Previous Year Questions

1. Explain the difference between OSI and TCP/IP model in detail.

2. Explain concept of email. How to send and receive secure email.
3. Write short notes on : (i) FTP (ii) HTTP (iii) Intranet (iv) URL
4. Write short notes on the following : (i) WWW (ii) Search engine (iii) Web browser (iv) TELNET
5. Explain domain name system (DNS) and Internet service provider in brief.
6. Explain OSI and TCP/IP model in detail.
7. What is Internet Protocol.Explain any 3 protocols in brief.
8. What is history of Internet. Explain some Internet Services.

Introduction
Internet is a group of computer systems connected from all around the world. The Internet protocol suite is a framework
defined through the Internet standards. Methods are divided right into a layered set of protocols on this architecture. The
Internet gives a huge variety of statistics and communique offerings, which includes forums, databases, email, and hypertext.
It is made of the neighbourhood to global personal, public networks connected through plenty of digital, wireless, and
networking technologies.

The Internet is a worldwide interconnected network of hundreds of thousands of computers of various types that belong to
multiple networks.

History of Internet
Talking about the history of internet, the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, later renamed the
internet) established a successful link between the University of California Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute
on October 29, 1969. Libraries automate and network catalogues outside of ARPANET in the late 1960s.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) is established in the 1970s, allowing internet technology to
mature. The development of these protocols aided in the standardization of how data was sent and received via the internet.
NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network), the 56 Kbps backbone of the internet, was financed by the National
Science Foundation in 1986. Because government monies were being used to administer and maintain it, there were
commercial restrictions in place at the time.
In the year 1991, a user-friendly internet interface was developed. Delphi was the first national commercial online service to
offer internet connectivity in July 1992. Later in May 1995, All restrictions on commercial usage of the internet are lifted. As
a result, the internet has been able to diversify and grow swiftly. Wi-Fi was first introduced in 1997. The year is 1998, and
Windows 98 is released. Smartphone use is widespread in 2007. The 4G network is launched in 2009. The internet is used by
3 billion people nowadays. By 2030, there are expected to be 7.5 billion internet users and 500 billion devices linked to the
internet.

Evolution of the Internet

Although the Internet was developed much earlier, it only became popular in households in the 1990s. The emergence of the
Internet can be tracked by how many businesses and homes started changing the way they worked and started connecting
their laptops and other devices to the Internet. However, the concept of hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) as we know it
today, was created only during this time. This meant that people could access the same web pages on their devices now and
share information.

There has been a dramatic growth in the number of internet users since its inception. As a result, the number of computer
networks that are connected has grown exponentially too. It started with only connecting less than ten computers initially.
Today, 440 million computers can be connected directly, making life easier for people across the globe. Sharing information
and knowledge has become extremely easy for those that have access to the Internet. The country with the highest number of
internet users is China, with 1.4 billion users, followed by India with 1.3 billion and the United States of America with a little
over 0.3 billion users.

What are the Applications of Internet?

Today is the era of Internet applications, today there is a specific application to do every work, using which you can do those
tasks very easily. Today we will know in detail about the same applications of the Internet.

There are various applications of internet in points, which are given below.
 • Communication
• Job Search
• Online Shopping
• Web Browsing
• Stock Market Updates
• Travel
• Research
• E-Commerce
• Online Payments
• Social Networking
• E-banking
• Education
• Entertainment

1. Communication
• Email
• Skype
• Google Meet
• Zoom
• WhatsApp
• Facebook Messenger
2. Job Search
• Naukri.com
• Monster.com
• Freshersworld.com
3. Online Shopping
• Amazon
• FlipKart
• Paytm Mall
4. Web Browsing
• Internet Explorer.
• Google Chrome.
• Mozilla Firefox.
• Safari.
• Opera.
5. Stock Market Updates
• Upstox Pro App
• Zerodha Kite
6. Travel
• MakeMyTrip.
• Cleartrip.
• Goibibo.
7. Research
• Flipboard
• Researcher
8. E-Commerce
• Amazon
• Flipkart
 • Meesho
9. Online Payments
• Paytm
• PhonePe
• Google Pay
10. Social Networking
• Facebook
• Instagram
• Twitter
• LinkedIn
• YouTube
11. E-Banking
• Kotak- 811
• ICICI iMobile
• YONO SBI
• HDFC PayZapp
12. E-Learning
• Byjus
• Topper
• Vedantu
• Unacademy
13. Entertainment
• Netflix
• VOOT
• Disney+ Hotstar

What is an Intranet?
An intranet is a kind of private network. For example, an intranet is used by different organizations and only members/staff
of that organization have access to this. It is a system in which multiple computers of an organization (or the computers you
want to connect) are connected through an intranet. As this is a private network, so no one from the outside world can access
this network. So many organizations and companies have their intranet network and only its members and staff have access
to this network. This is also used to protect your data and provide data security to a particular organization, as it is a private
network and does not leak data to the outside world.

Working of Intranet
An intranet is a network confined to a company, school, or organization that works like the Internet. Let us understand more
about the working of the intranet with the help of a diagram, as shown below:

Advantages of Intranet
• In the intranet, the cost of conveying data utilizing the intranet is very low.
• Using intranet employees can easily get data anytime and anywhere.
 • It is easy to learn and use.
• It connects employees with each other.
• The documents stored on the intranet are much more secure.

Why is Intranet Important?

Intranets play a crucial role in organizations by providing a centralized platform for seamless internal communication,
collaboration, and knowledge sharing, thereby significantly enhancing productivity, streamlining operations, and fostering a
culture of innovation and efficiency. Here are the reasons that increase its importance:
• Improves internal communication
• Connects employees across locations and time zones
• Boosts recognition and reward
• Simplifies employee onboarding
• Provides organizational clarity
• Encourages knowledge sharing

Difference Between Internet and Intranet

As we talk about the Intranet, it is too obvious to compare it with the Internet and for that, we have to look on the differences
of both.

Internet Intranet

Internet is available to all computers and everybody Intranet is limited and available to few computers(members who
has access. have access).

The Internet has wider access and it provides access

to a larger population with better access to Intranet is restricted.
its websites.

Intranet is safe and secure when it comes to data security and

The internet is not as safe as Intranet.
Intranet can be safely privatized as per the user requirement

Examples of Intranets
Here are some popular examples of intranet software used by various organizations across the globe:

Microsoft SharePoint
Google Workspace
Zoho Connect
Confluence
Joomla
Drupal

What is World Wide Web?

World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages stored in web servers and connected to local
computers through the internet. These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content of
these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along
with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to your device.

Difference between World Wide Web and Internet:

Some people use the terms 'internet' and 'World Wide Web' interchangeably. They think they are the same thing, but it is not
so. Internet is entirely different from WWW. It is a worldwide network of devices like computers, laptops, tablets, etc. It
enables users to send emails to other users and chat with them online. For example, when you send an email or chatting with
someone online, you are using the internet.
Emergence of Web

The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. He was working at CERN at that time. Originally, it
was developed by him to fulfil the need of automated information sharing between scientists across the world, so that they could easily
share the data and results of their experiments and studies with each other.
CERN, where Tim Berners worked, is a community of more than 1700 scientists from more than 100 countries. These scientists spend
some time on CERN site, and rest of the time they work at their universities and national laboratories in their home countries, so there
was a need for reliable communication tools so that they can exchange information.
Internet and Hypertext were available at this time, but no one thought how to use the internet to link or share one document to another.
Tim focused on three main technologies that could make computers understand each other, HTML, URL, and HTTP. So, the objective
behind the invention of WWW was to combine recent computer technologies, data networks, and hypertext into a user-friendly and
effective global information system.

Websites & Webpages

Website: Website, as the name suggests, is a central location that includes multiple web pages that are maintained by a person or
organization and is accessible to anyone, anywhere at any time using the internet. It is the best way to market a business online and
increase the growth of the business.
Webpage: Webpage, as the name suggests, is a document or a single page of the website displayed in a web browser and makeup the
WWW (World Wide Web) and is mainly used to sell products and services to users or visitors.

Website vs Webpage

Website Webpage

It is part of website that includes

Website is a collection of webpages displayed on the web
information and content and is displayed
with a client-like browser.
on the browser to user or visitor.

It contains more than one web webpages that contain It is a single document display on the
information. browser.

It is a combination of webpages created using HTML and Information is usually written in HTML
CSS. language.

It is a place used to display content. It is content displayed on the website.

 Website Webpage

It requires more time to develop the website as compared to It requires less time to develop a webpage
webpages. as compared to the website.

It includes content or information about a

It includes content about several entities.
single entity.

It can be accessed using HTTP, DNS (Domain Name

It can be accessed through web browser.
System) Protocols.

There is no such extension included in the URL of the a

URL of webpage include extension.
website.

It is quite easy and simple to develop

It is quite hard and complex to create the structure of the
webpage after website structure is being
website and its programming.
created.

It might include text, graphics, hyperlinks,

It includes webpages, related content, and hyperlinks.
etc.

They are used to establish credibility as business and also to

They are used to provide information with
increase the positive impression about the company or
related pictures, videos to users.
business that in turn increase user experience.

Web Servers
Web pages are a collection of data, including images, text files, hyperlinks, database files etc., all located on some computer
(also known as server space) on the Internet. A web server is dedicated software that runs on the server-side. When any user
requests their web browser to run any web page, the webserver places all the data materials together into an organized web
page and forwards them back to the web browser with the help of the Internet. Therefore, we can conclude that: -
A web server is a dedicated computer responsible for running websites sitting out on those computers somewhere on the
Internet. They are specialized programs that circulate web pages as summoned by the user. The primary objective of any web
server is to collect, process and provide web pages to the users.

What is a Web Browser?

The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It provides an interface between the server
and the client and requests to the server for web documents and services. It works as a compiler to render HTML which is
used to design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the browser loads a web page written in HTML,
including text, links, images, and other items such as style sheets and JavaScript functions. Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge,
Mozilla Firefox, and Safari are examples of web browsers.
 Client-server model

Search engine
A search engine is software accessed on the Internet that searches a database of information according to the user's query.
The engine provides a list of results that best match what the user is trying to find. Today, there are many different search
engines available on the Internet, each with its own abilities and features. The first search engine ever developed is
considered Archie, which was used to search for FTP (file transfer protocol) files, and the first text-based search engine is
considered Veronica. Currently, the most well-known and widely-used search engine is Google. Other popular search
engines include AOL (America Online), Ask.com, Baidu, Bing, DuckDuckGo, and Yahoo.
Examples – GOOGLE
YAHOO
BING

URL
URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. It is the resource address on the internet. The URL (Uniform
Resource Locator) is created by Tim Berners-Lee and the Internet Engineering working group in 1994. URL is the character
string (address) which is used to access data from the internet. The URL is the type of URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).

A URL contains the following information which is listed below:

• Protocol name
• A colon followed by double forward-slash (://)
• Hostname (domain name) or IP address
• Path of the file

Domain Name System (DNS)

Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for people also the IP addresses are not
static therefore a mapping is required to change the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain
name of the websites to their numerical IP address.
Types of Domain
There are various kinds of domain:
1. Generic domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(nonprofit organization), .net(similar to
commercial) all these are generic domains.
2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain name mapping. So DNS
can provide both the mapping for example to find the IP addresses of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type
Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behaviour.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

Label Description

com Commercial Organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers

net Network Support centers

org Nonprofit Organizations

Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the
United States) in place of three character organizational abbreviations.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has received a request from the client, and
the server contains the files of only authorized clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it
sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

Internet Connection
There are many connections that can be used for internet access. All the connections have their own speed range that can be
used for different purposes like for home, or for personal use.
The various types of Internet connections are:
o Dial-up connection
o Cable TV Internet connections
o Satellite Internet Connections
o Wireless Internet Connections

DIAL-UP CONNECTION
A dial-up connection is one of the most common types of Internet connection offered by ISPS. This connection uses a telephone line to
connect your computer to the Internet. In order to access using such a connection, a hardware device known as a modem is needed. A
modem acts as an interface between your computer and a telephone line A communication program (such as Dial Up Networking)
instructs the modem to place a telephone call to a specific phone number provided by an ISP, establish a connection and then connect
your computer to the Internet.

Cable TV Internet Connection

Cable TV Internet Connection is a high speed Internet connection service provided through existing Cable TV lines. You can watch TV
in a normal manner and at the same time access the Internet. It is one of the most widely growing services in homes because of its
affordability and ease of use. The cable TV lines use the coaxial cable which transfers data at much higher speed than common telephone
lines. Its speed usually ranges from 256 Kbps to 1 Mbps

SATELLITE INTERNET CONNECTION

Satellite Internet Connection offers yet another option for accessing the Internet. It is the most expensive alternative for
getting a high-speed connection to the Internet. These connections are aimed for those remote areas where other Internet
connections such as dial-up. ISDN, DSL cannot be used.
WIRELESS INTERNET CONNECTION
With the recent advancement in wireless technology, the high speed Internet access is not limited to the desktop but it is now
accessible on laptops, PDA's, mobiles also, Wireless Internet is the broadband Internet connection that use the radio
frequency bands to connect to the Internet instead of using a telephone line or a cable network. This type of connection
provides a very high speed, usually more than 10 Mbps and costs considerably less than the equivalent other wired versions.
Its speeds range from 256 Kbps to 10 Mbps. It is possible to use this type of connection to transmit data over long distances.
This type of connection is used by business travelers and persons who are away from home as long as they are within the
network's coverage area.
(wi-fi): A number of ISP's have placed 802.11b (wi-fi) network standards in public places such as hostels, coffee shops,
airports, convention centers. These networks provide easy access to the Internet for anyone with a compatible device (e.g.
Laptop or PDA).
Bluetooth: It is also used for Internet access although it doesn't have the potential of wi-fi due to its limited distance. It was
primarily promoted as it eliminated the need for cables between devices such as keyboard, computers, cellular phones, PDA's
etc. The current standard allows upto 8 devices to be connected to it.

ISP (internet service provider)

ISP is a company which provides internet connection to end user, but there are basically three levels of ISP. There are 3
levels of Internet Service Provider (ISP): Tier-1 ISP, Tier-2 ISP, and Tier-3 ISP.
These are explained as following below.

Tier-1 ISP:
These ISPs are at the top of the hierarchy and they have a global reach they do not pay for any internet traffic through their
network instead lower-tier ISPs have to pay a cost for passing their traffic from one geolocation to another which is not under
the reach of that ISPs. Generally, ISPs at the same level connect to each other and allow free traffic passes to each other.
Such ISPs are called peers. Due to this cost is saved. They build infrastructure, such as the Atlantic Internet sea cables, to
provide traffic to all other Internet service providers, not to end users.
Some examples of tier 1 Internet providers:
Cogent Communications,
Hibernia Networks,
AT&T

Tier-2 ISP:
These ISPs are service provider who connect between tier 1 and tier 3 ISPs. They have regional or country reach and they
behave just like Tier-1 ISP for Tier-3 ISPs.
Examples of tier 2 ISPs:
Vodafone,
Easynet,
BT

Tier-3 ISP:
These ISPs are closest to the end users and helps them to connect to the internet by charging some money. These ISPs work
on purchasing model. These ISPs have to pay some cost to Tier-2 ISPs based on traffic generated.
Examples:
Examples of Tier-3 ISPs:
Comcast

Web Design Strategies –

Web Development refers to a term that includes all the processes involved in developing a web project or website. It contains
the various phases such as planning, designing, testing, and launching of the web project. The web development process
requires a team of experts responsible for implementing the different tasks needed to create a website.

The various stages that are needed in order to develop a web project in web development are as following:

Strategy: The first step in the web development process for a developer is to make a strategy for developing a web page or
web site.

Design and Specification: After the strategy-making, the next step in the web development process is to develop a planned
work.

Production of desired result: In this phase of the web development process, the actual functional site is built. After the
proper testing of the prototype, the developer has to work on developing the actual live web project.

Testing and Maintenance: Testing is an important phase in the web development process. Testing is performed by the
developers and testers to ensure the client’s requirements after completion of the web project.

Registration with ISP: After completion of the Testing and Maintenance and removing all the bugs from the project, the
next step or phase is to register the web project with the regional ISP to make the web project legal.

Launch: This is the last phase of the web development process. Project is launched after getting registered with ISP. after
launching, web project is publicly accessed by the users of the particular domain.

What is OSI Model? – Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All
these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between
computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a more
systematic approach to networking.
What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between
the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from
one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them
to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus,
star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data
link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given tim

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of
the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The
transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message
into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a type
of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
Connection-Oriented Service
Connectionless Service

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use and
terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of
the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or
full-duplex.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.
• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.
• Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

TCP/IP Model
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main condition of this
process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the
sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets
and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to
another end.

What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and
TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with
another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the data and
requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During
this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.

2. Data Link Layer

The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing”
are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two
examples of data-link layer protocols.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical
transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination
host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most
websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
• ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
• ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
• TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected by a circuit.
TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A
starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes
the connection make up this transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol. Connections between
receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this
layer are:
• HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
• SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is
preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP
connection.
• NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard
time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the
presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the
server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control

Full Form OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is guaranteed in OSI Delivery of the package is not guaranteed in
Delivery
Model. TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and changes can easily be Replacing the tools is not easy as it is in OSI
Replacement
done in this model. Model.

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model. It is more reliable than OSI Model.

Internet Protocol
The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into small pieces called packets. Each large data sent
between two network devices is divided into smaller packets by the underlying hardware and software. Each network
protocol defines the rules for how its data packets must be organized in specific ways according to the protocols the network
supports.

Need of Protocols
It may be that the sender and receiver of data are parts of different networks, located in different parts of the world having
different data transfer rates. So, we need protocols to manage the flow control of data, and access control of the link being
shared in the communication channel. Suppose there is a sender X who has a data transmission rate of 10 Mbps. And, there is
a receiver Y who has a data receiving rate of 5Mbps. Since the rate of receiving the data is slow so some data will be lost
during transmission. In order to avoid this, receiver Y needs to inform sender X about the speed mismatch so that sender X
can adjust its transmission rate. Similarly, the access control decides the node which will access the link shared in the
communication channel at a particular instant in time. If not the transmitted data will collide if many computers send data

What is IP Addressing?
An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the device over the network. It is
almost like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over the Internet or through a local network. An IP address
helps the Internet to distinguish between different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier
in a specific network and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.
simultaneously through the same link resulting in the corruption or loss of data.

Types of Internet Protocol

Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are mentioned below:
1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
4. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
5. TELNET(Terminal Network)

SMTP
SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to the SMTP server
and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP server is an always-on listening mode. As soon as it listens for a
TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection through port 25. After successfully establishing a
TCP connection the client process sends the mail instantly.

Working of SMTP
1. Communication between the sender and the receiver :
The sender’s user agent prepares the message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s responsibility is to transfer the mail
across the network to the receiver’s MTA. To send mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive mail, a system
must have a server MTA.
2. Sending Emails:
Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages between the client and the server. The message which is sent across
consists of a header and a body. A null line is used to terminate the mail header and everything after the null line is
considered the body of the message, which is a sequence of ASCII characters. The message body contains the actual
information read by the receipt.
3. Receiving Emails:
The user agent on the server-side checks the mailboxes at a particular time of intervals. If any information is received, it
informs the user about the mail. When the user tries to read the mail it displays a list of emails with a short description of
each mail in the mailbox. By selecting any of the mail users can view its contents on the terminal.
File transfer protocol (FTP) is an Internet tool provided by TCP/IP. The first feature of FTP is developed by Abhay
Bhushan in 1971. It helps to transfer files from one computer to another by providing access to directories or folders on
remote computers and allows software, data, text file to be transferred between different kinds of computers. The end-user in
the connection is known as localhost and the server which provides data is known as the remote host.
The goals of FTP are:
• It encourages the direct use of remote computers.
• It shields users from system variations (operating system, directory structures, file structures, etc.)
• It promotes sharing of files and other types of data.

Mechanism of FTP

The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three components: the user
interface, control process, and data transfer process. The server has two components: the server control
process and the server data transfer process.

Advantages of FTP:
o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way to transfer the files from
one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password. Therefore, we can say that
FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose you are a manager of the
company, you send some information to all the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
o The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be encrypted. However, not all the
FTP providers are equal and not all the providers offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP providers
that provides encryption.
o FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However, the size limit of the file is
2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
o Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that
attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
o It is not compatible with every system.

HTTP
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another document.
 o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP
as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.

HTTP Transactions

The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The client initiates a transaction by sending a
request message to the server. The server replies to the request message by sending a response message.
Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow the same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request line, headers, and sometimes a body.
Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that consists of a status line, headers, and
sometimes a body.

Introduction to TELNET

TELNET stands for Teletype Network. It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to the local computer. It
is used as a standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service which is provided by ISO. The computer which starts the
connection is known as the local computer.
The computer which is being connected to i.e. which accepts the connection known as the remote computer.
During telnet operation, whatever is being performed on the remote computer will be displayed by the local computer. Telnet
operates on a client/server principle. The local computer uses a telnet client program and the remote computers use a telnet
server program.
Logging
The logging process can be further categorized into two parts:
1. Local Login
2. Remote Login
1. Local Login: Whenever a user logs into its local system, it is known as local login.
Local Login
The Procedure of Local Login
• Keystrokes are accepted by the terminal driver when the user types at the terminal.
• Terminal Driver passes these characters to OS.
• Now, OS validates the combination of characters and opens the required application.

2. Remote Login: Remote Login is a process in which users can log in to a remote site i.e. computer and use services that
are available on the remote computer. With the help of remote login, a user is able to understand the result of transferring the
result of processing from the remote computer to the local computer.

Internet Services –
To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips, text files, other documents, etc., we
need internet services. You must use an Internet service to connect to the Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to
your machine via Internet service. Some of the commonly used internet services are :
• Communication Services
• Information Retrieval Services
• File Transfer
• World Wide Web Services
• Web Services
• Directory Services
• Automatic Network Address Configuration
• Network Management Services
• Time Services
• Usenet
• NewsGroup
• Ecommerce

What is Email?
Email, i.e., electronic mail, is a fast method of exchanging messages between the sender’s and receiver’s systems using
the Internet. You can even send non-text files like images, videos, and audio files as attachments.
When a person clicks on the “send” button after composing an electronic mail, it goes through many steps to reach the
person you sent it to. Here’s how it works:
Step 1: Compose an Email
You log in to your email account and write an email using a computer or phone.
Step 2: Email sent to SMTP Server
When you click “send,” your email goes to a special server called an “SMTP” server.
Step 3: Email Verification
The SMTP server checks your email to ensure it follows the rules before sending it.
Step 4: Finding Recipient’s Server
The SMTP server finds the server where the person you sent the email to has their account.
Step 5: Sending Email using SMTP Protocol
The SMTP server sends your email to that server using something called the “SMTP protocol.”
Step 6: Server Checks for Spam and Viruses
The server that got your email checks it for spam and viruses before deciding whether to put it in the person’s email inbox,
promotions section, social section, or spam.
Step 7: Email Delivery to Recipient’s Inbox
The person gets an alert that they have a new email in their inbox, and they can read it on their computer or phone.

Sending and Receiving a Secure Mail

We can take the following actions to protect our email.
• Choose a secure password that is at least 12 characters long, and contains uppercase and lowercase letters, digits, and
special characters.
• Activate the two-factor authentication, which adds an additional layer of security to your email account by requiring
a code in addition to your password.
• Use encryption, it encrypts your email messages so that only the intended receiver can decipher them. Email
encryption can be done by using the programs like PGP or S/MIME.
• Keep your software up to date. Ensure that the most recent security updates are installed on your operating system
and email client.
• Beware of phishing scams: Hackers try to steal your personal information by pretending as someone else in
phishing scams. Be careful of emails that request private information or have suspicious links because these are the
resources of the phishing attack.
• Choose a trustworthy email service provider: Search for a service provider that protects your data using
encryption and other security measures.
• Use a VPN: Using a VPN can help protect our email by encrypting our internet connection and disguising our IP
address, making it more difficult for hackers to intercept our emails.
• Upgrade Your Application Regularly: People now frequently access their email accounts through apps, although
these tools are not perfect and can be taken advantage of by hackers. A cybercriminal might use a vulnerability, for
example, to hack accounts and steal data or send spam mail. Because of this, it’s important to update your programs
frequently.

Voice/audio and Video Conferencing

The new normal, where everything is happening online whether school, college, or office. People are meeting online, many
conferences are held online, do you know what is common between them? Well the mode they all are meeting is through
video conference and audio conference, without these technologies we can’t think meeting in a group without any physical
contact. So, let’s understand audio conference and then video conference.

Audio conference
Also called Teleconference, means meeting a group or party via a phone call instead of meeting them physically. The person
who starts the audio conference called the calling party and the people who are attending the calls are known as participants.
So, in the audio conference at the same time, one can talk to many people. The benefit of using an audio conference as it is
less expensive than the video conference because it needs very fewer devices but at the same time it lacks some richness of
video conference.
Technology requirement of the audio conference:
1. Phone/Computer with access to internet connection
2. Speakers
3. Microphone

The Advantages of Audio Conferences

Audio conferencing is economical, more widely available, and simpler to configure than video conferencing.
In the meanwhile, using an audio-conferencing system will also result in a call that is of respectable quality.
Compared to other teleconferencing forms, audio conferencing can help businesses save time and money by eliminating the
need to commute for physical meetings.
Professionals may also be able to quickly convene an online communication session with important subject-matter expertise
using specialized audio-conferencing technologies to handle business or consumer concerns.
You might not require as many audio and video conference rooms if you have a robust audio-conferencing platform.
Some audio-conferencing solutions can support several conferencing hosts.

Video Conference
Basically, video conference enables the user to connect each other from different locations by both video and audio
transmission at the same time, using telecommunication technology. Or we can say that it is a type of online meeting where
people meet live on the audio-visual call. Video conference is also called video teleconference. It is more effective and
efficient than the audio conference calls, as we can see the facial expression of the people which help us to connect them
more easily rather than voice calls where only we can hear a voice. But, there are some problems, like setting video
conference needs devices and all.

Technology requirement of video conference:

Computer with access to internet connection
Browser
Speakers
Microphone(for both audio and video conference)
Web camera (for only video conference)

Benefits of Video Conferencing

o They can help people work more productively and engage with co-workers, associates, and customers more
effectively in the workplace.
o Reduced travel fares, particularly for staff coaching, and shorter project timelines that improve teamwork are some
of the real advantages of video conferencing for businesses.
o More effective encounters with clients, both inside and outside of enterprises.
o Face-to-face conversation enhances communication on a personal level and enables individuals to develop better
relationships with people they have never actually encountered in person.
o The team is more engaged using video conferencing before, during, and after meetings.
o Users can use non-verbal signifiers on video that are missed during audio chats, illuminating the discourse.
o In addition to fostering a culture of collaborative meetings within your association, video conferencing software is a
foundation for engaging today's digital labour market.

Web Based Chat Services

Internet nowadays is very common and available to all at cheap rates and can be used as a good means of communication.
Using the internet we can make text conversations with anyone. Send your message to anyone and will get a reply, it’s
known as instant messaging. You can talk over the internet with anyone, which is known as voice chatting, and even with the
help of a webcam, we can also have video calls or video chatting.
Chatting refers to the kind of communication done with the help of the internet which present live transmission of text
messages from sender to receiver. Online chatting can be termed as the point-to-point, one sender-to-one receiver, or one
sender-to-many receiver. It also features voice, video, and also web conferencing services. Chatting can be done as a chat-
based as well as video-based (using webcams). Chatting nowadays has evolved uniquely. In today’s world, we have a lot of
applications and websites which are widely used across the world. Chatting over the internet has made it a lot easier to have a
conversation with anyone. People from any corner of the world are now able to contact the person on the other edge.

Following are the most common type of chatting:

• Instant Messaging: It is the most common way of chatting. It is text-based communication. It happens between two
people or groups of people.
 • Internet Relay Chat: It is known as IRC. It is also a text-based chat. It is not owned by any company and to use
IRC we need a client program. Using IRC we can participate in discussion channels or can communicate with only
two partners or users.
• ICQ: It is known as I seek you. It is the most useful communication program. Using ICQ we can send files, URLs,
and more. It is just like instant messaging but allows you to enter into the chat room and can chat with multiple
people at a time.
• Voice Chatting: We can chat not only with text but also with sounds as well. It is known as voice chatting. Voice
chatting can be used with the internet just as a phone call. Internet voice call is free and unlimited, it only needs a
good internet connection.
• Video chatting: Video chatting is also a kind of chatting which is also done with the help of the internet and it also
requires a webcam as it is a face to face chatting. Internet speed required by video chatting is higher as compared to
text and video chatting. And a good quality camera too.

Chatting Platforms
Nowadays there are many chatting platforms available for users. Some of them are mentioned below:

Facebook: Facebook is one of the oldest and most used platforms for chatting. It was founded in February 2004. Facebook
offers text, voice, and video chat to its users. Users can also post some materials on Facebook. Facebook is available for
users in many different languages. Facebook is currently owning different chatting applications. (WhatsApp, Instagram,
Facebook Messenger).
WhatsApp: WhatsApp is also one of the most used platforms. It is owned by the Facebook group. WhatsApp too offers all
types of chatting (Text, voice, and video). It is available in many different languages.
Skype: Skype was initially released in August 2003. It is mostly used for live meetings. It is available in 101 different
languages.
Telegram: Telegram is a popular chatting application widely used across the world. It also allows group as well as individual
conversations. It is a multiplatform application, it can be used on different operating systems for example mac, windows,
Linux, ios, android.
Snapchat: Snapchat is a mobile application for both Android as well as ios. One of the core concepts of Snapchat is that the
message sends to anyone whether it’s a videos message, text, or audio it will only last for a short period.
Hike: Hike messenger also known as hike sticker chat is a mobile application. Its main feature is that it comes with sticker
chatting which is unique as compared to other apps whatever text you want to send it can be converted into a sticker

What is Internet Relay Chat (IRC)?

The Internet Relay Chat is a protocol used for live interactive internal text messaging or simultaneous conferencing. It is
mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels, but also allows one-to-one communication
messages as well as chat and data transfer including file sharing.
IRC is the way of communicating in real time with people from all over the world. IRC has separate networks like IRC
servers, machines which allow users to connect to IRC.

Working of IRC
Generally, the user runs a program to connect to a server on one of the IPC nets.
The server relays information to and forms other servers on the same net.
Once connected to an IRC server on an IRC network, you will usually join one or more channels and converse with others
there.

Advantages
The advantages of IRC are as follows −
• IRC is decentralized − There is no signal company controlling IRC (in contrast to gchat or Facebook chat or AIM
chat etc.) Therefore, anyone can set up their own server and use it however they like.
• IRC’s channel paradigm is very flexible and robust because it allows for real-time discussion with up to hundreds of
people at once.
• Privacy − IRC has the concept of access levels and complex channels modes.
 • For example − users can be banned from channels based on their IP address.
• Meeting new peoples: Persons are able to meet and communicate with new people all over the world IRC.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of IRC are as follows −
• Informality: Hyperbole, Jokes not only may be misunderstood by some person in the chat.
• Chat bytes − The chat client line length and buffer limits mean that all discussion is necessarily limited to chat-sized
bites of words.
• Cyber bullying − Person within the chat may be picked on by others in the chat which may lead to depression.

Modern IRC
The modern IRC comprises of the following −
• Services: Network operated bots to facilitate registration of nicknames and channels, sending messages for offline
users and network operator functions.
• Proxy detection − Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to connect through an insecure proxy
server which is a denied connection. This proxy detection software is used by several networks.

News Group
A newsgroup is a collaboration about a particular subject. It’s organized into subject hierarchies, with title, subtitle, and
description. It starts when we post a question or comment on the internet as other start to reply to the post which keeps
growing as several people answer it. It’s the best way to share our views on any topic according to our interests. Eweka, New
hosting, Easynews, Tweaknews, and Giganews are examples of newsgroups. A newsgroup discussion was redistributed
through USENET, a WWW (World Wide Web) network of the news discussion groups. It uses the NNTP (Network News
Transfer Protocol).

Types of newsgroups
Generally, newsgroups are of two types:
• Moderated Newsgroups: This type of newsgroup is designed to discuss a designated person who decides which
postings should be allowed or removed. In this type of group, we can not post directly. Out will be sent to the
moderator of the newsgroup for approval. Once it is approved post will be published.
• Unmoderated Newsgroups: In this type of newsgroup, everyone is free to post and comment. No one is can remove
comments and posts. Our posts do not need approval. It will be published on the newsgroup without a moderator.

Hierarchies
Newsgroups are generally arranged in hierarchies so that it is easier to find the related groups. The commonly used
hierarchies are known as unset hierarchies. For example, rec.arts.sf.callofduty.games, here, rec.* is the top level hierarchy
and asterisk(*) is the wildcard character. The top-level hierarchy is a hierarchy defined by the prefix before the first dot.
Some commonly used hierarchies are:
• comp.*:- It represents the discussion of computer-related topics
• news.*:- It represents the discussion of Usenet itself
• sci.*:- It represents the discussion of scientific subjects
• rec.*:- It represents the discussion of recreational activities (e.g. games and hobbies)
• soc.*:- It represents the socializing and discussion of social issues.
• talk.*:- It represents the discussion of contentious issues such as religion and politics.
• misc.*:- It represents the miscellaneous discussion – anything which does not fit in the other hierarchies.
• alt.*:- It represents controversial or unusual topics
• biz.*:- It represents the discussion of business.
Here, comp.*, news.*, sci.*, rec.*, soc.*, talk.*, and misc.* hierarchies are known as Big 7.

Benefits of Newsgroup
Some of the benefits of newsgroups are:
• In newsgroups, people can easily join and leave discussions.
• It generally has a FAQ document.
• Data of newsgroups are stored on servers.
• The news on the newsgroups are not email-based, so there are no unwanted and redundant emails.