing Form of non-price rationing in the situation of a shortage in which the goods
are distributed to the consumers who were willing to wait the longest time in a
queue.
Revenue maximisation Producing at a level of output at which the amount of revenue
is at its maximum level (MR = 0) for the firm, ignoring increases in costs..
Rivalrous characteristic of a good The good can’t be used by more people at the same
time.
Satisficing A goal of a firm in which the firm tries to perform satisfactorily rather than
to a maximum level.
Second degree price discrimination Charging a different price for different quantities
consumed.
Shortage A situation in which demand for a good or service exceeds the available
supply.
Short-run Time period in which at least one factor of production is fixed and the firm
cannot quickly change the quantity produced. All production takes place in the
short run.
Shut down price A point of operations where a company experiences no benefit for
continuing operations and earns just enough revenue to cover its total variable
costs. When the price drops below the shut down price, the company will shut
down its operations.
Signalling function of a price A signal to producers that consumers want to buy the
good.
Specialisation (1) A method of production where a business focuses on the production
of a limited scope of products or services to gain higher productive efficiency or
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(2) Division of labour, the specialization of cooperative labour in specific,

circumscribed tasks and roles.
Specific tax A tax that is defined as a fixed amount for each unit of a good or service
sold.
Subsidy A sum of money given to producers by the government to encourage
production and consumption.
Substitute good A good that is consumed instead of another good.
Supply curve A curve showing the relationship between the price of a good or service
and the quantity supplied for a given period of time.
Tacit collusion When firms charge the same price by looking at each other and there is
no formal agreement involved.
Tax burden (1) The amount of tax paid by a person, company, or country in a specified
period considered as a proportion of total income in that period. or (2) The total
welfare loss of society due to taxation.
Tax incidence The division of a tax burden between buyers and sellers; the tax burden
on a specific group in the economy.
Third degree price discrimination Charging different prices depending on a particular
market segment.
Total costs The complete costs of producing output.
Total product The total output that the firm produces using its fixed and variable
factors in a given time period.
Total revenue The total amount of money a firm receives from selling goods or services
in a given time period.
Trade liberalization Removing barriers to trade between different countries and
encourage free trade.
Underground parallel market or black market A market where transactions occur
without the knowledge of the government, letting participants to avoid
government price controls or taxes.
Unit elastic demand The percent change in demand is equal to the percent change in
price.
Unit elastic supply The percent change in supply is equal to the percent change in price.
Variable costs Costs that increase when production is increased.
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DEFINITIONS Macroeconomics
5.2 Macroeconomics
Absolute poverty See ‘poverty’. The inability to fulfil the basic economic needs.
Aggregate demand curve The curve representing the relationship between aggregate
demand and the price level.
Aggregate demand The total demand for goods and services in an economy at a given
time.
Aggregate supply The total amount of goods and services that all industries in the
economy will produce at every given price level.
Balanced budget A (government) budget in which revenues are equal to expenditures.
Boom The phase of a business cycle characterised by high economic activity and low
unemployment.
Business confidence The degree of optimism or pessimism that business managers feel
about the prospects of their companies.
Business cycle The fluctuation of economic activity around the long term growth path;
consists of different phases of real GDP growth and decline.
Capital (1) The cash or goods used to generate income either by investing in a business
or a different income property, or (2) All man-made tools used in the production
process e.g. machines.
Capital expenditures One-time payments of governments (e.g. building a new school).
Central bank A bank which controls a country’s money supply and monetary policy.
Circular flow of income model The economic model that illustrates the exchange
between households and firms.
Closed economy A self-sufficient economy, meaning no imports are brought in and no
exports are sent out, the goal being to provide consumers with everything they
need from within the economy’s borders.
Consumer confidence The degree of optimism of consumers on the current and
expected state of the economy, which determines their spending and saving
decisions.
Consumer expenditure The expenses incurred in consumption.
Consumer Price Index (CPI) An index that measures the purchasing power of
consumers in a country, by comparing the prices of a basket of goods in different
years.
Contractionary fiscal policy A form of fiscal policy that involves increasing taxes and
decreasing government expenditures.
Contractionary monetary policy A monetary policy which slows the rate of growth
in the money supply in order to control inflation.
Cost-push inflation Inflation which occurs when an increase in the cost of production
pushes the average price level up.
Current expenditures The recurring expenditures of governments, such as wages of
civil servants, interest on government debt.
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DEFINITIONS Macroeconomics 5
Cyclical unemployment Unemployment that results when the overall demand for
goods and services in an economy cannot support full employment.
Deflationary gap Shows the difference between the full employment level of output
and actual output.
Deflation The persistent fall in the level of prices.
Demand deficient unemployment See ‘cyclical unemployment’.
Demand-pull inflation Inflation which occurs when an increase in AD pulls up average
price level.
Direct taxes Taxes that are imposed directly on income, wealth and profit.
Disinflation A persistent fall in the rate of inflation.
Disposable income Personal income actually available for spending.
Easy monetary policy A monetary policy that increases the money supply, usually by
lowering interest rates.
Economic activity The production and consumption of goods and services.
Economic growth An increase in GDP.
Enterprise Entrepreneurship; the skill set of the entrepreneur to combine capital, land
and labour in order to make a profit.
Equality The equal distribution of income.
Equilibrium The state in which demand is equal to supply.
Equity The fair distribution of income.
Expansionary fiscal policy A form of fiscal policy that involves reducing taxes and
increasing government expenditures.
Expansionary monetary policy A policy used to expand money supply and boost
economic activity.
Exports The goods and services that are made in the domestic country and transmitted
(sold) to foreigners (foreign countries).
Fiscal policy The government intervention by either adjusting taxes or adjusting
government spending.
Frictional unemployment Unemployment due to people changing jobs when some
sectors of the economy grow and other contract.
Full capacity The maximum level of output that a company can sustain to make a
product or provide a service.
Full employment A state in which producers are producing at full capacity and
maximum employment is reached.
GDP or Gross Domestic Product The total income earned by the factors of
production in a country, regardless the assets owner.
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Gini index A measure of inequality of a distribution. A value of 0 (0%) for the Gini
index denotes complete equality, and a value of 1 (100%) denotes maximal
inequality.
GNI or Gross national income The total income earned by a country’s factors of
production, regardless the assets location.
GNP or Gross national product The total market value of all final goods produced in
a country.
Government debt Debt owed by the government.
Government deficit A government’s income is less than the money it spends.
Government spending The overall public spending carried out by the government.
Government surplus A government’s income is greater than the money it spends.
Green GDP GDP minus the environmental costs, such as pollution; it measures
sustainability.
Hidden unemployment Unemployment of potential workers that is not captured in
official unemployment statistics.
Human capital The stock of knowledge, skills and abilities that determine the labour
productivity of an individual or individuals.
Imports The goods and services that are made in a foreign country and transmitted
(sold) to the domestic country.
Income Money received as a compensation for providing factors of production to firms.
Income includes wage, rent, interest and profit.
Indirect taxes Taxes that are imposed over consumer spending.
Inflationary gap (1) The situation where the economy is (in equilibrium) at a level of
output that is greater than the full employment level of output or above potential
output; or (2) A situation in which an increase in aggregate demand (when the
economy is at full employment) results in an increase in the average price level
with no increase in real GDP.
Inflation A sustained increase in the level of prices.
Inflation rate A measure of how fast prices for goods and services rise over time.
Injections Additions to the value of economic activity due to investment, government
spending or exports.
Interest A fee paid for the use of another party’s capital or money.
Interest rate The price or cost of borrowed money; the reward for saving; the
percentage paid on borrowed money.
Interventionist supply side policies Supply side policies focused on government
intervention.
Keynesian economics The analysis of economic activity based on the fundamental
premises that economic activity is largely based on aggregate demand and that
recessions can be restrained by fiscal stimulus in order to increase aggregate
demand.
Labour force Everyone that can, wants to, and is allowed to work.
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Labour Human resources; human beings as factors of production.

Land A natural resource employed as a factor of production.
Leakages Outflows from the circular flow of income model, due to saving, taxation and
imports.
Long-run aggregate supply curve The curve representing the relationship between
long-run aggregate supply and the price level.
Lorenz curve A curve used to measure the degree of equity.
Marginal propensity to consume (MPC) The percentage of additional government
expenditure that consumers use to consume.
Marginal propensity to import (MPM) The percentage of additional government
spending that consumers use to import goods.
Marginal propensity to save (MPS) The percentage of additional government
expenditure that consumers save.
Marginal rate of taxation (MPT) The percentage of additional government
expenditure that consumers have to pay back in taxes.
Market based supply side policies Supply side policies focused on encouraging free
markets and reduce competition.
Monetary policy The macroeconomic policy laid down by the central bank which
involves management of money supply and interest rate to influence the
economy.
Money demand The amount of money people wish to hold.
Money supply The amount of money that exists in an economy.
Natural capital The world’s stocks of natural resources.
Natural rate of employment The rate of unemployment when the labour market is in
equilibrium.
Neoclassical economics The analysis of economic activity based on the fundamental
premises that all participants on the market have rational preferences, all
consumers maximize utility, firms maximize profit and all choices are made
taking into account relevant constraints.
Nominal value At current prices.
Open economy An economy where goods and services are traded with other countries.
Output The amount of something produced.
Per capita Per head of the population.
Phillips curve A curve showing the connection between inflation and unemployment
in the short and long run.
Physical capital The capital in form of physical goods.
Potential output The output that could be produced by an economy if all its resources
were fully employed.
Poverty The inability to fulfil the basic economic needs.
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Producer Price Index (PPI) An index that measures the price of an average bundle of
inputs for producers in different years.
Production capacity The volume of products or services that can be produced by an
enterprise using given resources.
Production-possibility frontier A curve which shows the maximum possible output
combinations of two goods or services an economy can achieve when all
resources are fully employed.
Profit Income received from enterprise; the financial gain occurred when the amount of
revenue gained from a business activity exceeds the expenses, costs and taxes.
Progressive tax scheme A tax scheme in which the higher the income, the higher the
average tax rate.
Proportional tax scheme A tax scheme in which the same tax rate for all incomes is
charged.
Protectionism The restriction of international trade with the goal of preventing losses
in industries threatened by imports.
Purchasing power The amount of real goods and services each unit of money will buy.
Real value The nominal value adjusted for inflation.
Recession An overall decline in economic activity during which trade and industrial
activity are reduced; is often defined as real GDP falling for two successive
quarters.
Recovery The phase of a business cycle when output and employment are moving back
from their lowest point towards normal levels.
Regressive tax scheme A tax scheme in which the higher the income, the lower the
average tax rate.
Relative poverty A Measure of poverty in relationship to other members of a
population.
Rent A payment made for the use of land as a factor of production.
Saving Income not spent; deferred consumption.
Seasonal unemployment Unemployment due to seasonal variations in the demand for
labour.
Short-run aggregate supply curve The curve representing the relationship between
short-run aggregate supply and the price level.
Stagflation A state in which a country persistently suffers from both high inflation and
high unemployment.
Structural unemployment Unemployment due to a lack of capital equipment which
unemployed workers could use; lack among unemployed workers of the skills
necessary to produce.
Supply-side policy A policy intended to increase the aggregate supply available in an
economy.
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Sustainability Development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Taxes Fees levied by states upon their citizens and firms to finance government
expenditure.
The Keynesian multiplier The factor by which gains in total output are greater than
the change in spending that caused it.
Tight monetary policy See ‘contractionary monetary policy’.
Transfer payments Payments made by the government as a way to redistribute money
through programs such as pensions, student grants etc.
Trough The phase of the business cycle in which the low point of GDP is reached.
GDP is stable at this point.
Unemployment A phenomenon that describes all people of working age that are not
working and are actively looking for a job.
Unemployment benefits The income support payments to the unemployed.
Unemployment rate The total number of people unemployed as a percentage of the
corresponding total labour force.
Wage A payment for work performed by the workforce.
Wealth The total value of a person’s net assets.
Withdrawals Reductions to the value of economic activity due to savings, taxes or
imports.
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DEFINITIONS International Economics
5.3 International Economics

Absolute advantage The ability of a party (an individual, or firm, or country) to
produce a greater quantity of a good, product, or service than competitors, using
the same amount of resources.
Administrative barriers Bureaucratic procedures and practices that make it more
difficult to trade.
Appreciation An increase in the value of a currency caused by market forces.
Balance of payments A record of all money entering the country and leaving the
country.
Bilateral preferential trade agreements Preferential trade agreements formed between
two countries.
Capital account A financial statement which shows miscellaneous income or expenses
that cannot be placed in any other category. Part of the balance of payments.
Common market A customs union with common policies on product regulation and
free movement of goods, services, capital and labour between member states.
Comparative advantage The ability of a party (an individual, or firm, or country) to
produce a good, product of service at a lower opportunity cost than competitors.
Complete economic integration The form of economic integration where countries
have no control of economic policy. It is the full monetary union with the
complete harmonisation of fiscal policy.
Current account A financial statement which shows inflows of trade and income
against outflows. Part of the balance of payments.
Customs union A degree of economic integration in which countries are able to trade
freely among themselves and also agree to adopt common external barriers
against any country outside the union.
Depreciation A decrease in the value of a currency caused by market forces.
Devaluation A decrease in value of a currency caused by government intervention.
Economic integration The unification of economic policies between different states
through the partial or full abolition of tariff and non-tariff restrictions on trade
taking place among them prior to their integration.
Economies of scale The cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to size, output, or
scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with
increasing scale as fixed costs are spread out over more units of output.
Exchange rate The value of one currency expressed in terms of another currency.
Expenditure reducing method A government strategy to tackle a persistent current
account deficit by making sure people spend less in general which will reduce
imports. This can be achieved by using contractionary fiscal or monetary policy.
Expenditure switching method A government strategy to tackle a persistent current
account deficit by making sure people buy more domestic products instead of
foreign goods and therefore reducing import. This can be achieved by using
protectionist measures.
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DEFINITIONS International Economics 5
Financial account A financial statement which shows the inflows from investments
from abroad against investment to abroad. Part of the balance of payments.
Fixed exchange rate regime An exchange rate regime in which the value of the
currency is pegged to the value of another currency.
Freely floating exchange rate regime An exchange rate regime in which the value of
an exchange rate is determined by the demand for and supply of that currency.
Free trade area A degree of economic integration in which countries are able to trade
freely among themselves, but are able to trade with countries outside the free
trade area in anyway they like.
Infant industry A new industry in its early stages of development, often in need of
protection against international competitors.
J-curve effect is a “J” shaped section on a graph in which the curve falls into negative
territory and then gradually rises to a higher level than before the decline. This
shape can be seen when reviewing the development of the current account
balance. Usually a current account balance that is negative will first slowly
worsen due to the time it takes for prices to adjust to the new situation. After
time, prices will have changed, making the current account balance positive again.
Managed exchange rate regime An exchange rate regime in which the exchange rate is
freely floating but there is periodic government intervention to influence the
value of the exchange rate.
Marshall-Lerner condition An economical condition which states that a currency
devaluation will only lead to an improvement in the balance of payments if the
sum of demand elasticity for imports and exports is greater than one.
Monetary union A common market with common currency and common central
bank.
Multilateral preferential trade agreements Preferential trade agreements formed
between three or more countries.
Perfect knowledge The state in which a consumer, producer or government has all
possible information he needs in order to make a decision.
Preferential trade agreements Agreements between two or more countries that give
preferential access to the markets of the participating countries by reducing or
eliminating tariffs or by other agreements related to trade.
Production-possibility frontier A curve which shows the maximum possible output
combinations of two goods or services an economy can achieve when all
resources are fully employed.
Quota A governmental restriction on the quantities of goods that may be imported
into the country within a specific period of time.
Revaluation A rise in value of a currency caused by government intervention.
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DEFINITIONS International Economics
Supply side policy A government strategy to tackle a persistent current account deficit
through boosting supply and therefore exports. This can be achieved using
expansionary supply side policies.
Tariff A tax charged on imported goods.
Terms of trade An index that shows the value of a country’s average export prices
relatively to their average import prices.
Trade creation Welfare gain of a country due to an increase in the volume of exports of
the country due to becoming a member of a customs union in which trade
barriers are abolished. The abolition of trade barriers can make a country regain
the comparative advantage is lost due to the trade barriers.
Trade diversion Decrease in the welfare of a country due to an increase in the prices of
imported goods. Before entry into the customs union, the country imported
from country X without barriers. With entry into the union, tariffs are imposed
on country X (non-member) and the product is therefore imported from member
countries at higher price instead of from country X.
Trade protectionism The measures used by countries to limit competition from
foreign industries.
World Trade Organisation (WTO) An international organisation that sets the rules
for global trading and resolves disputes between its member countries.
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DEFINITIONS Development Economics 5
5.4 Development Economics

Adult literacy rate An education indicator used to measure the proportion of the adult
population (15+) that knows how to read.
Bilateral and regional preferential trade Trade agreements between countries in a
certain region.
Composite indicators Indicators which contain more than one measure and so are
considered to be better indicators of economic development.
Concessional long-term loans Loans that are extended on terms substantially more
generous than market loans. The concessionality is achieved either through
interest rates below those available on the market or by grace periods, or a
combination of these.
Debt cancellation The process of a creditor cancelling a debt previously owed by a
debtor.
Development aid Aid given to support the economic, social and political development
of developing countries.
Diversification Moving from the production and export of primary commodities to
the production and export of manufactured goods.
Economic development An increase in welfare, which includes wealth but also quality
of life.
Economic growth An increase in GDP.
Economic indicators Indicators that distinguish between countries using economic
data; used to distinguish between developed countries and developing countries
and to predict future economic activity.
Education indicators Indicators used to distinguish between countries on the basis of
education.
Export promotion Focussing on exporting goods and using the revenues from this
export to boost aggregate demand.
Foreign aid Resources given from one country to another out of charity.
Foreign debt Outstanding loans that a country owes to other countries or other
countries’ institutions.
Foreign Direct Investment The long term investments by multinational corporations
(MNCs) in foreign countries by either building new plants or expanding existing
ones.
GDP per Capita at Purchasing Power Parity GDP per capita corrected for
differences in prices and exchange rates between countries; compares purchasing
power (how much can you buy from your money) between countries.
GDP per Capita Total income earned by the factors of production in a country
regardless the assets owner per head of the population.
GNI per Capita Total income earned by a country’s factors of production, regardless
the assets location per head of the population.
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DEFINITIONS Development Economics
Good governance A term used to describe how public institutions conduct public
affairs and manage public resources. This should be done in a responsible, hence
‘good’, way.
Health indicators Indicators used to distinguish between countries on the basis of
health or healthcare.
Human capital The stock of knowledge, skills and abilities that determine the labour
productivity of an individual.
Human Development Index (HDI) A composite indicator that measure country’s
overall achievement in its social and economic dimensions, such as long and
healthy life, education and standard of living.
Humanitarian aid Aid provided for humanitarian purposes; it involves food aid,
medical aid and emergency relief aid.
Import substitution refers to producing goods yourself instead importing them.
Infant mortality rate A health indicator used to measure the number of deaths of
babies under the age of one year per 1000 births in a given year.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) An international organization created for the
purpose of standardizing global financial relations and exchange rates.
Interventionist policies Policies that promote an active role by the government and
manipulation of the workings of the market.
Life expectancy at birth A health indicator used to measure the average number of
years a person may expect to live from the time that he is born.
Market oriented policies Policies that minimize the role of government and maximize
free market operation.
Multilateral development assistance Assistance provided by international
organizations, mostly the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
Net enrolment in primary education An education indicator used to measure the
ratio of children of primary school age enrolled in primary education to the total
number of children who are of primary school age in the country.
Non-governmental organisations Non-profit organizations that are independent from
states and international governmental organizations.
Official Development Assistance (ODA) The foreign aid extended by the government.
Over specialization A narrow range of products can cause too much dependence on
the export of a small set of goods. If the market of these goods collapses, the
country may face economic catastrophe.
Physical capital The capital in form of physical goods.
Poverty trap A situation in which poor communities are unable to invest in physical,
human and natural capital due to low or no savings, thus poverty is being
transmitted from generation to generation.
Price volatility The (relative) rate at which the prices move up and down. If prices are
volatile, they change rapidly over time.
Primary products Goods that are made of cultivating raw materials without a
manufacturing process.
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DEFINITIONS Development Economics 5
Profit repatriation Bringing profit earned in a foreign country into the borders of
one’s own country.
Programme aid Aid provided to accomplish tasks in a particular area or sector
(e.g. support for sectors such as education and financial sector).
Project aid Aid provided to accomplish a specific purpose (e.g. support for schools and
hospitals).
Resource endowment The amount of resources that a country possesses and can
exploit.
Terms of trade An index that shows the value of a country’s average export prices
relatively to their average import prices.
The Millennium goals Global goals for the development of developing nations,
established by the United Nations.
Tied aid A type of aid that the receiving country must spend according to guidelines of
the donor country.
Trade liberalization Removing barriers to trade between different countries and
encouraging free trade.
World Bank An international organization dedicated to providing financing, advice
and research to developing nations to aid their economic advancement.
World Trade Organization An international organization which regulates
international trade.
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DEFINITIONS Development Economics
128
ABBREVIATIONS 6
CS Consumer surplus.
The extra satisfaction gained by consumers from paying a price that is lower than
the price they were prepared to pay total welfare gained from being able to
consume.
PS Producer surplus.
The excess of actual earnings that a producer makes from a given quantity of
output above the amount a producer would be willing to accept for that output
— total welfare gained from being able to produce; equal to producer profits.
PED Price elasticity of demand.
It is used to measure the effect a change in price has on the demand for a certain
good.
PES Price elasticity of supply.
It is used to measure the effect a change in price has on the supply for a certain
good.
XED Cross price elasticity of demand.
It is used to measure the effect a change in price of one product has on the
demand for a certain other good.
YED Income elasticity of demand.
It is used to measure the effect that a change in income of consumers has on the
demand for a certain product.
MPC Marginal Private Cost.
Costs of production that are taken into account in a firm’s decision making
process.
MPB Marginal Private Benefits.
Benefits the individual enjoys from the consumption of an extra unit of a good.
MSC Marginal Social Cost.
Cost of production to society.
MSB Marginal Social Benefit.
Benefit of consumption of one extra unit to society.
SR Short-run.
At least one factor of production is fixed and the firm cannot quickly change the
quantity produced. All production takes place in the short run.
LR Long-run.
All factors of production are variable in the long run but the state of technology
is fixed. All planning takes place in the long run.
TP Total product.
Total output that the firm produces using its fixed and variable factors in a given
time period.
AP Average product.
Output that is produced on average, by each unit of the variable production
factor.
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ABBREVIATIONS
MP Marginal product.
Extra output that is produced by using one extra unit of the variable factor.
V Variable production factor.
TC Total costs.
The complete costs of producing output.
ATC Average total costs.
Costs per unit of output.
MC Marginal costs.
The increase in total cost when producing one more unit of output.
FC Fixed costs.
Costs of fixed assets such as rent for company space. These costs will always be a
constant amount and they won’t change in the short run.
VC Variable costs.
Costs of variable assets. Variable costs increase when production is increased.
TVC Total variable costs.
TFC Total fixed costs.
AVC Average variable costs.
AFC Average fixed costs.
LRAC Long run average cost curve.

It is a combination of all short run average cost curves (SRAC) that are present at
fixed levels of production at fixed levels of factors of production.
SRAC Short run average cost curve.
TR Total revenue.
Total amount of money a firm receives from selling goods or services in a given
time period.
AR Average revenue.
The revenue a firm receives per unit of sales.
MR Marginal revenue.
The extra revenue that a firm gains by selling one more product in a given time
period.
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility.
The business includes public interest in its decision making. This may be that the
company wants to produce as environmentally friendly as possible, provide good
service for consumers, employ workers under favourable conditions etc.
Different firms may adopt different approaches to CSR.
CR Concentration Ratio.
J Injections.
Additions to the value of economic activity due to investment, government
spending or exports.
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ABBREVIATIONS 6
I Investment.
G Government spending.
The overall public spending carried out by the government.
X Exports.
The goods and services that are made in the domestic country and transmitted
(sold) to foreigners (foreign countries).
M Imports.
The goods and services that are made in a foreign country and transmitted (sold)
to the domestic country.
T Taxes.
Fees levied by states upon their citizens and firms to finance government
expenditure.
S Savings.
Income not spent; deferred consumption.
W Withdrawals.
Reductions to the value of economic activity due to savings, taxes or imports.
C Consumer expenditures.
The expenses incurred in consumption.
GDP Gross Domestic Product.
Total income earned by the factors of production in a country, regardless the
assets owner.
GNP/GNI Gross National Product / Gross National Income.
The total income earned by a country’s factors of production, regardless the
assets location.
AD Aggregate demand.
Total demand for goods and services in an economy at a given time.
AS Aggregate supply.
The total amount of goods and services that all industries in the economy will
produces at every given price level.
SRAS Short run aggregate supply.
LRAS Long run aggregate supply.
MPC Marginal propensity to consume.

The percentage of additional government expenditure that consumers use to
consume.
MPS Marginal propensity to save.
The percentage of additional government expenditure that consumers save.
MPT Marginal rate of taxation.
The percentage of additional government expenditure that consumers have to
pay back in taxes.
MPM Marginal propensity to import.
The percentage of additional government spending that consumers use to import
goods.
131
ABBREVIATIONS
CPI Consumer Price Index.

Economists compile a basket of goods that is representative for the economy,
they then compare the cost of this basket over time. The increase in price of the
basket is the inflation rate.
PPI Producer Price Index.
Economists compile a basket of factors of production representative for the
economy, they then compare the cost of this basket over time. The increase in
the price of the basket is the inflation rate.
PPF Production Possibilities Frontier.
A curve that shows the theoretical maximal combination of two goods that an
economy can produce if full use is made of all factors of production.
MS Money supply curve.
WTO The World Trade Organisation.

Is an international organisation that sets the rules for global trading and resolves
disputes between its member countries.
TOT Terms of Trade.
An index that shows the value of a country’s average export prices relatively to
their average import prices.
AEP Index Average Export Price.
AIP Index Average Import Price.
UN The United Nations.
HDI Human Development Index.

A composite indicator that measure country’s overall achievement in its social
and economic dimensions, such as long and healthy life, education and standard
of living.
FDI Foreign Direct Investment.
Long term investments by multinational corporations (MNCs) in foreign
countries by either building new plants or expanding existing ones.
MNCs Multinational corporations.
ODA Official Development Assistance.

The foreign aid extended by the government.
NGO’s Non-governmental organisations.
Non-profit organizations that are independent from states and international
governmental organizations.
IMF International Monetary Fund.
An international organization created for the purpose of standardizing global
financial relations and exchange rates.
132
ESSAY GUIDE 7
Exam: Time: Marks: % of total: Sections
Paper 1 90 minutes 50 marks 30% A and B
This Economics paper 1 essay guide will walk you through how to give the
well-structured answer that the examiners are looking for! After briefly analysing the
structure of paper 1 and discussing time management, command terms are defined to
help you understand the questions. Finally, successfully answer each question using
DEED and CLASPP strategies, which provide a concrete plan to answer the essay
questions on paper 1.
7.1 Time management
Managing your time well guarantees that you can address each question at the exam, to at
least score the easier marks from each question. So when time allotted to the question
runs out, finish the sentence and leave some space to finish the question later. Then, if
you have time left at the end of the exam you can go back to complete your answers.
Keeping to a strict schedule ensures that you will not waste time by getting stuck on
(part of) a question, and securing enough time to answer each question. This will help
you stay relaxed throughout the exam, especially if you also remember that you do not
have to write perfect answers to get a good grade: rather get in as many marks for each
question within the time you have. Plus, the answers to the question you are stuck on
will often come to you while working on a different question.
The next section lists how much time you should spend on each part of the exam. Do all
your practice from now on by sticking to these times, because doing so will familiarize
you with how much and at what pace you need to be able to write for the paper 1 exam.
Section A (25 marks, 45 min) This section will focus on microeconomics.

Within this section you will find question 1 and 2, choose one.
• Plan for 5 min
• Part a) 10 marks, max. 15 min
• Part b) 15 marks, max. 25 min
Section B (25 marks, 45 min) This section will focus on macroeconomics.
Within this section you will find question 3 and 4, choose one.
• Plan for 5 min
• Part a) 10 marks, max. 15 min
• Part b) 15 marks, max. 25 min
Complete both parts a) and b) for two questions, one in section A and one in section B.
Part a) in paper 1 is really to get you started, part b) is worth more marks and requires
more detail!
133
ESSAY GUIDE Understanding the question
7.2 Understanding the question
The most important piece of advice is to read the question properly.
Really.
Before thinking about an answer, make sure you fully understand the topic and the
question that is asked. By reading the question carefully and multiple times, you will not
lose easy marks by missing to include information, while saving time by not including
too much information in your answer.
The command terms in the question tell you exactly what to include and exclude in your
answer. Knowing what the IB wants from you helps you to score points and save time,
effectively killing two birds with one stone. Learn them well!
7.2.1 Common command words for part a)
The following command words question your knowledge and understanding.
Define: Give the precise meaning/definition.

Describe: Present the characteristics of a particular topic.
List: Give a sequence of brief answers with no explanation.
Outline: Give a brief account and/or summary of the issues, principles, or
arguments in the question.
State: Give a specific name, value or brief answer without explanation or
calculation.
Understanding is usually paired with ‘application and analysis’ terms. This means you
need to explain, apply and analyse a given situation with an example.
Analyse: Examine methodically and in detail the structure of theory.

Apply: Use an example in relation to a given problem or issue provided.
Comment: Give an explanation or judgement based on a given statement.
Judgement is very important and frequently forgotten.
Distinguish: Make clear the differences between two or more concepts.
Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons or causes; demonstrate that
you understand the theory and can use it.
Suggest: Propose a solution, hypothesis, or other possible answer to an issue.
134
ESSAY GUIDE Essay writing style 7
7.2.2 Common command words for part b)
For Part B questions are worth more marks. Synthesis and Evaluation: Require students
to rearrange component ideas into a new whole and make judgements based on evidence.
Compare: Give an account of similarities between two or more items or

situations, referring to both (all) throughout
Contrast: Give an account of differences between two or more items or
situations, referring to both (all) throughout
Discuss: Offer a considered and balanced review of a particular topic. Opinions
or conclusions should be stated clearly and supported by appropriate
evidence.
Evaluate: Make an appraisal by weighing up the strength and limitations of
different evidence and arguments.
Examine: Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the
assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.
Justify: Give valid reasons or evidence to support or defend a choice, decision
or action.
To what extent: Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept.
Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported
with appropriate evidence and sound arguments.
7.3 Essay writing style
7.3.1 DEED
Define First, define any key terms that arise in the question itself and in your answer.
Any key terms that are introduced by the question or that you introduce should be
defined! Remembering to do this is a really easy way to gain points. Also once you
have defined terms, and there is an abbreviated version, place this behind-
e.g. Aggregate Demand (AD). This way now in your text you can save time by just
writing “AD”.
Explain Then after all is defined, explain your answer to the question. Make sure to
properly elaborate on the economic theory that you are using to answer the
question.
Example Use a relevant example to underline your explanation. Sounds menial, but in
fact examiners actually mark whether you have provided an example to
demonstrate your understanding. Make sure you justify why you have chosen the
example you have.
Diagram Provide a diagram. The diagram is there to help you explain the concept: so
use it!
You should draw a diagram next to where the theory is explained as you write it,
or you can leave space for it and come back to it at the end.
135
ESSAY GUIDE Essay writing style
Some important things to remember about diagrams
• Always label everything (axes, curves, points etc. . . )
• Refer to diagram points in the text to make it extra clear to the examiner what you
mean. For example: the demand curve shifts to the left (curve D1 to D2 ). This
shift to the left decreases prices (P1 to P2 ) and reduces output (Q1 to Q2 ).
• Once you have finished drawing your diagram, just double check it is the correct
graph and is correctly labelled (easy marks are usually lost because of mistakes like
incorrect labelling happens to the best of us in a stressful exam!).
7.3.2 DEED & CLASPP
In question (b) of paper 1 you need to show the IB that you are capable of a more in
depth analysis. Besides first using DEED to answer the question, CLASPP provides you
with the structure for a deeper analysis of the problem/question, that the examiners are
looking for. So after applying the steps from DEED, you then:
Conclude Make a weighted concluding statement e.g. So the best policy is a

combination of Monetary policy and fiscal policy, rather than both in isolation
etc. . . ) Justify/reason why this is the stance you have taken.
Limitations to the theory Provide insight into the drawbacks of your conclusion or an
alternate solution (i.e. this solution works, but it doesn’t work all the time, this
other solution would also be a good option, and which we choose depends on
more information). This will show the examiner that you have a thorough
understanding of the topic.
Assumptions of the theory Some economic theories rely on certain assumptions.

Mention these assumptions and reflect on their significance for the conclusions
that you make from them (e.g. we assume rational human behaviour, however
humans may not always act economically rational)
Stakeholders Mention the stakeholders involved in the problem and describe the effect
on each of them.
Priorities Explain what is most important: which effect is most important, which
stakeholder is most important, etc.
Pros and Cons Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the theory.
136
ESSAY GUIDE Worked example 7
7.4 Worked example
a) Using two AD/AS diagrams, explain cost-push and demand-pull inflation.
D: Inflation
D: cost-push D: demand-pull
E: production costs increase E: AD higher then AS,

price increases, ripple effect price increases
E: oil E: exchange rates
diagram diagram
Define: Inflation can be defined as a persistent increase in the average level of prices in
an economy.
Define: There are two main types of inflation, namely cost-push inflation and
demand-pull inflation. Cost-push inflation is a situation in an economy where
there is a persistent rise in prices due to production costs increasing.
Explain: When production costs of one firm increases, they may consequently have to
increase prices. If they increase prices, this means that a firm who depends on this
now has higher costs. The increase in production costs thus ripples through the
economy and results in persistent increases in prices across many industries.
Example: For example, if a raw material such as oil becomes more expensive, this means
that many manufacturing firms (e.g. car manufacturers) will have to pay more for
electricity to produce, meaning that they may have to increase their prices to be
able to cover their costs. If these car manufacturers indeed increase their prices,
companies who buy cars will have to increase their prices accordingly. This will
consequently affect many industries and ripple through leading to cost-push
inflation.
137
ESSAY GUIDE Worked example
Diagram: In the case of cost-push inflation, the rise in the production costs will lead to a
leftwards shift of the Aggregate Supply Curve (AS2 to AS1 ), effectively raising the
price level (from P2 to P1 ). This will also reduce output (Q2 to Q1 ). This can be
seen in the diagram below.
Price
AS2
AS1 All axes and curves are labelled and all
P2 points identified. Now you can just
refer to the points i.e. price decreases
P1
(P2 to P1 ). This will be very helpful in
your explanations and examiners love
this!
AD1
Q2 Q1 Aggregate Output
Define: Demand-pull inflation is inflation caused by consistently higher levels of

aggregate demand over aggregate supply in the economy.
Define: Aggregate demand (AD) referring to the total demand for final goods and
services in an economy at a given time.
Explain: Here this means that as AD increases, because supply remains fixed, the price
has to increase to keep up.
Example: An example of this would be that if the exchange rate depreciates. This means
that, for the country in question, imports are now expensive, but exports are
cheap. Other countries now start demanding the country in questions’ exports,
thus increasing the aggregate demand in such a way that there is inflation in the
general level of prices.
Diagram: In the case of demand-pull inflation, the increase in AD will lead to a

rightwards shift of the AD curve (AD2 to AD1 ), effectively raising the price level
(P2 to P1 ). This rise in general price level is in some ways counteracted by the
increase in output (Q2 to Q1 ). This is illustrated in the diagram below:
Price
AS
P2
P1
AD1 AD2
Q1 Q2 Aggregate Output
138
b) “The rate of inflation can be most effectively reduced through the use of monetary policy.”
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Note: Typically, it would be necessary to define ‘the rate of inflation’, but as it was already
defined in part (a) it is sufficient to simply refer to it.)
Define: Monetary policy can be defined as policies that the central bank makes to
manipulate the rate of interest, exchange rates and the quantity of money.
Monetary policy is an example of a demand-side policy, which is policy that
attempts to alter the level of aggregate demand (AD) in an economy.
Define: Monetary policy is a very important tool to manage the economy. There are
two general strategies- contractionary and expansionary monetary policy.
Expansionary monetary policy mains to increase the total supply of money in the
economy (or more rapidly than usual). On the other hand, contractionary policy
expands the money supply more slowly than usual or even shrinks it.
Explain: In this case to tackle high inflation, the central bank could implement
contractionary monetary policies. If the central bank implements contractionary
policy, this will target increasing interest rates. If the interest rates increase, there is
less demand for investment and more incentive for people to increase their savings.
Contractionary monetary policy thus reduces AD, shifting the AD curve to the
left (AD1 to AD2 ). We experience the desired result of a lower general level of
prices (P1 to P2 ). A fall in the general price level is a fall in the rate of inflation, as
defined above in part (a).
Price level
AS
PL
P L1 AD
AD1
Q1 Q Real GDP
Example: A practical example of contractionary monetary policy would be for the

central bank be for the central bank to directly increase its interest rates so that the
commercial banks have to follow suit (providing consumers with higher interest).
They could also reduce the money supply, meaning that there is less to give out to
commercial banks and thus consumers if there is less money, the price of money
increases, so the interest rate increases.
Define: However, monetary policy is not the only tool that can be used to manage an
economy. Fiscal policies a type of demand-side policy (also targets altering AD in
the economy as discussed earlier) that entails the government altering government
expenditure and/or taxes to influence the AD curve. The government can use
expansionary fiscal policy (to “expand” or increase AD) or contractionary (to
“contract” or reduce AD).
139
Example: If the government wishes to control inflation, it will have to enact

contractionary fiscal policies. This means raising taxes and/or cutting government
expenditure. An example of this is when the government reduces its budgets for
own departments, this means that workers become unemployed and no longer
have the ability to spend.
Diagram: This means that there is less demand for goods and services, shifting AD to
the left (AD1 to AD2 ). This as a result, reduces the general price level (P1 to P2 )
and thus reduces inflation.
Define: The both above mentioned strategies are demand-side policies, but supply-side
policies could also be effective to control the level of inflation.. Supply-side policies
are policies aimed at influencing the long run aggregate supply (LRAS) in an
economy.
Example: This can be done by improving the quality and/or the quantity of the factors
of production, such as for example training programs, which improves the quality
of labour.
Explain: So if labour is now more effective because of training programmes, this means
that each person can produce more. This is what then causes the increase in LRAS,
and therefore shift the curve to the right (LRAS1 to LRAS2 ). Shifting the LRAS
curve means that the AD curve now intersects the LRAS curve at a much lower
general level of prices (P1 to P2 ), therefore again solving the problem of inflation.
We now continue writing in the CLASPP structure to get top marks in question b):
Conclude: Of these three methods possible, which is most effective depends on the
current state of the economy. Fiscal policy will reduce inflation, but higher taxes
and less government expenditure may not be politically desirable and make the
government very unpopular. Monetary policy can also reduce inflation but harms
investments (higher interest rate), thus long term productivity/competitiveness
domestically and internationally. Supply-side policies can again reduce inflation,
but does so with a focus on the long-run. Many of the supply-side policies such as
education/training take time to accumulate and take effect. In the long run, this is
the only way to reduce inflation, however to address the immediate situation fiscal
and monetary policy will me more pertinent. Thus, in conclusion a mix of
policies seems most appropriate.This conclusion however is dependent on the
country in question and the current state of the economy.
Limitations to theory: Of course finding the right balance between these three policies
so that they all coordinate is often easier said than done.
Assumptions of Theory: When providing this mixed policy advice, we need to keep in
mind that these assume that all individuals are rational, which is not the case in
reality. They also assume that the country in question is not susceptible to
international actions which may clash with this policy advice.
Stakeholder: To choose only short term solutions to inflation (monetary policy and
fiscal policy) lowers the level of inflation immediately (or faster than supply-side
140
policies would), but comes at the price of lower output. Lower output means
higher levels of unemployment and potentially reductions in living standards.
Choosing only the long term solution to inflation (supply-side policies) means that
inflation in the short term may spiral out-of-control and into hyper-inflation
(inflation at a very high rate) and result in great depressions, thus also a reduction
in living standards for all consumers and producers in an economy.
Therefore monetary policy alone would not be as effective as all three policies
together. This means that fiscal contractions need not be too strong (small increase
in taxes that keeps people happy), Monetary policy can be less extensive (small
increases in interest rates will not harm investment too much), and supply-side
policies can ensure that LRAS increases and the problem of inflation will be solved
for in the long run.
Priorities, Pros and Cons: Combining all these methods does have drawbacks because
the economy will experience spread symptoms rather than one, and the
coordination of these methods may require much effort in a country with a weak
government/ institution, coordination can be ineffective. However a small spread
of problems (small group of dissatisfied citizens in regard to taxes, small investment
discouragement, small drop in output because long-term is addressed etc. . . ) seems
to be preferred than one extreme (large increase in interest rates, large drop in
investment).
141
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STUDY GUIDE

Author: Joule Painter, William van Leeuwenkamp

Special thanks: Andjela Tričković

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7. Essay guide 133

The foundations of economics

• Economics is a social science on how to deal with scarcity.

• In general we describe this problem of scarcity as the economic problem.

The solution to the economic problem

• For whom to produce?

Structure of the course

In this course we will study the economic problem in four themes:

2. How is sustainability threatened, while people or companies are making an effort

4. How does economic growth conflict with economic development while

Microeconomics: the science of choosing on a small scale (individuals, companies).

Macroeconomics: the science of choosing on a big scale (regions, countries).

International economics: the science of choosing in interaction with other countries

Development economics: the science of choosing in order to develop more welfare

1.1. Demand and supply 11

1.3. Government intervention 27

1.4. The theory of the firm 33

1.5. Market structures 41

1.6. Price discrimination 52

1.1 Demand and supply

Figure 1.1: The demand curve.

A move along the demand curve occurs

when the price of the product changes.

B A shift of the demand curve occurs in

The income of consumers In general when the income of consumers

Prices of complementary goods A complementary good is a good that is consumed

Prices of substitute goods A substitute good is a good that is consumed instead of

Figure 1.2: The demand curve.

A move along the supply curve occurs

when the price of the product changes.

B A shift of the supply curve occurs in

Level of technology When technology advances (deteriorates), producers can produce

Prices of related competitive goods When the prices of competitive goods

Subsidies When subsidies (i.e. government money given to producers)

Change in expectations When expectations change so does the production of

But in some cases the price is different from P∗ :

In general, price can be said to have two functions on a market:

Incentive function: A higher price is an incentive for producers to produce more to

1.1.4 Market efficiency

Consumer surplus (CS) The extra satisfaction gained by consumers from

Price elasticity of demand ( PE D )

The outcome of PED is typically negative (because there is a negative relationship

1 PED = 0 Perfectly inelastic demand

PED is different at each point of the

There are two exceptions to the rule above:

On a completely horizontal demand On a completely vertical demand curve,

Price elasticity of supply ( PES )

1 PES = 0 Perfectly inelastic supply

On a completely horizontal supply On a completely vertical supply curve,

Cross price elasticity of demand ( XE D )

% change in Q D for good X

The outcome of XED can be positive or negative: