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1, 2 Lectures

The document provides an overview of histology and its methods of study. It defines histology as the study of tissues and how cells within tissues are arranged and structured to perform specialized functions. Histology relies on microscopic examination of thin tissue sections to study cellular and extracellular components at the microscopic level. Understanding normal tissue structure is important for identifying abnormal or diseased tissues.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
46 views28 pages

1, 2 Lectures

The document provides an overview of histology and its methods of study. It defines histology as the study of tissues and how cells within tissues are arranged and structured to perform specialized functions. Histology relies on microscopic examination of thin tissue sections to study cellular and extracellular components at the microscopic level. Understanding normal tissue structure is important for identifying abnormal or diseased tissues.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

BASIC HISTOLOGY
Lectures 1&2
Histology & Its Methods of Study

Prepared by: Ahmad Bani Yassin

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

• Histology : ‫في علم االنسجة‬


،‫سوف نهتم بدراسة التـركيب الطبيعي ألنسجة الجسم املختلفة‬
- Histos → tissue ‫وبتالي فإن أي تغي ـرفي الت ـركيب الطبيعي لهذه االنسجة قد يكون‬
So, study of tissue.
- logy → study of .‫مـؤشـرا يدل على وجود حالة مرضية تتطلب ال ـعـ ـالج إن وجد‬

Might be better defined as the study of the structure of tissues.

• Histology is the study of the tissues of the body and how these tissues are arranged to constitute organs.
• Histology involves all aspects of tissue biology, with the focus on: -
how cells’ structure and arrangement optimize functions specific to each organ.

ً
‫حتى يكون النسيج قادرا على أداء‬
- :‫وظائفه بكفاءة‬

‫يجب ان يكون تركيب الخاليا‬


‫املكونة للنسيج وترتيبها طبيعيا‬

‫حتى يكون النسيج طبيعيا‬

Dysplastic tissue
‫نسيج متشوه‬

• Tissues have two interacting components: - cells and extra cellular matrix (ECM).
Fibers
Organic and inorganic molecules
ground substance
Water

• What are the basic components of tissue? cells and extra cellular matrix (ECM).
• The ECM consists of many kinds of macromolecules, ex. collagen fibrils.
• Most of macromolecules that make up the ECM form complex structures.

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Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

• The importance of ECM: -


1. supports the cells.
2. contains the fluid transporting nutrients to the cells.
3. carrying away cell's wastes and secretory products.
• Cells produce the ECM locally and are in turn strongly influenced by matrix molecules.
• Many ECM components bind to specific cell surface receptors
forming a continuum in which cells and the ECM function together
in a well-coordinated manner.
• Cell surface receptors span the cell membranes and connect to structural components inside the cells.

• During development, cells and their associated matrix become functionally specialized and give rise to
fundamental types of tissues with characteristic structural features.
• Organs are formed by an orderly combination of tissues, and their precise arrangement allows the
functioning of each organ and of the organism as a whole. )‫(النسيج‬
ً
‫ مما يؤدي إلى ظهورأنــواع أس ـاسـي ـة من‬،‫وظيفيا‬ ‫ تصبح الخلية والهيكل الخلوي املرتبط بها متخصصين‬،‫اثناء عملية التـطوير‬ •
.‫االنسجة مع سمات هيكلية متميزة‬
‫ حيث أن الترتيب الدقيق لهذه االنسجة يسمح لكل عضو وللكائن‬،‫تتشكل األعـضاء من خـالل مـجـموع ـة منظمة من األنـسـجـة‬ •
.‫الحي ككل بأداء وظائفه‬
• Why does Histology depend on using microscopes and molecular methods of study?
The small size of cells and matrix components makes histology dependent on the use of microscopes
and molecular methods of study.

This chapter reviews common methods used to study cells and tissues, focusing on microscopic approaches
‫ مع التركيز على األساليب املجهرية‬،‫يستعرض هذا الفصل الطرق الشائعة املستخدمة لدراسة الخاليا واألنسجة‬

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

Levels of Organization in the Body


Chemical level
Cellular level

Tissue level

Organ level

Body system level

Organism level

1) The chemical level: Various atoms and molecules make up the body.
- The human body is a complex combination of specific atoms and molecules.
- Atoms >>> the smallest building blocks of matter (the smallest non-living thing)
- Molecule >>> two or more atoms connected by chemical bonds.
2) The cellular level: Cells are the basic units of life.
- Cell >>>) the smallest living thing and it considered the fundamental unit of both structure and function in a
living being.
3) The tissue level: Tissues are groups of cells of similar specialization ‫يحتوي النسيج على نوع واحد من الخاليا املتخصصة‬
- Cells of similar structure and specialized function combine to form tissues.

- There are four primary types of tissue: muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective.
4) The organ level: An organ is a unit made up of several tissue types.
- Organs consist of two or more types of primary tissue organized together to perform a particular function or
functions.
- The stomach is an example of an organ made up of all four primary tissue types.
5) The body system level: A body system is a collection of related organs that work together closely.
6) The organism level: The body systems are packaged together into a functional whole body.

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

)‫أي خلل يحدث في أي مستوى من مستويات التنظيم سوف يؤدي الى ظهور فرد غير طبيعي (مريض‬

• Why do we learn Histology?


To understand: -
- How cells and tissues are arranged in the normal organ system of the body
&
- How these cells and tissues are specialized to perform the functions (structure-function
relationship) most effectively.
.‫يجب علينا معرفة شكل وبنية النسيج الطبيعي للتعرف على النسيج غيرالطبيعي‬

... ‫في حال كان هناك خلل في تركيب او ترتيب الخاليا في النسيج قد يؤدي ذلك الى ظهورنسيج غيرطبيعي وبتالي عضو غيرطبيعي ووظيفة غيرطبيعية‬

.‫ في حال كانت جميع نتائج فحوصات املريض سليمة‬Psychological reasons ‫قد يكون سبب االعراض املرضية نفسيا‬

• Advances in biochemistry, molecular biology, physiology, immunology, and pathology


are essential for a better knowledge of tissue biology.
• Learn the (microscopic) structure while correlating the structure with function

Processing paratissue >>> Preparing a section to identify the tissue under the microscope.

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Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

› PREPARATION OF TISSUES FOR STUDY


• The most common procedure used in histologic research is the preparation of tissue slices or “sections” that
can be examined visually with transmitted light.
• Because most tissues and organs are too thick for light to pass through, thin translucent sections are cut
from them and placed on glass slides for microscopic examination of the internal structures.
‫ل‬ ً ً
. ‫اإلجراء األكثرشيوعا املستخدم في األبحاث النسيجية هو تحضيرشرائح األنسجة التي يمكن فحصها بصريا باستخدام الضوء املنقو‬ •
ً
‫ يتم قطع مقاطع رقيقة وشفافة منها ووضعها على شرائح‬،‫نظرا ألن معظم األنسجة واألعضاء سميكة للغاية بحيث ال يمكن للضوء أن يمر عبرها‬ •
.‫زجاجية للفحص املجهري للهياكل الداخلية‬
• The ideal microscopic preparation is preserved so that: -
the tissue on the slide has the same structural features it had in the body.

• Ideal microscopic preparation is often not feasible. Why?


because the preparation process can remove cellular lipid, with slight distortions of cell structure.

• The basic steps used in tissue preparation for light microscopy are shown in Figure 1–1.

ABY
‫‪Histology‬‬ ‫‪Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis‬‬ ‫‪Chapter 1‬‬

‫التثبيت ‪Fixation‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Fixation‬‬
‫‪Small pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of chemicals that cross-link proteins and inactivate degradative‬‬
‫‪enzymes, which preserve cell and tissue structure.‬‬
‫يتم وضع قطع صغيرة من النسيج في محلول يحتوي على مادة تثبيت وبروتينات متشابكة‪ ،‬هذه املادة تقوم بتعطيل عمل االنزيمات املحللة‪ ،‬ومنع‬
‫البكتيريا من تحليل وتفكيك النسيج للحفاظ على تركيب الخاليا والنسيج ككل‪.‬‬

‫‪➤To preserve tissue structure and prevent degradation by enzymes released from the cells or microorganisms‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪pieces of organs are placed as soon as possible after removal from the body in solutions of stabilizing or cross-‬‬
‫‪linking compounds called fixatives‬‬
‫‪➤ Because a fixative must fully diffuse through the tissues to preserve all cells >>> tissues are usually cut into‬‬
‫‪small fragments before fixation to facilitate penetration.‬‬

‫من أجل الحفاظ على تركيب النسيج ومنع تحلله بواسطة الكائنات الحية الدقيقة (البكتيريا) أو االنزيمات التي تنتجها الخاليا‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫يجب علينا وضعه – فورإخراجه من الجسم – في محلول يحتوي على مواد ُم ِثبتة أو بروتينات متشابكة والتي تسمى املثبتات‪.fixatives‬‬
‫ً‬
‫املادة ال ُـمثبتة لها معامل انتشار(كلما كانت قطعة النسيج أقل سمكا (‪ ،)thin‬كلما كان انتشارهذه املادة أسرع في جميع أنحاء النسيج)‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ُ‬ ‫َّ‬ ‫ُ‬ ‫َّ‬
‫وألن املادة الـمثبتة يجب أن تخلخل في النسيج بسرعة كبيرة (‪ )as soon as possible‬حتى تو ِقف عمل االنزيمات املحللة والبكتريا‪- :‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ْ‬
‫يجب أن يتم تقطيع النسيج إلى قطع صغيرة قبل عملية التثبيت؛ وذلك لضمان وصول املادة املثبتة إلى جميع انحاء النسيج‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬ ‫ُ‬ ‫َّ‬
‫(وألن أي تأخيرفي وصول املادة الـمثبتة للخاليا‪ ،‬سوف يؤدي إلى بدء عملية التحلل في الخاليا التي لم تصلها املادة املثبتة‪ ،‬فبتالي سوف يؤدي‬ ‫•‬
‫ذلك إلى حدوث تغييرفي الخصائص التركيبية للنسيج‪ ،‬وهذا سوف يحول دون الحصول على صورة دقيقة للنسيج)‪.‬‬

‫‪➤ Intravascular perfusion of fixatives can be used with some organs or laboratory animals. Because the fixative‬‬
‫‪in this case rapidly reaches the tissues through the blood vessels, fixation is improved.‬‬
‫• إدخال املثبتات إلى داخل االوعية (في الغالب تكون اوعية دموية) يحسن بشكل كبيرمن انتشارهذه املثبتات في األعضاء الكبيرة‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫?‪What is the beneficial of Intravascular perfusion of fixatives‬‬
‫‪To improve cell preservation in large organs or laboratory animals‬‬
‫‪➤ For the embryos of small animals (mouse) → slits made in the skin beneath the forelimbs to allow sufficient‬‬
‫)‪penetration of the fixative (which mean you can fix the whole embryo‬‬
‫بالنسبة ألجنة الحيوانات الصغيرة (مثل‪ - :‬الفأر) ‪ ‬يتم عمل شقوق في الجلد أسفل األطراف األمامية للسماح باختراق كاف للمثبت‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫(مما يعني أنه يمكنك تثبيت الجنين بأكمله)‬

‫‪ABY‬‬
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

• One widely used fixative for light microscopy is formalin, a buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde.
• For light microscopy → a buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde or 4% paraformaldehyde.

Formula: CH2O paraformaldehyde


Common name formaldehyde
IUPAC ID: Methanal

• For electron microscopy → Both formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, a fixative often used.
Also 4% paraformaldehyde is usable for electron microscopy.

Type of microscope Fixative name


For light microscopy formalin >>> buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde
4% paraformaldehyde
For electron microscopy formaldehyde
glutaraldehyde
4% paraformaldehyde

• Both formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, a fixative used for electron microscopy, react with the amine groups
(NH2) of proteins, preventing their degradation by common proteases.
• Glutaraldehyde also cross-links adjacent proteins, reinforcing cell and ECM structures.

• Osmium Tetroxide "OsO4"


used in electron microscopy both as a fixative and a heavy metal stain.
- Good fixative
- Excellent stain for lipids in membranous structures and vesicles.

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

Embedding & Sectioning ‫التضمين والتقسيم‬


• This step included the followings:
1. Dehydration
2. Clearing
3. Infiltration
4. Embedding
5. Trimming ‫النقل التدريجي الى تراكيز مختلفة من االيثانول‬
‫يخرج املاء من النسيج‬ ‫نقل متتالي‬ ‫ لخاليا النسيج‬shock ‫حتى ال يحدث صدمة‬
- Dehydration: Water is extracted from the fixed tissues by successive transfer through a graded series of ethanol and
water mixtures, usually from 50% to 100% ethanol "CH3CH2OH"
first 70% second 70%
50% → 70% → 70%→ 90% → 100%→ 100%
You can leave the sample in the second 70% forever

- The ethanol is then replaced by histoclear which use to clear the tissue.

- Then: -
The fully cleared tissue is placed in melted paraffin in an oven at 52°- 60°C, which evaporates the clearing solvent
and promotes infiltration of the tissue with paraffin, and then embedded by allowing it to harden in a small
container of paraffin at room temperature.
‫ ويعزز تخلخل‬Histoclear ‫ مما يبخر الـ‬،52°- 60°C ‫يتم بعد ذلك وضع النسيج الذي تم توضيحه بالكامل في البار افين املذاب في فرن عند درجة حرارة‬ •
.‫ ثم تتم عملية التضمين عن طريق السماح للنسيج بالتصلب في حاوية صغيرة من البار افين عند درجة حرارة الغرفة‬،‫البار افين إلى داخل النسيج‬

‫تستغرق هذه العملية مدة تتراوح من يوم الى يومين‬

• Tissues are embedded in a solid medium to facilitate sectioning.

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Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

• Embedding materials include: –


1. paraffin
2. plastic resins
3. Optimal cutting temperature compound (OCT compound)

➢ In case of paraffin: -
- The tissue incubated in a 1:1 solution of histoclear: paraffin wax at 52-60 ̊C,
then placed in melted paraffin wax in an oven at 52°- 60°C.
- At such temperatures, the clearing solvent "histoclear" evaporates, and the
tissue is filled with liquid paraffin. oven

➢ In case of plastic resins "small mold": -


- Tissues to be embedded with plastic resin are also dehydrated in ethanol and depending on the kind of
resin used subsequently infiltrated with plastic solvents.
- Plastic embedding avoids the higher temperatures needed for paraffin embedding, which helps avoid
shrinkage and major distortion of the tissue.

‫ مما يساعد على تجنب‬،‫تعبئة النسيج في قوالب بالستيكية يجنبنا استخدام درجات الحرارة املرتفعة التي يحتاجها تضمين البار افين‬ •
.‫االنكماش والتشوه الكبيرلألنسجة‬

➢ In cause of OCT fixative: -


- OCT fixative used to embed tissue samples prior to frozen sectioning on a
microtome-cryostat.
‫مادة صمغية‬
- OCT fixative is a water-soluble blend of glycols and resins that provides a
convenient specimen matrix for cryostat sectioning at temperatures of -10˚C and
below.

- Tissue embedded in a paraffin or plastic resin.


- The block that contains the tissue leave overnight at room temperature to allowed to harden.
Trimming - The resulting paraffin block is trimmed to expose the tissue for sectioning.

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

Sectioning
• A hardened block containing tissue and embedding material is placed in an instrument called a microtome and
sliced by the steel blade into extremely thin sections.
• Microtome is not a temperature dependent device.
• Sections are generally cut at 1-10 μm thickness.
• The very thin sections are placed on glass slides and stained for light microscopy or on special grids for electron
microscopic staining and examination.

ABY
‫‪Histology‬‬ ‫‪Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis‬‬ ‫‪Chapter 1‬‬

‫‪Cryosections: - pathological laboratory procedure to perform rapid microscopic analysis of a specimen.‬‬


‫•‬ ‫‪Biopsies are tissue samples removed during surgery or routine medical procedures.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪In the operating room, biopsies are fixed in vials of formalin for processing and microscopic analysis in‬‬
‫‪a pathology laboratory.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪If results of such analyses are required before the medical procedure is completed, for example to‬‬
‫‪know whether a growth is malignant before the patient is closed, a much more rapid processing‬‬
‫‪method is used.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The biopsy is rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen, preserving cell structures and at the same time making‬‬
‫‪the tissue hard and ready for sectioning.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪A microtome called a cryostat in a cabinet at subfreezing temperature is used to section the block with‬‬
‫‪tissue, and the frozen sections are placed on slides for rapid staining and microscopic examination by‬‬
‫‪a pathologist.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Cryosections are physically less stable than paraffin or resin embedded sections, but they are generally‬‬
‫‪superior for the preservation of antigenicity and therefore the detection of antigens by microscopy.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Preparation of cryosections does not involve the dehydration steps typical of other sectioning‬‬
‫‪methods.‬‬
‫‪ - :Cryosections‬إجراء مختبري مرض ي إلجراء تحليل مجهري سريع للعينة‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫الخزعات هي عينات من األنسجة يتم إزالتها أثناء الجراحة أو اإلجراءات الطبية الروتينية‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫في غرفة العمليات‪ ،‬يتم تثبيت الخزعات في قوارير الفورمالين (‪ %37‬من الفورمالدهيد) للمعالجة والتحليل املجهري في مختبرعلم األمراض‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ً‬
‫إذا كانت نتائج هذه التحليالت مطلوبة قبل اكتمال اإلجراء الطبي‪ ،‬على سبيل املثال ملعرفة ما إذا كان الورم خبيثا قبل إغالق الجرح‪ ،‬يتم‬ ‫•‬
‫استخدام طريقة معالجة أسرع بكثير من البارفين والقوالب البالستيكية‪.‬‬
‫يتم تجميد الخزعة بسرعة في النيتروجين السائل‪ ،‬مما يحافظ على هياكل الخاليا وفي نفس الوقت يجعل األنسجة صلبة وجاهزة للتقسيم‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫يتم استخدام مشراح يسمى ‪ cryostat‬في خزانة عند درجة حرارة تحت التجمد لتقسيم الكتلة مع األنسجة‪ ،‬ويتم وضع املقاطع املجمدة‬ ‫•‬
‫على شرائح لصبغها بسرعة وفحصها مجهريا بواسطة أخصائي علم األمراض‪.‬‬
‫تعتبر عمليات التجميد أقل استقرا ًرا من الناحية الفيزيائية من املقاطع املدمجة بالبر افين أو املواد الصمغية‪ ،‬ولكنها تتفوق بشكل عام في‬ ‫•‬
‫الحفاظ على مولد املضادات (مسببات االمراض) وبالتالي اكتشاف املستضدات بواسطة الفحص املجهري‪.‬‬
‫إعداد عمليات التجميد ال يتضمن خطوات التجفيف النموذجية لطرق التقسيم األخرى‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫مثال تم ذكره في املحاضرة ألهمية استخدام ‪ Cryosections‬اثناء العمليات الجراحية‪- :‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫في كانت هناك سيدة مصابة بسرطان الثدي‬
‫ً‬
‫فإن األطباء يكونون مخيرين في استئصال الثدي كامال أو الجزء املصاب بالسرطان فقط‪wide local excision / complete mastectomy ...‬‬
‫لكن بشرط ان ال يكون السرطان قد وصل الى اول عقدة ملفاوية قريبة من الثدي‪...‬‬
‫ملعرفة اول عقدة ملفاوية يتم صبغ السائل الراشح املوجود في املنطقة املصابة‪...‬‬
‫اول عقدة ملفاوية سوف تتواجد فيها جزيئات الصبغة سوف يتم اخذ خزعة منها‪...‬‬
‫يتم حفظ هذه الخزعة في قوارير الفورمالين ليتم نقلها الى مختبر علم االمراض‪...‬‬
‫في مختبر علم االمراض يتم تجميد العينة بالنيتروجين املسال ومن ثم يتم تقطيعها بواسطة املشراح الذي يسمى ‪ cryostat‬ومن ثم يتم اخذ احدى العينات‬
‫التي أعدها الجهاز وصبغها ووضعها على شريحة من اجل فحصها مجهريا‪....‬‬
‫في حال لم يصل السرطان الى خاليا العقدة اللمفاوية األولى يكتفي الجراحون باستئصال الجزء املصاب بالسرطان ‪ wide local excision‬اما في حال انتشر‬
‫ً‬
‫الورم الخبيث (السرطان) ووصل الى خاليا العقدة اللمفاوية األولى سوف يضطر الجراحون الى استئصال الثدي كامال‪. complete mastectomy‬‬

‫‪ABY‬‬
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1
‫**هذه الصفحة والصفحة التي تليها مهمتين للغاية‬
Staining ‫الصبغ‬
• Most cells and extracellular material are completely colorless, and to be easily visible the sections must be stained.
• Dyes stain tissue components more or less selectively, with many behaving like acidic or basic compounds.
ً ‫معظم الخاليا واملواد خارج الخلية عديمة اللون‬
.‫ ولكي تكون مرئية بسهولة يجب أن يتم صبغها‬،‫تماما‬ •
ُُ
.‫ حيث يتصرف العديد من هذه االصباغ مثل املركبات الحمضية أو القاعدية‬،‫األنسجة بشكل انتقائي إلى حد ما‬
ِ ‫مكونات‬
ِ ‫تصبغ األصباغ‬ •

• Components of the cells with a net of negative charge (-) react with basic dyes (which are usually blue).

o These components are called basophilic


o Example: DNA, RNA, Glycosaminoglycans and others.
• Components of the cells with a net positive charge (+) react with acidic dyes (which are usually red).

o These components are called acidophilic.


o Example: proteins (as in collagen fibers and mitochondria) and others.
ُ
dye color ‫اسم املكونات الخلوية التي تصبغ بهذه الصبغة‬
Basic dyes ‫االصباغ القاعدية‬ Blue Basophilic
Acidic dyes ‫االصباغ الحمضية‬ ‫احمر‬ Acidophilic

➢ Examples of basic dyes are: -


1. Toluidine blue → staining tissues rich in DNA and RNA.
2. Alcian blue → used to stain polysaccharides.
such as glycosaminoglycans in cartilages and other body structures etc.
3. Methylene blue → binds with negatively charged part of the cell such as nucleus.
4. Hematoxylin behaves like a basic dye, staining basophilic tissue components like nuclei blue.
ً
‫استخداما والتي تستخدم لصبغ النواة باللون االزرق‬ ‫ أكثرالصبغات القاعدية‬- :‫الهيماتوكسيلين‬

➢ Examples of acidic dyes are: -


1. Eosin → stains the extracellular matrix and cytoplasm pink.
ً
‫استخداما والتي تستخدم لصبغ السيتوبالزم باللون الوردي‬ ‫ أكثرالصبغات الحمضية‬- :‫األيوسين‬

2. Orange G → use to stain keratin)‫(يتواجد بروتين الكرياتين في الشعرواالظافروالطبقة الخارجية للجلد‬


3. Acid fuchsin → used to stain cytoplasm of tissue sections in the histology laboratory in order to distinguish
muscle from collagen.

ABY
Histology Introduction to Physiology and Homeostasis Chapter 1

❖ Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain is used most commonly: -


- Hematoxylin produces a dark blue or purple color, staining DNA in the cell nucleus.
- In contrast, eosin stains other cytoplasmic components and collagen pink.

...‫ أي مرض له شكل معين تحت امليكروسكوب‬- :‫من املحاضرة‬


ً ‫ عند استخدام صبغتي الهيماتوكسيلين واأليوسين ووجدنا ان حجم النواة كبير جدا ويغطي الخلية بأكملها‬...‫على سبيل املثال‬
،‫تقريبا‬
...‫ وهكذا‬،)‫هذه العالمة تدل على احتمالية وجود ورم خبيث (السرطان‬

❖ The Trichrome stain (e.g. Mallory stain, Masson stain)


- Very expensive
- It uses three dyes to differentiate intracellular structures.
- besides showing the nuclei and cytoplasm very well, help to
distinguish extracellular tissue components better than H&E.
Trichrome‫ تساعد الـ‬،‫إلى جانب إظهارالنوى والسيتوبالزم بشكل جيد للغاية‬
.H&E‫على تمييزمكونات األنسجة الخارج خلوية بشكل أفضل من‬

‫مهم جدا‬
- Polysaccharide in animal cells can be identified using periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reagent.
- Lipid-rich structures of cells are best revealed with lipid-soluble dyes such as Sudan black.
- Silver salts are a common method of visualizing certain ECM fibers and specific cellular elements in
nervous tissue.

ABY
Microscopes
• Light Microscopy: which use the ordinary beam
of light
– Bright-Field Microscopy
– Fluorescence Microscopy
– Phase-Contrast Microscopy
– Confocal Microscopy
– Polarizing Microscopy

• Electron Microscopy: which use a narrow beam


of electrons
– Transmission Electron Microscopy
– Scanning Electron Microscopy
Light Microscopy
Bright-Field Microscopy
• Widely used by students of histology.

• Stained preparations are examined by


means of ordinary light that passes
through the specimen.

• The maximal resolving power of the


light microscope is approximately 0.2
μm.

• Resolving power: the minimum


distance between two points that
enable the device to recognize as two
points

• Images magnified 1000-1500 times.


Fluorescence Microscopy
• In fluorescence microscopy, tissue
sections are usually irradiated by a
ray of certain wavelength, they emit
an electromagnetic wave of a longer
wavelength.

• When ultraviolet (UV) light is used,


the emission is in the visible
spectrum.

• The fluorescent substances appear


brilliant on a dark background.

• Fluorescent compounds with affinity


for specific cell macromolecules may
be used as fluorescent stains.
Confocal Microscopy
• Confocal microscopy achieves high resolution and sharp focus
by using
– small point of high-intensity light, often from a laser
– plate with a pinhole aperture in front of the image
detector
Fluorescence Microscopy Confocal Microscopy
Phase-Contrast Microscopy

• Unstained cells and tissue


sections, which are usually
transparent and colorless, can be
studied with these modified light
microscopes.

• Phase-contrast microscopy, uses


a lens system that produces
visible images from transparent
objects and, importantly, can be
used with living, cultures cells.
Polarizing Microscopy
• Polarizing microscopy allows the recognition
of stained or unstained structures made of
highly organized subunits.
Electron Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy
• Uses a beam of electrons instead of light
photons, which have a shorter
wavelengths than visible light.

• The transmission electron microscope


(TEM) is permits resolution around 3
nm.

• This high resolution allows


magnifications of up to 400,000 times to
be viewed in detail.

• The level of magnification applies only


to isolated macromolecules or particles.

• TEM normally requires very thin


sections (40-90 nm).
Scanning Electron Microscopy
• provides a high-resolution view of
the surfaces of cells, tissues, and
organs, since the specimen is first
coated with a metal that reflects
electrons.
• The electron beam scans the
specimen from end to end
• The reflect electrons are captured
to produce a pseudo 3D image of
the coated surface

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