Subject : MATHEMATICS

Paper 1 : ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Chapter 5 : Polynomial Rings

Module 1 : Introduction to polynomials

Anjan Kumar Bhuniya

Department of Mathematics
Visva-Bharati; Santiniketan
West Bengal

E-mail: [email protected]

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 Introduction to polynomials

Learning Outcomes: 1. Formal definition of polynomials.

2. Degree of a nonzero polynomial.
3. Algebra of polynomials over a commutative ring with unity.
4. Units in the polynomial ring.

Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. A polynomial over R is defined as an infinite

sequence (a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · ) such that all but finitely many ai are 0, i.e. there is a nonnegative integer
n (depending on the sequence (a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · ) under consideration) such that ai = 0 for all i ≥ n;
and the set of all polynomials on R is denoted by R[x]. Thus

R[x] = {(a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · ) | ai ∈ R and ai = 0 for all but finitely many i}

We now define addition and multiplication on R[x] as follows:

(a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · ) + (b0 , b1 , b2 , · · · ) = (a0 + b0 , a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , · · · )

and (a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · ).(b0 , b1 , b2 , · · · ) = (c0 , c1 , c2 , · · · ),
i
X
where ci = ar bi−r for i = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
r=0

We leave it to the reader to verify that (R[x], +, .) is a commutative ring with unity (1, 0, 0, · · · ).
Also (0, 0, · · · ) is the zero element of R[x] and the additive inverse of (a0 , a1 , · · · ) is (−a0 , −a1 , · · · ).
The mapping
a −→ (a, 0, 0, · · · )

is a monomorphism of the ring R into R[x]. Thus, R can be considered as a subring of R[x] and we
no longer distinguish between a and (a, 0, 0, · · · ).
The particular element (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, · · · ) is called the indeterminate over R and is usually de-
noted by x. Then according to the definitions of addition and multiplication in R[x], we have

x2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, · · · )(0, 1, 0, 0, · · · ) = (0, 0, 1, 0, · · · )

x3 = (0, 1, 0, 0, · · · )(0, 1, 0, 0, · · · ) = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0, · · · )
..
.

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 and then

a1 x = (a1 , 0, 0, · · · )(0, 1, 0, · · · ) = (0, a1 , 0, 0, 0, · · · )

a2 x2 = (a2 , 0, 0, · · · )(0, 0, 1, 0, · · · ) = (0, 0, a2 , 0, 0, · · · )
..
..

Thus we have

(a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , an , 0, · · · ) = (a0 , 0, 0 · · · ) + (0, a1 , 0, 0, · · · ) + · · · + (0, · · · , 0, an , 0, · · · )

= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n .

The elements a0 , a1 , · · · , an are called the coefficients of the polynomial p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +

· · · + an xn . If an 6= 0, then an is called the leading coefficient and if the leading coefficient an = 1
then p(x) is called a monic polynomial.
We define the zero element (0, 0, 0, · · · ) of the ring R[x] as the zero polynomial, and it will
be denoted by 0. Thus a polynomial p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn is zero if and only if
a0 = a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.

Example 0.1. Consider the polynomial ring Z6 [x]. Then f (x) = [2]x3 and g(x) = [3]x2 are two
nonzero elements of Z6 [x] but f (x)g(x) = [0]. This shows that Z6 [x] is not an integral domain.

Now we characterize the rings R for which the associated polynomial ring R[x] is an integral
domain.

Theorem 0.2. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. Then R[x] is an integral domain if and
only if R is an integral domain.

Proof. First assume that R is an integral domain. Then R[x] is a commutative ring with 1. Let
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm be two nonzero polynomials in R[x].
Then, we may consider an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0; and so an bm 6= 0, since R is an integral domain. Then
the polynomial f (x)g(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn+m xn+m is such that cm+n = an bm 6= 0. This implies
that f (x)g(x) 6= 0. Thus, R[x] is an integral domain.
The converse follows directly.

In fact, even if R is a field then also R[x] is not a field, for x has no multiplicative inverse.

Definition 0.3. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn be a nonzero polynomial in R[x]. If an 6= 0

then an is called the leading coefficient of p(x); and n is called the degree of p(x). It is denoted by
deg f (x). In this case, an is called the leading coefficient of f (x). If the leading coefficient is 1, then
f (x) is called a monic polynomial.
We do not define degree of the zero polynomial.

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 During our school days we have seen that for two nonzero polynomials f (x) and g(x), deg f (x)g(x)
is equal to the sum deg f (x) + deg g(x). Recall that there we actually considered polynomials over
the field of all real numbers where there is no zero divisors. Now we show that this result may not
hold over an arbitrary ring. For example consider:

Example 0.4. Consider the polynomial ring Z6 [x]. Then f (x) = [2]x3 +x+[1] and g(x) = [3]x2 +[2]
are two nonzero polynomials of degree 3 and 2, respectively. Now f (x)g(x) = x3 + [3]x2 + [2]x + [2]
shows that deg f (x)g(x) < deg f (x) + deg g(x).

In general, we have the following inequality.

Theorem 0.5. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and f (x), g(x) be two nonzero polynomials
in R[x].

1. If f (x)g(x) 6= 0, then deg f (x)g(x) ≤ deg f (x) + deg g(x). Equality holds if R is an integral
domain.

2. If f (x) + g(x) 6= 0, then deg(f (x) + g(x)) ≤ max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}.

Proof. (i) If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm , then f (x)g(x) =

a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + · · · + an bm xn+m . If f (x)g(x) 6= 0, then at least one of the coefficients of
f (x)g(x) is nonzero. Suppose an bm 6= 0, then deg(f (x)g(x)) = n + m = deg f (x) + deg g(x). If
an bm = 0 (which can hold if R has zero divisors), then deg(f (x)g(x)) < n+m = deg f (x)+deg g(x).
(ii) If deg f (x) > deg g(x), then f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (am + bm )xm +
· · · + an xn shows that the leading coefficient of f (x) + g(x) is an 6= 0 and so deg(f (x) + g(x)) = n =
max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}. If deg f (x) = deg g(x), then f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · +
(an + bn )xn shows that either f (x) + g(x) = 0 or deg(f (x) + g(x)) ≤ n = max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}
( = or < accordingly an + bn 6= or = 0).

Now we characterize the units in a polynomial ring R[x].

Theorem 0.6. Let R be a commutative ring with 1. Then f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x] is

a unit if and only if a0 is a unit and ai is nilpotent in R for all i = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Proof. First assume that a0 is a unit and a1 , a2 , · · · , an are nilpotents in R. Then a1 x, a2 x2 , · · · , an xn

are nilpotents and so a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn is a nilpotent in R[x]. Since a0 is a unit, so it follows
that a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn is a unit.
We prove the converse by induction on the deg f (x). If deg f (x) = 0, then the result follows
directly. Let us make our induction hypothesis that the result holds for every nonzero polynomial

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of degree less than n. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn be a unit in R[x]. Then there is a polynomial
b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm ∈ R[x] such that

(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn )(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm ) = 1.

This implies that

a0 b0 = 1 (0.1)
a0 b1 + a1 b0 = 0 (0.2)
a0 b 2 + a1 b1 a2 b0 = 0 (0.3)
..
.
an−2 bm + an−1 bm−1 + an bm−2 = 0 (0.4)
an−1 bm + an bm−1 = 0 (0.5)
an b m = 0 (0.6)

We multiply an to both sides of (0.5) and get

a2n bm−1 = 0.

Again multiplying a2n to both sides of (0.4), we get

a3n bm−2 = 0.

Proceeding similarly we get am+1

n b0 = 0. Since, by (0.1), b0 is a unit, so am+1
n = 0. Thus an is a
nilpotent and so is an xn . Then it follows that g(x) = f (x) − an xn = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an−1 xn−1 is a
unit, since f (x) is a unit. Since deg g(x) < n, so a0 is a unit and a1 , a2 , · · · , an−1 are nilpotents in
R, by the induction hypothesis. Thus the result follows.

1 Summary
• A polynomial over a commutative ring R with 1 is defined as an infinite sequence (a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · )
such that al but finitely many ai are 0.

• The set R[x] of all polynomials is a commutative ring with unity, where

◦ the zero element is (0, 0, 0, · · · );

◦ the unity is (1, 0, 0, · · · );

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 ◦ −(a0 , a1 , · · · ) = (−a0 , −a1 , · · · )

• The particular element (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, · · · ) is called the indeterminate over R and is usually
denoted by x.

• A ring R is not an integral domain if and only if so is R[x].

• For no commutative ring R with 1, the polynomial ring R[x] is a field.

• If p(x) ∈ R[x] is a nonzero polynomial then the largest integer n such that the coefficient of
xn is nonzero, is called the degree of p(x).

• Let f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] be two nonzero polynomials. If F is an integral domain, then f (x)g(x) 6=
0 and deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).

• A nonzero polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn over a commutative ring with 1 is a unit

if and only if a0 is a unit and ai is nilpotent in R for all i = 1, 2, · · · , n.