Table of Contents

Decline of the Mughal Empire ............................................................................................................2

Brief Introduction of the Mughal Empire .....................................................................................................2
Aurangzeb (Alamgir I) (1658-1707) .................................................................................................................................. 2

Later Mughal Emperors and their Policies....................................................................................................3

Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam I) (1707-12) ............................................................................................................................ 3
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Farrukh Siyar (1713-19) .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Muhammad Shah (1719-48) ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Alamgir II (1754-1759) ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Shah Alam II (1759-1806) ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Akbar Shah II (1806-1837) ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857) ..................................................................................................................................... 9

Foreign Invasions ......................................................................................................................................10

Nadir Shah’s Invasion ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Effect of invasions ........................................................................................................................................................... 11

Decline of the Mughal Empire ...................................................................................................................11

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire .................................................................................................................. 11

Mughal Emperors and Important Wazirs ...................................................................................................15

Summary...................................................................................................................................................17

Author: Vishwjeet Kawar

Protégé of PMF IAS

Suggestions / Feedback: [email protected] | https://t.me/vishwjeetkawar

 Decline of the Mughal Empire

Brief Introduction of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. On their mother's side, they were
related to Genghis Khan, who ruled the Mongol tribes, China, and Central Asia. On their father's
side, they were the heirs of Timur, who ruled Iran, Iraq, and present-day Turkey.
• Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana (Uzbekistan)
in 1494 when he was only 12. He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of
another Mongol group, the Uzbegs.
• After years of wandering, Babur seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526, in the first battle of Panipat, he
defeated the last ruler of the Delhi sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and established the Mughal
Empire in India.
• The Mughal Empire under the Babur could not crush the Afghans and Rajputs completely but
paved the way for establishing an all-India empire.
• Akbar, the third ruler of the Mughal Empire, not only consolidated but also expanded the empire.
During his rule, the Mughal Empire became an important factor in Indian politics.

Aurangzeb (Alamgir I) (1658-1707)

• Aurangzeb was the sixth emperor of the Mughal dynasty. He ruled from 1658 until his death in
1707. He followed a policy of religious intolerance and non-conciliation and didn’t try to make
peace with other rulers.
• Despite Aurangzeb’s many harmful policies, the Mughal administration was still quite efficient,
and the Mughal army was quite strong at the time of his death in 1707.
• Aurangzeb inherited a vast empire, but he pursued a policy of expansion. He conquered new
territories in the south, such as Bijapur and Golkonda, as well as in the North-East. However,
governing such a vast empire from a central authority proved challenging, and the decline of the
Mughal Empire began during his reign.
• After his death, his successors were unable to maintain the unity of the vast empire, ultimately
leading to its downfall in 1857.

Later Mughal Emperors and their Policies

Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam I) (1707-12)

• On Aurangzeb’s death, his three sons fought among themselves for the throne, and Azam Shah
became the Mughal Emperor for three months. Finally, the 65-year-old Bahadur Shah emerged
victorious and became emperor from 1707-12.
• Bahadur Shah reversed some of the narrow-minded policies and measures adopted by Aurangzeb.
 He adopted a policy of religious tolerance. There was no destruction of temples in his reign.
 He followed a policy of compromise and conciliation with other rulers.
• During his reign, the administration was further deteriorated. The position of state finances
worsened because of his reckless grants of jagirs and promotions.
 Jagir was a piece of land assigned to Mughal officials (Jagirdar). The revenue from Jagir went
to the Jagirdar (not the state) for their services to the state.

Policy with Other Rulers

• Rajput: In the beginning, Bahadur Shah tried to gain greater control over the Rajput states but later
adopted a policy of conciliation.
• Sikh: Bahadur Shah had tried to conciliate the rebellious Sikhs by making peace with Guru Gobind
Singh and giving him a high Mansab (rank). After the Guru’s death, he took strong measures and
led a campaign against the rebel Banda Bahadur.

Guru Gobind Singh (1664-1708)

• Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth and last Guru of the Sikhs. In the late seventeenth century,
he laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure).
• After his death, the institution of Guruship came to an end, and the leadership of the Sikhs was
passed to his trusted disciple Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur).
• Maratha: Bahadur Shah’s policy towards the Maratha sardars (chiefs) was a half-hearted
conciliation.
 He granted them the Sardeshmukhi (one-tenth of the revenue) of the Deccan but didn’t grant
the Chauth (one-fourth of the revenue).
 He also did not recognise Shahu as the rightful Maratha King. Thus, he let Tara Bai and Shahu
fight for supremacy over the Maratha Kingdom.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were two important sources of revenue for the Maratha.

Chauth (Chauthai)
• Chauth was a type of revenue collected from the external territories protected by the Maratha
rulers. It used to be one-fourth (Chauth) of the total income of the taxpayer.

Sardeshmukhi
• Sardeshmukhi was the 10% of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector/zamindar
(Sardeshmukh) in the Deccan.
• It was collected from the district in which the Marathas had the hereditary rights of rule. Hence,
it was a tribute paid to the king.
 Shahu
• Shahu (grandson of Shivaji) had been held as a prisoner by Aurangzeb since 1689. He was
released in 1707 following Aurangzeb's death. Shortly after, a civil war broke out between Shahu
(of Satara) and his aunt Tara Bai (of Kolhapur).

Tarabai
• Tarabai was the regent of the Maratha Empire from 1700 until 1708. She carried out an anti-
Mughal struggle in the name of her son Shivaji II after the death of her husband, Rajaram.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

• After the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712, the Empire plunged into civil war again. During this time,
a new element entered in Mughal politics. Instead of just royal princes, ambitious nobles became
the direct contenders for power. They used princes as tools to seize authority.
• In the civil war following Bahadur Shah's death, Jahandar Shah won because he was supported by
Zulfiqar Khan, the most powerful noble of the time.
• During Jahandar Shah’s reign, the administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfiqar Khan, who
had become his wazir (Prime Minister).

Zulfiqar Khan
• Zulfiqar Khan rapidly reversed Aurangzeb’s policies.
 He abolished the Jizyah.
 He conciliated the Rajput rajas and the Maratha sardars. Only towards Banda Bahadur and the
Sikhs did he continue the old policy of suppression.
• During Zulfiqar Khan’s reign, the administration further deteriorated.
• He tried to improve the finances of the Empire:
 He checked the expansion of the Jagir system.
 He started the Ijarah system of land revenue collection.
 Jizyah was a tax levied on the non-Muslim population for their protection by Muslim rulers.
 It was abolished by the third Mughal emperor Akbar in 1579. However, in 1679, Aurangzeb re-
imposed jizya on non-Muslim subjects.

Ijarah system

• Under this system, the government contracted with revenue farmers or middlemen to collect the
land revenue. Revenue farmers paid a fixed amount to the government but were allowed to collect
as much as they wanted from peasants. In the long run, this system decreased the government's
revenue and increased peasants' oppression.
 The Ijarah System (a lease or contract for paying a fixed amount to the treasury) method of
revenue collection was used by Delhi sultans.
 It was abandoned by Sher Shah and Akbar but was revived during Jahangir's reign.
 It was widespread in 17th and 18th century polities and was initially even used by the "Company's"
administrators.

Policy with Maratha Rulers

• In 1711, Daud Khan Panni (deputy governor of Deccan) concluded an agreement with Maratha King
Shahu, and Zulfiqar Khan confirmed the agreement. This agreement gave the Maratha ruler the
right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of Deccan. However, Mughal officials would collect
these taxes and transfer them to the Marathas.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

• In 1713, Jahandar Shah was defeated by his nephew, Farrukh Siyar. The victory was mainly due to
the support of the Saiyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Baraha. Abdullah Khan (the
elder brother) was appointed as the Wazir, and Husain Ali Khan (the younger brother) was
appointed as the Mir Bakshi.
 Mir Bakshi (Bakhshi) was the head of the military department in the Mughal period.
• Farrukh Siyar defeated the Banda Bahadur in 1715 and was put to death in 1716. The Saiyid brothers
soon acquired dominant control over the affairs of the state, but Farrukh Siyar wanted to exercise
personal authority. Thus, there was a power struggle between the Farrukh Siyar and Saiyid brothers.
• In the end, in 1719, the Saiyid brothers deposed and killed the emperor with the help of Balaji
Vishwanath (Peshwa). This was the first time in Mughal history that an emperor was killed by a
noble.
• In Farrukh Siyar's place, the Saiyid brothers raised two young princes to the throne, who died of
consumption. The Saiyid brothers now made the 18-year-old Muhammad Shah the Emperor of
India. The three successors of Farrukh Siyar were mere puppets.
 Farrukh Siyar’s Farmans
• In 1717, Farrukh Siyar issued three farmans, which granted the English East India Company (EIC)
the duty-free export and import of their goods.

Saiyid Brothers (King Makers) (1713-20)

• Saiyid brothers Adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Jizyah was abolished after Farrukh Siyar
acceded to the throne. The Pilgrim tax was abolished in several places. They conciliated with the
Rajputs and the Marathas.
• Administration was further deteriorated and paralysed at all levels. Lawlessness and disorder
spread everywhere. The financial position of the state deteriorated rapidly. As a result, the salaries
of the officials and soldiers could not be paid regularly.

Policy with Maratha Rulers

• Saiyid brothers signed an agreement with King Shahu. Shahu was given:
 Swarajya (All the territories that were once part of Shivaji's kingdom).
 Right to collect the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan (Aurangabad,
Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad and Khandesh).
• In return, Shahu agreed:
 To pay an annual tribute of 10 lakh rupees.
 To support them in the Deccan with 15,000 soldiers.
 To prevent rebellion and plundering in the Deccan.

End of King Makers

• A group of nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk were jealous of the growing powers of the Saiyid
brothers and began to conspire against them. These nobles declared that the Saiyids were following
anti-Mughal and anti-Islamic policies.
• Emperor Muhammad Shah supported these nobles because he wanted to free himself from the
control of the two brothers. In 1720, they assassinated Husain Ali Khan, the younger of the two
brothers. Abdullah Khan tried to fight back but was defeated near Agra.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48)

• At the beginning of Muhammad Shah’s rule:
 The people still respected the Mughal rulers.
 The Mughal army, especially their artillery, was still strong.
 The administration in North India was getting worse but not completely collapsed.
 The Maratha leaders were still confined to the South, and the Rajput rulers were still loyal to the
Mughal dynasty.
• Muhammad Shah was named ‘Rangeela’ due to his luxurious lifestyle. His long rule of nearly thirty
years was the last chance to save the Empire. But he was not the man of the moment. Instead of
 supporting able wazirs such as Nizam-ul-Mulk, he fell under the evil influence of corrupt and
worthless nobles.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk had become the wazir in 1722 and vigorously attempted to reform the
administration. As Muhammad Shah consistently obstructed his efforts, he gave up his office and
established the state of Hyderabad in the Deccan. His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty
and virtue from the Empire.
• With this, the physical break-up of the Mughal Empire had begun. Many strong nobles started
creating their own independent states, such as Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal; however, they
still owed loyalty to the emperor in Delhi.

[Mains Practice – Unlocking Creativity] Imagine you were the emperor of the Mughal Empire in
the 1720s. What measures would you have taken to prevent the fall of the empire?

Ahmad Shah (1748-1754)

• Ahmad Shah Bahadur was the fourteenth Mughal emperor. He inherited a much weakened Mughal
state for six years (1748-54).
• Ahmad Shah Bahadur was an ineffective ruler and was strongly influenced by his mother, Udham
Bai (Queen Mother). During his rule, the administration was in the hands of Udham Bai, who ruled
the state with the help of her paramour, Javed Khan.
 Javed Khan was an effective regent during the reign of Ahmad Shah Bahadur. He opposed
the authority of the Safdar Jang (Wazir from 1748-53), who killed him in 1752.
• Ahmad Shah’s administrative weakness led to the rise of the Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk (1754-60).
• In 1754, Imad-ul-Mulk deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur and later blinded him and his mother. Ahmad
Shah Bahadur spent the remaining years in prison and died in 1775.

Alamgir II (1754-1759)
• The 55-year-old prince, Aziz-ud-Din, had been in prison since 1714 when his father, emperor
Jahandar Shah, was overthrown by Farrukhsiyar. Imad-ul-Mulk released him from prison and
crowned him emperor with the regnal name Alamgir II.
• Alamgir II had no experience in administration or warfare. He was a puppet Mughal emperor with all
power vested with Imad-ul-Mulk.
 From 1738 to 1767, Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded the Mughal Empire several
times, which ruined the empire's finances and the country’s economic life.
 The Battle of Plassey (1757) was fought during the reign of Alamgir II.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

• Shah Alam II ascended the throne in 1759. He was a man of some ability and ample courage. But
after the foreign invasions, the empire was beyond redemption.
• In 1764, Shah Alam II joined Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal) and Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of
Avadh) in declaring war upon the British East India Company (EIC). The British defeated Shah Alam
II at the Battle of Buxar.
  The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the battle of Buxar (1764) were fought during the reign
of Shah Alam II.

Under the Maratha’s Protection

• According to the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Shah Alam II lived for six years at Allahabad as a
pensioner of the EIC. He left Allahabad in May 1771 and returned to Delhi in 1772 under the
protection of Mahadji Scindia (Maratha Sardar).
 An Afghan, Gulam Qader, during Mahadji Scindia’s temporary evacuation of Delhi, blinded Shah
Alam in 1788.

Under the Protection of the British

• After the British defeated Daulat Rao Scindia (Maratha) in 1803, Shah Alam II again accepted
British protection. The Mughal emperor no longer possessed the military might to enforce his will,
but he commanded respect as a dignified member of the House of Timur throughout the country.
The nawabs and subahdars still sought formal sanction from the emperor on their accession. They
struck coins and read the Khutba (Friday sermons) in his name.
• The British, not yet strong enough to claim sovereignty on their own, kept Shah Alam as a puppet
till his death. From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal Emperors were reduced to mere pensioners of
foreign rule.
 After 1759, the Mughal monarchy didn't have military power. Still, it continued to exist due to
the strong influence of the Mughal dynasty on the minds of Indian people, who saw it as a symbol
of the country's political unity.

Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)

• Akbar Shah II was the nineteenth Mughal emperor from 1806 to 1837. He had limited real power
due to the growing influence of the British in India through the East India Company (EIC).
• During Akbar’s regime in 1835, the EIC discontinued calling itself a subject of the Mughal Emperor
and issuing coins in his name.
• Akbar II sent Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador to Britain and gave him the title of Raja.
• Akbar II started the Hindu–Muslim unity festival 'Phool Walon Ki Sair'.

Phool Waalon Ki Sair

• Phool Waalon Ki Sair, or the procession of the florists, is the flower festival celebrated in
memory of a Mughal prince, Mirza Jahangir (son of Akbar Shah II).
• It is a unique festival when Hindus and Muslims together offer the floral chaadar and pankha at
the Dargah of Khwaja Bakhtiar Kaaki (Muslim Sufi saint) in Mehrauli. The floral pankha and
chhatra (canopy) are also offered at the ancient temple of Devi Yogmaya in Mehrauli.
• The festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II to fulfil the vow of his Begum Mumtaz Mahal.

Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857)

• Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar) was the twentieth and last Mughal emperor from 1837 to
1857. For most of his rule, he remained a pensioner of the East India Company.
• After the outbreak of the revolt of 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar assumed the leadership of the
Uprising as the Emperor of Hindustan.
• When the Red Fort was captured by the British, Bahadur Shah Zafar was taken as a prisoner. Charged
with rebellion, treason and murder, Bahadur Zafar, along with his family, was transported to
Rangoon, where he died on 7 November 1862.
• With the British declaration of Queen Victoria on November 1, 1858, the Mughal Empire ended.

Foreign Invasions

Nadir Shah’s Invasion

Nadir Shah

• Nadir Shah founded the Afsharid dynasty of Iran (Persia). He ruled Iran from 1736 to 1747.
• By 1736, Nadir Shah gained control of most of present-day Afghanistan. He was assassinated in
1747 and was succeeded by Ahmad Shah Durrani as the ruler of Afghanistan.
 Ahmad Shah Durrani is often regarded as the founder of the modern Afghanistan.

Invasion
• India’s wealth attracted Nadir Shah. Due to neglected defences on the northwest frontier of India,
Nadir Shah entered Indian territory without opposition in 1738.
• The armies of Nadir Shah and Muhammad Shah met at Karnal (Haryana) on 13 February 1739.
Nadir Shah defeated the Mughal army, captured the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, and
plundered the rich of Delhi. He carried away the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock
Throne of Shahjahan.
• Nadir Shah compelled Muhammad Shah to cede all the empire’s provinces west of the river Indus
to him. The loss of Kabul and the areas west of the Indus once again opened the empire to the
threat of invasions from the North-West.

Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions

• Ahmed Shah Abdali (Durrani) was one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah. After the death of
Nadir Shah, Durrani established his rule over Afghanistan.
• Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded and plundered northern India eight times between 1748 and 1767.
The Mughals tried to buy peace in 1751-52 by ceding Punjab to him. Abdali captured Delhi in
1757 and left behind an Afghan caretaker to watch over the Mughal emperor. Before his return,
Abdali recognised:
 Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor.
 Najib-ud-Daulah (Rohilla Chief), as Mir Bakshi of the empire, was to act as Abdali’s personal
‘supreme agent’.
• In 1758, Raghunath Rao (Maratha sardar):
  Expelled Najib-ud-Daulah from Delhi
 Captured Punjab.
• In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India to take revenge on the Marathas. In 1761, Abdali
defeated the Marathas in the third Battle of Panipat and thus gave a big blow to their ambition
of ruling over the entire country. However, Abdali did not establish a new Afghan kingdom in India.

Effect of invasions
 The foreign invasions caused immense damage to the Mughal Empire in terms of prestige and
finance.
 It ruined the empire's finances and the country’s economic life.
 The administration was paralysed. The impoverished nobles began oppressing the peasantry to
recover their lost fortunes.
 By 1761, the Mughal Empire had practically ceased to exist as an all-India Empire. It only remained
as the Kingdom of Delhi.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

• During Aurangzeb's rule, the unity and stability of the empire experienced disruptions. However, by
his death in 1707:
 The Mughal administration remained efficient.
 The state's finances were better than the later period.
 The Mughal dynasty continued to hold respect within the country.
• After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire started declining and disintegrating in the first half
of the 18th century.
 In 1724, the Wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk, left his position and founded the state of Hyderabad.
 The physical break-up of the Mughal Empire began, and many strong nobles started creating
their own independent states; however, they still owed loyalty to the emperor in Delhi.
• In the second half of the 18th century, after the third battle of Panipat, the Mughal empire was
reduced to a few square miles around Delhi.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Delhi was occupied by the British and the Mughal Emperor
was reduced to the status of a mere pensioner of a foreign power. Finally, in 1857, Mughal rule
was ended.

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire ruled over a big part of India for nearly three centuries (1526-1857), but it was
significantly weakened by the first half of the 18th century. The decline of the Mughal empire was
a long-drawn-out process influenced by many factors. Some of the factors are:
Strong Rule of Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb was a strong ruler with remarkable ability. However, he lacked the necessary social,
economic, and political insight. The decline of the Mughal Empire started during his reign.

Policy of expansion

• Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of expansion. He did not accept
Maratha’s demand for regional autonomy, even when it was difficult to rule the country under
central political authority. The administrative inconvenience encouraged local officials to defy
central authority and dream of independence.
• Aurangzeb's successors were not strong rulers to maintain the vast empire and suppress the
challenges posed by regional rulers. Hence, after the Aurangzeb’s death, many regional states
emerged.

Campaign Against Maratha

• Aurangzeb's campaign against the Marathas extended over many years. This long campaign:
 Drained the resources of his Empire.
 Deteriorated the administration.
 Undermined the prestige of the Empire and its army.
 Led to his absence from northern India for over twenty-five years and the neglect of the
northwest frontier.
 Encouraged provincial and local officials to defy central authority.
 Ruined the trade and industry of the Deccan.
 From 1698, Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns against the Maratha.
Religious Policy

• During the early Mughal rulers, the Mughal state was secular. Its stability was based on:
 The policy of non-interference with the religious beliefs of the people
 Fostering friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims
 Opening the doors of the highest offices of the state to nobles and chiefs from different regions.
• Aurangzeb's religious policy towards the Hindu rulers seriously damaged the stability of the
Mughal Empire.
 Aurangzeb’s successors speedily revered the religious policy of Aurangzeb.

Wars of succession
• In the absence of any fixed rule of succession, the Mughal dynasty was plagued by a civil war after
the death of a king. This resulted in significant loss of life and property and caused the nobility to
transform into warring factions.
• Many of the local chiefs and officials utilised the conditions to:
 Consolidate their own position.
 Acquire greater autonomy.
 Make their offices hereditary.

Mughal Traditions of Succession

 The Mughals did not follow the rule of primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited his
father’s estate. Instead, Mughals followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary
inheritance, which involves dividing the inheritance among all the sons.

Personalities of Later Mughals

• In an autocratic, monarchical system of government, the character and personality of the ruler
play a crucial role.
• After Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperors were not very capable. They were more interested in luxury
and didn't have strong leadership qualities. As a result, they couldn't stop the gradual shifting of
political and economic authority into the hands of provincial governors.

Growing Selfishness of Nobles

• During the later Mughal period, the character of nobility declined. They became ease-loving and
fond of luxury. Their selfishness and lack of devotion to the states led to:
 Corruption in the administration.
 Forming groups and fighting each other to promote self-interest.
 Monopolizing the office and making it hereditary: It closed the door of nobility to the able,
efficient, and strong person to rise to the ranks of nobility.

Competition among different groups of nobles

• Nobles were divided into two major factions, the Iranis and Turanis (nobles of Turkish descent).
 • For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or the other
of these two powerful groups.

Collapse of Administration and Finance

• During the 18th century, the empire experienced a reduction in its territorial boundaries and
witnessed the collapse of its administrative structure. Corruption and bribery, indiscipline and
inefficiency, disobedience and disloyalty prevailed on a large scale among officials at all levels. Unruly
zamindars openly defied central authority.
• Emperors tried to appease nobles by awarding them jagirs from khalisah lands (crown lands). The
reduced Khalisah land resulted in a decline in the empire's revenue.
• During the 18th century, the Central Government was often on the verge of bankruptcy. The lack
of finance ultimately affected the strength of the military. The weakened military could not curb
the ambitious nobles and defend the empire from foreign aggression.

Jagirdari Crisis
• Aurangzeb expanded the empire in Deccan. This led to a sudden increase in nobles (Jagirdars). This
increase in the number of jagirdars and shortage of jagir (land assigned to Mughal officials) led
to a crisis in the functioning of the Jagirdari system. The crisis in the Jagirdari system led to the
erosion of the political structure of the empire.

Consequences of the Jagirdari Crisis

 Nobles tried to maximise their jagir income, often at the expense of peasants.
 They attempted to make jagirs hereditary.
 They took Khalisah (crown lands) to cover their expenses, worsening the government's financial
crisis.
 They reduced military spending by not maintaining their full quota of troops and thus weakened
the Empire's armed forces.

Jagirdari System
• It is a system of giving land to the Mughal officers in lieu of cash payment.
• During the Mughals, the land was divided in two groups:
1. Khalisah (Crown’s land): The revenue from Khalisah land went to the state treasury.
2. Jagir: It was a piece of land assigned to mughal officials (Jagirdar). The revenue from Jagir
went to the Jagirdar for their services to the state.

Agrarian Crisis
• The revenue collection system developed by the Mughals was fundamentally flawed. It harmed
the peasants and destroyed the revenue-paying capacity of the region.
• Because nobles' jagirs could transfer frequently, nobles:
 Didn't see the need for long-term agricultural planning.
 Aimed to extract as much as they could.
• Because of this, peasants had to protest against the exploitation. They did this in various ways.
 In many areas, the peasants left the land to avoid paying taxes.
 Sometimes, their discontent led to uprisings by groups like the Satnamies, Jats, and Sikhs. These
revolts weakened the stability and strength of the empire.

External Challenges
• A series of foreign invasions gave the final blow to the Mughal Empire. Attacks by Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali:
 Drained the wealth of the Empire.
 Ruined its trade and industry in the North.
 Destroyed its military power.

Emergence of British
• The emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival of the Mughal
Empire. The British who arrived in India had an advantage because they came from societies with
more advanced economic systems and greater progress in science and technology.

Different interpretations
• According to Irfan Habib, as pressure on limited resources increased, the agrarian system
became more exploitative. This led to peasant revolts that disrupted the stability of the empire.
• According to Satish Chandra, the crisis in Jagirdari system was the basic reason for the downfall
of Mughal Empire.
• The New Cambridge History of India disagrees with Habib's view. It sees the Mughal decline as
a result of the Mughal system's success, not its failure. It argues that the zamindars, who rebelled
against the Mughals and led to their downfall, were wealthy landowners, not poor farmers.
• After the collapse of the Mughal Empire, several independent states emerged in all parts of the
Empire. The Mughal Empire did not survive, but its institutions and traditions continued in the
regional states and British provinces.

[Mains Practice – Opinions Explored] According to you, which factor contributed the most to
the decline of the Mughals?

Mughal Emperors and Important Wazirs

Mughal Emperors Wazirs

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Asad Khan (1675-1707)
Bahadur Shah (1707-12) Munim Khan (1707-11)
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) Zulfiqar Khan (1712-13)
Farrukhsiyar (1713-19) Abdullah Khan (1713-20)
Muhammad Shah (1719-48) Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1722-24)
Ahmad Shah (1748-54) Safdar Jang (1748-53)
Alamgir II (1754-59) Imad-ul-Mulk (1754-60)
 Shah Alam II (1760-1806) Shuja-ud-Daula (1760-75)

Safdar Jang (1748-53)

• Safdar Jang was the second Nawab of Awadh and a major figure at the Mughal court during the
declining years of the Mughal Empire. He provided valuable assistance to the weakened Emperor
Muhammad Shah, who gave him the title of Safdar Jang.
• When Ahmad Shah Bahadur ascended the throne at Delhi in 1748, Safdar Jang became his Wazir-
ul-Malik-i-Hindustan. However, court politics eventually overtook him, and he was dismissed in
1753. He died in October 1754 in Sultanpur near Faizabad.

Imad-ul-Mulk (1754-60)
• Imad-ul-Mulk, a grandson of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I, was recommended by Nawab Safdar Jung
to be appointed as Mir Bakshi in 1752.
• Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur selected Imad-ul-Mulk to counter the influence of the powerful
Safdar Jang.
• With the help of Maratha, Imad-ul-Mulk emerged as the de facto ruler of Delhi. He had collected
1,500,000 dams but refused to pay salaries to the Mughal army and imperial officials, estranging him
from the emperor.
• Ahmad Shah Bahadur declared the reinstatement of Safdar Jang as his Grand Wazir and tried to
remove Imad-ul-Mulk from the imperial court. This caused Imad-ul-Mulk to fight against the
Mughal emperor.

Currency System

• The Mughal currency system may be termed as trimetallic. Coins were made up of three metals:
1. Silver (Rupaya): The silver coin was the base of the currency.
2. Gold (Muhr/Mohur): It was mainly used for hoarding and giving gifts.
3. Copper (Dam): The most common coin used for small transactions.

Imad-ul-Mulk vs Mughal Emperor

• With the help of Maratha, Imad-ul-Mulk defeated Ahmad Shah Bahadur's army at Sikandrabad
in May 1754 and captured members of the emperor's household, including 8,000 women. Ahmad
Shah Bahadur fled toward Delhi while the ailing Safdar Jang fled to Awadh.
• Imad-ul-Mulk, with the support of Raghunath Rao, proceeded to Delhi, deposed Ahmad Shah
Bahadur on 2 June 1754 and was imprisoned at the Salimgarh Fort (Delhi) in December. Imad-ul-
Mulk released Prince Aziz-ud-Din from prison and crowned him emperor with the regnal name
Alamgir II.

Afghan Invasion

• Afghan emperor Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India in 1756 on the invitation of Mughlani Begum
(who ruled Punjab as regent of his infant son) to defeat Sikh rebels in Punjab. Durrani occupied
Delhi in January 1757 and imprisoned Emperor Alamgir II.
• In April 1757, Durrani reinstalled Alamgir II as the titular emperor and began his return to
Afghanistan. However, the actual control of Delhi was given to Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla Chief), the
Mir Bakshi of the Mughal army who had defected to support Ahmad Shah's invasion.
• After the departure of the Afghans from Delhi, Imad-ul-Mulk, who had been paying the Marathas
a tribute, invited them to remove the Rohilas (the inhabitants of Rohilkhand) from Delhi. In the
ensuing Battle of Delhi, a 40,000-strong Maratha army led by Raghunath Rao expelled Najib-ud-
Daulah.
• The Marathas, now the de facto rulers of Delhi, appointed Antaji Mankeshwar (Maratha Sardar) as
the governor and retained Alamgir II as the emperor.

Summary

• Babur, the first Mughal emperor, defeated Ibrahim Lodi (the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate) and
established Mughal rule in India in 1526. Successive rulers consolidated and expanded the empire.
• Aurangabad inherited a large empire but still followed a policy of expansion. Controlling a vast
empire from a single centre became a challenge, and the decline of the Mughal empire started
during his reign.
• Aurangzeb's successors were not able administrators and strong rulers. They could not hold the
unity of a vast empire, which ended in 1857.

Policies of Mughal Emperors

Religious Policy Policy with other Administration Finance
Rulers
Aurangzeb Intolerance Non-conciliation Efficient Strong
(1658-1707)
Bahadur Shah Tolerance  Compromise & Deteriorated Worsened
(1707-12) conciliation.
 Granted
Sardeshmukhi to
Marathas
Jahandar Tolerance  Conciliation Deteriorated Tried to improve
Shah  Granted by checking the
(1712-13) Sardeshmukhi and expansion of
Chauth to Marathas. jagir.
Farrukh Siyar Tolerance  Conciliation Deteriorated Deteriorated
(1713-19)  Granted
Sardeshmukhi and
Chauth to Marathas.
 Given Swarajya to
Marathas.
Foreign Invasions
• Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler, invaded India in 1738. In the Battle of Karnal in 1739, he defeated
the armies of the Mughal emperor, Muhammad Shah. He looted Delhi and carried away the Koh-
i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne of Shahjahan. He also compelled Muhammad Shah to
cede to him all the empire’s provinces west of the river Indus.
• After the death of Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah Abdali (Durrani) established his rule over Afghanistan.
He invaded and plundered northern India eight times between 1748 and 1767. In 1761, he
defeated the Marathas in the third Battle of Panipat and thus gave a big blow to their ambition of
ruling over the entire country. However, he did not establish a new Afghan kingdom in India.
• After these invasions, the Mughal Empire practically ceased to exist as an all-India Empire. It only
remained as the Kingdom of Delhi.
• Many regional rulers took advantage of the collapse of the Mughal Empire and established their
independent states in all parts of the Empire.

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The decline of the Mughal empire was a long, drawn-out process influenced by many factors.
Some of the factors are:

Strong Rule of Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of expansion. He did not accept
Maratha’s demand for regional autonomy, even when ruling the country under central political
authority was difficult. The administrative inconvenience encouraged local officials to defy central
authority and dream of independence. Aurangzeb's successors were not strong rulers to maintain
the vast empire and suppress the challenges posed by regional rulers.

Wars of succession

• Due to the absence of a fixed rule of succession, the Mughal dynasty faced a civil war after the
death of a king. This led to significant loss of life and property and caused the nobility to split into
warring factions.

Personalities of Later Mughals

• After Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperors were not very capable. They were more interested in luxury
and didn't have strong leadership qualities. As a result, they couldn't stop the gradual shifting of
political and economic authority into the hands of provincial governors.

Growing Selfishness of Nobles

• During the later Mughal period, the character of nobility declined. They became ease-loving and
fond of luxury.

Collapse of Administration and Finance

• During the eighteenth century, the empire experienced a reduction in its territorial boundaries and
witnessed the collapse of its administrative structure. Corruption and bribery, indiscipline and
inefficiency, disobedience and disloyalty prevailed on a large scale among officials at all levels.
Unruly zamindars openly defied central authority.

Jagirdari Crisis

• Aurangzeb expanded the empire in Deccan. This led to a sudden increase in nobles (Jagirdars).
This increase in the number of jagirdars and shortage of jagir led to a crisis in the functioning of
the Jagirdari system. The crisis in the Jagirdari system led to the erosion of the empire's political
structure.

Agrarian Crisis

• The revenue collection system developed by the Mughals was fundamentally flawed. It harmed
the peasants and destroyed the revenue-paying capacity of the region. The peasants protested
against their exploitation, which weakened the stability and strength of the empire.

External Challenges

• A series of foreign invasions gave the final blow to the Mughal Empire. Attacks by Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali drained the wealth of the Empire and destroyed its military power.

Emergence of British

• The emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival of the Mughal
Empire. The British who arrived in India had an advantage because they came from societies with
more advanced economic systems and greater progress in science and technology.